Coring&Core Analysis

CORING & CORE ANALYSIS
11/24/2016
ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT
1.Introduction
Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are complex on
both a macroscopic and microscopic scale.
The complexity of both rock and fluid properties controls:
The initial quantity and distribution of hydrocarbons
The rate of flow of these fluids within the reservoir
The volume of hydrocarbons recovered.
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1.Introduction
A sample (core) can be taken to recover a portion of the
reservoir rock, so that it may be examined firsthand and tested
in the laboratory.
Such direct physical measurements furnish both geological and
engineering information and guide the decisions affecting
both the cored well and subsequent wells in that area.
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1.Introduction
Core analysis is the name given to the test procedures and
data collected on core samples.
A variety of information and data may be obtained via
measurements of physical and chemical properties, visual
observations, and photographs.
The two major categories of core analysis are Conventional
Core Analysis, with associated complementary data, and
Special Core Analysis
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1.Introduction
Conventional core analysis yields the most basic data about a reservoir,
such as:
the presence or absence of hydrocarbons;
the storage capacity (porosity), the flow capacity and its distribution
(magnitude and profile of permeability);
the lithology and texture of the formation.
These data, and complementary measurements made on request, can
be available for use within hours or days after a core is recovered,
since laboratories are normally close to the area where the cores are
cut.
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1.Introduction
Special core analysis tests are more complex and the data
furnished are of wider diversity. Typically, they will require
longer core preparation and testing times and more
specialized and expensive equipment. Large quantities of
data are captured on the more sophisticated tests, and
computer assistance is routinely used to calculate results. The
increased time factor should be recognized and accounted for
when planning a project.
Special core analysis tests may be divided into:
Static and
Dynamic measurements.
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1.Introduction
When cores are removed from the reservoir environment they are
subjected to alterations of pressure and temperature.
These alterations cause changes in bulk and pore volume, reservoir
fluid saturations, and, in some cases, reservoir wettability (preference
of the rock for water or oil).
In conventional core analysis (with the exception of unconsolidated
rock where overburden pressure effects are included) these effects are
normally ignored. In many of the special core analysis test sequences,
both pressure and temperature are important, and laboratory
equipment and techniques are designed to simulate reservoir
conditions.
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2.ObjectivesofaCoringProgram
Coring has both engineering and geologic objectives, and
these should be carefully defined before coring commences.
In some cases the objectives conflict, and it is impossible to
satisfy all requirements on a given well.
The objectives that are established will affect the selection of
both the coring fluid and the coring device to be used.
The decision will also affect the choice of a suitable core
handling and preservation technique and will define most
measurements required.
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2.1.EngineeringObjectives
Defining areal changes in porosity, permeability, and lithologythe data
needed for estimates of reserves and mathematical models;
Defining reservoir water saturation (this requires the use of coring
fluids that are oil base or that do not invade the rock,* and that the
core be taken from above the water transition zone);
Assisting in the definition of reservoir net pay;
Providing information for calibrating downhole logs as well as the
measured values of electrical properties that will be used to improve
logcalculated water saturations;
Acquiring data on the magnitude and distribution of reservoir residual
oil saturation (this is normally needed in enhanced oil recovery studies
and utilizes either a pressure or sponge core barrel);
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EngineeringObjectives(cont.)
Providing core material from which petrographic studies can
be made to define clay type and distribution; these yield
subsequent guidance in selection of nondamaging drilling,
coring, and completion fluids;
Acquiring rock samples for special core analysis studies,
including relative permeability, capillary pressure, and
formation wettability tests;
Providing data on porosity, as well as on horizontal and
vertical permeability distributions, for use in the design of
wellcompletion programs to ensure that oil is not isolated
and left behind the pipe.
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2.2.GeologicObjectives
Defining GOC, GWC and OWC, formation limits, and type of production
expected;
Providing core data from which the depositional environment can be
deduced, including grain size and grain size sequences; vertical
sequence of facies; sedimentary structures (ripplesdn sng, cross
bedding); biogenic structures (root zones, burrows); diagenetic
alterations (cementing, secondary porosity, secondary mineralization);
Permitting a visual study of the frequency, size, strike, and dip of
fractures. This requires that fracture studies be undertaken and may
require the availability of an oriented core;
Retrieval of oriented cores so that directional permeability trends can
be ascertained; this applies to both fractured and to nonfractured
samples; acquisition of samples of nonreservoir rock in exploration
areas so that source rock studies can be made.
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3.CoreAlterationDuringRecovery
There are a number of causes of core alteration during
recovery, three of which are discussed below.
Filtrate Invasion
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CoreAlterationDuringRecovery(Cont.)
Fluid Expansion and Expulsion
The saturations seen at the surface are different from those downhole
(Fig 01), the magnitude of saturation changes that occur from
reservoir conditions to surface conditions when a core is taken with a
waterbase mud.
When oil or oilbase mud is used to core a well penetrating a
homogeneous reservoir (Fig 02) the measured values of water
saturation will approximate reservoir saturations
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Fig01Saturationchangesthatoccurduringcoringandrecoverywith
waterbasedcoringfluid
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Fig02Saturationchangesthatoccurduringcoringandrecoverywith
oilbasedcoringfluid
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DamagetotheRock
One of the major objectives of coring is to recover

representative, nondamaged samples of the reservoir.
Damage to the core must be minimized. This is difficult to
achieve with the percussion sidewall coring procedure where
the core is subjected to highimpact stress as the hollow
projectile is fired into the formation from an explosive charge
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4.SelectionofCoringFluid
Coring fluids can be divided into two major categories that relate to
the filtrate lost: waterbase muds (which tend to flush the core with
water) and oilbase muds (which tend to flush the core with oil).
Other less frequently used coring fluids include both waterinoil or
oilinwater emulsions, gas or air, and foam. The latter is now used
successfully in special applications. Common fluids used and filtrate
loss are presented in Table 01., below.
Compatibility with Coring Objective Coring fluids must be compatible
with the objectives of the core analysis program.
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Coring fluids
Filtrate
Effect on core saturations

Water
Hydrocarbons
Water loss fluids

Water-base
Water
Increased
Decreased1
Oil emulsion
Water
Increased
Decreased
Foam*
Oil base
Oil
No change2
Replaced
Inverted oil
Oil
No change2, 3 Replaced
Gas (hydrocarbon)
Gas
No change2,4
Replaced
Air
Uncertain
Uncertain5
Decreased
Oil loss fluids
emulsion
Gas loss fluids
Table 01. Coring fluids, filtrates, and saturation alteration effects

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WaterBaseandOilBaseFluids
Fig03
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Foam
Foam coring fluids are now receiving considerable attention. They
offer the advantages of allowing a low coring fluid pressure at the
formation face: in addition, preliminary data suggest that minimal or
no invasion of the foam into the core occurs. Unlike other coring
fluids, which remain in circulation during the operation, coring with
foam is a oncethrough process. Foam is generated, then vented at
the surface after a onetime use. This fluid has been used in both
conventional coring and in the recovery of pressure cores, as
discussed by Sparks (1982). The technology of foam coring requires
that the process be monitored by computer and variables adjusted to
assure proper quality foam during coring.
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5.Coringwhiledrilling
AnOverview
Fig04
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Conventional Core Assembly
Fig05
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CorePointSelection
Correlationofsonicanddrilling
exponentlogsinordertoselecta
coringpoint
Fig06
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6.LaboratorySampling
Core Sampling
In some cases wellsite sampling is performed, but it is preferable to
preserve and transport the entire core to the laboratory for sampling
under more controlled conditions. When the entire core reaches the
laboratory, it should be placed in depth order on a layout table. After
the core is refitted, the natural gamma activity of the core can be
logged and photos of the native rock can be taken. A detailed core
description should then be made.
Two basic approaches exist in sample selection.
One is a statistical approach, in which cores are sampled from the top or
middle of each foot of rock, independent of the lithology.
The second approach requires that the analyst secure a representative sample,
regardless of its location, from each foot.
The actual approach will depend upon company philosophy and the formation
characteristics.
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LaboratorySampling(Cont.)
Conventional (Plug) Analysis
In homogeneous formations a core segment of approximately 4 inches
(10 cm) in length or less taken from every foot of core is sufficient for
core plug analysis. If the core has great lithological variations,
however, samples should be obtained more frequently. It is important
that the samples be representativecore data have been skewed by
improper sample selection.
Full Diameter Analysis
If a fulldiameter analysis is to be performed, samples 6 inches (15 cm)
or longer are prepared in the form of right cylinders from each foot of
core, using a diamond saw. The core ends are sometimes used for
saturation determinations. It is important that the lubricant selected
for the saw blade corresponds to the filtrate of the coring fluid, so that
additional extraneous fluids are not added.
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Rubber,Plastic,andFiberglassCores
PressureCores
SpongeCores
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7.CoringDevices
WirelineCoreGun
RotarySidewallCorer
SidewallCoreSlicer
CorePointSelection
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Sequentialcoreprocessingbytwogeologistsworkingtogether
Fig07
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8.TypesofcoreAnalysis
8.1.Plug(Conventional)Analysis
Consolidated Formations
This technique is normally restricted to homogeneous formations that can be
characterized with plugsize samples. Typical plug size is 01 inch (2.5 m) in
diameter, and 01 inch (2.5 cm) long. Cylindrical samples (Figure 08),
Unconsolidated Formations
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Fig08
Coresampleforconventionalanalysiswithproperlyandimproperlyselectedhorizontaland
verticalplugs
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8.2.FullDiameterAnalysis
Routine Analysis
Full diameter analysis was introduced to allow testing of rocks with complex
lithology, such as heterogeneous carbonates (Figure 09, Heterogeneous
carbonate requiring full diameter analysis) and fissured, vugular formations
unsuitable for plug analysis
Samples in the form of a right cylinder up to 10 inches (25 cm) long and
approximately 5 inches (12.5 cm) in diameter are often used.
Data generated include Boyle's law porosities, utilizing helium as the
saturating medium. Two horizontal permeability values are determined.
When fractures or vugs are present, one of the permeability measurements
is visually oriented through the more permeable section, and the second
permeability is at right angles to this measurement. In this manner, the
effect of vugs or fractures on horizontal permeability is indicated. Vertical
permeabilities are also frequently determined.
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Fig09Heterogeneous rock (carbonate) requiring full diameter analysis

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Table2. Comparisonofplugandwholecoredataonmicrofracturedoil
productivesandstonesamples
Property
Plug data
Whole core data
Air permeability, md.
0.1
69
Porosity, %
10.3
11.3
Residual oil,% pore space
14.7
17.1
Total water, % pore space
24.6
37.7
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A method for differentiating between matrix properties and full

diameter data affected by fracture or vug porosity is to drill and test
plugs selected from the more uniform matrix.
A comparison of such data using this type of test is shown in Table 02.
The difference is significant. Matrix properties are important because
they control initial water content and, hence, matrix hydrocarbon
saturation.
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8.3.SidewallCoreAnalysis
Sidewall samples are used extensively in softer sand areas.
The sidewall cores are normally coated with drilling mud, which is
removed prior to analysis.
In areas of high APIgravity (light) oils, sidewall cores are often smaller
than 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. In areas of low APIgravity (heavy)
oils, samples are often larger.
Permeabilities measured on percussion samples rarely yield true in situ
values. For hard, lowpermeability formations, permeability values are
too high due to impact fracturing, while unconsolidated sands are
usually compacted and yield erroneously low values.
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SidewallCoreAnalysis(Cont.)
Data show that porosities measured on sidewall samples approach
conventional analysis values in formations having true porosities
ranging from 32% to 34%. In hard formations, sidewall porosity values
are normally higher than conventional plug values.
Porosity in hard, wellcemented rock is increased by grain shattering
during bullet impact, and these alterations in properties limit sidewall
sample usefulness in reservoir engineering evaluations. However,
sidewall cores are excellent indicators of lithology, furnish data on the
presence or absence of oil and gas, and are valuable for interpretation
of probable production. They also furnish samples suitable for
petrographic work.
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9.Corepreparation
Cleaning
Drying
Property
Oven dried @ 240 F
Humidity Dried*
Bulk volume: cm3
10.0
10.0
Pore volume: cm3
2.6
2.27
Porosity: %
26.0
22.7
Grain volume: cm3
7.4
7.73
Dry weight: g
19.61
19.94
Grain density: g/cm3
2.65
2.58
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10.MeasurementofPorosity
Porosity is a measure of the reservoir storage capacity.
It is defined as the void volume (pore volume) of a sample divided by
its bulk volume. It enters most equations as a fraction and is reported
in core analysis studies as a percent.
It varies from less than 10% to greater than 40% in sandstones and
from 5% to 25% in limestones and dolomites. Porosity can be greater
than 25% in some vuggy or moldic limestones or dolomites. In some
diatomaceous earth deposits, porosities approach 65%.
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10.MeasurementofPorosity(Cont.)
10.1.Boyle'sLawTechnique
10.2.SummationofFluidsTechnique
10.3.ResaturationTechnique
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The Boyle's law method of measuring porosity is a gas transfer
technique that involves the compression of gas into the pores or the
expansion of gas from the pores of a clean, dry sample. Either pore
volume or grain volume may be determined, depending upon the
instrumentation and procedures used.
It is an accurate technique when performed properly; it is fairly rapid for
the majority of samples encountered, and it yields cores that can be
used for further testing. It is essential that the samples be clean and
dry, otherwise you will obtain erroneously low porosity values.
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BULK VOLUME: The measurement of bulk volume is critical when pore

volume is being calculated from the difference between bulk volume
and grain volume. A good technique utilizes Archimedes' principle of
displacement.
One of two applications of this principle is typically used.
The first application requires that the sample be saturated with a liquid
and then weighed. The sample is then submerged in the same fluid,
and its submerged weight taken. The bulk volume is the difference
between the two weights divided by the density of the fluid with
which the core is saturated and in which it is immersed.
The second application also requires that the sample be saturated with
water or other suitable liquid. Water is typically used, because it can
be easily vaporized from the core after the test is complete.
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GRAIN VOLUME: Measurement of grain volume is easily completed

using a type of Boyle's law apparatus illustrated in Figure 10 (Grain
volume determination using Boyles law porosimeter).
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Figure10GrainvolumedeterminationusingBoyleslawporosimeter
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PORE VOLUME:
Pore volume is often determined indirectly by calculating the
difference between measured values of bulk volume and grain
volume.
It can also be measured directly by using Boyle's law equations. In
order to do this it is necessary to alter the sample holder from the
configuration illustrated in Figure 10.
The sample must be placed in a holder that has no void space around
the periphery of the core and on the ends. An apparatus suitable for
this measurement is referred to as a Hassler holder or a hydrostatic
load cell. The hydrostatic load cell is illustrated in Figure 11
(Hydrostatic load cell for direct measurement of pore volume ).
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Figure11Hydrostaticloadcellfordirectmeasurementofporevolume
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Parameter
Inadequate
drying*
Properly dried
Porosity
6.7
7.8 (+ 16.4%)
Grain density
2.62
2.64 (+ .02 g/cm3)
Permeability
0.03
0.06 (+50%)
Table03.Exampleoferrorsinporosity,graindensity,andpermeabilityasaresultof
inadequatecoredrying
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Porosity determination by summationoffluids has been used
extensively. The technique measures gas, oil, and water in the pore
space of fresh core of known bulk volume. These volumes are summed
to yield the pore volume and hence the porosity.
This is the most rapid technique known, and, when it is used in
suitable rock types with proper oil and water calibrations, it yields
valid porosity values. The technique is well suited for routine
laboratory work, and it allows porosity and saturations to be
determined on the same sample.
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Fig12
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The determination of porosity requires measurements on two portions

of a core.
One portion is approximately 100 g in weight, and is crushed to
fragments approximately 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) in diameter. These are
placed in a cylindrical metal holder with a cap on one end ( Figure 12,
Schematic of summationoffluids retort). Extending from the opposite
end of the holder is a long, steel condensing tube, approximately 1/4
inch (0.6 cm) in diameter
Each sample holder contains material from a single sampled depth, and
multiple sample holders are placed in a retort and heated
simultaneously. Water and oil contained in the pores are vaporized,
move down through the stainless steel tube, and are subsequently
condensed into calibrated glassware. The volumes of oil and water are
read and recorded for future calculations. A schematic of the retort is
shown in Figure 12.
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A second portion of rock weighing approximately 30 g is obtained by

shaping a piece of core to a roughly cylindrical size. The sample is
weighed and then placed in a device in which its bulk volume is
determined by mercury displacement. The sample is then immersed in
mercury and pressure on the mercury is raised to approximately 1000
psi (6895 kPa). At this pressure, mercury enters the sample and
compresses the gas, filling the unoccupied pore space. With suitable
calculations this furnishes the gas volume as a percent of the bulk
volume of the sample.
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Knowledge of the bulk volume and weight of the fresh sample into
which mercury is injected allows computation of the natural density of
the rock. This in turn is used to convert the 100 g to be retorted into
an equivalent bulk volume. The oil, water, and gas volumes are each
reported as a fraction of the bulk volume of the rock from which they
came, and the three are summed to yield the porosity.
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This is not a suitable technique for core samples that have been
exposed to the atmosphere and in which residual oil and water have
evaporated. Fresh cores contain residual oil and water in the finer
pore spaces, and any injected mercury only fills the larger spaces
occupied by gas.
In cores in which all liquids have evaporated, the mercury will not
penetrate the smaller gasfilled pores at the 1000 psi (6895 kPa)
pressure imposed, and the resulting porosity value will be erroneously
low.
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OILVOLUMEDETERMINATION
The oil and water contents of a sample are determined by high
temperature retorting at temperatures of up to 1200 F (650 C). Some
oil is lost within the system because of cooking and cracking of oil
contained within the pore space. This results in an observed oil volume
in the condensing glassware that is less than that actually present in the
core. A correction is made to increase the observed oil volume prior to
the calculation of a summationoffluids porosity. This correction is
based on calibration curves that had been made previously using oils
similar to those from the area from which the core was recovered.
In those cases where no oil is available, a standard correction has
generally proved adequate. The correction curve is essentially
independent of the API gravity, primarily because of the high
temperatures induced during the analysis. A typical oil correction curve
is shown in Figure 13 (Retort oil correction curve).
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Fig13
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WATERVOLUMEDETERMINATION
During retorting, the recovered water volumes are read at a point that
distinguishes pore water from mineral water of crystallization. A plot
of water recovered from individual cores as a function of time is
shown in Figure 14 (Retort water recovery versus time). These are
cumulativewaterrecovered curves and most are distinguished by a
plateau that represents water held within the pore space by capillary
forces.
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Fig14
Retort water recovery versus time

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Hensel (1980) documented the idea that data could be improved if the
water value were read after subjecting the cores to a temperature of
350F (193C) for a minimum of 30 minutes. This effectively extends
the plateau, and improves the differentiation between capillaryheld
water and that formed by breakdown of minerals present.
Figure 14 (Summationoffluids porosity (water read at 350F/177C)
versus Boyles law (helium) porosity) shows the difference in measured
porosities between those obtained with Boyle's law procedure and
those obtained in retorting when a constant temperature of 350F
(193C) and a plateau technique were used to determine formation
water volumes.
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POROSITY: Validity of the summation-of-fluids technique can be roughly checked by a balance (Hensel 1980) to yield grain density as illustrated in the following equations:
POROSITY:Validityofthesummationoffluidstechniquecanberoughlycheckedbyabalance(Hensel 1980)toyieldgraindensityas
illustratedinthefollowingequations:
(1)
(2)
and
Vg=Vb (Vu+Vo+Vw)(3)
Where:
rw=rockgraindensity,g/cm3
ro=oildensity,g/cm3
rg =waterdensity,g/cm3(assumed1.00forwatercollected)
W1=weightofcrushedrockinretortlessweightofcontainedfluids,g
W2=weightofcrushedrockinretort,g
Vg =grainvolume,cm3
Vo =volumeofoilcollected,cm3(correctedforvaporlosses,coking,etc.)
Vw =volumeofwatercollected,cm3
Vs=volumeofunoccupiedporespace,correctedbasedonretortsampleweight,cm3
Vb =bulkvolumeofsampleusedtodetermineunoccupiedporespace,correctedbasedonretortsampleweight,cm3
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Boyle's law procedure on adjacent plugs. This comparison requires

that the plug used for Boyle's law be properly dried. Excessive drying
will dehydrate clays and yield an erroneously high helium porosity that
may agree with the erroneous summation data.
When troublesome clays are encountered, combination analysis
techniques using (1) oil and gas volumes developed from summation
offluids and (2) porosity from helium injection on a properly prepared
core together will yield water saturation by difference calculations.
Table 04, below, which presents data generated on a shaly, dirty
sandstone, illustrates the error in porosity that is possible if rocks are
improperly analyzed. The example quoted is an actual field case, but
the magnitude of porosity differences shown here is unusually high.
These rocks contained up to 30% montmorillonite, an amount not
normally observed.
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CombinationAnalysis*
Table 04
Saturations, % Pore Space
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Porosity
Oil
Water
Gas
34.0
45.8
33.8
20.4
36.4
47.3
30.2
22.5
28.2
53.5
27.7
18.8
34.9
51.0
28.7
20.3
37.9
60.2
25.3
14.5
61
Summation of Fluids Analysis**

Saturations, % Pore Space
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Porosity
Oil
Water
Gas
43.4
34.2
48.4
17.4
44.1
39.2
42.4
18.4
35.8
42.3
43.1
14.6
40.3
44.2
38.2
17.6
47.9
47.7
40.9
* Correct technique.
** Technique was unsuitable for this rock which
contained hydratable clays.
11.4
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The resaturation technique requires that the samples be clean and dry
prior to measurement. A dry weight of the core is taken and the
sample is then evacuated and pressure saturated with either water or
a light hydrocarbon. The difference between the saturated and dry
weights yields the grams of fluid in the pore space. Dividing this value
by the density of the saturating fluid yields the pore volume. The
procedure is slow and fairly difficult and requires that fluids used to
saturate the rock wet, but do not react with, the rock surfaces.
Incomplete resaturation will cause erroneously low porosity values.
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10.3.ResaturationTechnique(Cont.)
The advantages of this method include the possibility of using the
samples for further testing, although the core must be recleaned if oil
is used to saturate the rock. When done properly, the technique is
accurate; however, the results are sensitive to preparation. The
samples must be clean and dry prior to the initial weighing, otherwise
an erroneously low porosity will be measured.
The resaturation method is commonly used as a quality control check
in special core analysis tests, as many measurements require
resaturation of core samples. Comparison of the resaturation
measured porosity with an originally measured Boyle's law value for
the same sample pinpoints problem areas when the two do not
agree.
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PrecisionofMeasurement
The Boyles law, summationoffluids and resaturation techniques for
porosity measurement have been accepted as yielding values accurate
within 0.5 porosity points when the limits imposed on each method
are properly observed.
In some cases where the summationoffluids data have been
found to yield high porosity values because of the presence of clays,
and yet where information is required with rapid turnaround for
completion or decision purposes both summation and Boyle's law
data have been determined. The summationoffluids data furnish
rapid information for the completion decision. The plugs to be used
for permeability measurements are cleaned, dried, and subsequently
used for a Boyle's law porosity value comparison. This yields more
accurate data for application in reservoir engineering calculations.
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OverburdenPressureEffects
Rocks analyzed at surface conditions have usually been relieved of
downhole confining pressures. Wellcemented, elastic rocks do not
undergo any major change in volume when their environment is
changed from reservoir to surface conditions. For this reason porosity
is normally determined with minimal or no confining pressure.
Unconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock, however, often expands
when released from its natural confining stresses. Porosity should be
measured on samples of this type under a confining pressure
approximately equivalent to reservoir conditions.
A hydrostatic load cell used for simulating downhole stresses is shown
in Figure 15 (Hydrostatic load cell for direct measurement of pore
volume).
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Fig15
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The loading imposed on the core sample is referred to as hydrostatic

pressure, or hydraulic loading, because pressures are equal in all
directions. A schematic of reservoir loading on a core sample and the
concept of net overburden pressure is shown in Figure 16 (Reservoir
versus laboratory overburden pressure loading).
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Fig16Reservoir versus laboratory overburden pressure loading

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Figure 17(Porosityreductionwithnetoverburdenpressure)illustrates
thereductioninporosityobservedforsamplesofvariedlevelsof
cementation
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Exercise
1/ Given the following true values for a core sample:

BV = 12.45 cm3
GV = 9.89 cm3
Dry weight = 26.21 g
Calculate the porosity and specific gravity of the rock.
If, however, the value of bulk volume had been erroneously measured
as 12.39 cm3 and the grain volume erroneously measured as 9.83,
calculate the error in porosity and grain density that would obtain.
Estimate the errors on both an absolute and a percent basis.
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2/Giventhefollowingdataforacoreanalysis,calculatetheporosityandthesaturationsofoil,gas,andwater.
Gasvolumesample
1.Bulk volume:15.34cm3
2.Weight:31.86g
3.Gas vol:1.56cm3
4.Computed naturaldensity=weight/BV=_______g/cm3
RetortSample
5.Weight:125g=W2
6.Bulkvolume=Sampleweight/naturaldensity=Vb =______cm3
7.Recoveredoil2.1cm3
8.Correctedoil:2.5cm3 =Vo
9.Initialwater:8.3cm3 =Vw
10.Finalwater:9.2cm3
11.Fluiddensities:
=0.85g/cm3
=1.0g/cm3
Porosityandsaturations
OB WB GB
12.Oil%BV+Water%BV+Gas%BV=Porosityfraction
(8) (6)+(9) (6)+(3) (1)
0.042+0.138+0.102=0.282
13.Porosity(percent)=porosityfractionx100=28.2
14.Oilsaturation%porespace=[(8)+(12)(6)]100=14.8%
15.Watersaturation%porespace=[(9)+(12)(6)]100=49.0%
16.Gassaturation=100 14.8 49.0=36.2%
11/24/2016
73
3/Usingthefollowingdata,calculatethegraindensityoftheretortsample.
=graindensity=grainweight/grainvolume
Comparecalculatedgraindensitywithexpectedgraindensitybasedonthelithologic descriptionofthecoreandthendecide
Doesthedataappeartobeaccurate?
Why?
Gasvolumesample
1.Bulkvolume:15.34cm3
2.Weight:31.86g
3.Gasvol:1.56cm3
4.Computednaturaldensity=weight/BV=2.08g/cm3
Retortsample
5.Weight:125g=W2
6.Bulkvolume=Sampleweight/naturaldensity=Vb =60.1cm3
7.Recoveredoil2.1cm3
8.Correctedoil:2.5cm3 =Vo
9.Initialwater:8.3cm3 =Vw
10.Finalwater:9.2cm3
11.Fluiddensities:
=0.85g/cm3
=1.0g/cm3
Porosityandsaturations
OB WB GB
12.Oil%BV+Water%BV+Gas%BV=Porosityfraction
(8) (6)+(9) (6)+(3) (1)
0.042+0.138+0.102=0.282
13.Porositypercent=porosityfractionx100=28.2
14.Oilsaturation%porespace=[(8)+(12)(6)]100=14.8%
15.Watersaturation%porespace=[(9)+(12)(6)]100=49.0%
16.Gassaturation=100 14.8 49.0=36.2%
74
11.MeasurementofPermeability
The ability of a formation to transmit fluids is termed permeability; its
unit is the darcy (m2). This unit has been subdivided into 1000
smaller units, called millidarcies, and these units are used in reporting
core analysis measured values.
A darcy has been defined as that permeability which permits a fluid of
one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per
second through a porous medium with a crosssectional area of one
square centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimeter. Its value is determined in the laboratory.*
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11.MeasurementofPermeability(Cont.)
Dry gas has been selected as the standard fluid for use in permeability
determinations because it minimizes fluidrock reaction and is easy to
use. In the laboratory, air is caused to flow through a clean and dry
sample of measured length and diameter (APIRP27).
The pressure differential and flow rates are measured and the
permeability is calculated from the Darcy equation. In the linear flow
system, the Darcy equation for noncompressible fluids can be used to
calculate permeability to a compressible gas of the rate of flow in
cm3/s of the gas is expressed as the mean pressure existing within the
core sample. This conversion of a volume at atmospheric pressure to
the volume existing at mean pressure is accomplished by using the
following equation (1), (2)
*In SI units a permeability of one meter squared will permit a flow of
1m3/s of fluid of 1 Pa.s viscosity through an area of 1m2 under a
pressure gradient of 1 Pa/m.
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Noncompressible Fluid Flow (Liquid)
(1)
Thus:
Compressible Fluid Flow (Gas)
2000
Where:
q = liquid flow rate, cm3/s
qa = gas flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cm2/s
= viscosity of fluid flowing, centipoise
L = sample length, cm
A = sample cross-sectional area, cm2
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
Pa = atmospheric pressure, atmospheres absolute
k = permeability, md
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77
Permeameter
PLUGS:
Aschematic
oftheprinciple
involvedin
permeability
measurement
Fig18
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Schematic flow diagram of permeameter
78
Q In
11/24/2016
Q Out
79
FULLDIAMETER
CORES: Full
diametercore
measurementsare
normallyrestricted
tocarbonatesand
formations
containingvugsand
fractures.
Fig19
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80
Vertical
permeabilityona
fulldiameter
sampleiseasily
measuredusinga
Hasslertypecore
holder.
Fig20
Full diameter horizontal and vertical permeability measurement apparatus

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81
SIDEWALL CORES: When sidewall samples have been mounted in

thinwalled jackets, permeability is determined using techniques
similar to those employed for normally drilled plugs
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FactorsAffectingMeasuredValues
Air permeabilities measured in a routine core analysis laboratory on
rock samples from nonfractured reservoirs will give higher values than
the actual reservoir permeability. This difference is dependent upon
the magnitude of permeability as well as the pore geometry. The
higher laboratory values are thought to be caused by gas slippage (the
Klinkenberg effect), relative permeability, reactive fluids, and
overburden pressure effects.
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THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT:
The flow of gas through porous media was investigated by

Klinkenberg (1941):
The permeability of a core sample was not constant, but varied with
the gas used to make the measurement, as well as the mean
(average) pressure existing in the core at the time of measurement.
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84
THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont.):
Investigations indicated that at low mean pressuresfor

example, at atmospheric pressurethe gas molecules are so
far apart that they slip through the pore spaces with little
friction loss, and yield a higher value of permeability.
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85
THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont.):
At higher mean pressures for example, 1,000 psi (6,895

kPa) or greater the gas molecules are closer together and
experience a friction drag at the side of the pore walls. This
increases as higher mean pressure increases, with the gas
acting more and more like a liquid. This means that the
measured value of permeability decreases as reservoir or
laboratory mean pressure increases.
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THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont)
Experiments show that a plot of gas permeability versus the reciprocal
mean pressure existing at the time of the gas permeability
measurement forms a straight line that can be extrapolated to infinite
mean pressure.
This extrapolated value of permeability, referred to as the Klinkenberg
permeability or equivalent liquid permeability, is lower than the
measured gas permeabilities and is comparable to the permeability
that would be obtained if the core were saturated with a nonreactive
liquid such as oil. Figure 21 (Klinkenberg permeability determination)
shows an example of this relationship for a low permeability
sandstone.
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87
Fig21
Klinkenberg permeability
determination
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88
Steadystate permeability measurements were made at each of the

four points shown at each given net overburden pressure.
The Klinkenberg value (kL) can be correlated with the value of
permeability determined with air at the mean pressure normally used
in the laboratory measurements. Table 05, below, offers examples of
the relationship between the air permeability and Klinkenberg
corrected values for some sandstones. The correction, on a
percentage basis, is greater in low permeability sands and becomes
progressively
smaller
as
permeability
value
increases.
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Table 05. A comparison of noncorrected and Klinkenberg-corrected air

permeability for some sandstones
Noncorrected
permeability (md)
Klinkenberg corrected
permeability* (md)
1.0
0.7
10.0
7.8
100.0
88.0
1000.0
950.0
*Airpermeabilitythathasbeencorrectedforgasslippage.TheKlinkenberg valueisthe
equivalentliquidpermeabilityassumingnoreactionbetweentherockandthefluid.
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In early core analysis reports, measured air permeability was

corrected to the Klinkenberg permeability value, using correlations
such as those presented in Table 1., above. These corrections have
been found to be good approximations for sandstones and some
intergranular Limestones. The correction is usually applied to plug
sized samples but should not be applied to full diameter permeability
measurements because the heterogeneity of most full diameter cores
renders the correlations unreliable. If the need exists, Klinkenberg
permeability values should be determined on individual samples.
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91
The nonsteadystate permeameter allows the calculation of

Klinkenberg permeability values on plugsized samples and provides a
second factor related to the pore geometry and expressed as "b."
Equation relates air permeability to Klinkenberg permeability;
knowledge of the Klinkenberg value and the "b" factor from the
nonsteadystate tests allows calculation of the air permeability at any
mean pressure desired.
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS:
When a second fluid phase is present in a reservoir, the permeability
to each phase is referred to as the effective permeability In an oil or
gas reservoir, the second phase present in the pore space is interstitial
water.
The effective permeability to the hydrocarbon phase in a reservoir
with interstitial water present will be less than the measured
permeability to air after correction for Klinkenberg effects (absolute
permeability).
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS(Cont.):
In high permeability rock with relatively low values of interstitial

water, the presence of water reduces the gas or oil effective
permeability only a minor amount below the absolute permeability.
As the permeability of the rock decreases (a condition that is normally
associated with a reduction in pore size), the presence of water has an
increasingly important and detrimental effect on the effective
permeability to oil or gas.
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Clays line the pore spaces of many formations and sometimes react
with coring, drilling, or other fluids injected into the reservoir. This
reaction commonly results in a reduction in permeability that can vary
from minor to catastrophic.
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95
Two types of damage mechanisms can result.

One is a dispersion of clay particles and/or a physical tearing loose of clay
platelets that subsequently block pore throats and reduce permeability.
A second type of reaction involves clay swelling, which causes an
increase in clay volume and subsequent reduction in crosssectional area
open to flow within the pore throats. Because of the difference in the
mechanisms, each demands a different treatment for correction, but the
effect of both is to cause reservoir permeability to be lower than that
measured in the laboratory.
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96
OVERBURDENPRESSUREEFFECTS:
Samples tested when making routine core analysis measurements
usually have no net overburden pressures applied to them. When
simulating reservoir conditions in the laboratory, it has been found
that the application of overburden pressure reduces permeability
(Table 06). Reduction in permeability of as little as 7% to as much as
100% has been reported for overburden pressures up to 5000 psi
(34475 kPa). (McLatchie, Hemstock, and Young 1958; Vairogs et a.
1970.)
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OVERBURDENPRESSUREEFFECTS(Cont.):
As was noted in porosity measurements, the unconsolidated materials show the
greatest percentage reduction in value with increasing overburden pressure.
Generally, the reduction in permeability with the application of net overburden
pressure is greater than the reduction seen in porosity.
An experiment with flowthrough capillary tubes, as described by the physicist
Poiseuille (17971869), indicates that the quantity of fluid flowing through a
capillary varies with the fourth power of the radius. Because the value of air
permeability is directly proportional to flow rate, small changes in pore radii
caused by the application of overburden pressure result in correspondingly large
reductions in permeability.
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Table 06. Permeability reduction with increasing overburden pressure

Rock type
Permeability at net overburden pressure: % of original

200 psi
1000 psi
3000 psi
5000 psi
7000 psi
100%
96%
91%
86%
82%
Sandstone
100%
(unconsolidate
d)
72%
44%
35%
30%
Chalk
97%
93%
60%
30%
Sandstone
(well
indurated)
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100%
99
In any given reservoir, the effects of gas slippage, reactive fluids, and overburden
pressure may be great or small, depending on pore geometry. Laboratory results
indicate that these factors become more important as absolute permeability of a
rock decreases. In some low permeability gas reservoirs, a high interstitial water
level causes a significant reduction in effective permeability, with further
reductions caused by an increase in net overburden pressure and the gas slippage
effect.
It represents data on a sample with an initial air permeability of .28 millidarcies.
When a nonmobile, interstitial water saturation of 53% of pore space was
introduced, the original air permeability determined on the dry core was reduced
to an effective permeability of .051 millidarcies. These measurements were made
with a minimum net overburden pressure of 200 psi (1379 kpa), to prevent air
bypassing the core and flowing down the sample's sides.
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100
The Klinkenberg permeability value, obtained from the extrapolation

of four measured air permeabilities at different mean pressures,
showed a further reduction in effective permeability, to .035
millidarcies. An increase in overburden pressure from 200 to 6000 psi
(1380 to 4137 kPa) resulted in a final effective permeability of .003
millidarcies. This is approximately a 100fold decrease in permeability.
Similar magnitudes of reduction have been observed by Jones and
Owens (1979) for tight gas reservoirs.
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AccuracyofMeasurement
The accuracy of the permeability value measured in the laboratory is
approximately 5% of its true value when the permeability is in the
range of 10500 md. As permeability decreases to the <1.0 md,
accuracy may decrease to 20% of true value. Above 500 md, the
accuracy of measurements is typically 10% of true value.
Horizontal permeability values determined by core analysis yield the
vertical distribution of horizontal permeability at the wellbore. They
provide a measure of permeability variation, which may be used in
subsequent reservoir engineering calculations. Other reservoir
evaluation tools, such as buildup pressure tests, provide interwell
permeability values, but supply only an average value for the
formation permeability and not the distribution of permeability. Both
types of data have a place in formation evaluation.
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AccuracyofMeasurement(Cont.)
Slippage, relative permeability, reactive fluid, and overburden
pressure effects can all be measured in the laboratory. They require
additional testing time and are usually not measured at the time that
a conventional core analysis is run. The conventional data are
adequate to describe permeability distribution profiles, to indicate
formation productivity, and to serve as a guide for selecting samples
to be used in more complex special core tests.
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103
Exercise
Given:
g = 0.018 cp
A = 5.06 cm2
I = 2.54 cm
pa = atmospheric pressure = 1.0 atmosphere
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
qa = volumetric gas flow rate at atmospheric
pressure, cc/sec
And Darcy's equation for flow of gas in a porous medium:
Calculate the air permeability and the liquid permeability

(Klinkenberg) values.
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104
qa
11/24/2016
p1
p2
3.75
1.50
1.00
5.56
2.25
1.75
10.48
4.25
3.75
25.20
10.25
9.75
105
SOLUTION
Todo:
1.Computeka (millidarcies)ateachoffourflowrates.
2.Plotkaversus1/pmandextrapolatetofindequivalentliquid
permeabilitykL where1/pm=0(Figure22).
3.kL fromplotequals44.2millidarcies.
qa
11/24/2016
p1
pm
(p1 - p2)
(p1 + p2)/2
p2
ka
1/pm
3.75
1.50
1.00
.5
1.25
54.2
0.80
5.56
2.25
1.75
.5
2.00
50.2
0.50
10.48
4.25
3.75
.5
4.00
47.4
0.25
25.20
10.25
9.75
.5
10.00
45.5
0.10
106
Fig22
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107
12.CoreAnalysisReport
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108
Plug(Conventional)Analysis
Figure 23 (ConventionalcoreanalysisfortheCADNo.1well,oftheLouisianna
GulfCoast)
11/24/2016
Fig23
109
Fig24
11/24/2016
110
FullDiameterAnalysis
Fig25
11/24/2016
111
SidewallCoreAnalysis
Fig26
11/24/2016
112
13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
Special core analysis tests on homogeneous formations are normally
made on 1 or 1 1/2 inch (2.5 to 3.8 cm) diameter cylindrical plugs
approximately 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm) long.
Samples are selected to cover the permeability, porosity, and rocktype
range.
For heterogeneous formations, tests are made on full diameter cores.
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113
13.SpecialCoreAnalysis(Cont.)
Certain measurements are made on fresh, preserved cores that are not
extracted and leached prior to the laboratory tests. In other cases,
samples are extracted, leached, and dried.
After porosity and permeability are determined, the samples are
restored to the desired saturation conditions.
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114
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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115
11/24/2016
116
13.1Rockwettability
Other than when storage of rock has caused deterioration, the primary
factor that may affect the soundness of the results of special tests is
rock wettability. It is complex in theory, but a simplified illustration of
the concept of wettability as a function of contact angle is shown in
Figure 27 (Contact angle as an indication of wettability).
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117
Fig27
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118
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119
13.2CapillaryPressureTests
Measurement Techniques
Three commonly utilized techniques for measuring capillary pressure
data are:
the restored state cell technique (Bruce and Welge 1947);
the centrifugal technique (Slobod, Chambers, and Prehn 1951);
the mercury injection technique (Purcell 1949).
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120
Figure28 (Schematicofrestoredstatecapillarypressurecell)isaschematic
oftherestoredstatecapillarypressurecell.
11/24/2016
121
The pressure imposed on the sample in the laboratory is equivalent

to the pressure difference that exists between the wetting and
nonwetting fluid phases.
This in turn is proportional to the pressure difference between the
wetting and nonwetting phase in the reservoir, which is related to the
height of a given saturation above the original wateroil level and the
oil and water hydrostatic gradient. Figure 29 (Pressure differential
(PC) between water and hydrocarbon versus height and water
saturation) illustrates this concept.
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122
Figure29 Pressuredifferential(PC)betweenwaterandhydrocarbon
versusheightandwatersaturation
11/24/2016
123
As the hydrocarbon column increases in height, the buoyant force of

the hydrocarbon column increases. Water saturation is therefore
pushed from the pore space and reduced to lower values as the height
above the free water surface increases.
In Figure 30 (Capillary pressure curves representing different
depositional environments) we see examples of capillary pressure data
for rocks that represent three different depositional environments.
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124
Figure30Capillarypressurecurvesrepresentingdifferentdepositional
environments
11/24/2016
125
WaterSaturationversusHeight
Three Equations (below) may be used to correct the laboratory
measured capillary pressure to an equivalent height above the free
water level in the reservoir.
The free water level is defined as the depth where the capillary
pressure is zero; for practical purposes, it is the depth at which a high
permeability and porosity reservoir rock would show no residual oil
saturation as the zone of 100% water saturation is approached.
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126
(1)
or
(2)
But
(3)
Therefore
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127
Where:
h=heightabovefreewatertable,ftorm
Pc =capillarypressure,psiorkPa
s=interfacialtension,dynes/cm
f=contactangle,degrees
w =densityofbrine,g/cm3
h =densityofhydrocarbon,g/cm3
g=gravitytermusedtoconvertdensitytofluidgradient
R=subscriptusedtoindicateinitialreservoirconditions
L=subscriptusedtoindicatelaboratoryconditions
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128
System
Laboratory
Reservoir
Contact Cosine Interfacial

angle
Tension T
Tx
Cosine
Air-water
1.0
72
72
Oil-water
30
0.866
48
42
Air-mercury 140
0.765
480
367
Air-oil
1.0
24
24
Water-oil
30
0.866
30
26
Water-gas
1.0
50*
50
Table 07. Typical interfacial tension and contact angle values

for a water-wet system
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129
The equations require knowledge of the interfacial tension of the

fluids, both in the laboratory and in the reservoir. Some estimate must
also be made of the contact angle in the reservoir. For waterwet
systems, the values reported in Table 07 may be used as an
approximation for those two variables if no further information is
available. Schowalter (1976) discusses the importance of capillary
pressure and presents data that may be used for estimating the
parameters required in the three equations.
Examples of conversions of capillary pressure to reservoir height have
also been presented by Keelan in the manual published by Core
Laboratories, Inc., entitled Special Core Analysis.
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130
PoreThroatDistribution
Capillarypressure
dataobtained
frommercury
injectiontests
canbeconverted
toequivalent
poreradious,
Figure 31 Cumulative pore throat distribution for different depositional

environments
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131
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132

Electrical measurements made in the laboratory on cores define, for a
given formation, the parameters that are used in electric log
calculations of water saturation.
The measured properties include the resistivity of the core at 100%
water saturation (Ro), at other saturations (Rt), and the resistivity of
the brine (Rw). The relationship between rock properties and water
saturation is as follows:
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133
(1)
(2)
11/24/2016
Sw =formationbrinesaturation,fraction
Rw =formationbrineresistivity,ohmmeters
Rt =trueformationresistivity,ohmmeters
Ro =trueresistivityof100%brinesaturated
rock,ohmmeters
F=formationresistivityfactorRo/Rw
(3) f=measuredporosity,fraction
a=interceptonFversusfplot
n=saturationexponent,slopeofRIversusSw
plot
m=cementationexponent(slopeofFversus
fplot)
134
Formation Factor versus Porosity

The formation factor (F) has been defined (Archie 1942) as the
resistivity of a 100% water saturated rock (Ro) divided by the resistivity
of the saturating brine (Rw). When the measured formation factor is
plotted against measured porosity, the slope of the resulting line yields
the cementation exponent (m). This is illustrated in Figure 32 (Plot of
formation factor versus porosity, illustrating variation in intercept "a"),
along with limits observed in laboratory tests.
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135
Figure 32 Plot of formation factor versus porosity, illustrating variation in intercept "a"
11/24/2016
136
Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation

As water saturation decreases in a given sample, the true resistivity
rises. This occurs because less water and subsequently fewer ions are
available to conduct electricity.
The resistivity index (RI) is defined as the true resistivity (Rt) at any
saturation divided by the resistivity at 100% saturation (Ro).
Figure 33(Plot of sesistivity index versus water saturation for range of
measured values of the slope"n") shows a typical plot of the resistivity
index versus water saturation over a range of laboratory measured
data.
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137
Figure 33 Plot of sesistivity index versus water saturation for range of measured values of the slope"n"
11/24/2016
138
Clay Effects
The presence of clay can suppress rock resistivity, and yield lower m
and variable n values. The water saturation equation that was
developed to accommodate the presence of clays that conduct
electricity becomes more complex than that given in Equation 3. The
saturation equation that incorporates measured cation exchange
capacity effects caused by clays is given by the WaxmanSmitsThomas
equations (1968,1974):
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139
Where:
F*=Fa (1+Rw BQv)(5)
F*=formationresistivityfactorindependentofclayconductivity
=a*/m*
n*=saturationexponentindependentofclayconductivity
B=specificcounterion activity,1/ohmm/equiv/liter
Qv =quantityofcation exchangeableclaypresent,meq/mlof
porespace
CEC=cation exchangecapacity,meq/100gm
rma=graindensityofrockmatrix,g/cm3
a=equationcoefficientassociatedwithm*
m*=cementationexponent(slopeofF*vs fplot)
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140
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141
13.4RelativePermeability
Definitions
Relative permeability is a dimensionless term that has importance
when two or more fluids move through the pore spacesfor example,
oil and water. Specific or absolute permeability is the permeability of a
porous medium to one fluid at 100% saturation.
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142
13.4RelativePermeability(Cont.)
Definitions
Effective permeability is the permeability to a given phase when more
than one phase saturates the porous medium. The effective
permeability, then, is a function of saturation.
Relative permeability to a given phase is defined as the ratio of
effective permeability to the absolute or, in some cases, a base
permeability. Relative permeability, then, is also a function of
saturation.
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143
RelativePermeability(Cont.)
Definitions
In data that were generated prior to 1973, the specific permeability
to air was often used as the base permeability. Since that time, the
common base has been the hydrocarbon permeability in the presence
of irreducible water. For an oilwater reservoir, this would mean the
base permeability would be effective permeability to oil at irreducible
water. For a gas reservoir, the base permeability would be that to gas
in the presence of irreducible water. Figure 34 (Gaswater relative
permeability curves) illustrates gaswater relative permeability data
when water displaces gas.
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144
Figure 34 (Gas-water relative permeability curves) illustrates gas-water relative permeability data when
water displaces gas.
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145
Imbibition versus Drainage

The terms imbibition and drainage are also employed when
discussing relative permeability tests. Their meanings simply what is
happening in the pore space to the wetting phase as relative
permeability tests are measured.
If the wetting phase is decreasing, that phase is draining and the
curve is called a drainage curve.
If the wetting phase is increasing or being imbibed during the test,
the curve is referred to as an imbibition curve (Figure 34).
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146
Imbibition versus Drainage (Cont.)

For a waterwet reservoir, the drainage curves apply during the time
that water is draining from the reservoir and hydrocarbons are
accumulating.
Once the reservoir rock or laboratory sample has attained an
equilibrium watersaturation value and the water is subsequently
increased by natural water influx or the introduction of coring or test
fluids, the imbibition curves apply. (In oilwet rock, a reduction in the
oil phase by water flooding would be referred to as a drainage curve.)
These data are required in many reservoir engineering calculations,
and the laboratory tests that develop them should follow the same
saturation history as that in the reservoir.
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147
LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability
Two major laboratory methods have evolved to measure relative
permeability. These are referred to as the steadystate and
nonsteadystate techniques.
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148
LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability(Cont.)
STEADY STATE:
The steadystate test, the older of the two methods, is made at low
flow rates, and the test apparatus contains upstream and downstream
mixer heads to remove capillary end effects.
Most research groups prefer data obtained from this test.
Two fluids are injected simultaneously into a core sample and the
water saturation is increased slowly. This simulates the slow increase
in water saturation that would occur in the formation between the
injection and producing wells. Saturation increase is monitored by
measuring the gain in weight occurring in the sample or by Xray
technique.
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149
LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability(Cont.)
NONSTEADY STATE:
The nonsteadystate technique uses a viscous oil and is normally made
at a higher flow rate than that present in the reservoir.
It is this higher rate that sometimes yields pessimistic estimates of
recovery from rocks of intermediate wettability. Heaviside and Black
(1983) have analyzed the two techniques and presented
recommendations on the most appropriate way to measure wateroil
relative permeability depending upon the wetting characteristics of
the rock.
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Wettability Effects
The natural preference of a porous medium, which causes one fluid to
adhere to its surfaces rather than another, is referred to as wettability.
A waterwet porous medium causes water to adhere to its surfaces.
The wettability of a rock has a dramatic influence on relative
permeability curves. It is therefore necessary that the core samples
tested in the laboratory reflect the actual formation wettability, and
that initial water saturation in the test sample be of the same
magnitude and have the same spatial location as it has in the
reservoir. This need has led to the recovery of "native state" cores.
These are cores taken with crude oil or with other oilbase fluids that
do not alter the wettability or water saturation present in the
recovered core.
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Wettability Effects
Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on wateroil relative permeability:
imbibition data for Torpedo sandstone) illustrates the effects of core
wettability on wateroil relative permeability measurements (Owens
and Archer 1971).
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Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on water-oil relative permeability: imbibition data for Torpedo
sandstone)
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153
These data indicate that as the rock becomes more oilwet, the
relative permeability to oil decreases and the relative permeability to
water increases at any given saturation. This results in unfavorable
recovery efficiency. It also indicates that the residual oil saturation in
intermediate to oilwet rocks is a function of the volume of water that
flows through the core sample, and that the relative permeability to
water existing at floodout will be much higher for the oilwet
formation. An interesting observation is that the reduction of capillary
retentive forces in the oilwet rock allows a lower residual oil
saturation to be achieved in the oilwet rock if economics would
support continued water injection.
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154
Wettability may be estimated from shapes of relative permeability

curves; however, it should be remembered that a similar shift in the
relative permeability curves can also be caused by changes in other
rock properties. This was documented by Morgan and Gordon (1970).
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Exercise
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Coring&amp;Core Analysis

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CORING & CORE ANALYSIS

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The initial quantity and distribution of hydrocarbons

The rate of flow of these fluids within the reservoir

The volume of hydrocarbons recovered.

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ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

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ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

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One of the major objectives of coring is to recover

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Effect on core saturations

Water loss fluids

Oil loss fluids

Table 01. Coring fluids, filtrates, and saturation alteration effects

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Conventional Core Assembly

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ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

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Fig09Heterogeneous rock (carbonate) requiring full diameter analysis

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Whole core data

Air permeability, md.

Residual oil,% pore space

Total water, % pore space

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A method for differentiating between matrix properties and full

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ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

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Oven dried @ 240 F

Bulk volume: cm3

Pore volume: cm3

Grain volume: cm3

Grain density: g/cm3

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ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

ThaiBaNgoc FacultyofGeology&PetroleumEngineering HCMUT

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BULK VOLUME: The measurement of bulk volume is critical when pore

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GRAIN VOLUME: Measurement of grain volume is easily completed

Coring&Core Analysis

Coring&Core Analysis