Indian Contributions To Mathematics

1. 1. Indian contributions to mathematics 7 1 5 1 3 1 1 4 - Dr.
Bhaskar Kamble
2. 2. Generally accepted world view Greece European Renaissance Modern Science
Most of the amazing science and technology knowledge systems of the modern world are
credited to have started around the time of the Renaissance movement in Europe around the
15th century. These knowledge systems are generally traced back to roots in the civilization
of Ancient Greece, and occasionally, that of Ancient Egypt. Hence, most of the heroes we
are taught about in school and college are European, or Greek.*
*http://bharathgyanblog.wordpress.com/2013/09/21/calculus-was-discovered-in-india/
3. 3. A brief history of science generally accepted today
4. 4. Humans originate from the apes A brief history of science generally accepted today
5. 5. Humans originate from the apes ancient civilizations (Sumerian, Egyptian, Babylonian
etc.) A brief history of science generally accepted today
6. 6. ancient civilizations (Sumerian, Egyptian, Babylonian etc.) Around 500 B.C. Origin of
mathematics and philosophy in ancient Greece Precursor to the European Renaissance
MAJOR STEP I Humans originate from the apes A brief history of science generally
accepted today
7. 7. ancient civilizations (Sumerian, Egyptian, Babylonian etc.) Around 500 B.C. Origin of
mathematics and philosophy in ancient Greece. Precursor to the European Renaissance
Dark ages in Europe MAJOR STEP I Humans originate from the apes A brief history of
science generally accepted today
8. 8. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization ancient civilizations (Sumerian,
Egyptian, Babylonian etc.) Around 500 B.C. Origin of mathematics and philosophy in ancient
Greece. Precursor to the European Renaissance MAJOR STEP I MAJOR STEP II Dark ages
in Europe Humans originate from the apes A brief history of science generally accepted
today
9. 9. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization ancient civilizations (Sumerian,
Egyptian, Babylonian etc.) Around 500 B.C. Origin of mathematics and philosophy in ancient
Greece. Precursor to the European Renaissance The birth of the modern sciences and
mathematics- Kepler, Galileo, Newton etc. are the heroes. MAJOR STEP I MAJOR STEP II
Dark ages in Europe A brief history of science generally accepted today Humans originate
from the apes
10. 10. MAJOR STEP I MAJOR STEP II Retaining the skeletal structure The birth of the
modern sciences and mathematics- Kepler, Galileo, Newton etc. are the heroes.
Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization Dark ages in Europe Around 500
B.C. Origin of mathematics and philosophy in ancient Greece. Precursor to the European
Renaissance ancient civilizations (Sumerian, Egyptian, Babylonian etc.) Humans originate
from the apes A brief history of science generally accepted today
11. 11. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization The birth of the modern sciences
and mathematics- Kepler, Galileo, Newton etc. are the heroes. 500 B.C. Mathematics and
philosophy in Greece. A brief history of science generally accepted today
12. 12. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization The birth of the modern sciences
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philosophy in Greece. WHAT IS BEING GENERALLY MISSED IN THE ABOVE A brief

history of science generally accepted today
13. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization The birth of the modern sciences
philosophy in Greece.
14. Renaissance in Europe, based on the Greek civilization Surya Siddhanta, (2000 B.C. or
earlier) Sulbasutras, 800 B.C. or earlier Astronomical text with trigonometric, algebraic and
geometric principles Geometry and algebra for making Vedic altars, statement and
demonstration of the Pythagoras theorem 300 years before Pythagoras. Aryabhatta 500 B.C.
Mathematics and philosophy in Greece. Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I Bhaskara II Kerala school
of mathematics, (Madhava, Nilakantha, Jyeshthadeva etc.) used differential and integral
calculus 200 years before Newton and Leibniz, infinite series, spherical trigonometry,
astronomy etc. The birth of the modern sciences and mathematics- Kepler, Galileo, Newton
etc. are the heroes.
etc. are the heroes. Also most of the high school mathematics attributed to the Greeks.
Algebra, geometry, trigonometry, the Pythagoras theorem, Trigonometry, decimal system,
concept of zero, rational, irrational and negative numbers, algebraic identities comes from
India!
16. As for India, it would appear that it has played a minimal role in this magical story.
Hence, many western accounts of the Ascent of Man do not devote even a single line to
Indias contributions.* *http://bharathgyanblog.wordpress.com/2013/09/21/calculus-wasdiscovered-in-india/
etc. are the heroes. Also most of the high school mathematics attributed to the Greeks.
Algebra, geometry, trigonometry, the Pythagoras theorem, Trigonometry, decimal system,
concept of zero, rational, irrational and negative numbers, algebraic identities comes from
India!
18. Some of the references used
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19. Some of the references used (Referred to as Encyclopaedia in the presenation)

20. (referred to as TAGS in the presentation)
21. Indias contributions to mathematics Part 1
22. THE CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
23. From an article published in The Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1790 by
John Playfair Remarks on the Astronomy of the Brahmins THE CASE OF THE
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
24. This article discusses: Three sets of astronomical tables obtained from India dated to the
end of the Kali Yuga (3102 BC.) THE CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM (1)
Brought from Siam in 1687 to Europe (2) Sent from Krishnapuram in about 1750 to Europe
(3) Brought from Tiruvallur in 1772 from Europe
25. From Hints concerning the observatory at Benares c. 1783 by Reuben Burrow we know
that he (Pythagoras) went to India to be instructed; but the capacity of the learner determines
his degree of proficiency, and if Pythagoras on his return had so little knowledge in geometry
as to consider the forty-seventh of Euclid as a great discovery, he certainly was entirely
incapable of acquiring the Indian method of calculation, through his deficiency of preparatory
knowledge each teacher, or head of sect that drew his knowledge from Indian sources,
might conceal his instructors to be reckoned an inventor. THE CASE OF THE
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
26. Sulba Sutras Baudhayana (from the Krishna Yajurveda) Apastamba (from the Krishna
Yajurveda) Katyayana (from the Shukla Yajurveda) Composed around 800 BC. (although the
authors emphasize they are merely stating facts known since the early Vedic age.) THE
CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM Pythagoras theorem in the Vedas
27. - Dr. T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in ancient and medieval India (Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi (2007) ) THE CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
28. - Dr. T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in ancient and medieval India (Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi (2007) ) THE CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
29. Around 2,500 years ago Pythagoras went from Samos to the Ganga to learn Geometry
(evidence and reference will be shown later). He would certainly not have undertaken such a
strange journey had the reputation of the Brahmins science not been long established in
Europe. Pythagoras and his followers were vegetarians and believed in transmigration of
souls, both of which are Indian concepts (many more similarities of philosophical type will be
shown later). THE CASE OF THE PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
30. Pythagoras theorem should be called Baudhayana theorem! (at least in India)
31. Trigonometry in the Surya Siddhanta An astronomical text dated to 2000 BC: some
extracts from On the trigonometric tables of the Brahmins by John Playfair published in the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. IV, 1798
32. This article discusses a table of sines calculated for different angles in the Surya
Siddhanta and the possible working principle behind it
33. Working principle for constructing the table of sines in the Surya Siddhanta, as deduced
by Playfair sin)sin()cos2()2sin( 1. Suppose sin, sin(+), and cos are
known. Then from the above equation we can find sin(+2). 2. Next in the above equation
replace by +. So we get 3. sin(+2) is known from the previous equation. So from the
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above we get sin(+3). 4. Again following the same procedure, we get sin(+4), and so
on. )sin()2sin()cos2()3sin(
34. BABABA cossin2)sin()sin( Proof 2 BA BA B A
cos)sin(2)2sin(sin sin)sin()cos2()2sin(
35. sin)sin()cos2()2sin(
36. Regarding the antiquity of the trigonometry contained in the Surya Siddhanta
37. Pingala, Meru Prastara and the Binomial theorem Math for poets and drummers, R. W.
Hall, Dept. of Mathematics and Computer Science, St. Josephs University, Philadelphia
Binomial theorem in ancient India A. K. Bag, Indian Journal of History of Science 1966
Pinagala, a scholar studying the mathematics of music and rhythm, described the Meru
Prastara in his treatise Chhandah-Sutra in 200 B.C. (chhandah= meter of a poem, e.g.
Bhagavad Gita chapter 10.35). In the process he described the binomial theorem for
integer index in 200 B.C. several centuries earlier than anywhere else in the world. It is
also described by Halayudhas commentary on the Chandah sutras dating to the 10th
century AD. Today it is known as Pascals triangle after the posthumous publication of
Trait du triangle arithmtique in 1665.
38. Other contributions by scholars of music, language, and rhythm The sequence of
numbers 0,1,1,2,3,5, were first given by Virahanka (ca. 600-800 A.D.), Gopala (earlier than
1135 AD) and Acharya Hemachandra (1150 AD). about 50 years before Fibonacci. (Today
they are called Fibonacci numbers). (The so-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and
medieval India, P. Singh, Historia Mathematica 12, 229-244 (1985).) In computer science,
the notation technique known as Backus-Naur form was first described by Panini, (a linguist
and Sanskrit grammarian from 4th century BC born in Pushkalavati, Gandhara, (now in
Pakistan)). The works of modern day linguists and information theorists such as Leonard
Bloomfield, Zellig Harris, Axel Thue, Emil Post, Alan Turing, Noam Chomsky, and John
Backus, are based extensively on Paninis works. Panini also anticipated the binary number
system. On some rules of Panini, Leonard Bloomfield, Journal of the American Oriental
Society, 47, 61 (1927). Panini-Backus form suggested , P. Z. Ingerman, Comm. of the
ACM, 1967.
39. General Observations Techniques of the fundamental arithmetic operations: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division; Extracting square and cube roots; the rules of operations
with fractions and surds; the Indian methods of performing long multiplications and
divisions were introduced in Europe as late as the 14th century AD The rule of three,
brought to Europe via the Arabs (from India) came to be known as the Golden rule for its
great popularity and utility in commercial computations Modern methods of extracting
square and cube roots, described by Aryabhata in the 5th century AD, were introduced in
Europe only in the 16th century AD. The introduction of negative numbers and systematic
use of symbols to denote unknown quantities and arithmetic operations the development
of the algebraic formalism.
40. And of course (wrongly called Arabic numerals should be called the Indian number
system) Whole numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers to any degree of accuracy,
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square roots, cube roots, can express incredibly
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small or incredibly large numbers. (For e.g. 888 in Roman system is DCCCLXXXVIII ). It is
no coincidence that the mathematical and scientific renaissance began in Europe only after
the Indian notation was adopted. Indeed the decimal notation is the very pillar of all modern
civilization. (Amartya Kumar Datta, Resonance, April 2002.) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and .
(Zero and the decimal place value system)
41. Some well known Indian mathematicians
42. Aryabhata (499 AD)
43. Aryabhata (499 A.D.) His main work: Aryabhatia, written when he was 23. The earth
is round and rotates on its axis, and the earth revolves around the sun. Rotation of earth:
23h, 56m, 4.1s (Encyclopedia) Put forth the true scientific cause of eclipses
(Encyclopedia) The moon reflects light from the sun. Astronomical findings were based
on accurate astronomical observations. (Encyclopaedia) Main astronomical findings:
44. Add 4 to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of
a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached. The Aryabhata algorithm, further
developed later by Bhaskara in 621, is the standard method for solving first order
Diaphontine equations (ax+by=c). Also known as Kuttaka (pulverizer) algorithm. Aryabhata
(499 A.D.) 1416.3 20000 62832
Diaphontine equations (ax+by=c). Also known as Kuttaka (pulverizer) algorithm. Aryabhata
(499 A.D.)
Diaphontine equations (ax+by=c). Also known as Kuttaka (pulverizer) algorithm. Modern
methods for finding square roots and cube roots, these methods were introduced in Europe
only in the 16th century AD. (Amartya Kumar Datta, Resonance, April 2002.) Aryabhata (499
A.D.) irrationality!
47. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata How the terms sine and cosine originated
48. Brahmagupta (598-670 AD)
49. Brahmagupta (598 - 670 A.D.) Important works: BrAhmasphuTasiddhAnta (revised and
criticized the works of earlier astronomers such as Aryabhatta) and KhanDa-KhAdyaka
(astronomy and mathematics). Discovered what is known today as Brahmaguptas lemma
for solving the so-called Pells equation Dx2 1 = y2, (Brahmaguptas lemma) and solved it for
D = 83 and 92. (A complete solution for any D was later provided by Jayadeva and
Bhaskaracharya II through the chakravala method.) Symmetric formula for area of a cyclic
quadrilateral, appearing for the first time in the history of mathematics (see for e.g. A
modern introduction to ancient Indian mathematics by T. S. Bhanu Murthy, ), and
expressions for the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Gave a simple rule for forming a
Brahmagupta quadrilateral, a cyclic quadrilateral whose sides and diagonals are integral
and whose diagonals intersect orthogonally. Reference: Encyclopedia
50. 50. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_quadrilateral#Brahmagupta_quadrilaterals

Brahmagupta (598 - 670 A.D.)
51. 51. Brahmaguptas results are mentioned in, for e.g., Geometry revisited by Coxeter and
Greitzer, published by the Mathematical Association of America (MAA): Brahmagupta (598 670 A.D.)
52. 52. some extracts from the book (pp. 56-59)
53. 53. An interpolation formula equivalent to the modern Newton-Stirling interpolation formula
of second order. Applied this method to find the sines of intermediate angles from a given
table of sines. The need to make complex calculations and the ability due to a superior
number system, thus brought advances in numerical techniques as well Brahmagupta (598 670 A.D.) References: Encyclopedia, TAGS
54. 54. Bhaskara I (600-680 AD)
55. 55. Bhaskara I (600-680 AD) Important works MahAbhAskarIya and LaghubhAskarIya
(provided explanations and interpretations of Aryabhatas reasonings).
AryabhatIyabhAshya a commentary on Aryabhatia (dated 628 AD.). Provided a compact
classification of mathematics into different specializations (Encyclopedia). Responsible for
evolving trigonometry in its present form (ardhajya etc. see encyclopedia), and created the
modern trigonometric circle. Gave an approximation for the sine. Elaborated on the
kuttaka method of Aryabhata.
56. 56. Bhaskara II (Bhaskaracharya) (1114 AD)
57. 57. Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) Several treatises Lilavati, a standard work of Hindu
mathematics, covering arithmetic, algebra, geometry and mensuration. Many eminent
Sanskrit mathematicians wrote commentaries (bhashyas) on it. Bijaganita standard
treatise on Hindu algebra. More advanced text than the above. Siddhanta shiromani
standard treatise on Hindu astronomy.
58. 58. Developed a general algorithm (the chakravala algorithm, based on Jayadevas earlier
work of 11th cent.) to obtain integral solutions to the so- called Pells equation: 22 1 yDx
where D is also an integer. Can be used to fond solutions for any D. D=61 and 109 are
especially difficult, but Bhaskara used the chakravala algorithm to find the solution in a few
lines! Solution for D=61, x = 226, 153, 980 and y = 1, 766, 319, 049 Solution for D=109, x =
15140424455100 and y = 158070671986249 In 1657 Fermat (unaware of the chakravala
method) proposed the above equation with D = 61 to Frnicle as a challenge problem.
Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) Encyclopedia
59. 59. Developed a general algorithm (the chakravala algorithm, based on Jayadevas earlier
Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) Encyclopedi What would have been Fermats astonishment if some
missionary, just back from India, had told him that his problem had been successfully tackled
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there by native mathematicians almost six centuries earlier? -Andr Weil, in Number
Theory, an approach through history from Hammurapi to Legendre (pp. 81-82)
60. Developed a general algorithm (the chakravala algorithm, based on Jayadevas earlier
Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) The chakravala method anticipated the european methods by more
than a thousand years. But no European performances in the whole field of algebra at a time
much later than Bhaskaras, nay nearly up to our times, equalled the marvellous complexity
and ingenuity of chakravala. - Selenius What would have been Fermats astonishment if
some missionary, just back from India, had told him that his problem had been successfully
tackled there by native mathematicians almost six centuries earlier? -Andr Weil, in
Number Theory, an approach through history from Hammurapi to Legendre (pp. 81-82)
Encyclopedi
61. Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) Laid the seeds of differential calculus as shown, for e.g., the
following formula as well as its geometrical demonstration, for calculating the instantaneous
velocity (tatkalika gati) of planets dd cos)(sin (which is a result of differential calculus
arrived at by taking limits.) Knew that the derivative vanishes at the points of extrema.
Discovered what is known today as Rolles theorem in mathematical analysis/calculus.
Encyclopedia The seeds of differential calculus:
62. Bhaskara II (AD. 1114) 1. All the arithmetic (except decimal representation) taught in
school today is described in Lilavati - addition, subtraction, and division, multiplication, finding
square roots and cube roots for integers. 2. All the rules taught in school for manipulating
fractions: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions, as well as finding
square roots and cube roots of fractions are also clearly defined and described. 3. The basic
algebra taught in school that of representing an unknown quantity by a symbol and setting
up an algebraic equation and solving it to find the value of that quantity, is described in
Lilavati in full detail. In fact the chapter dealing with this seems to be straight out of a modern
school text book! 4. Explicit rules on handling zero and a clear notion of the limit which forms
the base of infinitesimal calculus. 5. A section on quadratic equations containing the
standard method of solving such equations by completing the square. 6. All the results on
arithmetic progressions, geometric progressions, permutations and combinations which are
taught in high school are clearly described in Lilavati. 7. Other interesting results such as the
sum of the first n whole numbers, the sum of the squares of the first n whole numbers, and
the sum of the cubes of the first n whole numbers are also presented. From Lilavati:
63. A few observations What is discussed is just a tip of the iceberg. It shows a thriving
and vibrant scientific culture in India, open to criticizing and evolving and building on the
works of earlier scientists. It was open to criticize and modify earlier works and was not stuck
in dogmas - much like modern science is (supposed to be) practiced today. Presents a
picture opposite to that depicted in the mainstream historical accounts as India being a
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backward and stagnant civilization. Seriously questions the belief that the Greeks were the
only mathematicians worth mentioning this is a view for which there is no proof, only the
repeated claims of Eurocentric scholars repeating the Greek Renaissance sequence.
64. However The conventional belief is that the Greeks invented their philosophy and
mathematics by themselves, without external influence. Even though India was at the time
well known for her scientific, mathematical, artistic and philosophical knowledge, And even
though several Greeks visited India to acquire Indian knowledge, and there are, as a result,
several similarities between Greek and Indian philosophies.
65. some points to note Greek knowledge did not originate in a vacuum. There were
several visits by Greeks to India and similarities in philosophy. We now mention several
instances where the Greeks travelled to India and were influenced by the Indian knowledge
system and incorporated it into their own.
66. Greek visits to India Darius I sent Skylax to explore the Indus in 519 BC. Later called
frequent meetings between Greeks and Indians for counsel and discussion. (TAGS)
Aristoxenes (350-300 BC) mentions a dialogue between Socrates and an Indian philosopher.
(TAGS)
67. Greek visits to India Key Greek philosophers such as Plato, Democritus, Pherecydes,
and Pythagoras, are known to have travelled to India.
68. Key Greek philosophers such as Plato, Democritus, Pherecydes, and Pythagoras, are
known to have travelled to India. Greek visits to India We know that he (Pythagoras) went to
India to be instructed -Reuben Burrow, Hints concerning the observatory at Benares, 1783
-William Hamilton, The history of medicine, surgery, and anatomy, Vol. I (1831)
-William Hamilton, The history of medicine, surgery, and anatomy, Vol. I (1831) Journeys to
India and indebtedness to Brahminical wisdom are now ascribed to numerous founders and
leaders in Greek thought, such as Plato, Democritus, Pherecydes of Syrus and, quite often,
Pythagoras. -Wilhelm Halbfass, India and Europe: an essay in understanding, Albany, State
University of New York Press (1988), p. 16.
71. Greek visits to India Several Greek philosophers travelled with Alexander when he
invaded India and interacted with Indian sages. These include Onesicritius, Cynic,
Democritean, Anaxagoras, and Pyrhho. Pali Buddhist literature records religious and
philosophical dialogues between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and the Indo-Greek ruler
Menander. Gnostic philsopher Bardesanes of Edessa (ca AD 200) travelled to India. The
founder of the Neoplatonic school, Plotinus, went to India in AD 242 expressly to study its
philosophy.
72. Greek visits to India Several Greek philosophers travelled with Alexander when he
invaded India and interacted with Indian sages. These include Onesicritius, Cynic,
Democritean, Anaxagoras, and Pyrhho. Pali Buddhist literature records religious and
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philosophical dialogues between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and the Indo-Greek ruler
Menander. Gnostic philsopher Bardesanes of Edessa (ca AD 200) travelled to India. The
founder of the Neoplatonic school, Plotinus, went to India in AD 242 expressly to study its
philosophy. O. P. Jaggi, Indian System of Medicine, Vol. 4 of History of Science and
Technology of India, Delhi, Atma Ram and sons, 1973 Amiya Kumar Roy Chowdhury, Man,
Malady, and Medicine History of Indian Medicine, Calcutta, Das Gupta and Co. Ltd, 1988
TAGS
73. Similarities in philosophies Pythagoras and his followers believed in the transmigration
of the soul (reincarnation) a typically Indian (Hindu/Buddhist) concept. He himself claimed
having fought in the Trojan war in a previous incarnation. The Pythagoreans also were strict
vegetarians, again a trait typical to Hindus/Buddhists/Jains.
74. Similarities in philosophies Pythagoras and his followers believed in the transmigration
of the soul (reincarnation) a typically Indian (Hindu/Buddhist) concept. He himself claimed
having fought in the Trojan war in a previous incarnation. The Pythagoreans also were strict
vegetarians, again a trait typical to Hindus/Buddhists/Jains. H. G. Rawlinson, Early contacts
between India and Europe, in A Cultural History of India, A. L. Basham (ed.) (Oxford
University Press, 1975) (p. 427-428)
75. Similarities in philosophies The concept of karma is essential to Platos philosophy.
76. Similarities in philosophies The concept of karma is essential in Platos philosophy.
Metempsychosis, with the complementary doctrine of karma, is the key- stone of the
philosophy of Plato. The soul is for ever travelling through a cycle of necessity: the evil it
does in one semicircle of its pilgrimage is expiated in the other. Each soul, we are told in the
Phaedrus, returning to the election of a second life, shall receive one agreeable to his desire.
most striking of all is the famous apologue of Er the Pamphylian, with which Plato
appropriately ends the Republic. In like manner, some of the animals passed into men,
and into one another, the unjust passing into the wild, and the just into the tame. -H. G.
Rawlinson, Early contacts between India and Europe, in A Cultural History of India, A. L.
Basham (ed.) (Oxford University Press, 1975) (p. 427-428)
77. Similarities in philosophies The theory that matter consists of four elements (earth,
water, air and fire) was taught by Empedocles (490-430 BC), disciple of Pythagoras. The
later Aristotelian description of the physical world included the ether (space) element as well.
Indian philosophy also describes the physical world in terms of these five elements.
78. Similarities in philosophies The theory that matter consists of four elements (earth,
water, air and fire) was taught by Empedocles (490-430 BC), disciple of Pythagoras. The
later Aristotelian description of the physical world included the ether (space) element as well.
Indian philosophy also describes the physical world in terms of these five elements.
(Bhagavad Gita 7.4 and 7.5.) Rough translation - Earth, water, fire, air, and ether, (describes
space and matter) as well as mind, intellect, and ego (describes consciousness) , are My
apara (lower) nature (which keep on changing with time), while the para (higher) nature is
the unchangeable Self (Atman), which being beyond Time, is beyond change as well.
79. Similarities in philosophies Many similarities between Greek medicine and Indian
medicine. Pythagoras is known to have travelled to India and upon his return to have
influenced the Hippocratic system of medicine. The Hippocratic collection mentions an
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Indian regime for cleaning the teeth, as well as listing drugs of Indian origin, some with
corrupted Sanskrit names.
80. Some observations In Indian civilization, science (apara vidya), unlike the
materialistic world view of today, is not opposed to the spiritual quest (para vidya). And the
spiritual quest (what is mistranslated as religion in todays context) is not opposed to the
pursuit of material science, and is not a set of dogmas to be blindly adhered to. In fact both
spirituality (para vidya) and science (apara vidya) are the two sides of the same coin, (the
coin of wisdom, the coin of knowledge). None of the sides are ignored at the others
expense.
81. Some observations In Indian civilization, science (apara vidya), unlike the
materialistic world view of today, is not opposed to the spiritual quest (para vidya). And the
spiritual quest (what is mistranslated as religion in todays context) is not opposed to the
pursuit of material science, and is not a set of dogmas to be blindly adhered to. In fact both
spirituality (para vidya) and science (apara vidya) are the two sides of the same coin, (the
coin of wisdom, the coin of knowledge). None of the sides are ignored at the others
expense. the Vedic Hindu, in his great quest of the para vidya (absolute truth), made
progress in the apara (relative truth), including the various arts and sciences, to a
considerable extent, and with a completeness which is unparalleled in antiquity.
Bibhutibhushan Datta, Ancient Hindu Geometry, 1993. the culture of the science of
mathematics or of any other branch of secular knowledge, was not considered to be a
hindrance to spiritual knowledge. In fact, apara vidya was then considered to be a helpful
adjunct to para vidya. -B. Datta and A. N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics, 1962.
82. Genius down south: The Kerala school (1300-1600 AD)
83. Kerala school (1300-1600) Pioneered by Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340-1425)
(Today Irinjalakuda in Thrissur district). Continues and develops upon the findings of the
Aryabhata school. The mathematicians and astronomers of this school formed a continuous
line till the 17th century and made several important contributions to calculus, trigonometry,
spherical trigonometry and astronomy. Most of Madhavas original writings are lost, but his
work survives in the bhashyas (commentaries) by later scholars of the school.
84. Kerala school (1300-1600) Vatasseri Parameshvara Nambudiri (1380- 1460)
Damodara Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544) Jyeshthadeva (1500-1610) Achyuta
Pisharati (1550-1621) Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri (1559-1645) Sankara Varma (18001838)
85. Kerala school (1300-1600) Tantra Sangraha in 1501 and Aryabhatia-Bhashya by
Nilakantha Somayaji (Sanskrit). Yuktibhasha by Jyeshthadeva in 1530 (Malayalam).
Elaborates further on the Tantra Sangraha. Kriyakramakari (a commentary on
Bhskaracharyas Lilavati) andYukti-Dipika (commentary on Tantrsangraha) by Shankara
Variyar (1500-1550). Sadratnamala by Shankaravarman in 1819 (Sanskrit). Karana
Paddhati These books are commentaries on the results of Madhava and contain several
new results developing on his work.
86. Charles Whish (1794-1833), (civil servant for the East India Company) Transactions of
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 3, No. 3, (1834)
87. 87. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Irrationality of From the Aryabhatia of
Aryabhatia Add 4 to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the
circumference of a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached. (i.e. it is an
approximation.)
88. 88. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Irrationality of From the Aryabhatia of
Aryabhatia Add 4 to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the
circumference of a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached. (i.e. it is an
approximation.) Nilakantha in Aryabhatia-bhashya: Why has an approximate value been
mentioned here (in Aryabhatia) instead of the actual value? And goes on to give the answer:
Given a certain unit of measurement in terms of which the diameter specified has no
fractional part, the same measure when employed to specify the circumference will certainly
have a fractional parteven if you go on a long way (i.e. keep on reducing the measure of
the unit employed), the fractional part will only become very small. A situation in which there
will be no fractional part is impossible, and this is what is the import of the expression
Asanna (can be aproached). -Development of calculus in India: contribution of kerala school
(1350-1550 CE), K. Ramasubramanian, IIT Bombay
89. 89. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Infinite geometric series Jyeshthadevas
proof in Yuktibhasha: x xx x xx x x x
1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 2 x x xxx n n 1 1 1 2 x xxx 1
1 1 32 for |x|<1 nlimitthetakeNow
90. 90. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Series expansions for sin, cos and arctan
functions along with the error after n terms An approximate proof for the arctan series in
modern notation follows !7!5!3 sin 753 xxx xx !6!4!2 1cos 642 xxx x
753 tan 753 1 xxx xx
91. 91. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries 642 2 1 1 1 1 tan xxx x x dx d
Integrating both sides from 0 to x, we get 753 tan 753 1 xxx xx Derivation of series
for arctan:
for arctan: Putting x = 1:
for arctan: Putting x = 1: Putting x = 1: 7 1 5 1 3 1 1 4
for arctan: Putting x = 1: Putting x = 1: 7 1 5 1 3 1 1 4 The so-called Gregory
series, published by Gregory in 1668, but discovered by Madhava 300 years earlier!
95. 95. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Not just the series, the error after retaining
n terms was also obtained. The Madhava (Gregory) series converges very slowly: the first
200 terms add up to one- fourth of 3.1466. Nilakantha in Tantra Sangraha used the
knowledge of the error to obtain series with much faster convergence.
knowledge of the error to obtain series with much faster convergence. 77 1
55 1 33 1 4 1 1 4 333
55 1 33 1 4 1 1 4 333 545 4 343 4 141 4 4 555
55 1 33 1 4 1 1 4 333 545 4 343 4 141 4 4 555 and several others
99. 99. Verses from Sadratnamala 753 tan 753 1 xxx xx
100.
100. Verses from Sadratnamala value of is calculated to 17 decimal places and
expressed by the famous kattapayadi system
101.
101. Kerala school (1300-1600): Key discoveries Several discoveries in spherical
trigonometry and astronomy: an early planetary model which was identical to the one
proposed by Tycho Brahe. Several of their works are still subjects of research by modern
mathematicians (much like Srinivasan Ramanujans works)!
102.
102. A case for the possible transmission of the mathematics and astronomy of the
Kerala school to Europe
103.
103. Historical background In the middle ages Europe is centuries behind India in
mathematical knowledge. In 1202 the Indian number system is popularized in Europe by
Fibonacci. At the same time, Europe is engulfed in the Dark ages and abject poverty.
Hence trade and conquest with wealthy nations such as India assumes importance. But
trade implies navigating the seas, which needs knowledge of astronomy, the ability to
calculate latitude and longitude, which in turn requires knowledge of trigonometry, tables of
sines etc. Also, a reliable calendar is a must. Neither did Europe have the knowledge, nor
was its calendar reliable enough for navigation. Thus several ships were lost accompanied
by severe economic and human losses. Thus navigation and calendar reform become
priority programs by the church. Lucrative prizes are offered for anyone who could provide
accurate techniques.
104.
104. Historical background At the same time, Indian mathematics had all this
information. Indian navigators used to do trade with several countries. Thus it became
important to acquire this knowledge. But Hindus were pagans, heathens, and idol
worshippers who had to be civilized (christianized). So though it privately sought pagan
learning, publicly it continued to deny that there was any learning among the pagans.
Anyone who acknowledged pagan sources of knowledge would be burnt at the stake for
being a heretic. Thus, although pagan knowledge was appropriated (as shall be seen), the
sources were never acknowledged.
105.
105. Historical background At the same time, Indian mathematics had all this
information. Indian navigators used to do trade with several countries. Thus it became
important to acquire this knowledge. But Hindus were pagans, heathens, and idol
worshippers who had to be civilized (christianized). So though it privately sought pagan
learning, publicly it continued to deny that there was any learning among the pagans.
Anyone who acknowledged pagan sources of knowledge would be burnt at the stake for
being a heretic.
106.
106. Opportunity and means 1499- Vasco da Gama arrives at the Malabar coast in
Kerala and establishes a direct link to Europe via Lisbon. 1540 Francis Xavier arrives in
Goa and makes Kerala a hub of missionary activities (missionary activity is still vigorous in
Kerala ). Jesuit mathematician and astronomer Christoph Clavius includes mathematics in
the curriculum of Jesuit priests at Collegio Romano. (Clavius later headed the calendar
reform committee.) The first batch of Jesuit priests mathematically trained by Clavius reach
Malabar (including the city of Cochin, the epicenter of the Kerala mathematicians) 1578
onwards. These include: Matteo Ricci, Johann Schreck, and Antonio Rubino. It is clear that
the express purpose is to acquire Indian knowledge on navigation, astronomy and the
calendar (panchang). They learn the local language and are in close touch with local
scholars and royal personages. Also, Rubino and Ricci have been recorded in
correspondence as answering requests for astronomical information from Kerala sources.
107.
107. Circumstantial Evidence 1597 - Tycho Brahe becomes the Royal astronomer
of the Holy Roman empire upon the invitation of emperor Rudolph II to Prague. In this
capacity, he is a natural recipient of Indian astronomy texts obtained by Jesuit priests from
Kerala. Is it just a coincidence that his model of planetary motion, the Tychonic model, is
identical to the one proposed by Nilakantha in his Tantra Sangraha in 1501?
Jyeshthadevas Yuktibhasha gives a formula involving a passage to infinity to calculate the
area under a parabola. The same formula was used by Fermat, Pascal, and John Wallis.
The chronology of the events, and the circumstantial evidence is too strong to be a mere
coincidence.
108.
108. Circumstantial Evidence 1597 - Tycho Brahe becomes the Royal astronomer
of the Holy Roman empire upon the invitation of emperor Rudolph II to Prague. In this
capacity, he is a natural recipient of Indian astronomy texts obtained by Jesuit priests from
Kerala. Is it just a coincidence that his model of planetary motion, the Tychonic model, is
identical to the one proposed by Nilakantha in his Tantra Sangraha in 1501?
Jyeshthadevas Yuktibhasha gives a formula involving a passage to infinity to calculate the
area under a parabola. The same formula was used by Fermat, Pascal, and John Wallis.
The chronology of the events, and the circumstantial evidence is too strong to be a mere
coincidence. This very strange current-day belief that only Christians, or their theologically
correct predecessors in Greece have developed almost all serious knowledge in the world
demonstrates the strength of the continuing cultural feeling against pagan learning. There is
nothing natural or universal in hiding what one has learnt from others: the Arabs, for
instance, did not mind learning from others, and they openly acknowledged it. This is another
feature unique to the church: the idea that learning from others is something so shameful
that, if it had to be done, the fact ought to be hidden. Therefore, though the church sought
knowledge about the calendar, specifically from India, and profusely imported astronomical
texts,this import of knowledge remained hidden. -D. P. Agrawal References: (1) D. F.
Almeida and G. G. Joseph, Eurocentrism in the history of mathematics: the case of the
Kerala school, Race and Class (2004). (2) Cultural foundations of mathematics, C. K. Raju
109.
109. THE END

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1. 1. Indian contributions to mathematics 7 1 5 1 3 1 1 4 - Dr.

philosophy in Greece. WHAT IS BEING GENERALLY MISSED IN THE ABOVE A brief

19. Some of the references used (Referred to as Encyclopaedia in the presenation)

50. 50. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_quadrilateral#Brahmagupta_quadrilaterals

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