ELECROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faradays experiments

Experiment 1: Consider a cylindrical coil of a good conducting material

whose ends are connected to a sensitive galvanometer. When a bar magnet is moved
towards the coil, the galvanometer indicates a momentary deflection to one side.
When the magnet is held stationary with respect to the coil, there will be no
deflection in the galvanometer. When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the
galvanometer indicates a momentary deflection to the other side. Similar effects are
observable when the magnet is held stationary and the coil is moved. Further the
magnitude of deflection is found to depend on the relative speed between the coil and
the magnet.
Experiment 2: Consider a coil connected to a battery and another coil
connected to a sensitive galvanometer. When they are moved relatively, the
galvanometer indicates deflections.
Experiment 3: Consider two coils P and Q as shown.
C
P
When the circuit is completed by operating the key with P, the
galvanometer with Q indicates a momentary deflection to one
G
side. When the circuit is switched off, again the galvanometer
with Q indicates a momentary deflection in the
C
other side.

Explanation: The movement of the magnet or

the movement of a coil carrying a current or the

G
switching On/Off of the current in a coil causes a
change in the magnetic flux linked with coil present nearby. The change in the
magnetic flux generates an emf and hence a current in the coil. This is indicated by
the deflection in the galvanometer connected to the coil.
If the magnetic flux density B is uniform over the area of cross section A
of the coil, then the magnetic flux linked with the coil of n turns is given
by nAB .
The phenomenon of generation of an emf and hence a current in a coil due
to the change of magnetic flux linked with it is called electromagnetic induction.
The emf generated is called the induced emf and the current hence generated is
called induced current.

Faradays laws of Electromagnetic induction

I Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an
instantaneous emf is generated. The emf generated exists as long as the change in the
magnetic flux takes place.
II Law: The magnitude of the emf induced in a coil or circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with it.

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M.N.Sharath kumar

If d is the change in the magnetic flux in a time dt, then the emf induced
is E

d
dt

Lenzs law
Lenzs law gives the direction of the induced emf.

Statement of Lenzs law

The direction of the induced emf is always such that it tends to oppose the
change which produces it.

Explanation: Consider the north pole of a bar magnet to be moved towards one
end of a coil along its axis. Then the magnet experiences a force opposing its
movement towards the coil. When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the
magnet experiences a force pulling it towards the coil. This indicates that the induced
emf is always such that it tends to oppose the
movement of the magnet which is the cause for its
N S
generation .This follows from the law of
conservation of energy.
G
d
By Faradays law E
dt
d
By Lenzs law, E
(-ve sign indicates the induced
dt
Emf is opposing in nature).
d
d
Hence E K . It can be shown that K =1, hence E .
dt
dt

Note
1. The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber(Wb).
Michael
Faraday
2. The magnetic flux passing normally through a surface of area
1 square
metre when a magnetic field of one tesla is applied is called 1 weber.
3. If R is the resistance in the circuit, the induced current is given by
1 d
I .
R dt
4. If the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes
from 1 to 2 , then the charge induced passing
through (or charge induced) is given by
2
Q 1
coulomb.
R
5. Emf is induced in a circuit whenever the
magnetic flux linked with it changes. Emf will be
induced whether the circuit is close or open. But
induced current flows only when the circuit is
closed.

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M.N.Sharath kumar

Emf induced in a rod moving in a magnetic field(Material

emf)
When a conducting rod moves normal to magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic lines of
force. As a result, magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes with time. This
induces an emf in the conductor.
Consider a uniform magnetic field of strength B to be along +Z axis.Let a
conducting rod of length L in the XY plane move with a velocity V along the +Y
direction. Let the conductor move
Z
from the position PQ to RS covering a distance dx
in a time dt. During this time the total magnetic flux
R
P
swept by the rod is
dx
B Area of PQRS B Lx
Then the induced emf
Y
dt
d
dx
Q
S
E
BL BLV ,
X
dt
dt
dx
Where v
is the velocity of the conductor.
dt
The emf induced in a conductor due to its motion, normal to a magnetic field is
called the motional emf.

Self Induction
Consider a coil connected in series with a
I
battery and a tap key. When the key is pressed,
the current in the coil will not increase
t
t
instantaneously. Instead, the current increases
time
t >t
gradually taking a finite time. This is because,
when the current starts increasing in the coil, a magnetic field is also generated and
the magnetic flux linked with the coil induces an emf in the coil. By Lenzs law, the
direction of induced emf is such that it tends to oppose the cause for its production.
This implies that the induced emf opposes the growth of the current in the coil.
Similarly, when the current is switched off, the current will not decrease to the zero
value instantaneously but decreases gradually. This is because of the induced emf
which tends to oppose both the increase and decrease of the current through it. In
general the coil has property to oppose any change in the current through it.
1.The phenomenon of generation of an emf in a coil when there is a change of
current through it is called self induction.
2.The property by which a coil opposes the change of current through it by
developing an emf in its called self inductance.
3.The induced emf is always opposes the change which causes it.
4. The opposing emf generated in the coil is called the emf of self induction.
5. The induced emf which opposes the growth of current in the coil is called back
emf.
6. The induced emf which opposes the decay of current in the coil is called forward
emf.
If is the magnetic flux generated in the coil when a current I flows
1

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M.N.Sharath kumar

Through it, then =LI , where L is a constant called the coefficient of self induction
or self inductance of the coil.
d
d
dI
By Lenzs law, E , Since LI, E (LI) E L
dt
dt
dt
dI
1 then L = E (neglecting the negative sign)
If
dt
The self inductance or the coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically
equal to the magnitude of the emf induced in it
I
when there is a unit rate change of current in it.
The SI unit of self inductance is henry.
t
t
time
The self inductance of a coil is said to be
t >t
one henry if one volt of emf is induced in it
when the current in it changes at the rate of one ampere per
second.
dI
E
volt
volt
EL L

second ohmsec
dt
dI / dt ampere / second ampere
1

Self inductance of a coil depends upon (1) the number of turns in the coil, (2)
the length of the coil, (3) the area of cross section of the coil and (4) the
permeability of the medium inside the coil.
Any coil of wire will have ohmic resistance and also inductance. The property
of inductance is undesirable in a standard resistance coil. Hence to avoid the
inductance, the wire is folded to half its length and the two segments are
wound on a suitable bobbin(support).
The coefficient of self induction (L) for a cylindrical coil of wire of n turns,
length x wound on a core of permeability r is given by

r n 2 A
, where A is the area of cross section of the coil.
L
x
2 2 2
The dimension of self inductance is ML T A .

Mutual Induction

Consider two coils P and S as shown. When a

C
current flows in P(primary), the magnetic flux generated
by it gets linked with the coil S(secondary). The
magnetic flux generated and gets linked depends on the current in P and the position
of S with respect to P.
If I is the current through the P, the magnetic flux linked with S is M I ,
Where M is a constant called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual
inductance for the pair of coils. For a given position of P and S, the flux linked with
one coil due to the certain change of current in the other will be the same. This
property is referred to as mutual induction.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

The phenomenon of generation of an emf in a coil(secondary) due the change

of current in a nearby coil (primary) is called mutual induction.
The magnetic flux linked with the secondary is proportional to the current in
the primary.
d
d
dI Henry
Joseph
By Lenzs law, E , Since MI, E (MI) E M
dt
dt
dt
dI
1 then M = E (neglecting the negative sign)
If
dt
The coefficient of mutual induction for a pair of coils is numerically to the emf
induced in the secondary when there is a unit range of change of current in the
primary.
The SI unit of mutual inductance is henry.
The mutual inductance for a pair of coils is said to be one henry if the one volt
of emf is induced in the secondary when the current in the primary changes at the
rate of one ampere per second.
The mutual inductance for a pair of coils depends on (1) the number of turns in
the primary, (2) the number of turns in the secondary,
(3) the cross sectional area of he secondary, (4) the magnetic
Permeability of the medium or material over which the primary and
Secondary is wound and (5) the coefficient of coupling.
The coefficient of mutual induction (M) for a pair of coils is given by
r n1 n 2 A
M
, Where n1 and n 2 are the number of turns in the
x
primary and secondary, x is the length of the primary, wound on a
core of permeability r and A is the area of cross section of
the secondary coil.
The dimension of M (mutual inductance ) is ML2 T2A2

Energy stored in an inductor:

Consider a coil of inductance L connected in an ac circuit. Let the current in it
grow from to maximum steady value of I o. If I is the current at any instant, then the
induced emf developed in the inductor at that instant is
E = -L.dI/dt(1)
This induced emf tends to prevent the growth of current. To maintain the growth,
power has to be supplied from an external source.
Power supplied at an instant t is given by
dW/dt= EI= L.dI/dt.I
or small amount of work done in a small time dt is
dW = (L.dI/dt.I)dt = LI.dI(2)
Therefore , the total work done by the external source in building up current from
zero to Io is obtained by integrating eqn. (2) I0

dW = 0 LI dI
I0

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W = L 0 I dI
I0
2

= L[I /2]0 = L/2 I02

This work done is stored as energy E in the inductor.

E = 1/2LIo2

Eddy currents:
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes, an emf and
hence a current are induced. However, the conductor need not to be in the form of a
wire or a coil. The inductive effects are observable even if the conductor is in the
form of a sheet or a plate or a block.
Focault observed that when a conductor in the form of a sheet or block is
moved in a magnetic field or the magnetic field linked with the conductor changes
Leon Foucault
with time, induced currents are produced in the conductor. Such currents
cause a
large dissipation of energy in the form of heat. Such currents are called eddy currents
or Foucaults current.
The induced circulating currents produced in a metal itself due to the change in
magnetic flux linked with the metal are called eddy currents.
Since the electrical resistance of the conductor is
low, large currents are induced. This leads to large
dissipation of energy in the form of heat. In total, eddy
currents cause a considerable loss of energy.
Eddy current flow in irregular paths. The direction
of eddy currents is governed by Lenzs law. The current
flows to produce magnetic fields which oppose the
change which produce the current. Though eddy currents
can be minimized by using laminated plates.
Eddy currents are undesirable in cores of
transformers, dynamos, motors etc since they waste a
considerable amount of energy in the form of heat. To
minimize such a loss, the cores are not made up of a single block
but they are laminated (sheets) separated by insulating materials. Such sheets offer
more resistance to the possible path of the eddy currents and minimize the loss.

Applications of eddy current

Induction furnace: A metal block is placed in a rapidly changing magnetic
field. This induces large magnitude of eddy currents which dissipate a large
magnitude of heat in the metal. As a result the metal melts.
Electromagnetic brakes: This is used in trams and trains. During braking, the
wheels are exposed to a strong magnetic field, which generates Eddy currents in the
wheels. The magnetic field produced by the Eddy current opposes the applied
magnetic field and tends to slow down the train quickly. Eddy currents are used in
speedometers, damping mechanism in galvanometers etc.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

Flemmings right hand rule (generator rule):

Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil, it induces a current in it. The
direction of such an induced current is given by the generator rule as follows.
Imagine the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of the right hand to be
stretched out in three mutually perpendicular directions. If the fore finger points in
the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of motion
of the conductor, then the middle finger points in the direction of the emf and the
current
induced in the conductor.

Alternating current (AC):

A current which varies periodically and reverses its direction at every half of a
cycle is called alternating current.
The simplest type of alternating current or voltage is that which varies with
time simple harmonically is called sinusoidal AC.

AC Generator:

AC generator is a device, which converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy. It
S
N
works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
In a simple form, AC generator consists of
S
R
a rectangular coil PQRS wound over a soft iron
Output
R1
core. The ends of the coil are connected to two
R2
slip rings R 1 and R 2 . The coil together with the
rings can rotate in a uniform magnetic field,
about an axis passing through the centre of the coil and
to the field direction. Two graphite brushes are provided in contact with R 1 and
R 2 output points. When the coil rotates, AC is generated.

Expression for the emf induced in a coil rotating with a uniform

speed in a uniform magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to
the magnetic field direction. (Expression for alternating emf and
current):
Let a coil of n turns and area A be wound on a suitable core. Let the coil be
rotating with a uniform angular speed w in a uniform magnetic field of flux density
B about an axis perpendicular to the direction of the
P
magnetic field. Let the coil rotate by an angle in a

timet from the perpendicular position (as shown).

B
Since t , the magnetic flux linked with the coil
S
N
is nABCos t .
B cos

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M.N.Sharath kumar

From the above expression it follows that the flux linked with the coil changes
as the coil rotates.
This induces an emf in the coil.
By Lenzs law, the induced emf is given by
d
d
E
E (nABcos t) nAB(sin t) nABsin t
dt
dt
This is the expression for the induced emf. This emf is alternating in nature. The
induced emf is a sinusoidal emf. E nAB is called the peak emf.
If R is the resistance of the coil, at any instant of timet, the current is given by,
E E sin t
I
I Sint, where I is called the peak current.
R
R
I I Sint Is the expression for the sinusoidal alternating current?
The emf and the current generator in a generator will be in phase.

Basic definitions:
1. The time taken by the AC to complete one cycle is called the period of the AC.
2. The number of cycles completed per second is called the frequency of the AC.
3. The value of the emf or current at any instant of time is called instantaneous
value of the emf or current.
4. The maximum value attained by the alternating emf in one half of the cycle is
called the peak emf of the AC.
5. The maximum value attained by the alternating
current in one half of the cycle is called the peak
E0
current of the AC.
I0
6. The fraction of the time period elapsed since the
O
current or emf last passed through the mean
position is called the phase of the AC.

Average value: The average value of the alternating current or voltage during the
first and second half of a cycle will be equal in magnitude and opposite in signs.
Thus the average value over one complete cycle will be ZERO. Hence DC
instruments indicate null deflection with AC.
In AC, the average value is defined as the average value taken over half a cycle.
2I
2E
Iav 0.637I and Eav 0.637E
It can be shown that, Iav
and E av

RMS value (Root mean square): The emf and current being sinusoidal, their
mean values over a complete cycle is zero. But their squares are always positive. The
square root of the mean of the square over a complete cycle is called root mean
square (rms)value.
Rms value of alternating current is defined as that equivalent DC current
which would dissipate the same amount of heat in the same conductor as that by the
AC in the same time.

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E
peak value
rms value
2
2
2
Rms value is also called the virtual value or effective value of the AC.
I rms 0.707I and E rms 0.707E

I rms

and E rms

Circuit elements: The circuit elements are (1) Ohmic resistance

(2) Inductance and (3) capacitance.

Alternating current circuits:

Ohmic resistance:
Let an ohmic resistance R be connected to a sinusoidal AC source. Let
V VSint be the applied emf. Then the current at any instant of time t is given
by,
V V Sint
I
I I Sint , where I is the peak current.
R
R
From the equations of I and V it is clear that they are in phase.
Resistor offers opposition to the flow of AC similar to that offered to DC.
The ohmic opposition is independent of the frequency of the AC.

Pure inductance:
A coil having only self inductance and zero ohmic resistance is called a pure
inductance.
Let a coil of self inductance L be connected to a sinusoidal ac power supply.
Let V VSint be the applied emf. Then the emf induced (E) in the coil will be
equal and opposite to V.
Then E V VSint (1)
The induced emf in a coil is also
dI
given by E L (2)
dt
From (1) and (2)
dI
L V Sint
dt
V
V
V cos t V

dI Sintdt dI Sint dt I

Sin

L
L
L L
2

Hence, I I Sin t is the expression for the current through the inductance.
2

From the expression for the current, it is clear that the current (I) lags behind

the applied emf OR the voltage leads the current by . Hence the current and
2
V
voltage are said to be out of phase. I
is the peak current through the
L
inductance.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

L 2fL XL
called the inductive reactance.
Essentially, inductive reactance is the opposition offered by the
Inductance coil to the flow of AC through it.
1
X L 2fL
ohm.sec ohm
sec
Hence, the inductive reactance is expressed in ohms.
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency of the applied emf
(voltage). X L f
For DC, f=0, XL 2 0 L 0(zero) .
This means pure inductance has no opposition to steady current (DC).
A pure inductance acts like a short to DC.

is

Pure capacitance:
Let a capacitor of capacity C be connected to a sinusoidal AC power supply.
Let V VSint be the applied voltage. Then the charge stored in the capacitor at
any instant of time t is given by.
As V varies with time, the charge q stored also varies. Thus an alternating
current flow through the capacitor. The instantaneous value of current is
dq d
V

I
(CV Sint) CV (Cost)
Sin t
dt dt
2
1/ C

I I Sin t
2

This is the expression for

the current through a pure
capacitor in an AC
circuit.
V
is called the peak current through the capacitor.
I
(1/ C)
If f is the frequency of the AC, 1/ C 1/ 2fC XC is called the capacitive
reactance.
Capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by a capacitor to the
flow of AC through it.
Capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms.
1
1
V
V
XC

R(ohm) X C ___ ohms

2fC 2 1 q q I
T V T

43

M.N.Sharath kumar


OR the voltage lags the
2

current by . Thus the current and the voltage have a phase difference of . Hence
2
2
they are said to be out of phase.
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the
applied AC. XL 1/ f
1
1

For DC, where f=0, XC
2 0 0 0
A capacitor will not allow DC to pass through it. A capacitor blocks DC.
Details
Pure resistor
Pure inductance
Pure capacitance
In a capacitor, the current leads the voltage (emf) by

Instantaneous
V VSint
voltage
Instantaneous
I I Sint
current
Opposition to AC Ohmic resistance
= R ohms
Dependence on
frequency

Phase between
the voltage and
the current.

V VSint

V VSint

I I Sin(t / 2) I I Sin(t / 2)

Inductive
reactance
XL 2fL
Ohmic resistance Inductance
is independent of reactance is
frequency and is directly
the same for both proportional to the
DC and AC.
frequency of the
AC.
Voltage and
Voltage and
current are in
current are out of
phase.
phase.Voltage
leads the current
by 90 .

Capacitance
reactance
XC 1/ 2fC
Capacitance
reactance is
inversely
proportional to the
frequency of the
AC.
Voltage and
current are out of
phase. Current
leads the voltage
by 90 .

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT:

An ohmic resistance, an inductance and a capacitance connected in series with
an alternating supply constitutes a Series LCR circuit.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

The combined effect of ohmic resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive

reactance is called the impedance (Z) of the circuit.

Expression for impedance in a series LCR circuit:

Let a coil of inductance L a capacitor of
R
C
L
capacity C and ohmic resistance R be
connected in series with an alternating power
supply.
Let VL , VC and VR be the p.d. across the inductance,
capacitance and the resistance respectively. Let I e and Ve be the effective values of
current and voltage across the combination.

Phasor diagram

In the inductance, the voltage will be leading

the current by 90 .
In the capacitance, the voltage will lagging behind
the current by 90 .
In the ohmic resistance, the voltage and the
current will be in phase.
Plotting the voltage and the current with the
proper phases vectorially, (Phasor diagram),
Ve2 VR2 (VL VC )2
With usual notation,
VL XLIe , VC XCIe , and VR RIe

VL
VE
VL VC

VR

VC

Ve2 R2 Ie2 (XLIe XCIe )2 Ie2 [R 2 (XL XC ) 2 ]

Ve Ie R 2 (X L XC ) 2 Ve Ie Z
Where Z R 2 (X L XC )2
Z is called the impedance of the LCR circuit. Impedance is expressed in ohms.

Phase angle:
The angle between the effective voltage and the effective current in a AC
circuit is called the phase angle.
From the figure,
V VC X L Ie XCIe X L X C
X XC
tan L

tan 1 L
VR
RIe
R
R

Resonant circuit:
An LCR circuit in which the impedance is minimum and the current is
maximum is called a resonant circuit.
V VC X L Ie XCIe X L X C
X XC

tan 1 L
When tan L
VR
RIe
R
R

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M.N.Sharath kumar

If XL XC , then Zmin R .Hence XL XC is the condition for resonance in a LCR

circuit.
When XL XC , Let f f 0 . This means
1
1
1
2f 0L
f02 2
f0
Hz
2f 0C
4 LC
2 LC
f 0 is called the resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency is independent of resistance.
Since XL 2fL , at higher frequencies, the circuit is inductive.
Since XC 1/ 2fC , at lower frequencies, the circuit is capacitive.
At resonance, the circuit is purely resistive.

Salient features of a series resonant

LCR circuit:
1. The impedance is minimum.
2. The current is maximum.
3. The LCR circuit behaves as a pure resistive
circuit.
4. The opposition to the current is independent of
the frequency of the applied AC.
5. The phase angle is zero.
6. The power factor is unity and the power
dissipated will be maximum.
7. The current and the voltage will be in phase.

Sharpness of resonance and Q

f0

factor

In a LCR circuit, we have V=ZI. The peak current is given by

V
V
I
I
Z
R2 (X L X C ) 2
For maximum current XL XC and hence Z = R.
V
Thus the maximum value of current is I . This implies that the maximum
Z
current varies inversely as the ohmic resistance in the circuit. For small values of R,
the resonance is sharp. At f f ,(resonant frequency), the current will be maximum.
The current decreases sharply on either sides of resonance. For larger values of R, the
resonance is flat or less sharp. In such a case the current decreases slowly on either
sides of resonance.
Let Im ax be the maximum value of current in a resonant circuit at the resonant
frequency f .Let f1 and f 2 be two frequencies on either sides of f at which the
1
I
current is
times the maximum current, i.e. I m ax (as shown). The frequencies
2
2
f1 and f 2 are called half power frequencies. The difference (f 2 f1 ) is called the

46

M.N.Sharath kumar

f
is a measure of the sharpness of resonance and is
(f 2 f1 )

bandwidth . The quantity

called quality factor or

Q factor of the circuit.
Smaller the value of band width (f 2 f1 ) , larger will be Q factor and sharper
will be the resonance.
f
Resonant frequency
Q

(f 2 f1 )
Band width
L 2f L
It can be shown that Q

R
R
Imax
I

R=0
R = 100

Imax
2

R = 1000

f0

f1

f0

f2

Power factor:
Power is the rate at which the electrical energy is dissipated in a circuit.
Power is also defined as the rate at which the electrical work is done.
Power in a DC circuit is given by the product of the applied voltage across the
ciruit and the current flowing in the circuit. In an AC circuit, the current and voltage
may or may not be in phase. The product of the applied voltage and the total current
gives the apparent power. Its unit is volt-ampere(VA). The average power dissipated
in a AC circuit is given by P Vrms Irms Cos , where is the phase angle.
Hence the average power in an AC circuit not only depends on the rms value
of the voltage and the current but also on the phase difference between them.
Cos is called the power factor of the circuit.
True power = Apparent power Power factor
1. In a pure resistive circuit, 0 , Thus Cos cos0 1. This means the power
dissipated in a pure resistive circuit is maximum.
2. In a pure inductive circuit 90 , Thus Cos cos90 0 . This means the
power dissipated in a pure inductive circuit is ZERO.
3. In a pure capacitive circuit, 90 , Thus Cos cos90 0 . This means the
power dissipated in a pure capacitive circuit is ZERO.
Hence inductors and capacitors oppose or check or control the flow of current
without causing any power loss. Hence they are preferred to ohmic resistors in AC
circuits.
Since Pav 0 , current through a pure inductive or capacitive circuit is called
wattless current.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

In a LCR circuit, the power factor is given by Cos

ohmic Resis tan ce R

Im pedance
Z

Note: The range of power factor zero to one. The range phase angle is from 90
to 90 .
The power factor and impedance are always positive.

Choke:
Choke is a device, which works on the principle of self induction.
In principle, a choke is essentially a coil (solenoid) of a suitably high self
inductance and a negligible ohmic resistance. A choke is designed to a have suitable
inductance depending on the requirement.
A choke is obtained by winding a coil of several turns of an insulated thick
good conducting wire on a suitable laminated core (ferromagnetic). The rods or
plates of the core are separated by a suitable dielectric medium.
The coil offers negligible resistance to DC. The coil offers large inductive
reactance to AC depending on the frequency of the AC. The coil offers negligible
ohmic resistance to the AC. By fitting the choke with a variable (adjustable)
ferromagnetic core, the impedance may be varied over a wide range of values.
Choke coils have important advantages over ohmic resistors. In a rheostat or in
a ohmic resistor, power is absorbed from the source and is wasted in the form of heat
(power dissipation due to Joules heating). Choke cuts down the current without
appreciable power loss. As the ohmic resistance is minimum in a choke, the heat loss
is minimum. The only loss in the choke is due to the hysteresis in the core, which
is very much small compared to the heat loss in the ohmic resistors.
The power consumed by a choke is given by Pav Vrms Irms Cos .
Since ohmic resistance is minimum or zero (ideally) in a choke, the phase
difference between the voltage and the current is 90 . Thus Cos Cos90 0 . Thus
P = 0.
Choke coils are extensively used in resonance circuits at radio frequency.
Chokes are also used in gas filled lamps like mercury vapour lamp, sodium vapour
lamp etc. Chokes are used in lighting equipments, power control devices. Chokes
with variable core namely dimmer stat are used to control high power AC.

Magnetic Hysteresis
Elements like iron nickel cobalt gadolium etc and their alloys are strongly
magnetized in a magnetic field. Such materials are called ferromagnetic materials.
When a ferromagnetic lags behind the magnetizing field. This phenomenon is called
hysteresis.
Hysteresis and I H curve:
Let an unmagnetised ferromagnetic specimen be
subjected to a uniform magnetic field, whose strength can
be varied.
Let the strength of the magnetizing field its zero value.
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B
C
O
D

E
M.N.Sharath
kumar

Then the magnetization also increases gradually from zero value and reaches the
saturation (A). This is called initial saturation.
If the magnetizing field is removed, then the magnetization decreases but not
to the zero value. A certain magnitude of magnetization remains in the specimen
even after the removal of the magnetizing field.
The magnitude of magnetization that remains in a material even after the
removal of the magnetizing field is called residual magnetism (OB).
The property of a material to retain the magnetization even after the removal
of the magnetizing field is called retentivity.
If the direction of the magnetizing field is reversed and the strength of the field
is increased, the residual magnetism starts decreasing and becomes zero.
The magnitude of the demagnetizing field required to completely remove the
residual magnetism in the specimen is called the coercive field (OC).
The property of the material to retain magnetization to an extent inspite of
the application of a demagnetizing field is called coercivity.
If the strength of the demagnetizing field is increased further, the specimen
gets magnetized in that direction and attains saturation(D). If the field is withdrawn,
reversed in its direction and increased in its strength, then the magnetization follows
the path DEFA (as shown). This complete set of operations ABCDEFA is called a
cycle of magnetization.
The lagging of the magnetization I behind the magnetizing field H is
called hysteresis.
The curve obtained by plotting magnetization along Y axis and magnetizing
field along X axis is called I H curve or the hysteresis curve.

Significance of I H curve
In order to perform a cycle of magnetization of certain amount of energy has to
be invested. Such energy usually appears as heat and is not recoverable. Hence the
energy invested will be a waste. The magnitude of the energy lost per cycle per unit
volume of the material is given by the area of the I H loop.

Applications of I H curve
The study of I H curve provides useful information about the basic properties
of the magnetic materials. Such information is of high importance in selecting the
appropriate material for a specific purpose.
The cores of transformers, dynamos, motors etc will be undergoing many
cycles of magnetization per second. In such a case the material selected should have
low coercivity to minimize the production of unwanted heat and unwanted heat and
minimize power loss.

Transformer:
Transformer is a device to
increase or decrease alternating
voltage.
A transformer works on
the primary principle of mutual
induction.

P
Primary

Secondary

iron core
Circuit symbol

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Construction: In principle a transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil

wound independently on a suitable laminated core. The AC whose voltage is
to be changed is connected to the primary and the output is drawn from the
secondary.
Working: As the current through the primary varies, the magnetic flux associated
the core changes correspondingly. This change in the flux induces an alternating emf
of the same frequency in the secondary. This change in the flux induces an
alternating emf of the same frequency in the secondary. The magnitude of the emf
induced in the secondary depends on the voltage across the primary and the number
of turns in the primary and secondary.
If VP and VS are voltages and N P and NS are the number of turns in the
V
N
primary and secondary respectively, then S S T , where T is called the turn
VP N P
ratio.
If T>1 i.e, NS > N P it means VS > VP , i.e, the output voltage is greater than the
input voltage. Such a transformer is called step up transformer.
If T<1 i.e, NS < N P it means VS < VP , i.e, the output voltage is lesser than the
input voltage. Such a transformer is called step down transformer.
The power input is VP IP and the power output is VSIS , where I P and IS are the
currents in the primary and the secondary respectively.
In an ideal transformer, with no power loss,
Input power= Output power VP IP VSIS
In a step up transformer, Since VS VP IS IP .This means the output
current will be less than the input current. This indicates that a step up transformer
steps down the current.
In a step down transformer, VS VP IS IP . This means the output current
will be greater than the input current. This indicates that a step down transformer
steps up the current.
In practice, always the output power will be less than the input power due to
the following losses;
Loss due to heating: Since the coils have a resistance, heat is produced to Joules
heating. This can be minimized by choosing wires of good conducting materials and
appropriate thickness.
Loss due to flux leakage: The entire magnetic flux generated by the primary may not
get linked with the secondary. Thus can be minimized by winding the coils inside the
core.
Loss due to eddy current: When a certain mass of metal is placed in a changing
magnetic field, the induced current in the metal is called the eddy current. Such eddy
currents produce heat in the core. This is minimized by using laminated cores of
special alloys such as perm alloy and insulating the plates from one another.

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Loss due to hysteresis: As the core of the transformer is taken through several cycles
of magnetization, a certain amount of energy is lost as heat. This minimized by
choosing materials with narrow hysteresis loop.

Advantages of transformers:
Transformers work with a very high efficiency, require minimum maintenance
and are available in a wide range of voltage and current. They are easy to operate and
do not require any adjustments before their operation. They have a long life, are
rugged and power loss is minimum.
Transformers are no use in DC circuits as they work on the principle of mutual
induction, which requires varying current.

AC meters
In conventional DC meters, the current is proportional to the deflection and
vice versa. Since in a AC, the direction of the current and the voltage will be
reversing every half cycle, the DC instruments cannot be used with AC. Therefore
meters have to be designed to measure AC even though there is a periodical reversal
of the direction of the current and voltage. This is achieved by using suitable effects
of AC which will not depend upon the direction of flow. Usually AC meters measure
the square of the current and hence such instruments are called square type or square
law instruments.

Hot wire ammeter: This works on the principle of heating effect of current.
The instrument essentially consists of a resistance wire AB stretched between two
points A and B. A stretched spring DE is connected to the midpoint of AB at C as
shown. The lower end of the spring is connected to the base of the instrument. A
suitable pulley is provided with part CD as shown. One end of a lighter is attached to
the axle of the pulley and its other end is free to rotate on a suitable graduated scale.
The terminals A and B are connected to the AC under measurements.
When an AC flows through the wire AB,
irrespective of the direction of the current, the wire AB is
heated up. Due to the rise in temperature, the
Length of the wire AB increases and hence the wire sags.
The sag is taken up by the stretched spring, which pulls the
C
wire AB downwards as a result, the pulley rotates and the
hence the pointer depends on the square of the current
B
A
D
passing through AB. Thus with a suitable scale, the
instrument can read the current directly. The instrument
reads the rms value of the current. With a suitable scale the
E
instrument can be made to read the alternating voltage.

Moving iron meter: This works on the principle or

property that a piece of iron tends to move towards a
stronger region in a magnetic field.
A soft iron piece is attached to a thin pointer as shown. The
pointer is suitably pivoted. The other end of the pointer
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moves over a suitably graduated scale. A fine spiral spring is attached to axle of the
pointer as shown. A solenoid is mounted near the soft iron as shown. The ends of the
solenoid are connected to the AC under measurement.
When an AC flows in the solenoid, magnetic field is generated. This field
attracts the soft iron and draws it into it. As the lower end of the pointer moves into
the Solenoid, its upper end moves on the scale. This happens irrespective of the
direction of the current through the solenoid. Hence the current can be read directly
on the scale. When the current is switched off, the spiral spring restores the pointer to
the zero current position.

Transmission of electric power

Power
generator

Step up
transformer

Step down
transformer

Consumer

Electrical energy generated has to be delivered to the consumers. Since

electricity is to be delivered through conductors (wires) suitable technology has to be
adopted to minimize the loss in transmission. Loss of power through wires is directly
proportional to the resistance and the square of the current. By stepping up the
voltage, the current can be stepped down. Since the current is low, the thickness of
the conductor needed also reduces.

Advantages of AC and DC
1. The voltage can be increased or decreased using transformers.
2. AC generators, motors, power distribution systems are more efficient than
those for DC.
3. Design of AC generators, motors are simpler compared to their DC
counterparts.
4. AC machines have a better reliability low cost production compared to DC
machines.
5. AC can be limited using chokes with zero or minimum loss of power.

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