FINAL Version CH 3

Cairo University
Faculty of Economics and Political Science

Statistics department
English section
Determinants of woman's
participation in the Egyptian labor market
and her autonomy in decision-making in
2012
Submitted by:
-
Haidy Marzok Mohamed Ali
Yasmeen Taha El-Sayed El-Naggar
Supervised by:
-
Dr. Heba El-Liathy
Dr. Mustafa Salamh
Acknowledgement
First of all, we would love to thank Dr. Mustafa Salamh for his great help, time and
supervision.
Also thanks to teacher assistant Amani Abu-Bakr for her support and cooperation assisting in
supervising this project.
We also want to express our gratitude to professor doctor Heba El-Laithy for her time,
support and invaluable assistance.
At last, we want to thank everybody who helped us with this research, and everyone who
will honor us by reading it.
Abstract
Recent years have brought to light the noticeable role of women in the political, social and
economic events occurring in Egypt. Nowadays, women are more likely to work. Like education,
employment can be a source of empowerment for women especially if it puts them in control of
income.
This research aims at studying determinants of womans participation in labor market and
her autonomy in decision-making in Egypt in 2012. In order to achieve the research objectives,
data from ELMPS 2012 are used.
Concerning factors affecting womans participation in labor market as well as womans
autonomy in decision-making, there are several relations between those response variables and
some other variables such as womans age, educational level, place of residence, household wealth,
husbands characteristics -for married women-, number of children -for ever-married women- and
parents characteristics, cross-tabulations and chi square test are used to examine those relations.
Excel and SPSS are used to visualize the variables and the relations between different factors with
the response variable in interest.
Binary logit model is used to examine the main determinants of womans participation in
labor market and her autonomy in decision-making. Two models were estimated; Womens
participation model and autonomy model. In order to use logit model, we tested for
multicollinearity using Principle Component Analysis using STATA package and it was found
that there is no multicollinearity between the explanatory variables.
Using SPSS software, the following results are obtained:
Concerning womans participation in labor market, womans age, place of residence,
educational level and household wealth significantly affect womans participation. In addition, the
total number of children for ever-married and divorced or widowed women significantly affect
their participation as well. Moreover, husbands characteristics significantly affect his wife
participation while parents characteristics affect unmarried, divorced and widowed womens
participation.
Concerning womans autonomy in decision-making, womans participation in labor
market is assessed as a main determinant for a woman to have autonomy. In addition to womans
age, place of residence, educational level and household wealth have significant effect on womans
autonomy. Moreover, husbands characteristics significantly affect his wife autonomy in decisionmaking while parents characteristics affect unmarried womens autonomy.
Table of Contents
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... 5
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Important Definitions and Abbreviations .................................................................................................. 7
Chapter One: Introduction and Literature review ..................................................................................... 8
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 Study Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter Two: Methodology and Framework ........................................................................................... 14
2.1 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Research Questions........................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Data Source ....................................................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter Three: Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................................................ 19
3.1 Definitions of Variables ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Womens participation in labor market and its relation with their characteristics.......................... 21
3.2.1 Participation in labor market and its relation with sex......................................................... 22
3.2.2 Relation between womans marital status with her sector of employment ........................ 23
3.2.3 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her place of residence
by her marital status ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.2.4 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her educational level
by her marital status ...................................................................................................................... 25
3.2.5 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her age by her marital status
....................................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2.6 The participation of married or divorced woman in labor market and the total number
of children she had ........................................................................................................................ 27
3.2.7 Relation between woman's employment status and her marital status.............................. 28
3.2.8 Relation between married womans participation in labor market and her husband's
characteristics ................................................................................................................................ 29
3.2.9 Relation between unmarried woman's participation in labor market with some
characteristics of her father........................................................................................................... 30
3.2.10 Relation between unmarried woman's participation in labor market with her
mother's characteristics................................................................................................................. 31
3
3.3 Womens autonomy in decision-making and its relation with their characteristics ....................... 31
3.3.1 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her educational level .................. 32
3.3.2 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her participation in the labor
market ........................................................................................................................................... 33
3.3.3 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands age ...................... 34
3.3.4 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands educational level 35
3.3.5 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands participation in
labor market controlling for her participation in labor market ..................................................... 36
3.3.6 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her educational level ............. 37
3.3.7 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her participation in the labor
market ........................................................................................................................................... 38
3.3.8 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her fathers characteristics ..... 39
3.3.9 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her mothers characteristics... 41
Chapter Four: Determinants of woman's participation in the Egyptian labor market and her autonomy
in decision-making ..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Determinants of married woman's participation in labor market.................................................... 44
4.2 Determinants of unmarried woman's participation in labor market .............................................. 48
4.3 Determinants of divorced or widowed woman's participation in labor market ............................. 52
4.4 Determinants of currently married woman's autonomy in decision-making .................................. 55
4.5 Determinants of currently unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making ............................. 57
Chapter Five: Study Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................... 61
5.1 Study Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 62
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................ 63
References ................................................................................................................................................. 64
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework for women's participation in labor market 15.
Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework for women's autonomy in decision-making ..16.
Figure 3.1: The percentage of participation in labor market by sex 22.
Figure 3.2: Percentage of women in different sectors of employment according to their marital
status23.
Figure 3.3: Percentage of womens participation in labor market according to their place of residence
controlling for their marital status .24.
Figure 3.4: Percentage of womens participation in labor market according to their educational level
controlling for their marital status .25.
Figure 3.5: Womans employment status by her marital status 28.
Figure 3.6: Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according to their
educational level ......32.
Figure 3.7: Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according to their
participation in labor market ....33.
Figure 3.8: Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according their
husbands age ..34.
Figure 3.9: Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making and their husbands
educational level .35.
Figure 3.10: Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making by their husbands
participation in labor market controlling for their participation in labor market .36.
Figure 3.11: Percentage of currently unmarried womens autonomy in decision-making according to
their educational level ...37.
their participation in labor market ...38.
their fathers educational level ... 39.
their fathers employment status controlling for their participation in labor market . 40.
their mothers educational level .41.

their mothers employment status controlling for their participation in labor market .. 42.
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Definitions of the dependent and independent variables of the study ..20.
Table 3.2: Percentage of women in labor market according to their age controlling for marital
status..... 26.
Table 3.3: Percentage of married or divorced women in labor market according to their total number of
children ....27.
Table 3.4: Percentage of married women in labor market according to their husbands
characteristics...29.
Table 3.5: Percentage of unmarried women in labor market according to their fathers educational level
and employment status ....30.
Table 3.6: Percentage of unmarried women in labor market according to their mothers educational
level and employment status..31.
Table 4.1: Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of married women .45.
Table 4.2: Results of logistic regression for married woman's participation in the labor market .. 46.
Table 4.3: Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of unmarried
women49.
Table 4.4: Results of logistic regression for unmarried woman's participation in the labor market. 50.
Table 4.5: Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of divorced or widowed
women . 52.
Table 4.6: Results of logistic regression for divorced or widowed woman's participation in the labor
market .... 53.
Table 4.7: Variables used in logistic regression for autonomy in decision-making for currently married
women .... 55.
Table 4.8: Results of logistic regression for currently married womans autonomy in decisionmaking..... 56.
Table 4.9: Variables used in logistic regression for autonomy in decision-making for currently unmarried
women ... 57.
Table 4.10: Results of logistic regression for currently unmarried womans autonomy in decision-making
... 58.
6
Important definitions:
Definition
Include all persons above a specified age who were engaged in work
Currently employed during a specified brief period, either one week or one day.
Labor force
All persons who are currently working or those who are seeking for work.
A degree or level of freedom that a woman has in making decisions about
Womans autonomy one's own concerns, also it is an indicator of her empowerment.
Abbreviations:
Abbreviation
ELMPS
CAPMAS
Meaning
Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey
Egypts Central Agency for Public
Mobilization and Statistics
ILO
International Labour Organization
ERF
Economic Research forum
MENA
Middle East and North Africa
WDI
World Development Indicators
Chapter One: Introduction and

Literature Review
1.1 Introduction
Employment is the main reason for development and welfare in nations. A nation will turn
from being developing country to developed country through employment. Moreover,
employment directly contributes to economic growth. Like education, employment can be a source
of empowerment for women especially if it puts them in control of income. The measurement of
women's employment is difficult. This difficulty arises because some of the work that women do
is often not perceived by women themselves and hence not reported such as working on family
businesses or in informal sector.
Recent years have brought to light the noticeable role of women in the political, social and
economic events occurring in Egypt. However, according to the ELMPS report of 2012, the
Egyptian labor market suffers from high youth unemployment and low rates of female labor force
participation, rapid increases in educational attainment, but poor quality of education. Womens
unemployment rate was 23.7% in 2012 while it was 4.2% for males [Assaad and Kraft (2013)].
According to World Economic Forum 2012, the female labor force participation at that
time was 24% while it was 79% for male [Hendy (2015)]. Worldwide statistics show that there is
a positive correlation between the value placed on women and the development of countries. As
the Development is seen in those countries where women are appreciated and are active
participants in the economic, social, and political spheres. In contrast, one sees poverty and misery
in countries where women are not active participants in social live [Turnali et al (2015)]. Moreover,
Economic role of women has become a widely discussed topic in recent times in Muslim world.
Previous studies identified some factors that affect the participation of women in labor
market such as the womans age, place of residence, educational level and marital status.
Therefore, this study investigates the impact of those factors in Egyptian labor market, in addition
to some other factors such as household's characteristics. Moreover, it was found that the autonomy
of women in decision-making might be affected by her participation in the labor market. Therefore,
this study also covers this phenomenon using the data obtained from ELMPS 2012.
According to the ILO (1982), Person in employment -Currently working-is defined as all
persons above a specified age who during a specified brief period, either one week or one day,
were in the following categories: paid employment or self-employment. This definition of the
person in employment is set as a reference to detect whether the woman is currently participating
in the labor market or not.
In recent decades, Women have found to be the decision maker in the household. They are
basically viewed as the potential mothers and homemakers. Hence, womens autonomy in
decision-making within the family has been looked upon as one of the important phenomenon
which may be affected by their participation in labor market in addition to some other factors.
9
Women as whole are therefore our sector of interest. The study aims at identifying the main
determinants of women's participation in labor force and exploring economic, social and
demographic factors that may influence womens participation in labor force such as place of
residence, womens age, her marital status, households wealth index, etc. In addition, one from
our main objectives is to examine what affect a woman to have autonomy in decision-making.
1.2 Literature Review

Donahoe (1999) conducted a study about measuring women's work in developing countries
and found that the current economic, political, and cultural context of Egypt provides both
opportunities for and constraints on women's employment outside the home. Moreover, the study
found out that Egyptian women spend 45 hours a week on housework activities like cooking,
cleaning house, and washing the dishes. All of those activities are done by more than 90% of
women. About 75% of women were involved in childcare, 60% in marketing, and 12% and 8% in
fetching water and firewood, respectively. Approximately 65% of rural women are involved in
unpaid animal husbandry, as nearly 25% of urban women.
Spierings and Verloo (2008) conducted a study about the determinants of women's
employment concerning micro-and macro level in six Arab countries. They analyzed determinants
of womens employment with data for 65,000 women living in 103 districts of six Arab countries.
This study aimed to answer two main questions which are: What is the degree of womens
employment in the six MENA countries, what are the major determinants of womens employment
in these countries. This study concluded that among women with children, participation declined
when the number of children rose. Moreover, participation was lower for women with young
children than for women with older children. In addition, women in households with five or more
children had particularly low employment rates (5%6%). Another observation was that women
with an upper class and women living in cities tended to have higher participation rates comparing
to lower class women. They also found that 17% of women with a younger partner did participate
in labor market, a percentage that steadily declined to 5.2% if the partner was 16 or more years
older than the woman. On the other hand, its concluded that the partner's education also showed
a clear pattern, whereby women with a higher educated partner was more often employed. Another
important observation was that employment rates were lower for women living in an extended
family and higher for women who gave birth to their first child at an older age. They found also
that Women's education seemed most influential if her participation in labor market.
Hendy (2015) conducted a study about Egyptian women's participation in labor market.
The data used in this paper comes from ELMPS for three rounds (1998, 2006 and 2012) and
compared between pre- and post-revolution in Egypt focusing on the female cases. This study
found that the labor force participation for men is above 70% in the latest three rounds, while it
did not exceed 30% for women which means that the rate of participating in labor force for males
10
are around double of those of women. The study also found that the womens participation in labor
market in Egypt is affected by her marital status; as being a married female result in having low
participation in the labor market. Since there are many benefits for working in the public sector
such as maternity leave, ever-married women tend to work in the public sector, while nevermarried women tend to work more in the private sector. Moreover, an important finding is that
employed women seem to have more access to the household money compared to their not
employed counterparts.
Samari (2015) conducted a study about Egyptian women's autonomy and fertility. The study
focused on the important events that shape womens autonomy at multiple levels over the life
course. The study used a representative sample of households in Egypt, the data was derived from
the ELMPS of 2006 and 2012 in addition to data from EDHS of 2008. One of the main objectives
of the study was identifying the determinants of womens autonomy. It also aimed at identifying
the determinants of the changes in womens autonomy over the life course, as for example, no
studies consider that childbearing is a change occurs in the life course that might affect womens
future autonomy. Other point of the study was to examine the relationship between womens
autonomy and fertility over the life course. This study concluded that the place of residence and
the household wealth are associated with woman's autonomy. Moreover, women in rural and urban
Upper Egypt have less autonomy as compared to women in Cairo and this is due to the greater
social conservatism in Upper Egypt. The wealthiest women make less individual decisions which
are taken by her only, more joint decisions which are taken jointly by herself and the household
head and more financial autonomy. On the other hand, current marital status is significantly
associated with womens autonomy as those who are currently unmarried have significantly higher
autonomy compared to those who are married. One more finding was those in larger households
make fewer individual decisions, participate in more joint decisions and have less financial
autonomy.
Turanli et al (2015) conducted a study about women's education and labor force ratio on
economic development. This study investigated the effects of womens education and labor force
ratio on the level of development in 44 countries. The dataset was covering the period 19902010.
As Worldwide statistics show that there is a positive correlation between the value placed on
women and the development of countries, this study seeks the woman factor in human
development. One main objective of the study is to investigate if this factor has any impact on
economic development. A relevant observation was that women are employed as laborers in
underdeveloped countries. However, the more developed a country is, the more the women are
employed in higher-end jobs.
Peutere et al (2015) conducted a study about whether the first child affect women's
participation in labor market in Finland. The study analyzed how the type of job contract
(temporary or permanent) at the start of maternity leave, predicts labor market attachment of
women in the long term in Finland. A sample of mother cohorts was followed up for 11 years. The
11
study concluded that lack of employment were associated with slower and weaker labor market
attachment of women. The participation of women into the core of the labor market structure tends
to continue after the birth of the first child. Moreover, Prior research has shown that working during
pregnancy and being eligible for parental leave are related to stronger labor market attachment
after birth.
Mehmood and Imran (2015) conducted a study about women's participation in labor force in
Muslim countries. The data was obtained from the international databases World Development
Indicators (WDI). Their dataset was about 41 Muslim countries for the time span of 2003-2013.
This study aims to identify the economic and social factors that affect female labor force
participation. This study concluded that woman belonging to the lower strata of the society usually
is pushed into labor force when there is a rising cost of living and the household's income is low
and incapacitated to work. Male unemployment leads to increase in female headed households that
in turn increase the female labor force participation. An increase in tertiary education causes
female labor participation to increase. Female headed household causes the participation of women
in labor force while vice versa does not hold. The study cited Kingdon and Unni (2001) that tested
the relationship between education and Female Labor Participation and stated that female labor
force participation differs with age and has significantly increased for all age groups during the
last thirty years. It is cited, Sasaki (2002) that has found that married women in Japan are more
likely to work if the household is supportive and that there is a negative association between
husbands income and female participation. It was also noticed that women of affluent families
tend to stay at home and raise family.
Nazier and Ramadan (2016) conducted a study about the constraints and opportunities for
women's participation in labor market using data from ELMPS 2012. The paper identifies the main
individual and community level factors affecting Egyptian female labor force participation and
whether these same determinants affect the type of employment the woman choose, once she
entered the labor force. The study suggested that the determinants are number of children, her age
and education in addition to her father's, mother's and husband's employment status and the place
of residence. The study concluded that woman's age, her education and her mother's employment
status are the main determinants that affect her participation in the labor force in Egypt. Women
with high number of kids are less likely to participate in labor force. However, once she is
participated, women with more kids are more attracted to the public sector. In addition, the study
concluded that mothers employment status plays an important role in her daughter labor market
participation. Moreover, womens educational level does not affect her decision about
participation, but once she decides to enter the labor force, her educational level helps her to
participate in public sector. One more point is that the rate of women who did not participate
increased from 23.7% in 2006 to 27.6% in 2012.
12
1.3 Study Objectives

This study is concerned with examining womens employment status and autonomy and
assessing factors affecting both of them. Therefore, our main objectives are:
Identify the main determinants of women's participation in labor force including

economic, social and demographic factors.
Examine what affect a woman to have autonomy in decision-making.
13
Chapter Two: Methodology and

Framework
14
Introduction
This chapter is divided into four parts. The first part includes the conceptual frame work of
the study. The second part includes some questions that are expected to be answered in order to
reach our research objectives. The third part gives information about the data that is used and a
description of the statistical techniques that is used in order to reach the study objectives.
2.1 Conceptual framework

Figure 2.1 below reflects the possible relationships between the participation of women in
the Egyptian labor market and other variables. There is one main dependent variable which is the
participation of women in the Egyptian labor market, and two main groups of explanatory
variables:
- Characteristics of women (Age, place of residence, educational level and marital status).
- Characteristics of the household (wealth index).
In addition to specific explanatory variables depending on marital status of woman; these are
- Characteristics of married women (Characteristics of the husband and number of children).
- Characteristics of unmarried, divorced or widowed women (Characteristics of the parents and
number of children for ever married woman).
Figure 2.1 conceptual frame work of womens participation in the labor market:
Age
Number
of
children
For evermarried women
Husband'
s
character
istics
For married
women
For unmarried,
divorced or
widowed women
Place of
residence
Woman's
participation in
labor market
Parents'
character
istics
Wealth
15
Educatio
nal level
On the other hand, figure 2.2 below, reflects the womans autonomy and the possible
relationships that may affect it among married and unmarried women. There is one main dependent
variable which is the existence of womans autonomy in decision-making and some explanatory
variables including her age, her education, place of residence, her participation in the labor market,
households wealth in addition to some characteristics for the husband for currently married
women or characteristics for parents for currently unmarried women1.
Figure 2.2 conceptual frame work of womans autonomy in decision-making:
Age
For currently
married women
Parents'
characteristi
cs
For currently
unmarried
women
Woman's
participatio
n in labor
market
Husband's
characteristi
cs
Woman's
autonomy in
decision-making
Place of
residence
Educational
level
Wealth
In contrast with the study of Samari (2015) our study focused only on womens autonomy in
decision-making for the whole household. Moreover, our study aims at assessing how the
participation of women in the labor market could affect her autonomy in decision-making.
16
2.2 Research Questions

The study objectives can be formulated into more specific research questions to be answered.
1- Is there a relationship between the place of residence of women (urban/rural) and her
participation in labor market?
2- Do percentages of the working women differ according to her marital status?
3- How do life events like educational achievement shape women's working status and
autonomy?
4- Concerning married women, do husband's characteristics affect her participation in
labor market?
5- Concerning unmarried or divorced women, do family characteristics affect her
participation in labor market?
6- If a woman has children, how this will affect her working status?
7- What are common sectors of employment for working women in Egypt?
8- How does the wealth index of the household affect the womans participation in labor
market?
9- How does the participation of women in the labor market affect her autonomy?
10- Concerning married women, how do the characteristics of the spouse affect womens
autonomy?
11- Concerning unmarried women, how do family characteristics affect womens
autonomy?
2.3 Data Source

The study uses survey's data of ELMPS 2012. The ELMPS is a survey that is carried out by
the ERF in cooperation with CAPMAS since 1998. It collects a great deal of information about
the characteristics of employment. The ELMPS 2012 is the third round of this longitudinal survey,
which was also carried out in 1998 and 2006. Information about health, education, geographic
mobility, and womens status can provide a rich source of data to be used in different researches.
The ELMPS consists of 3 questionnaires. The first questionnaire is related to the household
characteristics; the second one is related to the individual characteristics while the third one is
related to current immigration. The first two questionnaires only were used in our analysis to
extract the variables in interest.
The available data included a sample of 2,000 new households in addition to those individuals
who were interviewed in 1998 and 2006. The total sample includes 12,060 households and 49,186
individuals. The focus of this survey is women's participation in labor market. Therefore, the target
population of this study is women cases who were interviewed in 2012 round. Thus, a sample of
24703 female cases is used in this study. Then this sample was filtered into three sub-samples
17
according to their marital status: Married, Unmarried (all female cases who are never-married,
under age or contractually married) and Divorced/Widowed (divorced and widowed women).
2.4 Data Analysis

This section describes statistical tools that were used to answer the research questions.
Different descriptive tools such as frequency tables, charts and cross-tabulations were applied to
response variable of interest and some explanatory variables, which are considered relevant to the
research questions, were chosen.
The selected explanatory variables were then used to apply further in-depth analysis. Using
5% level of significance, Chi-square test of independence were used as analytical tool to examine
the relationship between these variables and the response variable.
After studying individual relationships with the response variable, logistic regression models
were used to study the combined effect of the selected explanatory variables on the response
variable. Concerning womens participation in the labor market. A binary logistic model was built
up for each group of women Married, Unmarried and Divorced/widowed. Identify main factors
affecting females participation in Labour market.
Concerning the autonomy of women, women were divided into only two groups: currently
married and unmarried women. An autonomy variable was computed for each group of women
from the ELMPS 2012 data. Data included 10 variables (questions) concerning her autonomy in
decision-making for each group of women. These questions were asked for currently married and
unmarried women. These variables were about the family member who had usually the final say
on many decisions such as: making household purchases, own visits to family or friends, what
food should be cooked daily, getting medical treatment, buying clothes for hers, taking child to the
doctor, dealing with children's teachers, sending children to school, buying clothes and other
commodities for the children.
Those 10 variables were recoded into 10 binary variables about whether the final say for these
decisions were taken by woman only or not. The 10 variables for each group of women were
summed up into one variable that has an autonomy score from 0 to 10. Then this variable was
recoded into 2 categories: woman has no autonomy or woman has any kind of autonomy in
decision-making. Two logistic models were built for each group to investigate factors affect the
autonomy of married and unmarried women.
The following chapters display the application and results of the previously described
methodology.
18
Chapter Three: Descriptive

Statistics
19
Introduction
This chapter is divided into three main parts. First of which is definitions of variables used
in our study. The second part is concerned with data visualization for women's participation in the
Egyptian labor market and its relations to womens and household characteristics. While the last
part is concerned with data visualization for women's autonomy in decision-making and factors
affecting womens autonomy. Variables related to womens participation and autonomy are
represented using different descriptive tools including frequency tables, bar charts and crosstabulations that were all computed from ELMPS 2012 data unless otherwise stated. Moreover, at
5% significance level, Chi-square test is used to test if there is a relationship between the response
variable in interest and the explanatory variables.
3.1 Definitions of Variables

This section includes the definition of the dependent and the independent variables related to
the studys objective.
Table (3.1) Definitions of the dependent and independent variables of the study
Variable name
Wealth
Sex
Participation in the
labor market
Place of Residence
Job stability
Sector of employment
Womens autonomy
Age
Definition
A continuous variable shows the
household wealth score
A binary variable identifies the gender of
the respondent.
A binary variable shows whether the
respondent has participated in any
employment during the week preceding
the time of data collection or not.
A binary variable identifies the area of
residence of the respondent
A binary variable shows how stable the
respondents job was
A binary variable shows in which sector
the respondent was working
Value
1: Male
2: Female
0: Did not participate
1: Participated
1: Urban
2: Rural
1: Permanent
2: Temporary
0: Governmental/Public
1:
Private/international/investment
A binary variable indicates whether a
0: No autonomy
currently married/unmarried woman has
1: Has any kind of autonomy
autonomy in decision-making or not
A categorical variable Identifies in which
1: Less than 18
age group the respondent was. The
2: 18-28
respondents were grouped in 5 age groups
3: 29-38
4: 39-49
20
Marital status
Education
Number of children
Employment status
A categorical variable shows the marital

status of the respondent which was
classified into three categories: married
cases, unmarried (all cases who were
never-married, under age or contractually
married)
and
Divorced/Widowed
(divorced and widowed cases)
A categorical variable shows the
educational attainment of the respondent
whose aged 10 years and above. The cases
were categorized into 4 categories:
illiterate, read and writes or less than
intermediate, intermediate and above,
university and above
A categorical variable represents the total
number of live children the women had if
she had ever given birth. It is a computed
variable for the ever-married women who
aged between 18 and 49. This variable
was re-coded into 3 categories: women
who had no children, 1 or 2 children and 3
children or more
A categorical variable shows the
respondents employment status during
the week preceding the time of data
collection. Respondents who participated
in the labor market were categorized into
four categories: waged employee,
employer, self-employed or unpaid family
worker
5: 50 or more
1: Never-married/less than
minimum age or contractually
married
2: Married
3: Divorced/Widowed
1: Illiterate
2: Reads and writes/less than
intermediate
3: Intermediate and above
4: University and above
0: No children
1: 1 or 2
3: 3 or more
1: Waged employee
2: Employer
3: Self-employed
4: Unpaid family worker
3.2 Womans participation in the Egyptian labor market and its relation with
her characteristics
This section shows the relation between variable of interest "Participation of women in the
labor market" and other factors that may have relation to this response variable. The sample
comprises of 50.3% females and 49.7% males, 38% of the females were less than 18 years, while
those aged 18 28 represented 21%. Moreover, females that aged 39-49 represented the least
percentage of the sample as they represented only 10%. Concerning women who stayed at home
21
43.9% of them stayed at home because her husband or fiance refused her participation in labor
market. Moreover, 15.8% of women decided not to participate in labor market to take care of
children. In addition, 1.7% and 2.4% of women stayed at home because her father or other family
member refused respectively. Also 8.9% of women decided to stay at home because there was no
suitable job, others 5.3% decided so because wages were unsuitable.
3.2.1 Participation in labor market and its relation with sex
Did not participate
Participated
87.50%
43.80%
56.20%
12.50%
Male
Female
Figure (3.1) The participation in labor market by sex
Figure 3.1 shows that the percentage of males who participated in labor market represents
about 56.2% compared to 12.5% only of women. Therefore, it is concluded that rate of
participating in labor market is higher for men than for women.
We also tested Ho: Individuals participation in labor market and sex are independent
against H1: Individuals participation in labor market and sex are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared=
14201887.679. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected at 5% significant level.
Hence, it can be said that there is a significant relationship between participation in labor market
and sex.
22
3.2.2 Relation between womans marital status with her sector of employment
Government/Public
Private/international/investment
81.7%
71.4%
68.2%
31.8%
28.6%
18.3%
Married
Unmarried
Divorced/Widowed
Figure (3.2) Percentage of women in different sectors of employment according to their marital status
Figure 3.2 shows that sector of employment depends on womans marital status. In general,
private, international or investment sectors are most common sectors of womans employment
regardless of her marital status. However, the figure indicates that the highest percentage of women
worked in private, international or investment sector are either unmarried or divorced/widowed
women in contrast, the highest percentage of women worked in public/government sector are
married.
In addition, we tested Ho: Womans sector of employment and her marital status are
independent against H1: Womans sector of employment and her marital status are dependent.
Pearson Chi Squared = 91473.719. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Therefore, Ho is rejected
at 5% significance level, which indicates that there is a significant relationship between sector of
employment and woman's marital status.
23
3.2.3 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her place of residence
by her marital status
Did not participate
Participated
96.80%
91.50%
84.30%
81.20%
18.80%
8.50%
urban
88.40%
82.70%
15.70%
17.30%
11.60%
3.20%
rural
Unmarried
urban
rural
Married
urban
rural
Divorced/Widowed
Figure (3.3) Percentage of womens participation in labor market according to their place of residence
controlling for their marital status
Figure 3.3 shows that, regardless of marital status, among women who participated in labor
market, the percentage of women's participation in urban areas is higher than that in rural areas. In
addition, it shows that the higher percentage of participation in labor market among all women
goes to married women whose place of residence is urban areas. However, the lowest percentage
goes to unmarried women whose place of residence is rural areas.
Moreover, we tested Ho: Women's participation in labor market and place of residence are
independent against H1: Women's participation in labor market and place of residence are
dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for unmarried women category= 161962.325, for married
women= 29174.764 and for divorced/widowed women= 26993.022. Asymptotic significant is <
0.0001 for all groups. Thus, Ho is rejected which means that the place of residence and womans
participation in the labor market are dependent regardless of their marital status. This means that
regardless to marital status, the place of residence significantly influences woman participation in
the labor market, as it is obvious that percentage of women's participation in labor market is higher
in urban than in rural areas.
24
Divorced/Widowed
3.2.4 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her educational level
by her marital status
University
34.00%
Intermediate/Above
Married
66.00%
12.50%
Reads/writes/less than intermediate
87.50%
8.50%
Illiterate
91.50%
40.90%
University
59.10%
18.10%
Intermediate/Above
93.30%
11.60%
55.70%
10.20%
Intermediate/Above
Illiterate
88.40%
44.30%
University
81.90%
6.70%
Illiterate
Unmarried
52.90%
47.10%
89.80%
1.70%
98.30%
10.70%
89.30%
Participated
Did not participate
Figure (3.4) Percentage of womens participation in labor market according to their educational level
controlling for their marital status
Figure 3.4 shows that, regardless the marital status of women, the highest percentage for
participating in labor market is for those whose educational level is university. In contrast, the
lowest percentage of participation for unmarried women happens when their educational level is
reads and writes or less than intermediate and so as for married women. While for divorced or
widowed women the lowest percentage of participation is when woman is illiterate.
Ho: Women's participation in labor market and educational level are independent is tested
against H1: Women's participation in labor market and educational level are dependent. Pearson
Chi Squared for unmarried women category= 1732267.589, for married women= 1311332.437
and for divorced/widowed women= 510858.416. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for all groups.
Thus, Ho is rejected. Therefore, women's participation and her educational level are dependent
regardless of their marital status. In other words, the educational level for married, unmarried or
divorced-widowed women significantly affects her participation in labor market. Moreover, that
conclusion ensures the results in the figure above, as among unmarried cases, the higher the
educational level the higher her percentage of participation in labor market.
25
3.2.5 Relation between woman's participation in labor market and her age by her marital
status
Table (3.2) Percentage of women in labor market according to their age controlling for marital status
Marital status
Womans age
Percentage of women in
Chi-square plabor market
value(2-sided)
.000
Less than 18
0.6%
Unmarried
18 - 28
29 - 38
39 - 49
50 or more
13.7%
39.9%
36%
15.2%
5.5%
5.2%
9.6%
19.2%
25.3%
17.6%
17%
38.6%
37.5%
34.2%
8.9%
Total
Less than 18
18 - 28
29 - 38
39 - 49
50 or more
Married
Total
18 - 28
29 - 38
39 - 49
50 or more
Divorced/Widowed
Total
.000
.000
14.4%
.
Table 3.2 shows that, among unmarried women, women tend to participate more in labor
market when their age is between 29 and 38, while in case of married women, the highest
percentage of participation is when their age is between 39 and 49. Moreover, among
divorced/widowed women, women participate more in labor market when their age is between 18
and 28.
Also at 5% significance level, Ho: Women's participation in labor market and their age are
independent is tested against H1: Women's participation in labor market and their age are
dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for unmarried women category= 1963542.354, for married
women= 402048.6 and for divorced/widowed women= 390398.857. Asymptotic significant is <
0.0001 for all groups. Thus, it is obvious that Ho is rejected and hence, women's participation in
labor market is affected by their age regardless for their marital status. Besides, divorced/widowed
women are less likely to participate in labor market when they get older.
26
3.2.6 The participation of married or divorced woman in labor market and the total
number of children she had
Table (3.3) Percentage of married or divorced women in labor market according to their total
number of children
Marital status
Total number
Percentage of women in
Chi-square pof children
labor market
value(2-sided)
.000
No children
13.1%
Married
1-2
16%
3 or more
18.6%
No children
1-2
3 or more
16.9%
27%
38.1%
36.6%
35.8%
Total
Divorced/widowed
Total
.000
Table 3.3 shows that, among married women, women tend to participate more when they
have 3 or more children. Moreover, among divorced/widowed women, they are more likely to
participate in labor market when they have 1 or 2 children.
In addition, we tested Ho: Women's participation in labor market and number of live births
are independent against H1: Women's participation in labor market and number of live births are
dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for married women= 30960.491 and for divorced/widowed
women= 5251.345. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for all groups. Thus, Ho is rejected and
hence women's participation in labor market and number of live births are dependent. In other
words, for ever-married women, there is a positive relation between having children and
participating in labor market.
27
3.2.7 Relation between woman's employment status and her marital status
60.00%
56.20%
50.00%
40.00%
53.80%
44.20%
44.10%
37.20%
26.40%
30.00%
20.20%
20.00%
10.00%
9.30%
5.40%
1.20%
0%
2%
0.00%
MARRIED
Waged employee
UNMARRIED
Employer
Self-employed
DIVORCED/WIDOWED
Unpaid family worker
Figure (3.5) Womans employment status by her marital status
Figure 3.5 shows that, married and unmarried employed women are more likely to be
unpaid family worker. On the other hand, divorced/widowed women tended more to be waged
employee. This result may be explained as follows: divorced/widowed woman may have children
and hence, she has to be waged employee to secure permanent income, while married womans
husband may be also employed and hence the highest percentage goes to being unpaid family
worker. In addition, for unmarried women, the percentage between being waged employee and
unpaid family worker is not large.
In addition, we tested Ho: Womans employment status and her marital status are
independent against H1: Womans employment status and her marital status are dependent.
Pearson Chi Squared = 701918.806. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Therefore, Ho is rejected,
which indicates that there is a relation between women's employment status and marital status. As
married and unmarried women, tend to be unpaid family worker. However, divorced/widowed
women tended to be waged employee.
28
3.2.8 Relation between married womans participation in labor market and her
husband's characteristics
Table (3.4) Percentage of married women in labor market according to their husbands
characteristics
Husbands
Percentage of
Chi-square pcharacteristics
married women in
value(2-sided)
labor market
.000
Illiterate
12.3%
Educational level
Reads and writes / less than

intermediate
Intermediate and above
University and Above
Total
11.2%
16.8%
32.6%
17.1%
-----
Age
Less than 18
18 thru 28
29 thru 38
39 thru 49
50 or more
Total
18%
17.9%
22.9%
18%
.000
Employment
status
Wage Worker
Employer/Self-Employed
No job / Unpaid
Total
Sector of
employment
Government/public
private/international/investment
Total
28.1%
14%
.000
Permanent
Temporary/seasonal/casual
Total
20.4%
10.4%
Job stability
.000
8.1%
14.8%
20.8%
19.8%
17.1%
18%
.000
18%
From table 3.4, married women tend to participate in labor market more when their
husbands educational level is university and when their husbands age is between 39 and 49. In
addition, they participate more when their husbands have no or unpaid job. Moreover, when
husbands have a permanent job or work in government or private job, their wives are more likely
to participate in labor market.
Moreover, Ho: Married women's participation and her husband's characteristics are
independent is tested against H1: Married women's participation and her husband's characteristics
are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for husbands educational level = 645863.013, for husbands
29
age= 191208.864, for husbands employment status = 3419.380, for husbands sector of
employment= 382373.839 and for husbands job stability= 174070.297. For all husbands
characteristics, Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Thus, there is a significant relation between
woman's participation in labor market and her husband's characteristics as long as Ho is rejected.
3.2.9 Relation between unmarried woman's participation in labor market with some
characteristics of her father
Table (3.5) Percentage of unmarried women in labor market according to their fathers educational
level and employment status
Fathers educational level
Percentage of
Chi-square p-value(2-sided)
unmarried women in
labor market
.000
7.3%
Illiterate
5.7%
2.8%
7.3%
5.5%
Reads and writes / less than intermediate

Intermediate and above
Total
Fathers employment status
5%
5.8%
9.5%
5.5%
Wage Worker
No job / Unpaid
Total
.000
From table 3.5 it can be concluded that, when father is illiterate or his educational level is
university or above, unmarried women are more likely to participate in labor market with equal
percentages. When their father has no or unpaid job, the percentage of their participation increases.
In contrast, they are less likely to participate when their father is wage worker.
In addition, when we tested Ho: Unmarried women's participation and her father's
characteristics are independent against H1: Unmarried women's participation and her father's
characteristics are dependent, Pearson Chi Squared for fathers educational level = 84933.651 and
for fathers employment status = 30757.032. For all fathers characteristics, Asymptotic significant
is < 0.0001. Therefore, Ho is rejected which means unmarried woman's participation in labor
market and her father's characteristics are dependent. Thus, unmarried womens participation in
labor market is affected by their fathers educational level and employment status.
30
3.2.10 Relation between unmarried woman's participation in labor market with her
mother's characteristics
Table (3.6) Percentage of unmarried women in labor market according to their mothers educational
level and employment status
Mothers educational level
Percentage of unmarried women
Chi-square pin labor market
value(2-sided)
.000
7.3%
Illiterate
3.9%
Reads and writes/less than

intermediate/Intermediate and above
Total
5.5%
5.5%
Mothers employment status

7.1%
8%
5.1%
5.5%
Wage Worker
No job / Unpaid
Total
.000
It can be concluded from table 3.6 that, for unmarried women, the less educated mother is,
the more her daughter tend to participate in labor market. Moreover, when mother is an employer
or self-employed, unmarried women are more likely to participate.
We also tested Ho: Unmarried women's participation and her mother's characteristics are
independent against H1: Unmarried women's participation and her mother's characteristics are
dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for mothers educational level = 60054.887 and that for mothers
employment status = 16524.243. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for both characteristics of
mother. Thus, Ho is rejected which means that unmarried women's participation in labor market
and mother's characteristics are dependent.
3.3 Womans autonomy in decision making aged and its relation with her
characteristics
This section shows the relation between variable of interest (Womans autonomy in
decision-making) and other factors that may have relation to this response variable. The sample
comprises all currently married and currently unmarried women aged (15-49), only 19% of
currently married women were having autonomy in decision-making, compared to 20.5% of
currently unmarried women.
31
3.3.1 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her educational level
Has no autonomy
84.60%
80.20%
80.80%
15.40%
Illiterate
Has any kind of autonomy
19.80%
19.20%
Reads/writes/less
than intermediate
76.50%
Intermediate/Above
23.50%
University
Figure (3.6) Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according to their
educational level
Figure 3.6 shows that, currently married women tend to have more autonomy in decisionmaking when their educational level is university or above while they have less autonomy when
they are illiterate.
Moreover, Ho: Currently married woman's autonomy and her educational level are independent
is against H1: Currently married woman's autonomy and her educational level are dependent.
Pearson Chi Squared= 61157.116. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Therefore, Ho is rejected.
There is a relation between married woman's autonomy in decision-making and her educational
level. In other words, the higher the educational level of currently married women, the more
autonomy in decision-making they tend to have.
32
3.3.2 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her participation in the
labor market
Has no autonomy

81.50%
80.90%
19.10%
18.50%
Did not participate
Participated
Figure (3.7) Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according to their
participation in labor market
Figure 3.7 shows that, the percentage of having autonomy among currently married women
is approximately equal when they either participated in labor market or not, but this percentage is
slightly higher for those who did not participate.
In addition, we tested Ho: Currently married woman's autonomy and her participation in
labor market are independent against H1: Currently married woman's autonomy and her
participation in labor market are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared= 459.521. Asymptotic
significant is < 0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected. This means that there is significant negative relation
between currently married woman's autonomy and her participation in labor market. This means
that woman's autonomy decreases when she tends to participate in labor market.
33
3.3.3 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands age
Has no autonomy

88.20%
86.60%
80.40%
74.30%
25.70%
19.60%
11.80%
18 thru 28
29 thru 38
39 thru 49
13.40%
50 or more
Figure (3.8) Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making according their husbands
age
Figure 3.8 show that, when husbands age is between 18 and 28, his wife tends to have
more autonomy in decision-making in addition she tends to have less autonomy as he gets older
till age 49. While, when her husband reaches 50 years or more, womans autonomy percentage
starts to increase again.
Moreover, at 5% significance level, we tested Ho: Currently married woman's autonomy
and her husband's age are independent against H1: Currently married woman's autonomy and her
husband's age are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared= 217772.641. Asymptotic significant is <
0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected. There is a relation between currently married women's autonomy and
her husband's age. In other words, there is a negative relation between currently married women's
autonomy and her husband's age till age 49, as whenever a woman's husband gets older her
autonomy in decision-making is getting lower.
34
3.3.4 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands educational
level
Has no autonomy
83.10%
83.20%
16.90%
illiterate

83.00%
17.00%
16.80%
Reads&writes/less
than intermediate
81.60%
intermediate/Above
18.40%
University&above
Figure (3.9) Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making and their husbands
educational level
Figure 3.9 shows that when husbands educational level is university and above, currently
married woman will have more autonomy in decision-making. While when his educational level
is illiterate or reads and writes/less than intermediate, womans autonomy percentage will be
approximately equal for both level.
In addition, Ho: Currently married woman's autonomy and her husband's educational level
are independent is tested against H1: Currently married woman's autonomy and her husband's
educational level are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared= 2996.533. Asymptotic significant is <
0.0001. Therefore, Ho is rejected which means that husbands educational level has an effect on
his wife autonomy in decision-making. As the autonomy percentage for married woman increases
when her husband is highly educated.
35
3.3.5 Relation for currently married woman's autonomy with her husbands participation
in labor market controlling for her participation in labor market
Has no autonomy
83.90%
82.80%
79.80%
20.20%
Husband did not

participate
17.20%
Husband
participated
84.00%
16.10%
Husband did not

participate
Did not participate
16.00%
Husband
participated
Participated
Figure (3.10) Percentage of currently married womens autonomy in decision-making by their husbands
participation in labor market controlling for their participation in labor market
This figure shows that, among married women who did not participate in labor market, the
percentage of currently married women to have autonomy in decision-making is higher for those
whose husband did not participate in labor market than for women whose husband participated.
Moreover, among women who participated in labor market, women have autonomy in decisionmaking with approximately equal percentages when their husbands either participated or not in
labor market.
We tested Ho: Currently married woman's autonomy and her husband's participation in
labor market are independent against H1: Currently married woman's autonomy and her husband's
participation in labor market are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for women who did not
participate in labor market= 4370.061 and that for women who participated = 4095.542.
Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for both group of women. Thus, Ho is rejected, and therefore
there is a relation between currently married women's autonomy and her husband's participation
in labor market. As when husband who did not participate in labor market, his wife tends to have
more autonomy in decision making.
36
3.3.6 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her educational level
Has no autonomy
86.50%
82.70%
71.20%
60.10%
39.90%
28.80%
17.30%
13.50%
Illiterate
Reads/writes/less
than intermediate
Intermediate/Above
University
Figure (3.11) Percentage of currently unmarried womens autonomy in decision-making according to their
educational level
Figure 3.11 shows that, among currently unmarried women, women will have the highest
autonomy percentage when they are illiterate while this percentage decreases when their
educational level is university and above.
Here, we also tested Ho: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy and her educational level are
independent against H1: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy and her educational level are
dependent. Pearson Chi Squared = 313467.991. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Thus, Ho is
rejected. Therefore, there is a significant relation between unmarried women's autonomy and her
educational level.
37
3.3.7 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her participation in the
labor market
Has no autonomy
83.10%
59.70%
40.30%
16.90%
Did not participate
Participated
participation in labor market
Figure 3.12 shows that, among currently unmarried women, women who participated in
labor market tend to have more autonomy than women who did not participate. It is obvious that,
women who participated in labor market tend to have autonomy with percentage approximately
double that of women who did not participate.
Also we tested Ho: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy and her participation in labor
market are independent against H1: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy and her participation
in labor market are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared = 263166.013. Asymptotic significant is <
0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected. Therefore, there is a significant positive relation between currently
unmarried woman's autonomy and her participation in labor market.
38
3.3.8 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her fathers
characteristics
Has no autonomy

86.70%
80.80%
78.80%
75.50%
24.50%
21.20%
13.30%
illiterate
Reads&writes/Less
than intermediate
Intermediate&above
19.20%
University&above
fathers educational level
Figure 3.13 shows that among currently unmarried women, when father is illiterate, her
daughter will have more autonomy in decision-making in contrast woman will have less autonomy
percentage when her father has any kind of education.
Moreover, we tested Ho: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making and her
fathers educational level are independent against H1: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy in
decision-making and her fathers educational level are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared =
64219.709. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected which means that autonomy
for currently unmarried woman is negatively affected by her fathers educational level. In other
words, women have more autonomy when their fathers do not have any kind of education.
39
43.00%
39.50%
57.00%
60.50%
DID NOT PARTICIPATE
EMPLOYER/SELFEMPLOYED
89.80%
WAGE WORKER
82.40%
10.20%
NO JOB / UNPAID
WAGE WORKER
82.50%
17.60%
EMPLOYER/SELFEMPLOYED
17.50%
22.50%
77.50%
NO JOB / UNPAID
Has no autonomy
PARTICIPATED
fathers employment status controlling for their participation in labor market
Figure 3.14 shows that among currently unmarried women who participated in labor
market, approximately half of currently unmarried women have autonomy in decision making
when their fathers employment status is wage worker. On the other hand, among those who did
not participate, women have autonomy with approximately equal percentages when father is either
wage worker or employer/self-employed. In other words, unmarried women will have more
autonomy when their father has a paid job.
In addition, Ho: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making and her
fathers employment status are independent is tested against H1: Currently unmarried woman's
autonomy in decision-making and her fathers employment status are dependent. Pearson Chi
Squared for women who did not participate in labor market= 15059.730 and that for women who
participate = 12632.842. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for both group of women. Therefore,
Ho is rejected regardless woman did or did not participate in labor market which means that
unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making and her fathers employment status are
dependent for each group of women. Thus, in other words, there is a positive relationship between
father's employment status and womans autonomy. As the more father tend to have a paid job,
the higher her daughter tend to have any kind of autonomy in decision-making.
40
3.3.9 Relation for currently unmarried woman's autonomy with her mothers
characteristics
Has no autonomy

85.80%
86.30%
83.10%
75.10%
24.90%
16.90%
illiterate
Reads&writes/Less
than intermediate
13.70%
Intermediate&above
14.20%
University&above
mothers educational level
Figure 3.15 indicates that among currently unmarried women, the highest percentage for a
woman to have autonomy in decision-making happens when womans mother is illiterate.
Thus, we tested Ho: Currently unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making and her
mothers educational level are independent against H1: Currently unmarried woman's
autonomy in decision-making and her mothers educational level are dependent. Pearson Chi
Squared = 93693.736. Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001. Thus, Ho is rejected which means
that unmarried woman's autonomy in decision-making and her mothers educational level are
dependent. Thus, in other words, mothers educational level affects her daughters autonomy
in decision-making.
41
37.60%
41.90%
64.80%
62.40%
58.10%
DID NOT PARTICIPATE
NO JOB /UNPAID
82.80%
35.20%
EMPLYER/SELFEMPLOYED
80.20%
17.20%
NO JOB /UNPAID
WAGE WORKER
85.50%
19.80%
EMPLYER/SELFEMPLOYED
14.50%
WAGE WORKER
Has no autonomy
PARTICIPATED
mothers employment status controlling for their participation in labor market
Figure 3.16 shows that among women who participated in labor market, the highest
percentage for woman to have any kind of autonomy in decision making goes to those women
whose mother is unpaid family worker or has no job. Also among women who did not participate,
women have more autonomy when their mothers employment status is employer or selfemployed. Moreover, among women who participated as well as who did not participate, the
lowest percentage of women to have autonomy happens for those whose mother is wage worker.
At 5% significance level, Ho: Womans autonomy in decision-making and her mother's
employment status are independent is tested against H1: Womans autonomy in decision-making
and her mother's employment status are dependent. Pearson Chi Squared for women who did not
participate in labor market= 4518.072 and that for women who participated = 2714.958.
Asymptotic significant is < 0.0001 for both group of women. Thus, it can be concluded that
regardless being woman who participated or not in labor market, Ho is rejected therefore women's
autonomy and her mothers employment status are dependent. In other words, the mothers
employment status -for woman who participated or not in labor market- affects womans
autonomy. In other words, among currently unmarried women who participated in labor market.
The more mother tends to have no or unpaid job, the higher her daughter tend to have any kind of
autonomy in decision-making.
42
Chapter Four: Determinants

Affecting Women's Participation
in Labor Market and Her
Autonomy in Decision-Making
43
Introduction
This chapter is concerned with identifying the main determinants that affect women's
participation in labor market, as well as, her autonomy in decision-making. Consequently, Binary
Logistic Regression Models are carried out using SPSS package in order to find out the main
determinants that affect:
1. Women's participation in labor market.
2. Women's autonomy in decision-making.
Logistic regression model can have the following general form:
i=n
(x)
log(
) = o + i x i
1
(x)
i=1
Where Probability that a woman's participation in labor market/ has autonomy, xis
are explanatory variables and is are coefficients to be estimated
4.1 Determinants of married woman's participation in labor market

This part aims at identifying the main determinants concerning married woman's
participation in labor market. In this subsection, the dependent variable is "whether married women
participate in labor market or not" with some explanatory variables that will be explained in the
table below. After testing for multicollinearity using principal component analysis, it was found
out that there is no multicollinearity between all independent variables, and hence binary logistic
regression model is performed.
44
Table (4.1) Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of married
women
The explanatory variable
Variable's Type
Variable's Categories
Husband's Sector
Categorical
Husband's Age
Categorical
Place of Residence
Binary
Wealth
Continuous
Woman's Age
Categorical
Woman's Education
Categorical
Number of Children
Categorical
Husband's Job Stability
Categorical
Husband's Employment
Status
Categorical
Husband's Education
Categorical
1: Government / Public
2: Private (Reference)
1: Less than 18
2: 18-28
3: 29:38
4: 39:49
5: 50+ (Reference)
1: Urban
2: Rural (Reference)
1: 18 28
2: 29-38
3: 39-49 (Reference)
1: Illiterate (Reference)
2: Reads & Writes / Less than
intermediate
1: No Children
2: 1 2
3: 3+ (Reference)
1: Permanent
2: Temporary (Reference)
1: Waged Employee
2: Employer / Self-Employer
3: Unpaid / No job (Reference)
intermediate
Oak Institute
The results of the logistic model showed that the model is significant, and it classifies about
84% of women who participated in labor market correctly. Additionally, 98.4% of married women
who did not participate in labor market were correctly classified, while 13.6% of those who did
participate were correctly classified. Moreover, the model explains 19% of the variations of the
outcome.
45
5
3
Table (4.2): Results of logistic regression for married woman's participation in the labor market
Husband's
Sector(Government/Public)
S.E.
Wald
Df
Sig.
Exp(B)
.594
.002
70192.001
.000
1.811
8093.287
.000
Husband's Age
Husband's Age(Less than 18)
18.000-
794.701
.001
.982
.000
Husband's Age(18 - 28)
-.369-
.005
6190.263
.000
.692
-.205-
.003
3719.331
.000
.815
-.197-
.003
5619.858
.000
.821
Place of Residence (Urban)
-.361-
.002
35294.731
.000
.697
Wealth
-.121-
.001
9525.040
.000
.886
160451.066
.000
Woman's Age
Woman's Age(18 - 28)
-1.387-
.003
157318.338
.000
.250
-.584-
.003
53488.979
.000
.558
473122.526
.000
Woman's Education
Woman's Education
(Reads&Writes/Less than
intermediate)
-.379-
.003
12672.233
.000
.684
Woman's Education
(Intermediate)
.604
.003
47341.067
.000
1.830
Woman's Education (University

and above)
2.009
.004
303214.331
.000
7.453
2005.136
.000
Number of children
Number of children (No children)
.093
.003
727.144
.000
1.097
Number of children (1 - 2)
.086
.002
1877.041
.000
1.090
46
Husband's job
stability(Permanent)
-.008-
.002
Husband's Employment Status
11.310
.001
77062.495
.000
.992
Status(Waged Employee)
-1.420-
.006
59800.749
.000
.242
Status(Employer/Self-Employed)
-.995-
.006
29270.985
.000
.370
3100.204
.000
Husband's Education
Husband's
Education(Read&Writes/Less
than inter.)
-.055-
.003
357.205
.000
.946
Husband's
Education(Intermediate)
-.061-
.003
400.825
.000
.941
Husband's Education(University)
.063
.004
290.320
.000
1.065
Constant
-.120-
.007
334.063
.000
.887
From the previous table it can be concluded that, all variables are significant2
Moreover, married women are more likely to participate in labor market when their
husband's job sector is government or public compared to those whose husband's job sector is
private. Consequently, it can be said that the odds of women's participation in labor market among
women whose husband's job sector is government or public increases by 81% than the odds of
those whose husband's job sector is private, holding all other variables constant.
Additionally, married women are less likely to participate in labor market when their
husband's aged ( 18 28 , 29 38 , 39 49 ) . as the odds of married women's participation for
these age groups decreases approximately by 30.8% , 18.5% and 17.9% compared to the odds for
those women whose husband's age is 50+, holding all other variables constant.
Besides, the probability of womans participation in labor market increases with her level
of education. As indicated by table 4.2, married women are more likely to participate in labor
market when her educational level is university or above than those who educational level is
illiterate. Since the odds of participating in labor market among married women whose educational
2
The only insignificant variable is husband aged less than 18( in the sample only 2 husbands are less than 18
47
level is university increases about 7 times than odds for illiterate women who participate. As well
as a woman whose husband's educational level is university or above is more likely to participate
in labor market than a woman whose husband's educational level is illiterate. As it is concluded
that, the odds for married woman's participation when her husband's educational level is university
or above is 6.5% higher than when her husband is illiterate, holding all other variables constant.
Finally, the odds for a married woman to participate in labor market when her husband is
wageworker or employed/self-employed is less than when her husband is unpaid worker or has
no job, holding all other variables constant.
Finally, the odds for a married woman to participate in labor market when her husband is
wageworker or employed/self-employed is less than when her husband is unpaid worker or has
no job, holding all other variables constant.
4.2 Determinants of unmarried woman's participation in labor market

This part aims at identifying the main determinants concerning unmarried woman's
participation in labor market. In this subsection, the dependent variable is "whether unmarried
women participate in labor market or not" with some explanatory variables that will be explained
in the table below. After testing for multicollinearity using principal component analysis, it was
found out that there is no multicollinearity between all independent variables, and hence binary
logistic regression model is done
48
Table (4.3) Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of
unmarried women
Variable's
Type
1: Urban
Place of Residence
Binary
Wealth
Continuous
Woman's Age
Categorical
Father's Education
Categorical
Mother's Education
Categorical
Woman's Education
Categorical
Father's Employment Status
Categorical
Mother's Employment Status
Categorical
1: Less than 18
2: 18 - 29
3: 30+ (Reference)
intermediate
intermediate
intermediate
1: Waged Employee
1: Waged Employee
92.7% of unmarried women who participated in labor market correctly. Additionally, 98.8% of
unmarried women who did not participate in labor market were correctly classified, while 18.5%
of those who did participate were correctly classified. Moreover, the model explains 38.7% of the
variations of the outcome.
49
Table (4.4): Results of logistic regression for unmarried woman's participation in the labor market
B
S.E.
Father's Education
Wald
Df
Sig.
43087.264
.000
Exp(B)
Father's
than intermediate)
-.763-
.004
33078.262
.000
.466
Father's Education(Intermediate
and above)
-.963-
.006
28664.100
.000
.382
Father's Education(University
and above)
-.678-
.007
9687.637
.000
.507
28609.130
.000
Mother's Education
Mother's
than intermediate)
-.376-
.004
7008.127
.000
.687
Mother's Education(Intermediate
and above)
1.032-
.006
26522.030
.000
.356
Mother's Education(University
and above)
1.193-
.009
18335.268
.000
.303
142218.618
.000
Woman's Age
Woman's Age(Less tha 18)
2.422-
.007
127630.191
.000
.089
1.010-
.004
66633.478
.000
.364
365981.190
.000
Woman's Education
Woman's Education
(Reads&Writes/Less than
intermediate)
-.390-
.006
3946.788
.000
.677
Woman's Education
(Intermediate and above)
.433
.006
6172.555
.000
1.542
50

and above)
2.497
.006
165641.536
.000
25342.318
.000
12.151
Mother's Employment
Status(Wage Worker)
.446
.005
7561.522
.000
1.563

(Employer/Self-Employed)
.982
.007
19299.672
.000
2.669
Place of Residence(Urban)
.530
.004
22529.398
.000
1.699
WEALTH
.132
.002
4231.942
.000
1.141
6416.709
.000

(Wage Worker)
-.268-
.005
3110.995
.000
.765

-.029-
.005
29.419
.000
.971
Constant
1.110-
.007
28201.802
.329
Table 4.4 indicates that, unmarried woman is more likely to participate in labor market
when her educational level is university or above than when she is illiterate, consequently, the odds
of unmarried woman whose educational level is university is 12 times higher than when her
educational level is illiterate, holding all other variables constant.
Additionally, an unmarried woman is more likely to participate in labor market in urban
regions more compared to rural areas, as it is obvious that the odds of an unmarried woman to
participate in labor market when her place of residence is urban is more than rural by
approximately 70%.
Finally, an unmarried woman is more likely to participate in labor market when her
mother's employment status is wage worker or employer / self-employed than when her mother as
no job or unpaid one, in contrast she participated less when her father's educational level is wage
worker or employer / self-employed than when her father has no job or unpaid one.
51
4.3 Determinants of divorced or widowed woman's participation in labor

market
This part aims at identifying the main determinants concerning divorced/ widowed
woman's participation in labor market. In this subsection, the dependent variable is "whether
divorced/widowed women participate in labor market or not" with some explanatory variables that
will be explained in the table below. After testing for multicollinearity using principal component
analysis, it was found out that there is no multicollinearity between all independent variables, and
hence binary logistic regression model is done.
Table (4.5): Variables used in logistic regression for participation in labor market of divorced or
widowed women
Variable's Type
Place of Residence
Binary
Wealth
Continuous
Woman's Age
Categorical
Father's Education
Categorical
Mother's Education
Categorical
Woman's Education
Categorical
Categorical
Categorical
Number of children
Categorical
52
1: Urban
1: 18 - 28
2: 29 - 38
3: 39 - 49 (Reference)
intermediate
intermediate
intermediate
1: Waged Employee
1: Waged Employee
1: No children
2: 1 2
3: 3+ (Reference)
72.6% of divorced/widowed women who participated in labor market correctly. Additionally,
90.6% of divorced/widowed women who did not participate in labor market were correctly
classified, while 40.4% of those who did participate were correctly classified. Moreover, the model
explains 23% of the variations of the outcome.
Table (4.6): Results of logistic regression for divorced or widowed woman's participation in the labor
market
B
S.E.
Wald
Place of residence
(Urban)
.737
.006
16160.719
.000
2.089
WEALTH
.073
.004
360.521
.000
1.075
2000.131
.000
Woman's Age
Df
Sig.
Exp(B)
.373
.009
1624.055
.000
1.452
Woman's Age( 29 - 38)
.220
.006
1166.087
.000
1.246
10938.127
.000
Father's Education
Father's
Education(Reads&Writes
/ Less than intermediate)
Father's Education
Father's
Education(University and
above)
-.053-
.007
64.350
.000
.949
-1.138-
.011
10207.541
.000
.320
-.299-
.016
339.845
.000
.741
2635.902
.000
Mother's Education
Mother's Education
(Reads&Writes / Less
than intermediate)
Mother's
Education(Intermediate
and above)
Mother's
above)
.247
.008
988.995
.000
1.280
.644
.016
1695.277
.000
1.904
-.277-
.030
83.131
.000
.758
32961.863
.000
Woman's Education
53
Woman's Education
(Reads & Writes / Less
than intermediate)
Woman's
and above)
Woman's Education
(University and above)
.264
.008
1212.500
.000
1.302
.331
.008
1882.645
.000
1.393
2.000
.012
30206.856
.000
7.389
4840.984
.000
Father's Employment
Status
Father's Employment
Status (Wage worker)
Father's Employment
Status (Employer / SelfEmployed)
Mother's Employment
Status
Mother's Employment
Status (Wage worker)
Mother's Employment
Status (Employer / SelfEmployed)
.226
.015
226.432
.000
1.253
-.192-
.016
150.800
.000
.825
10504.201
.000
.883
.010
7495.025
.000
2.418
.924
.016
3429.509
.000
2.518
21886.736
.000
Number of children
Number of children(No
children)
-1.342-
.009
20434.924
.000
.261
Number of children(1 - 2)
-.635-
.006
9936.331
.000
.530
Constant
-1.165-
.016
5359.744
.000
.312
From the table above, it is obvious that , the odds of a divorced woman who participates in
labor market is two times when her mother's employment status is wage worker or employer/selfemployed than when her mother's employment status is no job or unpaid one.
Besides, a divorced woman is less likely to participate in labor market when she has no
children or 1 2 children, as the odds of a divorced woman who participates in labor market when
she has no children or just 1 2 is less than when she has more than 3 children by (74% and 47%
respectively).
Moreover, the odds of participation among divorced/widowed women when her place of
residence is urban is 2 times when her place of residence is rural ones.
54
Finally, the odds of participation among divorced/widowed women whose age is between
(18 28 or 29 38) is higher than when her age is between (39 - 49) by (45.2% and 24.6%
respectively).
4.4 Determinants of currently married woman's autonomy in decisionmaking

This part aims at identifying the main determinants married women's whether having
autonomy in decision-making or not. In this subsection, the dependent variable is "does a married
woman has autonomy in decision-making" with some explanatory variables that will be explained
in the table below. After testing for multicollinearity using principal component analysis, it was
found out that there is no multicollinearity between all independent variables, and hence binary
logistic regression model is done.
Table (4.7) Variables used in logistic regression for autonomy in decision-making for currently married
women
Variable's Type
1: Less than 18
2: 18-28
3: 29:38
4: 39:49
5: 50+ (Reference)
1: Urban
Husband's Age
Categorical
Place of Residence
Binary
Wealth
Continuous
Woman's Education
Categorical
2: Reads & Writes / Less
than intermediate
Whether a woman participates in

labor market or not
Binary
1: No (Reference)
2: Yes
Whether her husband's participates

in labor market or not
Binary
1: No (Reference)
2: Yes
Husband's Education
Categorical
55
intermediate
82.8% of married women who have autonomy in decision-making correctly. Additionally, 100%
of married women who did not have autonomy in decision-making were correctly classified, while
0% of those who did have autonomy in decision-making were correctly classified. Moreover, the
model explains 3.9% of the variations of the outcome.
Table (4.8): Results of logistic regression for currently married womans autonomy in decision-making
B
S.E.
Husband's Age
Wald
Df
Sig.
190454.096
.000
Exp(B)
Husband's Age(Less than

18)
-19.276-
794.96
9
.001
.981
.000
.834
.003
85023.230
.000
2.302
Husband's Age(29 38)
.448
.003
31097.273
.000
1.565
Husband's Age( 39 - 49)
-.128-
.003
2253.369
.000
.880
Place of residence(Urban)
.272
.002
26064.053
.000
1.313
WEALTH
-.037-
.001
990.485
.000
.964
35885.263
.000
Woman's Education
Woman's Education
(Reads&Writes /Less
than intermediate)
Woman's Education
Woman's Education
(University and above)
Woman's participation in
labor market(Yes)
Husband's participation
in labor market(Yes)
.261
.002
11142.973
.000
1.298
.264
.002
11812.290
.000
1.303
.640
.003
34439.444
.000
1.896
-.059-
.002
757.340
.000
.943
-.242-
.003
7035.772
.000
.785
18446.808
.000
6145.988
.000
Husband's Education
Husband's
Education(Reads&Writes
/Less than intermediate)
-.190-
.002
56
.827
Husband's
and above)
-.317-
.002
16441.078
.000
.728
Husband's
above)
-.383-
.003
13711.108
.000
.682
Constant
-1.775-
.004
252458.470
.000
.170
Table 4.8 shows that all the variables included in the model is significant, which means
that they affect a woman to have autonomy in decision-making or not.
It is obvious that, a married woman is more likely to have autonomy in decision-making
when her educational level is university or above than when she is illiterate. As the odds of having
autonomy among married women whose educational level is university increases by 89.6% than
the odds of those who are illiterate.
Moreover, a married woman is more likely to have autonomy in decision-making when her
place or residence is urban, consequently, the odds of having autonomy in urban regions increases
by 31.1% than the odds of those whose place of residence is rural areas.
Besides, a married woman is less likely to have autonomy when her husband's age is 39
49 than when he aged 50+. As the odds of having autonomy in decision-making when husband's
age is 39 49 decreases by 12% when her husband's age is more than 50.
4.5 Determinants of currently unmarried woman's autonomy in decisionmaking

This part aims at identifying the main determinants concerning unmarried women's in
autonomy un decision-making. In this subsection, the dependent variable is "whether an unmarried
woman has autonomy in decision-making or not" with some explanatory variables that will be
explained in the table below. After testing for multicollinearity using principal component
analysis, it was found out that there is no multicollinearity between all independent variables, and
hence binary logistic regression model is done.
Table (4.9) Variables used in logistic regression for autonomy in decision-making for currently
unmarried women
Place of Residence
Variable's Type
Binary
1: Urban
57
Wealth
Continuous
Whether unmarried
woman participates in
labor market
Binary
Father's Education
Categorical
Mother's Education
Categorical
Woman's Education
Categorical
Father's Employment
Status
Categorical
Mother's Employment
Status
Categorical
1: No (Reference)
2: Yes
2: Reads & Writes / Less than intermediate
1: Waged Employee
1: Waged Employee
80% of unmarried women who have autonomy correctly. Additionally, 98.3% of unmarried
women who did not have autonomy in decision-making were correctly classified, while 9.4% of
those who did have were correctly classified. Moreover, the model explains 13.8% of the variations
of the outcome.
Table (4.10): Results of logistic regression for currently unmarried womans autonomy in decisionmaking
Place of residence(Urband)
S.E.
Wald
Df
Sig.
Exp(B)
.366
.002
21509.729
.000
1.443
170158.105
.000
Woman's Education
58
Woman's
Education(Reads&Writes /Less
than intermediate)
1.254-
.003
152850.977
.000
.285
Woman's Education
1.047-.697-
.003
95144.314
.000
.351
.004
25505.577
.000
.498
29915.339
.000

and above)
(Wage worker)
.796
.005
29914.644
.000
2.216

WEALTH
.733
.005
22034.620
.000
2.080
-.066-
.002
1908.007
.000
.936
16085.711
.000
Father's Education
Father's
Education(Reads&Writes/Less
than intermediate )
Father's Education(Intermediate
and above)
Father's Education(University
and above)
Mother's Education
.098
.003
1173.722
.000
1.103
-.005-
.004
1.490
.222
.995
.532
.005
11007.858
.000
1.702
41965.060
.000
MotherEduc(Reads&Writes/Less
than intermediate)
Mother's Education
-.406-
.003
15190.960
.000
.666
-.778-
.004
30125.106
.000
.459
Mother's Education (University

and above)
1.168-
.007
29786.742
.000
.311
3843.379
.000

Mother's Employment
Status(Wage worker)
(Emplyer/Self-Employed)
Whether an unmarried woman
participates in labor market or
not (yes)
Constant
.233
.004
3709.215
.000
1.262
.086
.006
209.273
.000
1.090
-.971-
.003
121433.743
.000
.379
-.463-
.006
6641.542
.000
.629
59
From the table above, it can be concluded that, unmarried women are less likely to have
autonomy in decision-making when she participates in labor market than when she do not. As the
odds of having autonomy in decision-making among unmarried women when she participates in
labor market decreases by 62% than when she did not participate holding all other variables
constant.
Additionally, the odds of having autonomy in decision making when her mother's
educational level is university or above decreases by 70% than the odds when her mother is
illiterate.
Moreover, unmarried women are more likely to have autonomy in decision-making when
her father's employment status is wage worker or employer/self-employed than when he is
illiterate.
60
Chapter Five: Study Conclusions

and Recommendations
61
5.1 Study Conclusions

This chapter's main goal is to highlight the main results of this study which satisfies the
previously mentioned main objectives, where after carrying the descriptive statistics and the
logistic models the following results were obtained:
First: Concerning womans participation in labor market:
From the ELPMS sample, 12.5% only of women participated in labor market comparing
to 56.2% of males which indicates that womens unemployment rate is much higher than that of
males. Moreover, 43.9% of women stayed at home because her husband or fiance refused her
participation in labor market.
It was found that regardless of womans marital status, womans age, place of residence,
educational level and the household wealth significantly affect womans participation in labor
market. In addition, the total number of children for ever-married and divorced or widowed women
significantly affect their participation as well. Moreover, husbands characteristics significantly
affect his wife participation while parents characteristics affect unmarried, divorced and widowed
womens participation.
Women in labor market were more likely to work in the private sectors than public or
governmental sectors regardless their marital status. Moreover, women tend to participate more in
urban regions than in rural ones regardless of their marital status. Also it was concluded that,
regardless to marital status, women tend to participate in labor market when they are highly
educated more than when they are illiterate.
Concerning married women, there is positive relation between having children and
participation in labor market, as the more children a woman has, she tends to participate more in
labor market. In addition, she tends to participate more when her husband's educational level is
university as well as when he aged (39 - 49). Moreover, when her husband has no job or unpaid
family worker.
Second: Concerning womans autonomy in decision-making:
Regardless of womans marital status, womans participation in labor market is a main
determinant for a woman to have autonomy in addition to womans age, place of residence,
educational level and the household wealth which are all significantly affect womans autonomy.
Moreover, husbands characteristics significantly affect his wife autonomy in decision-making
while parents characteristics affect unmarried womens autonomy. A married woman will tend to
have autonomy when she is highly educated. While, Unmarried Women who did participate in
labor market, tend to have autonomy in decision making more than if she did not participate, in
contrast to that married women who did not participate tend to have more autonomy than when
she did participate.
62
We are not surprising that all our variables are significant as most of these variables were
mentioned in the literature review.
5.2 Recommendation
First: Concerning womans participation in labor market:
Egyptian government should give more attention to women problems and encourage them
to participate in labor market. In addition, Policies should overcome womens unequal access to
job opportunities.
More suitable job opportunities should be available for women in general and especially in
rural regions. Moreover, Husbands should let their wives decide whether to work or not.
Second: Concerning womans autonomy in decision-making:
Policies should improve the education in Egypt and encourage women to always be highly
educated that in return will increase their autonomy in decision making.
63
List of References
-
Assad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.) (2015). The Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Revolution.
Oxford University Press, USA (Book).
Assad, R. and Krafft, C. (2013) The Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey: Introducing The 2012
Round. ERF working paper, no.758, The Economic Research Forum (ERF), Cairo, Egypt.
Donahoe, D. A. (1999). Measuring Women's Work in Developing Countries. Population and

Development Review, vol.25, No.3, pp.543576.
Hendy, R. (2015) Womens Participation in the Egyptian Labor Market: 1998 2012. ERF
working paper, No.907, the Economic Research Forum (ERF), Cairo, Egypt.
International Labour Organization (ILO) Resolutions Concerning Economically Active

Population, Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment Adopted by the 13th
International Conference of Labour Statisticians, October 1982, para. 9.
Mehmood, B., Ahmad, S. and Imran, M. (2015) What Derives Female Labor Force
Participation in Muslim Countries? A Generalized Method of Moments Inference" (2015)
What Derives Female Labor Force Participation in Muslim Countries? A Generalized Method
of Moments Inference. Pakistan Journal of Commer Social Sciences, Vol. 9, No.1, pp.120130.
Nazier, H. and Ramadan, R. (2016) Womens Participation In Labor Market In Egypt:

Constraints And Opportunities. ERF working paper, No.999, The Economic Research Forum
(ERF), Cairo, Egypt.
Peutere, L., Vahtera, J., Kivimki, M., Pentti, J. and Virtanen, P. (2015) Job Contract at Birth
of the First Child as a Predictor of Womens Labor Market Attachment. Nordic journal of
working life studies, vol.5, No.1, pp.9-30.
Samari, G. (2015). The women's status, autonomy, and fertility in transitional Egypt. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Spierings, N., Smits, J., and Verloo, M. (2010). Micro- and Macrolevel Determinants of
Women's Employment in Six Arab Countries. Journal of Marriage and Family, vol.72, No.5,
pp.13911407.
64
Turanli, M., Cengiz, D., Turanli, R. and Akdal, S. (2015) Effect of Female Education and
Labor Force Ratio on Economic Development. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice,
vol.15, No.2, pp.387-396.
65

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Cairo University

Faculty of Economics and Political Science

Haidy Marzok Mohamed Ali

Yasmeen Taha El-Sayed El-Naggar

Dr. Heba El-Liathy

Dr. Mustafa Salamh

Figure 3.16: Percentage of currently unmarried womens autonomy in decision-making according to

Womans autonomy one's own concerns, also it is an indicator of her empowerment.

International Labour Organization

Economic Research forum

Middle East and North Africa

World Development Indicators

Chapter One: Introduction and

1.2 Literature Review

1.3 Study Objectives

Identify the main determinants of women's participation in labor force including

Chapter Two: Methodology and

2.1 Conceptual framework

Figure 2.2 conceptual frame work of womans autonomy in decision-making:

2.2 Research Questions

2.3 Data Source

2.4 Data Analysis

Chapter Three: Descriptive

3.1 Definitions of Variables

A categorical variable shows the marital

Figure (3.1) The participation in labor market by sex

Reads/writes/less than intermediate

Reads/writes/less than intermediate

Did not participate

Figure (3.5) Womans employment status by her marital status

Reads and writes / less than

Reads and writes / less than intermediate

Reads and writes/less than

Mothers employment status

Has any kind of autonomy

Has any kind of autonomy

Did not participate

Has any kind of autonomy

Has any kind of autonomy

Husband did not

Has any kind of autonomy

Husband did not

Did not participate

Has any kind of autonomy

Has any kind of autonomy

Did not participate

Has any kind of autonomy

DID NOT PARTICIPATE

Has any kind of autonomy

Has any kind of autonomy

DID NOT PARTICIPATE

Has any kind of autonomy

Chapter Four: Determinants

4.1 Determinants of married woman's participation in labor market

Husband's Job Stability

Husband's Age(18 - 28)

Husband's Age(29 - 38)

Husband's Age(39 - 49)

Place of Residence (Urban)

Woman's Age(29 - 38)

Woman's Education (University

Husband's Employment Status

4.2 Determinants of unmarried woman's participation in labor market