Analog Sensors

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Why Sensors in mechatronic systems

z
z
z

To measure the system outputs for feedback control.

To measure system inputs (desirable inputs, unknown
inputs, and disturbances) for feedforward control.
To measure output signals for system monitoring,
diagnosis, evaluation, parameter adjustment, and
supervisory control.
To measure input and output signals for system
testing and experimental modeling (i.e., for system
identification)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-resistance Transducers
z
z
z

Potentiometer
Rotary Potentiometer
Optical Potentiometer

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Rotary Potentiometer

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Principle of Operation
z

Rectilinear/Rotary Potentiometer: The

transducer output signal is a dc voltage which
is proportional to the potentiometer
resistance that is proportional to the slider
displacement.

Optical Potentiometer: It has a photoresistive layer which acts as an electrical

insulator if no light is projected on it. The
displacement of moving object a moving light
beam which cause a change in voltage
accordingly.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of Potentiometers:
z
z

z
z

They are relatively inexpensive.

Potentiometers provide high-voltage (lowimpedance) output signals, requiring no
amplification in most applications.
They are simple voltage dividers and don't
need any special conditioning electronics
They monitor in real-time, without any signal
lag from electronics, to give an accurate
results
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Potentiometer
z

z
z
z
z

The force needed to move the slider is provided by

the displacement source. This mechanical loading
distorts the measured signal itself.
High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements
are not feasible
Variations in the supply voltage cause error.
Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the
coil and by the coil uniformity.
Wear out and heating up in the coil or film, and
slider contact cause accelerated degradation.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
The majority of suspension position
monitoring on saloon cars, single seat
race cars and motorbikes use hybrid
linear potentiometers.
z In servo technology applications.
z All applications that requires simple
displacement transducer
z For real time applications since there is
no signal lag.
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-inductance Transducers
Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Principle of Operation
z

z
z

z
z
z

Motion of a magnetic core changes the

mutual inductance of two secondary
coils relative to a primary coil.
Primary coil voltage: VSsin(wt)
Secondary coil induced emf:
V1=k1sin(wt) and V2=k2sin(wt)
Where k1 and k2 depend on the amount
of coupling between the primary and the
secondary coils, which is proportional to
the position of the coil.
When the coil is in the central position,
k1=k2 VOUT=V1-V2=0
When the coil is displaced x units,
k1k2 VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(wt)
Positive or negative displacements are
determined from the phase of VOUT.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Principle of Operation

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

LVDT: Different Positions

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Conditioning Circuit

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages Of LVDTs
z

It is essentially a non-contacting device with

no frictional resistance. Near-ideal
electromechanical energy conversion and
light-weight core will result in very small
resistive forces
It has low output impedance, typically on the
order of 100 . (Signal amplification is
usually not needed beyond what is provided
by the conditioning circuit.)
Directional measurements
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages Of LVDTs
z Inductive

sensors require sophisticated

signal conditioning electronics to
condition and linearize the coil signal.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Application of LVDTs

z
z

In making tablets from medicinal powder,

dual LVDTs control pill weight & thickness.
Portable Friction Welder: LVDT measures
the distance between the approaching
metals.
Manufacturing process controls, valve and
flow controls, pneumatic cylinder controls,
head box (papers and pulp)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Rotary-Variable Differential Transformer

(RVDT)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Mutual-Inductance Proximity Sensor

z
z

Proximity sensors (either capacitive or

inductive) can be used to sense distance.
Proximity sensors are usually used as
switches to provide a clear indication when a
certain, preset distance is reached.
Inductive sensors can produce an electric
output such as voltage based on the change in
their impedance

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Mutual-Inductance Proximity Sensor

z

An "E core" carries the primary windings in its

middle limb and the secondary windings on
the other two limbs. The two voltages induced
in the secondary windings are additive.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
z

The capacitance between two plates is determined

by three things:
z
z
z

Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the plate

size increases
Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap
increases
Material between the plates (the dielectric):
Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to
increase or decrease depending on the material

Area Dielectric
C=
Gap
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
z

Capacitive-Displacement Sensors
One of the capacitor plates is attached to the
moving object and the other is kept stationary.
Therefore the capacitance is proportional to the
object displacement.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
z

Capacitive-Displacement Sensors
One plate of the capacitor rotates with a rotating object
(shaft) and the other plate is kept stationary. Since the
common area is proportional to the angle of rotation
then the capacitance is proportional to the angle of
rotation.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
z

Liquid level sensor

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Angular Velocity Measurement

z

Since the current sensor has negligible resistance, the

voltage across the capacitor is almost equal to the
supply voltage vref, which is kept constant. It follows that
the current in the circuit is given by:

d
dC
i = (Cvref ) = vref
dt
dt
d
i

=
dt Kvref
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Displacement Measurement
z

Capacitance bridge circuit.

vo =

vref
Z1 (1 + Z 4 Z 3 )

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of Capacitance-variable
Sensors
z
z
z
z

Low cost and power usage,

Good stability, resolution, and speed.
They also are easy to be integrated into ICs
or onto printed-circuit boards (pc boards).
Capacitive sensors can detect motion,
acceleration, flow, and many other variables,
and are used in a wide range of applications.
Mechanical loading effects are negligible,
because they are non-contacting device
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Capacitancevariable Sensors

z
z
z
z

They are affected by temperature and

humidity
Sensitivity to noise,
Difficulties in designing,
Capacitive sensors do need some
specialized design know-how to avoid some
hazards,
Capacitance sensors need to be adjusted for
sensitivity. This adjustment also needs to
include variations due to moisture or other
environmental factors.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
z

z
z
z

Capacitive sensors can be used to determine

the presence or absence of liquids or
solids through non-conductive containers,
tubes or pipes.
A capacitance type sensor can be an ideal
solution where cost is a critical factor.
Capacitive gauges and capacitive sensors
are used to measure structural vibration.
Capacitance sensors are ideal for providing
servo system feedback in piezo motor driven
nanopositioning applications.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
z

DC Tachometer
Similar to a dc generator. The rotor is directly connected to the
rotating object. The output signal that is induced in the rotating
coil is picked up as a dc voltage using a suitable commutator
device. According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage is
proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux linkage. The
proportionality between the output voltage and the angular velocity
is used to measure the angular velocity,

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

DC Tachometer
z

For a coil of height h and width 2r that has n turns,

moving at an angular speed wc in a uniform magnetic
field of flux this is given by:

vo = (2nhr ) wc = Kwc
This proportionality between vo and wc is used to
measure the angular speed wc. The proportionality
constant K is known as back-emf constant.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
z

Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer
One set of the windings is energized using an ac
reference voltage. When the rotor is stationary , the
output voltage is a constant amplitude signal much like
the reference voltage. As the rotor moves in a finite
speed an additional induced voltage in the other set of
windings, is generated in the secondary windings. This
voltage is proportional to the rotor speed

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
z

AC Induction Tachometer
Similar to a 2-phase induction motor. It is also same
as the Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer except
that the rotor has windings, which are shorted and not
energized by an external source. The induced voltage
is proportional to the speed of the rotor rotation. The
output voltage is a result of both the stator (primary)
windings and the rotor winding.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of AC Tachometer
The absence of slip-ring and brush
devices, since the output is obtained
from the stator.
z Relatively accurate speed readings
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Tachometers
z

z
z

The noise components will dominate at low levels of

output signal. In particular, since the output of a
tachometer is proportional to the measured speed,
at low speeds, the level of noise, as a fraction of the
output signal, can be large.
Signal demodulation is necessary, particularly for
measuring transient speeds.
The output signal level depends on the supply
voltage; hence, a stabilized voltage source, which
has very small output impedance is necessary for
accurate measurements.
At high speeds the output from an ac tachometer is
somewhat nonlinear (primarily due to the saturation
effect)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
AC and DC motors speed control.
z Automotive speed gauge
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Piezoelectric transducers

Piezoelectric materials: Barium titanate, single

crystal quartz.
Piezoelectric Effect:
When mechanical stress or strain is applied to the
piezoelectric material, generates an electric
charge and associated potential difference.
The direct application of piezoelectric effect is
used in pressure and strain measuring devices

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material at rest: No forces applied as shown,
so net current flow is 0
Crystal
+-+-+-

Current Meter
=0
Charges cancel
each other, so
no current flow

+-+-+-

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material with forces applied in direction of arrows.
Crystal

--Force

+++

Due to properties of symmetry,

charges are net + on one side &
net - on the opposite side: crystal gets
thinner and longer
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Current Meter
deflects in +
direction

The Piezoelectric Effect

Changing the direction of the applied force
Crystal
++++
Force

-----

Current Meter
deflects in direction

. Changes the direction of

current flow, and the crystal gets
shorter and fatter.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Piezoelectric Accelerometers

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 1: Accelerometer
z An

accelerometer has a mass of 0.05 kg

and a spring constant of 3X103 N/m.
Maximum mass displacement is 0.02
m (before the mass hits the stops).
Calculate the maximum measurable
acceleration in g.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 2: Accelerometer
z An

accelerometer outputs 14 mV per g.

Design a signal conditioning circuit that
provides a velocity signal scaled at 0.25
V for every m/s.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Conditioning circuit/Charge Amp.

z

To make use of the piezoelectric device, a charge

amplifiers are required to integrate the electric
charges to give a signal that is proportional to the
applied force and big enough to measure.
Cf

Rf

Cp
Transducer

-A

Cc
Cable

Calibration
And display

Charge amplifier

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Piezoelectric Touch sensors

z

We have several overlay touch

screens for laptop screens.
They respond to multiple finger
contacts, 8000 Samples/sec.

Piezoelectric film creates

voltages in response to strain. It
can be cut to custom shapes for
special-purpose sensors.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Force Sensing
Elastic Sensing:

F = kx

Strain Sensing:

F = A

Pressure Sensing:

F = PA

Acceleration Sensing: F = m a

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain gauge types

z Strain

gauge load cells

foil strain gauges

z semiconductor strain gauges
z thin-film strain gauges
z wire strain gauges
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain and Stress

z

Stress, defined as force per unit area, is a

measure of the intensity of internal forces
acting within a body across internal surfaces,
as a reaction to external applied forces and
body forces.
Strain is the geometrical expression of
deformation caused by the action of stress on
a physical body. Strain is calculated by first
assuming a change between two body states:
the beginning state and the final state. Then
the difference in placement of two points in
this body in those two states expresses the
numerical value of strain.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Fundamentals of Strain Gages

Transverse
strain

Axial
strain

e T = e L
Poissons
ratio

eT
eL

Elastic Modulus:

E=

(stress)
e (strain)

The resistance of a strain gage:

Material resistivity

R=

Element length

Cross section area

When a strain gage is strained, the change in resistance is:

R
R
R

R = l + A +
l
A

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain Gages

Characteristics:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
7)
8)

able to measure strains of 1mm/m

small in size and light in weight
able to response to high frequency signals
wide range of linear response
flexible in use and wide range applications
low in cost
easy compensation to various factors

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Gage factor
z

The sensitivity of a strain gage is described in

terms of a characteristic called gage factor
defined as the unit change in resistance per
unit change in length, or

R R
K=
l l

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

R R
K=
strain

Foil strain gauges

z
z

The foil strain gauge is the most widely used

type
It consists of a metal foil pattern mounted on
an insulating backing or carrier, constructed by
bonding a sheet of thin rolled metal foil, 2 m 5 m thick, on a backing sheet of 10 m 30 m thick.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Semiconductor strain gauges

z
z

These are manufactured from strips of semiconducting silicon in either the n or p form.
The output from a semiconductor gauge is very
high compared to a wire or foil gauge. The
gauge factor is typically 100 - 150 for a
semiconductor and 2 - 4 for wire and foil.
The output from semiconductor gauges is nonlinear with strain, but have an extremely long life.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Semiconductor strain gauges

z

This type of gauges is widely used on small

transducers such as force transducers,
accelerometers and pressure sensors whose
sensing element may be micro-machined out
of a single piece of silicon.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thin-film strain gauges

z

The manufacture of a thin film strain gauge system will

go through several stages of evaporation and
sputtering and may have up to eight layers of
material. There are a number of thin-film strain gauge
force transducers available covering a range of 0.1 N
to 100 N in the form of a single- or double-bending
beam configuration.
These devices are highly cost effective when
produced in large quantities due to the manufacturing
techniques involved. This makes them ideally suited
for use in large-volume products such as shop scales
and pressure transducers.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Wire strain gauge

z

The wire strain gauge was the original type of

resistance strain gauge, though now widely replaced
by cheaper foil or thin film types. However the wire
strain gauge is still used extensively for high
temperature transducers and stress analysis, and is
available made from a wide range of materials.
The wire is typically 20 m - 30 m in diameter and
may be bonded to the substrate using ceramic
materials. It is less commonly used in the free form
where the wire is looped around insulated pins which
are mounted on the elastic member.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Comments
z

The nominal resistance of the strain gauge

varies with the type and application. Wire
gauges have resistances in the range of
60 ohms to 350 ohms,
foil and semiconductor gauges from 120 ohms
to 5 k ohms and thin film types around 10 k
ohms. Selection criteria may include size, selfheating and power requirements.
If several load cells are to be connected
together then matched resistance may be
important.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 3: Strain gage

zA

strain gage with GF=2.03 and R=350

is used in a bridge. The bridge
resistors are R1=R2=R3=350 . If a
strain of 1450 m/m is applied, find the
bridge offset voltage if Vs=10 V. How
much voltage results from a strain of 1
micro?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 4: Strain gage

zA

simple load cell consisting of an

aluminum post of 2.5 cm radius with a
detector strain gage. The strain gage is
used in a bridge with V=2V,
R1=R2=R3=120 , and GF=2.13. Find
the variation of bridge offset voltage for a
load of 0 to 5000 lb. Modulus of elasticity
of aluminum is E=6.89X1010 N/m2
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Temperature Sensors
z Resistance

Temperature Detectors
z Thermistors
z Thermocouples
z Other Sensors
Bimetal Strips
z Gas Thermometer
z Liquid Expansion Thermometers
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Resistance versus Temperature

Approximation
A Linear approximation means that we may develop an equation
for a straight line that approximates the resistance versus
temperature (R-T) curve over some specified span.
z The equation of the straight line approximation to the curve over
the span T1 to T2 can be written as :
z

R(T ) = R(T0 )(1 + 0 T )

T1 < T < T2

Where:
R (T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T
R(T0) = resistance at temperature To
T = T - T0

0 = fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature at T0

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)

z

RDT is a temperature sensor that is based on

the principle that metal resistance increasing
with temperature
Metals used in these devices such as
platinum, which is very repeatable, quite
sensitive, and very expensive.
Nickel is also used which is not quite
repeatable, more sensitive, and less
expensive.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Sensitivity
z An

estimate of RTD sensitivity can be

noted from typical values of 0. For
platinum, this number is typically on the
order of 0.004/oC, and for nickel a typical
value is 0.005/oC.
z With platinum, for example, a change of
only 0.4 would be expected for a 100
RTD if the temperature changed by
1oC.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Response time

z In

general, RTD has a response time of

0.5 to 5 s or more
z The slowness of response is due to the
slowness of thermal conductivity in
bringing the device into thermal
equilibrium with its environment.
z Generally, time constants are specified
either for a free air condition or an oil
bath condition.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Construction
z An

RTD is simply a length of wire whose

resistance is to be monitored as a
function of temperature.
z The construction is typically such that the
wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to
achieve small size and improve thermal
conductivity to decrease response time.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Wire wound element

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Film style element design

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Signal Conditioning
z In

the view of the very small fractional

change of resistance with temperature
(0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a
bridge circuit.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Dissipation Constant

z

Because RTD is a resistor, there is an I2R

power dissipated by the device that causes a
slight heating effect, a self-heating. This may
cause an erroneous reading.
Thus, the current through the RTD must be
kept sufficiently low and constant to avoid selfheating.
Typically, a dissipation constant is provided in
RTD specifications. Thus, a 25 mW/oC
dissipation constant shows that if I2R power
losses in the RTD equal 25mW. The RTD will
be heated by 1oC.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Dissipation Constant

z

The dissipation constant equation is:

P
T =
PD

Where:
T = temperature rise because of self-heating in oC
P = power dissipated in the RTD from the circuit in W
PD = dissipation constant of the RTD in W/oC

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example:
An RTD has 0=0.005/oC, R= 500 , and
a dissipation constant of PD=30 mW/oC
at 20 oC. The RTD is used in a bridge
circuit with R1 = R2 = 500 and R3 a
variable resistor used to null the bridge.
If the supply is 10 V and the RTD is
placed is a bath at 0oC, find the value of
R3 to null the bridge
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistors
zA

thermistor is a temperature sensor that

has been developed from the principles
of semiconductor resistance change
with temperature.
z The particular semiconductor materials
used varies widely to accommodate
temperature ranges, sensitivity,
resistance ranges, and other factors.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistor Sensitivity
z The

sensitivity of the thermistors is a

significant factor in their application.
z Changes in resistance of 10% per oC
are common. Thus, a thermistor with a
nominal resistance of 10 k at some
temperature may change by 1 k per 1
oC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistors Range
z The

temperature range of thermistors

depends on the materials used to
construct the sensor. In general, there
are three range limitation effects:
Melting or deterioration of the
semiconductor
z Deterioration of encapsulation material
z Insensitivity of higher temperature
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Response time
z The

response time of the thermistors

depends principally on the quantity of
material present and the environment.
z Thus, for the smallest bead thermistors
in an oil bath, a response of s is
typical. The same thermistor in still air
will response typically in 10 s.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Signal Conditioning
In many cases, a bridge circuit is used.
z Since these devices are resistances, care must
be taken to ensure that power dissipation in the
thermistor does not exceed the limits specified
or even interfere with the environment.
z Dissipation constants are quoted for thermistors
as the power in milliwatts required to raise a
thermistors temperature by 1oC above its
environment. Typical values vary from 1 mW/oC
in free air to 10mW/oC or more in an oil bath
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example
A thermistor is to monitor room temperature.
It has a resistance of -10%/oC. The
dissipation constant is PD=5 mW/oC. It is
proposed to use the thermistor in a voltage
divider with V=10V and R=3.5 k in order
to provide a voltage of 5 V at 20oC.
Evaluate the effects of self heating.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple
z

When a temperature differential maintained

across a given metal, the vibration of atoms
and motion of electrons is affected so that a
difference of potential exists across the
material.
This potential difference is related to the fact
that electrons in the hotter end of the material
have more thermal energy than those in the
cooler end, and thus tend to drift towered the
cooler end.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Seebeck effect
Using solid state theory,

= (T2 T1 )
Where = emf produced in volts
= constant in V/K
T1, T2 = junction temperatures in K
This equation, which describes the Seebeck effect,
shows that the emf produced is proportional to the
difference in temperature and, further, to the difference in
the metallic thermal transport constants.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Characteristics
z

To measure an unknown temperature, we see

first that one temperature must be known
since the Seebeck voltage is proportional to
the difference between junctions temperature.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple Types

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Tables
z

The thermocouple tables simply give the voltage that

results for a particular type of thermocouple when the
reference junctions are at a particular reference
temperature.
In most cases, the measured voltage does not fall
exactly on a table value. When this happens, it is
necessary to interpolate between table values that
bracket the desired value. Use the following formula:

TH TL
TM = TL =
(VM VL )
VH VL
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 1:
A voltage of 23.72 mV is measured with a
type K thermocouple at a 0 oC reference.
Find the temperature of the
measurement junction.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 2
z Find

the voltage of a type J

thermocouple wit a 0 oC reference if the
junction temperature is -172 oC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Change of table reference

V(400 oC) = 21.85 mV (Type J, 0 oC ref)
and
V(30 oC) = 1.54 mV
(Type J, 0 oC ref)
then
V(400 oC) = 20.31 mV (Type J, 30 oC ref)
or
VJ30 (400 oC) = 20.31
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 3:
A type J thermocouple with a 25 oC
reference is used to measure oven
temperature from 300 oC to 400 oC.
What output voltages correspond to
these temperature?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 4:
A type K thermocouple with a 23.9 oC
reference produces a voltage of 35.56
mV. What is the temperature?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple Sensitivity
zA

review of tables shows that the range

of thermocouple output is typically less
than 100 mV. The actual sensitivity
strongly depends on the conditioning
circuit and on the TC itself.
z Examples of the worst and best
sensitivity:
Type J: 0.05 mV/oC (typical)
z Type S: 0.006 mV/oC (typical)
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Range & Time response

z
z

The TC has the greatest range of all the types

considered.
Examples:
z
z

Type J TC is usable from -150o to 745oC.

Type S TC is usable up to 1765oC.

TC time response is simply related to the size

of the wire and any protective material used
with the sensor.
Large industrial TCs using thick wire may have
time constants as high as 10 to 20 s.
Whereas, a TC may from very small gage wire
can have a time constant as small as 10 to 20
ms
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Conditioning Circuit/ Example

Temperature for plating operations must
be measured for control within a range of
500 oF to 600 oF. Develop a measuring
system that scales this temperature into
0 to 5 V for input to an 8-bit ADC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Transducer

Bistatic

Monostatic

(lynxmotion usr-01)

(polaroid R14-SONAR1)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor
1. Int sound pulses is generated and transmitted
2. Blank receiver is blank
3. Amplify received signal is amplified with increased
gain (Stepped gain) over time to compensate for the
decrease in sound intensity with distance
4. Echo signal exceed fixed threshold value are
recorded
5. Calculate distance is calculated from elapsed time

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor

Blanking interval occurs from the residual

oscillation in the transducer after the acoustic pulse
is generated (polaroid 6500 have 2.38ms blanking)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor
Maximum Detection Range: depends on both
emitted power and frequency of operation.
The lower the frequency, the longer range.
Maximum attenuation of ultrasonice energy:
amax = f/100 (dB/foot)
f : operating frequency (KHz)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor
Acoustic reflectance: amplitude of return echo is
influenced by the acoustic reflectance of object.
Concrete 89%
Acoustic tile 30%

Max. 35 feet

Max. 23 feet

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

specular reflection : reflected energy does not
return to transducer

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

false return : higher order reflections give false
distance measurement

b
a
0.5(a+b+c)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

Noise
Environmental noise (near operating frequency)
Crosstalk (returns from other sensors)
Self noise (electrical noise)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Choosing operating frequency

Diameter and type of transducer
Anticipated target characteristic :reflectance,etc
Possible interference
desired angular and range resolution
max./min ranging distance

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example: Polaroid 6500 specifications

Maximum range:

35 feet

Minimum range:

6 inches

Blanking time

2.38 msec

Resolution

1 %

Gain steps

12

Multiple echo

yes

Programmable frequency

yes

Power

4.7-6.8 Volts

Operating Current

100 mA

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light energy
z

z
z
z
z

For a sensor, were interested in the light power that falls

on a unit area, and how well the sensor converts that
into a signal.
A common unit is the lux which measures apparent
brightness (power multiplied by the human eyes
sensitivity).
1 lux of yellow light is about 0.0015 W/m2.
1 lux of green light (50% eff.) is 0.0029 W/m2.
Sunlight corresponds to about 50,000 lux
Artificial light typically 500-1000 lux

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors
Simplest light sensor is an LDR (Light-Dependent
Resistor).
z Optical characteristics close to human eye.
z Can be used to feed an A/D directly without amplification
(one resistor in a voltage divider).
z Common material is CdS
(Cadmium Sulphide)
z Advantages: Cope with harsh environmental conditions
, cheaper, long life.
z Disadvantage: slow response
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors
z
z

z
z
z
z

Semiconductor light sensors include: photodiodes,

phototransistors, photodarlingtons.
All of these have similar noise performance, but
phototransistors and darlingtons have better sensitivity
(more current for given light input).
Phototransistor:
1 mA @ 1000 lux
Photodarlingtons up to 100x this
sensitivity.
Advantages: fast response
Disadvantages: high noise, more expensive, high
sensitivity.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors high end

z
z

z
z

At the cutting edge of light sensor sensitivity are

Avalanche photodiodes.
Large voltages applied to these diodes accelerate
electrons to collide with the semiconductor lattice,
creating more charges.
These devices have quantum efficiencies
around 90% and extremely low noise.
They are now made with
large collection areas and
known as LAAPDs (LargeArea Avalanche Photo-Diode)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Pressure Sensor
z Most

pressure sensors used result in the

transduction of pressure information into
a physical displacement.
z There are many types of pressure
sensors:
Diaphragm
z Bellows
z Solid state pressure sensors
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Diaphragm Pressure Sensor

z

A diaphragm is like a spring and therefore

extends or contracts until force developed that
balances the pressure difference.
If a pressure P1 exists on one side of the
diaphragm and P2 on the other, then the net
force is exerted by:

F=(p2-p1)A
z

The extend of the diaphragm deflection (i.e. the

diaphragm displacement) is a measure of the
pressure difference.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Bellows Pressure Sensors

z

A bellows is another device much like the

diaphragm that converts a pressure differential
into a physical displacement, except that here
the displacement is much more straight-line
expansion.
When there is a pressure difference, a net force
will exist on the flat, front of the bellows. The
bellows assembly will then collapse like an
accordion if p2 is greater than p1 or expand if p2
is less than p1.
Again, we have a displacement which is
proportional to pressure difference. An LVDT
can be utilized to convert this displacement
linearly into voltage.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Diaphragm & bellows Sensors

Diaphragm

Bellows

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Solid state pressure sensor

z

Integrated circuit
technology has led to the
development of solidstate (SS) pressure
sensors that find
extensive application in
the pressure ranges of 0
to 100 kPa (0 to 14.7
psi). These small units
often require no more
than three connections-dc power, ground, and
the sensor output

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Solid state pressure sensor

z

The basic sensing

element is a small wafer
of silicon acting as a
diaphragm that, as usual,
deflects in response to a
pressure difference.
However, as suggested
in Figure, in this case the
deflection is sensed by
semiconductor strain
gauges grown directly on
the silicon wafer;
furthermore, signalconditioning circuitry is
grown directly on the
wafer as well
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Solid state pressure sensor

z

SS pressure sensors are characterized by:

1. Sensitivities in the range of 10 to 100
mV/kPa.
2. Response times on the order of 10 ms
3. Linear voltage versus pressure within the
specified operating range.
4. Ease of use, with often only three
connections: dc power (typically 5 V), ground,
and the sensor output voltage.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem