WEAR

ELSEVIER

Wear186-187 (1995)401412

Erosion in choke valves-oil

and gas industry applications

L. Ngkleberg, T. Sontvedt
Norsk Hydro as.. PO Box 200, N-1321 Stabekk, Norway

Abstract
of erosion depth in pressure reduction valves (chokes) caused by solids and large amounts of droplets.
Solid and droplet erosion data for WC (tungsten carbide) with 6% Co and 6% Ni and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) have been transformed

This paper describes predictions

into correlations. These correlations have been coupled with particulated fluid flow models to determine the erosion depth due to solids and
droplets.
One solution to the solids erosion problem in chokes is to reduce the impact angle of the solids and/or apply PCD as target material. For
needle chokes particulated flow calculations and experiments have demonstrated that small impingement angles can be achieved.
The incubation period against droplet erosion of PCD is 4-5 times longer than for WC-6%Co. The erosion rates, however, are similar.
Even if computations indicate that small droplet velocities may be achieved in the commonly used chokes (if no closure of ports by steel
debris), experiments are required to verify the actual exposed areas in the choke (by soft material experiments)
as well as the angular
dependency indicated by rotating arm experiments.
Keywords: Choke valves; Erosion; Tungsten carbide; Diamond; Oil and gas industry

1. Introduction

In the oil and gas industry choke valves are normally

located on top of each well. The choke valves are used to
balance the pressure on several wells into a common manifold. For large pressure reductions, the flow velocities can
reach 400-500 m s- at the minimum flow area in the chokes.
The experience from pressure reduction of well streams
which contain gas, liquid and sand particles indicates that:
Adjustable chokes even when fitted with WC (tungsten
carbide) trims, may suffer from heavy metal loss resulting
in choke lifetimes of much less than a year. The common
cause of metal loss, for all gas-liquid ratios, is the production of solids. Liquid droplet erosion (flashing) can
also in some cases determine the lifetime of a choke. It is
not always known if observed erosion in chokes is caused
by solids or by liquid droplets. Also cavitation and the
combined mechanism of erosion-corrosion
may destroy
the choke internals in some cases.
The erosion attack depends mostly on the choke pressure
ratio (pressure drop/inlet pressure).
Previously the chokes were only located on platforms
where they could be replaced for acceptable costs. Today
several chokes are located sub sea, where the replacement
0043-1648/95/$09.50 0 1995 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved
SSo10043-1648(95)07138-5

cost is much higher. Norsk Hydro is therefore working

towards:
- increased lifetime of chokes, by more erosion resistant
materials and optimized design to reduce erosion;
- reliable models to estimate erosion and lifetime of chokes,
by incorporating erosion models into particulated flow
models.

2. Flow characteristics of solids and droplets in chokes

2.1. General
The particulated flow version of Fluent [ 1 ] has been used
to simulate the fluid flow and erosion in the chokes. Fluent is
a computer program for modelling fluid flow, heat transfer,
chemical reaction and the trajectories of dispersed particles/
droplets. It is one of 3-4 widely used numerical simulation
programs for fluid flow.
For flow in the continuous phase it solves the discretized
Navier-Stokes
equations, including turbulence and viscous
dissipation, the conservation equation and the energy equation. A Lagrangian trajectory calculation, with stochastic
tracking to account for the effect of turbulence, has been used
for the dispersed phase.

402

L. Nekleberg,

PCD

CHOKE

Surface

- 50

T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-18711995)

2 OPEN

(560

- 300

401412

BAR)

GrLd

Fig. 1. Numerical grid model of flow path of needle and seat choke.

PCD
"

CHOKE

Velocity
MOX

- 50
Vectors

'= 4.909E+02

'1 OPEN

(560

- 300

BAR)

(Meters/Sex)
Mln

= O.OOOE+OO

09/28/92
Fluent 4.10
Fluent Inc.

Fig. 2. Flow velocities in needle and seat choke

The simulation is based on the finite volume technique.

The computational grid is generated as a bodyfitted grid. This
gives an accurate representation of the actual geometry in the
simulations.

The grid geometries were based on choke drawings. The

flow field in a choke has been modelled with up to 100 000
control volumes. This gives an accurate representation of the
actual flow geometry, see Figs. 1-3.

L. N@kleberg, T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

403

._
PCD

$---_
x

WOKE

- 50

Partkle/Droplet

MOX

= S.OOOE-05

2 OPEN

(560

Mln

trajectories and erosion

Simulation of particle trajectories and erosion requires

knowledge of the flow pattern (velocity field) through the
chokes.
The trajectory of a dispersed liquid droplet or solid particle
is predicted in Fluent by integrating the force balance on the
particle. The forces are:
- drag force;
- gravity;
virtual mass force;
- force due to the pressure gradient of the fluid.
When a droplet/particle
hits a surface in a choke, the
impact velocity and angle are known and the erosion rate at
the impact position from the specific droplet/particle
is calculatrd. Severa! thousand droplet/particle
trajectories are

Table 1
Sand erosion rates from tests [ 31
Material
Stainless steel
WC (6% Co)
PCD

Erosion rate (mg kg- )

1700+ 100
14*2
0.088 f 0.003

Impact angle = 90.

Impact velocity = 250 f 30 m s- ,
Fluxrate=20.7f0.3kgm-Zs-.
Erodent size = 140-300 pm (mean size = 250).

BAR)

= S.OOOE-05

Fig. 3.Particle trajectories

2.2. Droplet/particle

- 300

TroJectorles

09/28/92
Fluent 4.10
Fluent Inc.

in needle and seat choke.

simulated for each case. The erosion depth from several

impacts at the same position is the sum of each impact.

3. Erosion by solid particles

3.1. Recorded material response
A critical wear mechanism in chokes is erosion by solid
particles (sand or fines from the reservoir). For severe erosive
service, solid WC with low binder content (6%) is normally
selected as the choke trim material. Even with this highly
erosion resistant material, the experience is that chokes can
erode too fast.
To reduce the erosion rates we have concentrated on more
erosion resistant materials and improved choke geometry. A
review of candidate materials for chokes by Hutchings in
1990 [2] concluded that only diamond and cubic boron
nitride had a significantly better erosion resistance than WC.
The erosion conditions of polycrystalline diamond (PCD),
WC and steel was then found in sand erosion tests at 90
impact and impact velocity of 250 m s- [ 31. The experiments were performed at high sand flux rates and for long
exposure times. As seen in Table 1, the erosion resistance of
PCD is significantly better than WC. A choke with internal
parts protected with PCD should therefore give a much longer
lifetime, compared to internal parts made of WC. A development project was then started, with the purpose of devel-

404

L. Nekleberg,

T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401-412

oping a sub sea choke with superior wear resistance

PCD as the trim material [ 41.

using

3.2. Calculated lifetime of choke trims

The erosion rate is estimated to be [ 51:
E=K,m,f(qJV;
where E is the erosion rate, mP is the particle flux, K,,, is the
material constant, LY,,is the particle impact angle, f( LQ> is a
function of the impact angle (linear increase with impact
angle for brittle materials), V,, is the particle impact velocity,
and n is the Velocity exponent, normally between 2.5 and 3.0.
To the erosion rate should be added the corrosion rate of
binder material caused by CO2 and enhanced by erosion, see
Section 7.
Numerical modelling of the detailed flow, particle trajectories and erosion have been carried out for several chokes
with different designs. 3D simulations of a traditional needle
and seat choke with a pressure reduction from 560 to 300 bar
shows the following:
- sonic gas flow in the throat section;
- impact velocity = 120 m s- at position for maximum
erosion;
- impact angle = 46 at position for maximum erosion;
- maximum
erosion = 1.7 mm year- for 15 kg day -
sand rate (using erosion resistance for WC from Table
1) and it = 2.62.
The simulations show erosion patterns similar to what is
observed from field experience with such chokes and from
previous choke erosion tests carried out by Det Norske Veritas [ 61. Based on this, a new choke has been designed and
fabricated in cooperation with Cooper Oil Tool, Ireland. The
main advantage of the new choke geometry is the low impact
angle of the eroding particles (simulations
shows impact
angles less than 5 and drastically reduced erosion rates). The
first sequence of erosion testing (with sonic flow and sand)
of the new choke with steel and WC in the internal parts, has
now been finalized at Det Norske Veritas laboratories. The
results so far are low erosion rates and a smooth erosion
pattern which confirms the low impact angles for this new
geometry. New trim parts of PCD are under fabrication and
will be tested this year.

4. Erosion by droplets
4.1. Recorded material response
Droplet erosion can occur in two-phase flow and flashing
liquids, and may in some cases determine the lifetime of a
choke. It is not always known if observed erosion in chokes
is caused by solids or by liquid droplets.
For brittle materials it has been observed that the incubation
period is followed by a steep almost linear rise of material

loss. Further, the damages seem to be confined to local areas

of the target material.
Tests carried out for Norsk Hydro at Dornier [7] have
demonstrated that an insert of thickness 5 mm will crack
when the local depth of erosion is between 24 mm.
The choke trim consists of an 5-X mm thick insert of the
brittle material mounted such that the material is compressed.
At present we assume that the trim should be replaced when
the local erosion depth is 4 mm.
Thus tests must be carried out to a such length that the
steep material loss curve is properly identified. The test results
will be employed for prediction of local depth of erosion in
actual chokes.
Below will be presented the analysis of data for candidate
materials with such a prediction as the main goal.
4.1.1. WC
Droplet erosion tests were conducted for Norsk Hydro by
Dornier [7] and by Asea Brown Bovery (ABB) [ 81 in
rotating arm facilities.
4.1.1.1. Tests at Dornier
Tests at Dornier were reported by Steinwandel
in Ref. [ 71. The parameters were
VLI
dd
cu,

mL

Droplet impact velocity = 650 m s-

Droplet size = 1.2 mm
Droplet impact angle = 90
Specific liquid mass of water impinging
area=0.351 kg cm-* h-i

and Vogel

on unit

The observed maximum depth of erosion was about 6 times

the average depth. As can be observed in Fig. 4, the damages
consist of local, deep cavities.
The development of mean depth with amount of water is
shown in Fig. 5. The amount of liquid which impinged on
the target before the onset of significant erosion (W,) was
equal to 0.211 kg cm- *. The mean slope of the erosion curve
was equal to 4470 pm kg- cm2.
The maximum depth of damage in specimen WC1 was
2 mm. When the specimen WC2 exhibited a depth of 4 mm
the entire specimen of thickness 5 mm broke. This magnitude
of depth corresponds well with the tolerable erosion depth
for a choke trim at the end of the service life. The data are
therefore especially valuable for our purpose. The main weakness with these tests is that only one impact velocity has been
applied.
4.1.1.2. Tests at ABB
The results from ABB were presented by Gerdes [ 81. The
test conditions were
Vd (m s-)
ad

(de&

dd (mm)

200
90
1.2

300
90
1.2

300
60
1.2

The recorded volume loss is included in Figs. 6-8.

L. Nekleberg,

405

T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

volume loss). Probably when this brittle material (with a

limited fracture toughness) is subjected to a tensile stress
during testing, catastrophic failure will result within a small
number of impacts. The tests may serve to illustrate that this
brittle material made with 6% Co or 6% Ni, cannot withstand
droplet erosion if subject to tensile stresses.
The droplets seem to hit the target with a mean spread of
0.5 times the droplet diameter. The recorded width of damage

water droplet erosion

0.2

0
l,OE*04

min

l,OE*OS

number
a

WC*B%Nl/Cr

l,OE+06

l,OE+07

of impingements
0

WC*Ei%Co

Fig. 6. WC rain erosion tests, ABB (200 m s-, 90 impact).

water droplet erosion

min

2,

volume

1058 (mm 3

Fig. 4. WC test pieces from Domier rain erosion tests.

Dornier
Rotating Arm
v = 650 m/s
B = 90 grad
d = 1.2 mm
R = 25 mm/h
A = 78.5 mm *

600 --4mm
700 600E
.E 500 -

i,OE*04

200 -

fi WC*6%NI/Cr

l,OE*07

wc*6%Co

water droplet erosion

105.3
(mm3

g 400--2mm
J
300 -

l,OE*OB

of impingements

Fig. 7. WC rain erosion tests, ABB (300 m s-, 90 impact)

Norsk Hydro

l.OE+OS

number

PCDP
P

100
0
0

20

40

60

60

100

120

140

160

160

200

Time in Min.
Fig. 5. Erosion of WC and PCD, from Domier rain erosion tests.

As with the specimen from Domier the erosion damages

are concentrated on part of the impact area.
When the test pieces were subject to a 60 impact the pieces
broke at a erosion depth of only about 0.1 mm (based on

l,OE*04

l,OE*OS

number
fi WC*6%NI/Cf

l,OE*06

l,OE*07

of impingements
??

WC*B%Co

Fig. 8. WC rain erosion tests, ABB ( 300 m s- , 60 impact).

406

L. Ngakleberg, T. S)ntvedt/

Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

^..

t = 116 min

t = 146 min

t = 176 min

t = 186 mln

t = 156 min

Fig. 9. PCD test pieces from Domier rain erosion tests.

Table 2
Liquid droplet erosion tests at Domier for 6% Co
V cm s-l)

ad (deg)

200
300
300
650

90
90
60
90

w,, (kg cm-*)

Comments
Estimated value
Inaccurate

638
41
116.5
0.211

is on average 0.6 mm. To produce this spread the droplet

must have impinged a width as calculated below.
Hand et al. [9] have shown that the radial extent of the
high pressure regime (R,) below a droplet is possibly given
by:
R, = d,V, sin a,l(2C)
where dd is the droplet size, V, is the droplet impact velocity,
cu, is the droplet impact angle, C is the shock wave velocity
in the liquid. To produce a damage of width d, the droplets
must have impinged on a width equal to dd + d, - 2Rc.
With C= 1500m s- and from study of the damage characteristic the following characteristic test parameters are
obtained:
V, (m s-l)
ad

(de&

& (mm)
R, (m)
Width hit by drop
mu (kg cmp2) X lo5

200
90
0.6
0.08
1.64
4.59

300
90
0.6
0.12
1.56
4.83

300
60
0.6
0.104
1.59
4.1

where mLs is the liquid mass of water impinging

per cycle.

on unit area

The main weakness with the data from ABB is that the
erosion depth is too small to obtain reliable magnitudes of d,,,
or erosion depth, i.e. depths with a maximum of about 4 mm
locally.
The results indicate that WC-6%Co will have a smaller
erosion rate than WC-6%Ni. Tests to a more extensive material loss, however, are required to reveal the actual differences
in erosion rate.
4.1.2. PCD
Tests were made at Dornier [ 71 with the same parameters
as used for WC--6%Co.
Fig. 5 demonstrates that the incubation period can be up
to 4.4 times that for WC-6%Co.
The mean erosion rate,
however, although uncertain is similar to that reported for
WC-6%Co. For PCD the erosion rate is equal to 4440 pm/
(kg cmp2). The observed depth of local erosion, see Fig. 9,
was only 2.9 timers larger than the average depth. Thus the
damages were again confined to local cavities. None of the
test pieces of PCD broke during the tests.
4.2. Derived correlations
4.2.1. Incubation period
The material loss gradient is very steep when the erosion
depth become significant (locally 2-4 mm). However, for
low losses the gradient is small. Our definition of the incubation period must therefore be the following:
The incubation period terminates were the steep erosion
gradient crosses the x-axis.
The material loss curve from Dornier and the last points
on the volume loss vs. number of impingement curves for

L. Nekleberg,

0,006

T. S@ntvedr/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

407

--l-..
Dmax=O00596-000009113

10

20

30

40

Weber Number

Fig. 10. Maximum

droplet size, obtained using physically

WC-6%Co at 300 m s- for 90 and 60 impact angles, have

been used to determine the incubation period. The results are
given in Table 2.
The incubation period may be expressed as follows for
WC-6%Co:

where W, is the mass of liquid impinging on unit area in the

incubation period (kg cm-*), F(d,) = l/d: (see below),
n=6.815, K=3.12101,f(cu,)
=0.318~$~~ (LYEin radians).
The incubation period (W,) for ABB tests at 200 m s-
can now be found--47 1 kg cm-* or 1.38 X 10 impingements. As can be observed from Fig. 6, this value appears to
be reasonable.
Test made by Baker [lo] with 0.66 mm droplets gave a
valueofW0equalto52.45kgcm-*forV,,=310ms-.
From the above relation W, with 1.2 mm droplets should
be equal to 26.78 kg cm-* This could indicate a droplet size
relationship.
In that case the relation should scale as
F(d,) = 1 ld;
WC-6%Ni appears less resistant than WC-6%Co against
droplet erosion. Tests to amore realistic depth, however, must
be performed before we can conclude how different the values of W, actually are. We therefore apply the above correlation for both WC--6%Co and WC-6%Ni.
For PCD, W,
should be multiplied by 4.4.
4.2.2. Erosion depth
The mean erosion gradient curve from the Dormer tests
indicates that the gradient is equal to 4470 p,rn kg- cm at
650 m s- . The ABB tests at 300 m s- for WCd%Co
indicate a gradient of about 26 pm kg- cm*.
This implies the following relationship for the maximum
erosion depth of WCd%Co
when starting with significant
erosion and liquid mass exceeding W,:
E=pX

1.87X 10-22V~96(m,_-

W,) mm

where p is the ratio between the maximum and the average

eroded depth is the 5.9.
If we compare losses at 90 and 60 the angle of attack
appears to scale as 0.1 a; ( LY,,in radians).

*We

50

60

(We)

based methods, vs. dimensionless

Weber number.

Bakers
tests
indicated
an
erosion
depth
of
4.8 p,m kg- cm* when d,=O.66 mm and V=310m
s-l.
From the above relation
we obtain
a gradient
of
27.6 pm kg-. This could mean that a diameter effect of
e9* should be added to the above relation. The above relation
should then be multiplied by 0.59d2d.92= G( d,J when d is in
millimetres.
The above relation has been used to calculate the expected
erosion depth for 200 m s- ( ABB tests). The resulting volume loss ( 1.57 mm3 at 2 X 10 impingements)
appears reasonable when the also independently
estimated incubation
period terminates at 1.39 X 10 impingements-see
Fig. 6.
At present we cannot distinguish between WC-6%Co and
WC-6%Ni. The erosion rates are therefore assumed to be
equal-before
more test have been made. For PCD the identical relations should be applied with W,, increased by 4.4.
Thus the complete relationship for the maximum erosion
depth of WC-6%Co is
E=pKmV~96g(aJG(dd)(m,-

W,) mm

where K,,, is the material constant = 1.87 X 10e2*, g( cyd)

=0.1&i
((Ye in radians), G(d,) =0.59e9*.
4.3. Droplet size during passage through choke
Hewitt and Azzopardi have performed an extensive survey
on maximum drop sizes in gas-liquid flows for Norsk Hydro
(seeRef. [ll] andFig.
10).
The investigations were limited to measurements at near
atmospheric pressures. It seems that the pipe diameter and
radial position in the pipes investigated have only a small
effect on droplet size. In fact all droplets were smaller or
equal to the magnitude d_ given by the following correlation:
d,,

= 5.96-0.0911We

mm

where We=p&Vg)*/cr
(and <60), pG is the gas density
(kgm -3>, vo is the superficial gas velocity (m s )
(upstream the choke), u is the surface tension (N m- ) .
The experimental data shows that the gas velocity and
surface tension have large effect on the droplet size. The

408

L. Ntikleberg

T. S@ntvedt/ Weur 186-187 (1995) 401412

where do is the initial droplet diameter, V, is the droplet

velocity, Vs is the local gas velocity, po is the density of gas,
pi is the density of liquid.
For a wide range of low pressure experiments at high
Weber numbers the value oft is equal to about 5.5 [ 131.
The effect of a high gas density is unknown. We therefore
neglect the effect of density on the breakup distance. T is
given the constant value of 5.5/( 1.2/1000).5 = 159. Then
the droplet displacement x when the droplet and all its fragments no longer undergo further breakup is given equal to
Weber Number: We

xld,=

Fig. 11. Maximum size of stable fragments for gas-liquid systems: +,

Hassler (1970, 1971); 0, Wolfe and Anderson (1964); 0, Lane et al.
(1949) and Lane and Dorman ( 1952); A, Jenkins and Booker ( 1964).
Table 3
Medium pressure choking,

Ap = 20 bar

WC

&a, (mm)
V, d,,,, Cm s-)
d fragments(mm)
&,, (mm)

1.04
4.19
0.012
31.2

0.25
1.37
4.93
0.019
41.1

0.5
1.58
5.46
0.024
47.4

0.75
1.75
5.9
0.029
52.5

1.0
1.88
6.26
0.03330
56.4

Gas density=45.8
kg rne3,
Surface tension oil-gas= 0.0155 N m-l.
Surface tension water-gas = 0.075 N m-.
Maximum velocity = 92 m s-.
Table 4
High pressure choking,

Ap = 100 bar

WC
d,,, (mm)
V, d,,,, (m s-)
d fragmenll(mm)
30&, (mm)

0
0.61
1.78
0.002
18.3

0.25
1.22
2.54
0.006
36.3

0.5
1.54
2.89
0.009
46.3

0.75
1.78
3.14
0.011
53.5

1.0
1.96
3.34
0.014
59.8

Gas density = 150 kg mm3.

Surface tension oil-gas= 0.004961 N m-l.
Surface tension water-gas = 0.075 N m-.
Maximum velocity = 260 m SC.

observed effect of surface tension on droplet size is included

in the above correlation.
The maximum droplet size which can be lifted by the gas
has been described by Sontvedt [ 121:
&ax =bAV321h_-~G>

mm

where k= 1 (mmm - s2) and pi_ is the liquid density

(kg md3).
It is possible that the break up of droplets in the acceleration
zone through a choke is not effective. The breakup distance
depends on physical properties of the fluids and the rate of
acceleration of the droplets [ 161. We must therefore consider
the possibility that breakup up of droplets formed by primary
generation is not effective in the choke.
If breakup occurs the breakup time t will be related to the
Strouhal number T or dimensionless breakup time:

159/(V,/V,-

1)

The minimum breakup distance observed for high Weber

numbers is about 3Od,. Thus for velocity ratios larger than
6.3 we set x/d, equal to 30.
Further, data from Ref. [ 13]-see
Fig. 11, indicate that
the maximum size of stable fragments after break up is a
function of We number at the vena contracta. We correlate
the reduction in droplet size from upstream size as follows:
d d Id o = 0.6688We-0.3g77
Droplet sizes upstream the choke and a large pressure drop
will be used in the lifetime estimate which follows in the next
section. In this section the upstream droplet sizes estimated
will be based on recorded values of surface tension for the
medium pressure (oil field) and high pressure (condensate
field) applications-see
Ref. [ 141.
The results are exhibited in Table 3 and Table 4. The
maximum droplet sizes are fairly similar for the two cases
even if the velocity just lifting the droplets is different.
If breakup should occur before hitting the target downstream of the vena contracta the droplets will be so small that
significant erosion is avoided. Selmer-Olsen experienced during his tests with droplets in choked flow, however, that break
up is not likely to occur before hitting the targets 8-10 cm
downstream the vena contracta [ 151.
In the following we will assume that break up does not
occur.
The droplet distribution in the gas is assumed to be given
by a Rosin-Rammler
function such that:
V=exp[

-3(d,ld,,)3]

where V is the volume fraction of droplets which are smaller

than dd.
4.3.1. Film thickness at target area
The laminar film on the throat surface will be thin. Fig. 12
shows the film thickness on a flat surface as a function of low
pressure steam velocity with different flow rates of water on
the surface [ 161. Even more relevant are the nozzle data
presented in Ref. [ 151 and in Fig. 13. The recorded film
thickness H along the parallel portion of the nozzle (when
the flow is critical) fits well with the general expression for
a thin laminar film, i.e.

L. N@kleberg, T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

h= 60

stress from mixture on film (N m-*), pi is the density of

liquid (kg rne3) and y + is the dimensionless film thickness.

cm3/

min

8a=70(wetting

409

angle)

4.4. Calculated lifetime of choke trims

0
I mil=

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

V s+reom(f~~~)

IOin

Fig. 12. Summary of University

ity data (41,45).

of Michigan film thickness vs. steam veloc-

Efout

t Ef(mm)

P,, (bar)

1400

P, (bar)

T,(Cl
20.5

M,(kg/h)

Mq (kQ/h)

355.9

214.5

(mm)

4.4.1. Medium pressure reduction

The droplet velocity for all the droplets in the spectrum is
assumed to be equal to the mixture velocity V,,. The liquid
impingement rate m,_ (kg cme2 s-) and V,, varies with
the pressure drop as shown in Table 5. The droplet spectrum
was divided into 10 parts. The angle of attack for each droplet
size in the spectrum was assumed equal for all droplets. The
calculations were performed for a water cut of 0.5 where the
maximum possible droplet diameter equals 1.58 mm.
The calculations were terminated when the maximum erosion depth was 4 mm.
Table 5 indicates that the angle of attack must be less than
90 for all realistic pressure drops. If (Y,,= 90 the choke trim
will be eroded a depth of 4 mm within about 8 days. If the
droplet spectrum should be replaced by a mean droplet this
must be equal to dd ,,,_ = 0.8 mm for this example, to give
the same erosion depth. One example of the erosion depth
made by the various fractions of the droplet spectrum is given
in Table 6.
For the conditions given the angle of attack must be less
than 90.
Detailed three-dimensional
(3D) particulated flow calculations are required to provide less conservative results. The
particulated 3D flow model employed gave velocities and
angles of attack for one droplet size in the spectrum as is
shown in Table 7 and in Fig. 14. The 3D model also com-

O.O024mm/2years

x (%)
1

376

Fig. 13. Liquid film thickness measurements for 6 bar inlet pressure and
atmospheric discharge. The liquid entered the nozzle as an annular film. The
squares represent the mean film thicknesses, the line segments (crosses)
indicate one standard deviation up or down and the arrow tips indicate
extreme values. Film thicknesses above 1 mm have been plotted at 1 mm
film thickness. A double set of data points corresponds to two probes diametrically opposite each other.

>
Medium Pressure Reduction
dmax : 1.58mm
Vmix I 92 m/s.
A p -20 bar
WC : 0.5

H= p,y+Ip~u m
where /.L,is the dynamic viscosity of liquid (kg m- s- ) ) ,
u * is the friction velocity = ( T~/~L). (m s- ), q is the shear

Fig. 14. Liquid

choke).

droplets

in medium

pressure

choking

(external

sleeve

410

L. Npkleberg,

T. S@ntvedt/ Wear 186-187 (1995) 401412

Table 5
Medium pressure reduction

AP (bar)

35
1.61
140.8
15

m,_ (kg cm- s-l)

V,, (m s-l)
cu, (deg) required

30
6.51
124.5
18.8

25
5.48
108.2
24.3

20
4.68
92
33

15
3.29
75.6
48

10
2.2
59.3
79

8.95
1.1
55.9
90

Maximum droplet diameter = 1.54 mm.

Watercut = 0.5 standard m3 standard m-3.
Table 6
Calculated

erosion depth for various droplets in spectrum d,,

4 (mm)
AE (mm)

1.48
0.418

1.36
0.664

1.24
0.778

= 1.54 mm.
1.12
0.744

1.0
0.593

0.85
0.668

0.66
0.194

0.47
0.0076

0.28
0

Pressure drop = 8.95 bar.

Meanvelocity=55.9
ms-.
Droplet impact angle = 90.
Total erosion depth = 4 mm in 2 years.

Table I
3D particulated

attack than 90. Even at moderate pressure drops the required

deviation from 90 is significant. If subject to the given droplet spectrum and mixture velocity (260 m s-)
normal
impact would lead to failure within 1 h. With the given droplet spectrum, droplets smaller than about 0.5 mm are not
important for the lifetime of the target.
Particulated fluid flow calculations have been made to calculate the erosion rates for different droplet sizes injected into
the actual choke geometry. The result is striking. The droplets
are significantly retarded by the two jets entering opposite to
each other. Maximum erosion is located to the inlet throats.
The impact velocities are 85-114 m SK while the impact

flow calculations
1.0
69
26.3
0.0024

dd (mm)
rr, (Deg)
V, (m s-)
E (mm)

Maximum droplet diameter= 1.54 mm.

Mixture velocity = 92 m s I.
Total erosion depth = 0.0024 mm in 2 years.
Table 8
High pressure reduction
AP (bar)
mL (kgcm-s-l)
VmiX(m s-)
a,, required

100
0.59
260
9.4

75
0.44
200
15

50
0.29
140
28.8

25
0.147
79.8
81

at

4 9

Maximum droplet diameter = 1.54 mm.

Rosin-Rammler
Droplet Spectrum.
Direct Use of Correlations.
Allowed erosion depth = 4 mm.

putes the erosion depth for the liquid content of each droplet
size.
We observe that the erosion rate described via the flow
model and the given relations for erosion of WC-6%Co is
much smaller than that found when all the droplets move at
the mixture velocity with a common angle of attack.
If, however, one of the throats should be closed for example
by the steel debris from the downhole perforations in the
reservoir, the calculations
indicate that the droplets may
impact opposite to the remaining jet with a velocity of about
60 m s-i and angle of 90. The resulting erosion depth is
about 4 mm in only 9 months in position B in Fig. 14.
4.4.2. High pressure reduction
The input values and results from the direct use of correlations for erosion rates of 6% Co, are exhibited in Table 8.
Clearly the choke trim can only accept smaller angles of

4mm/2years

85- 114mLs
cu
II
>

20 - 33
1,4mm/2years
High
d max
Vmix
A p
WC

Pressure
Reduction
= 1.54mm
= 260 mls
:lOObar
IO.5

Fig. 15. Liquid droplets in high pressure choking (external sleeve choke).

L. N#kleberg,

Table 9
3D particulated

T. S#ntvedr/ Wear 186-187

411

(1995) 401-412

flow calculations

4 (mm)

0.28

ad (deg)
V, (m s-)
E (mm)

No hit

0.47
19.7
114.0
0.003

0.66
20.6
112.1
0.015

0.85
33.3
84.9
0.115

1.0
27.5
110.5
0.166

1.12
27.7
109.9
0.244

1.24
27.2
105.1
0.364

1.36
29.4
112.0
0.30

1.48
28.3
106
0.18

Maximum droplet diameter = 1.54 mm.

Mixture velocity = 260 m s- .
Total erosion depth = 1.4 mm in 2 years.

angles are 20-33, see Fig. 15 and Table 9. The total erosion
depth in two years is equal to only 1.4 mm in position A.
If, however, one of the throats should be closed for example
by the steel debris from the downhole perforations in the
reservoir, the calculations
indicate that the droplets may
impact opposite to the remaining jet with a velocity of about
170 m s- and angle of 90. The resulting erosion depth is
about 6 mm in only 1 day in position B in Fig. 15. A better
solution will be a choke with the geometry constructed such
that the droplets move more or less parallel to the internal
surfaces (e.g. the special designed needle choke mentioned
in Section 4.2).

5. Cavitation
Cavitation in chokes occur mainly for liquid service. However, tests carried out in 199 1 having two-phase intermittent
flow showed material loss upstream the vena contracta. This
material loss was probably caused by cavitation in the liquid
slug period [ 171. The tests were carried out with a acrylic
replica of a choke from one of our fields.
Hydrocarbon gas bubbles generated in the choke, will not
have a fast collapse in the outlet region. It has been experienced by Kent Introl, Ref. [ 181, that cavitation can occur in
a choke for multiphase flow if the pressure locally falls below
the water vapour pressure. This will seldom be the case for
sub sea chokes, due to the required high outlet pressure to
allow flow up to the sea level. Models are available to determine this.

tigate this further and find the optimum

conditions [ 211.

materials

for these

7. Concluding remarks
Chokes must sometimes tolerate a large sand content and
almost always a large liquid droplet content. The solution to
the solids erosion problem in chokes is to reduce the impact
angle of the solids and/or apply PCD as the target material.
For needle chokes particulated flow calculations and experiments have demonstrated that small impingement angles can
be achieved.
The large amount of liquid droplets necessitates a small
impact angle or considerable retardation of the droplet velocity, or breakup before hitting the targets. Droplet flow calculations have indicated that even unfavourable geometries
like the External Sleeve choke is exposed to small droplet
velocities only. It is, however, uncertain if such calculations
will contain all possible particle trajectories. Therefore experiments with soft materials in chokes should be made in order
to identify the target areas.
Droplet erosion experiments should be carried out such
that the erosion rate curve is properly identified, and/or the
maximum erosion depth is equal to maximum tolerable depth
related to choke life. Further experiments with various impact
angles should be performed to a maximum depth of erosion
of at least equal to 2 mm.
When rotating arm apparatus are used, the test pieces
should be compressed as in chokes.

References
6. Erosion-corrosion
Test results show that some WC grades are attacked by a
combined erosion and corrosion mechanism, and that the
lifetime can be increased several times by selection of a corrosion resistant WC grade, Ref. [ 191.
Various WC grades have been tested at SINTEF for one
of our fields in actual corrosive-erosive
environments ( COz,
water and sand), to investigate this problem [ 201. The test
results showed that WC with cobalt binder was less resistant
to erosion-corrosion
than WC with nickel-based binder material. Further work is ongoing at SINTEF in Norway, to inves-

[ 11 Fluent Users Manual, Version 4.2, Fluent Europe, Sheffield, 1993.

[2] I.M. Hutchings, Erosion resistance of candidate materials for subsea
gas chokes, Reportfor Norsk Hydro as, December 1990.
[3] P.L. Kaye and J.E. Field, Solid particle erosion of stainless steel,
tungsten carbide and Syndite, Reportfor Norsk Hydra as, November
1992.
[4] Joint Industry Project, Subsea Diamond Choke, Norsk Hydro.
[ 5 I T. Sontvedt, Erosion of ductile steel components. Effect of erosion on
CO, corrosion of 13% Cr and duplex steels, Norsk Hydra Rep. R064947.
[61 K. Haugen, 0. Kvemvold, A. Ronold and R. Sandberg, Sand erosion
of wear resistant materials: Erosion in choke valves, Proc. Erosion by
Liquid and Solid Impact 8th Int. Cot&, Cambridge, UK, September
1994, in Wear...

L. Nokleberg,

412

T. S)ntvedt/

Wear 186-187(1995)

401-412

[7] J. Steinwandel

[14] P. Fotland, Grenseflatespenning

malt pa Troll og Hild mot
Likevektsgass, Norsk Hydro a.s Research Centre, Bergen, Rep. R-

[ 81

[ 151 S. Selmer-Olsen, Ph.D. Thesis, Grenoble, 1991.

[ 161 F.G. Hammitt, Cavitation and Multiphase Flow Phenomena, McGraw-

[9]

[lo]

[ 1 l]

[ 121
[ 131

and W.D. Vogel, Rain erosion tests of tungsten carbide

and polycrystalline
diamond. Stability criteria for polycrystalline
diamond, Dornier Reportfor Norsk Hydro a.s.
C. Gerdes, Water droplet erosion tests on hard metals, ABB Reportfor
Norsk Hydro a.s, March 1994.
R.J. Hand, J.E. Field and D. Townsend, The Use of Liquid Jets to
Simulate Angled Droplet Impact, Cavendish Laboratory, May 199 1.
D.W.C. Baker et al., The erosion resistance of steam turbine blades
and shield materials, Proc. 2nd Meersburg Conf on Rain Erosion and
Allied Phenomena, August 1967, pp. 449-515.
G.F. Hewitt and B.J. Azzopardi, Maximum drop sizes in gas-liquid
glow, Reportfor Norsk Hydro a.s, 1993.
T. Sentvedt, Stability of emulsions in pipeflow, Norsk Hydro a..~
Report, May 1994.
M. Pilch and C.A. Erdman, Use of break up time data and velocity
history data to predict the maximum size of stable fragments for
acceleration-induced
break up of a liquid drop, ht. J. Multiphase Flow,
13(6)(1987)741-757.

054105.

Hill, New York, 1980.

[ 171 Detailed flow studies of a sub sea choke,

Veritec Rep. 92.3171, 1992.

chokes, Meeting with Kent Introl.
Norsk Hydro Minutes of Meeting, 19 June 1992.
[ 191 D.H. Graham and A. Ball, Particle erosion of candidate materials for
hydraulic valves, Wear 133 (1989) 125-132.

[ 181 L. Nokleberg, Cavitation/flashingin

120

] T. Rogne and T. Solem, Erosion-corrosion

of tungsten carbide materials,
December 1992.

[21

Material

Selection

SINTEF

and Lifetime for

Phase Flow, SINTEF Corrosion

Project 30936, to be published.

and cavitation-corrosion

Report for Norsk Hydro as.,

Components

Centre, Trondheim,

Exposed

to Multi

Norway, MUST