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ELEMENTS OF
PEACTICAL AERODYNAMICS
ELEMENTS OF
PRACTICAL AERODYNAMICS
BY
BRADLEY
JOJMES, M.S.
M.LAe.S.
SECOND EDITION
NEW YORK
CHAPMAN &
1939
SONS,
Inc.
HALL, Limited
4 ^'iJ3;is
J76 ^5.
sciENced
UBRARt
By BRADLEY JONES
All Rights Reserved
This book or any part thereof must not
be reproduced in any form without
the written permission of the publisher.
Printed in U.
Printing
GILSON CO.
I.
BOSTON
S.
A.
Composition
TECHNICAL COMPOSITION CO.
BOSTON
8-41
Binding
STANHOPE BINDERY
BOSTON
first
it
in
ment
of Oswald's
method
In
balance,
the
it
In revising the original edition, the author wishes to acknowlthe valuable criticisms and suggestions of Professors
Lavrow of the Detroit Institute of Technology, W. A. Bevan
of the Iowa State College, V. W. Young of the Oklahoma A. and M.
College, and T. E. Butterfield of Lehigh University. The author
edge
A.
is
especially
Cincinnati,
grateful
to
his
colleague
for
at
his
the
University
valuable
assistance.
Bradley Jones
University of Cincinnati
January, 1939
K;
138159
of
editorial
may
with
this University.
Bradley Jones
University of Cincinnati
April, 1936
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
III.
22
IV.
AIRFOILS
28
I.
II.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XVII.
XIX.
125
138
148
TURNS
THE CONTROL SURFACES
251
XVIII.
75
104
PROPELLERS
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
XIV. STABILITY
XVI.
11
XX. AVIGATION
XXL AEROSTATICS
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
INDEX
A.
B.
NOMENCLATURE
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
183
230
265
275
299
303
311
322
357
366
384
403
419
427
ELEMENTS OF
PRACTICAL AERODYNAMICS
CHAPTER
air
and
made
forces;
i.e.,
may
is
by the
small.
may be
easily
application of small
The amount
of the forces
may
no internal
of in-
conceive
friction, so
that between two particles the action of any force must be normal
to the contact surfaces, and cannot have
Air
is
is
Air
is
a gas.
It
Nitrogen
78.08
Oxygen
Argon
Hydrogen
20.94
0.94
0.01
Neon
0.0012
Helium
Carbon dioxide
0.0004
0.03
Water vapor also is always present, the amount varying with the
temperature and other factors, but averaging about 1.2 per cent
at the earth's surface.
stituents
listed.
Because
pressure,
air is
etc.
a gas,
its
layer,
The standard
conditions most
commonly used
Under these
mass density
conditions, the
(p)
of dry air
is
0.07651
Up
lb.
per cu.
ft.
(g
32.172
ft.
per
(15.6
is
sec.^) is
C).
The mass
lb.
per cu.
ft.
test.
PoVo
PiVi
where Po, Vq, and To are pressure, volume, and absolute temperaand Pi, Fi, and Ti are under
other than standard conditions.
As weight density is the weight divided by the volume, the
density of a gas is increased by an increase in pressure, a decrease
in volume, or a decrease in temperature.
In a given volume, the
PO
Po T
in. of
is
25.93
=45
P_ To
Po T
Example.
What
^
is
25.93
""
29.92
-t^4"59.4
5_1m/4 002378 =
in. of
^P_
^
Po
To
16.38
29.92
T^'
Specific weight
504.4.
pXg =
0.00212
504.4
16.38
518^
449.4
0.001502
is
if
the pressure
is
10 F.?
0.002378
32.1740
0.001502
0.04832
lb.
per cu.
ft.
Second method:
Specific
weight
^
0.07651
j^ X 449.4
|^ = 0.04832
lb.
per cu.
ft.
29.92
Problems
1.
2.
3.
TABLE
Altitude-Pressure-Density Relation
Based on N.A.C.A. No. 218
Altitude,
ft.
1000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
10 000
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11000
12
13
14
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
Temperature,
F.
59.0
55.4
51.8
48.4
44.8
41.2
37.6
34.0
30.6
27.0
23.4
19.8
16.2
12.6
9.2
5.5
-12.3
-30.1
-48.1
-65.8
-67.0
-67.0
-67.0
Pressure,
in.
Hg
29.92
28.86
27.82
26.81
25.84
24.89
23.98
23.09
22.22
21.38
20.58
19.79
19.03
18.29
17.57
16.88
13.75
11.10
8.88
7.04
5.54
4.36
3.44
p_
PO
1.000
0.9710
.9428
.9151
.8881
.8616
.8358
.8106
.7859
.7619
.7384
.7154
.6931
.6712
.6499
.6291
.5327
.4480
.3740
.3098
.2447
.1926
.1517
i/^
Vp
1.000
1.0148
1 0299
1 0454
1.0611
1.0773
1.0938
1.1107
1.1280
1.1456
1.1637
1 1822
1.2012
1 2206
1 2404
1 2608
1.3701
1 4940
1.6352
1.7961
2.0215
2.2786
2.5674
0.002 378
oof 309
.0#242
002 176
002 112
.002 049
.001987
.mi 928
:
.001869
.001812
.001756
.001701
.001648
001 596
001 545
.001496
001 267
.
001
000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.
065
889
736
582
459
361
Heat
is
The layer of
heated by conduction.
on the earth
warms
air
is
superadj acent to
it.
Also the
effect.
air resting
This
warm
air
The
immediin turn
in ascending to
If
no heat
is
decreases.
The lower
is
tude, winds
the air so
earth's atmosphere
is
is
is
alti-
moisture in
region of the
called
The
sphere.
direction
and there
sphere
is
56,000
ft.
The
about 38,000
ft.
is
from
this
standard,
especially
at
low
altitudes.
The
ATMOSPHERE
to
C.A.N, atmosphere.
I.
given in Table
pressure
is
is
I.
29.92
in.
is
59 F. (15
C).
laws.
r =
518.4
aZ
where
T=
standard
tem-
The
aZ
^
""
^^'To
If the
where Tm
To
To
aZ
po
ppgTo y
poTm
where po
Po
To
g
=
=
=
=
standard pressure
standard density
standard temperature
standard acceleration of gravity
By
70.726
lb.,
logiop
29.921
logio^
modified to
is
0.002378
29.921
logio 29.921
0.002378
32.174
70.73
32.174
518.4
518.4
X 29.921 X 70.73 X
1.47597 - 0.0081398^
2.3026
i-
Example.
XZ
T.
XZ
T,m
ft.
T =
=
=
=
=
J-
518.4
518.4
518.4
aZ
0.003566
18,000
64.2
454.2 F. absolute
-5.2 F.
rp
To
aZ
64.2
2.3026
logiop
logio^^
485.6 F. absolute
1.47597
- 0.0081398^
J-
- 0.0081398^^
1.47597
=
=
1.17423
4^)(5)
14.936
in
in. of
Hg.
yi^X^^
X
_
- 0002378
0.002378 X
=
29 92
454.2
ft.
Problems
1.
altitude.
of air in the
ft.
VISCOSITY
2.
of air in the
ft.
of air in the
ft.
altitude.
3.
altitude.
ft.,
mean tempera-
ture becomes
392.4
^^- Z -
4704.9
Example.
ft.
in standard atmosphere.
Solution.
T = 392.4 F. absolute
= -67.0 F.
_ 392.4 Z
Tm - z - 4704.9
392.4
40,000
=
logio
(isothermal temperature)
X 40,000
- 4704.9
444.7 F. absolute
P =
1.47597
1.47597
- 0.0081398^5^
P =
'
5.54 in. of
0.0081398
|-
Hg.
'{fX^)
-0U.UU2d78
002S78V-5^V^^
X 29 92 X 392 4
=
ft.
Problems
1.
of air in the
ft.
of air in the
ft.
of air in the
ft.
altitude.
2.
altitude.
3.
altitude.
The
Viscosity.
other liquids.
viscosity of air
It is
In liquids, viscosity
the molecules.
is
In gases, viscosity
is
more slowly
upper
layer,
The
coefficient of viscosity
(ijl)
TABLE
II
Coefficient of Viscosity
Temperature,
C.g.s. units,
Slug-feet-second
C.
poises
units
-30
-20
-10
1
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
100
The N.A.C.A.
554
605
657
709
759
808
856
904
951
997
043
088
132
175
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
3.25
3.35
3.46
3.57
3.67
3.78
3.88
3.98
4.08
4.17
4.27
4.36
4.45
4.54
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
cosity at 15 C.
viscosity,
(v) is
(ju)
to the density.
air is
affected
by both
pressure and
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
kinematic viscosity
second; whereas, at
(v) is 1.21
be discussed
Modulus
1.50
coefficient of
10""^
kinematic viscosity
The kinematic
will
(y) is
30 C, the
viscosity
in
of Elasticity.
For
solids,
is
P7 =
a constant
=
=
n
where n
1.405
may
be written as
P =
By
kp""
Ctp
The modulus
V
but
'
AV
V -
Ap
p
Therefore
E^pf
Ap
Expressed as a derivative
F-JP
^-"dp
in
10
dP
nkp^~^
dp
E = pX
nkp""-^
= nkp^
= nP
Sound
Velocity of Sound.
through a
propagated through
and inversely
elasticity
is
Newton proved
of compression waves.
by means
Velocity of sound
For
air
IE
V-
gases, however,
p
= RT
PV = P
where
72
(for air
R =
T =
3075)
absolute
temperature
Centi-
grade
If this is
For 15 C. (T
ft.
= VnRT
= Vl.405 X
= Qd.WT
3075
XT
is
therefore 1,118
per sec.
In designing propellers
it is
If
the
waves are
initiated
and there
is
is
At altitudes,
must be reckoned
sound
It is to
effect
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Humphrey, Physics
of the Air.
CHAPTER
II
Newton formulated
Every body
uniform motion
rate of change of
that state.
2.
The
is
is in
it,
When
the air
have a momentum
Kinetic Energy.
must have a
moving
of
at a speed of
V feet
pV.
cubic foot of air at rest to be put in motion
force applied.
Let
Since a force
is
is
measured by the
it
a velocity of
the product of the force and the distance through which the
force acts.
Work =
^^ X iVt = ipV^
TF in foot-pounds
p in slugs per cubic foot
V in
11
12
energy is
put the air in motion, that
Momentum Pressure.
Jp V^ foot-pounds.
a horizontal stream of moving air were
is,
If
momentum
lost
per second
is
momenmo-
equal to the
mentum of the quantity of air arriving at the wall per second, which,
by Newton's second law, is numerically equal to the force exerted
on the wall in pounds. If the air stream is A square feet in crosssection and has a velocity of V feet per second, the volume of air
arriving at the wall each second
mentum
momentum
AV or pA V^.
The force
p _
The
oi
AF
is
cubic feet.
Since the
AV
cubic feet
is
pF
mo-
velocity,
multiphed by
A-rr2
F in
pounds
P^^
A in square feet
V in feet per second
P in pounds
P=
pV^
small
flat surface,
flat
is
flat plate is
a large stream
of
of air
The
stopped at the
flat surfaces,
some
DYNAMIC PRESSURE
The amount
shape of the
13
fiat surface.
is
Numerous
formula.
shapes
when
in
tests
of various sizes
if
The
results of
by a
correction factor
if
it
i.e.,
sume that
force
it
on a
flat
F =
0.64
becomes
A in square feet
V in feet per second
pA 72
F =
=
0.64
this
becomes
0.002378^72
0.00152
A 72
Since
is
F =
=
0.002378
0.00327 A 72
0.64
X ^ X
I.
^^P^.^^^^
miles per hour
in square feet
'7m
(||7)2
Example. A 40-mile-per-hour wind is blowing against a signboard 8 ft. by 10 ft. in size. Atmosphere is normal density. What
is
F =
=
=
Solution:
The
If
force
on the
0.00327
0.00327
flat
419
A V^
X 8 X
10
(40)2
lb.
when the
relative speed
is 1
is
known,
14
the force at any other speed can be found by multiplying by the square
of the airspeed.
Example.
when
the car
force
when the
Solution:
car
is
(pounds)
0.012
35
35
The accomplishment
14.7 lb.
of
defined as work.
it is
Work
is
1 hp.
=[550
=
=
=
That
is,
per
ft-lb.
33,000
ft-lb.
1,980,000
sec.
per min.
ft. lb.
per hr.
hr.
hour, or of 375
sq.
is
0.64
H.P.
=
=
pA7^
power
1 A 73
If this is
0.64
multiplied
^ 73
A in square feet
y in feet per second
H.P.
H.P.
=
=
by the
pA V^.
H.P. in horsepower
rrT^
0.00233 1
is
0.00000276
0.0000087
AV^
A 73
F in
7 in
Example.
flat
surface 5
ft.
square
is
15
moved through
F =
=
0.00327
(5)2
the air at
its
surface;
(30)2
73.6 lb.
H.P.
73.6
30
375
5.88 hp.
=
=
0.0000087
or directly
H.P.
25
(30)^
5.88
Example. Driving at 1 mile per hour, the force on a certain automobile windshield is 0.1 lb.; what horsepower is used up by the windshield at 70 miles per hour?
F =
=
H.P.
0.1
490
lb.
= 490 X
70
70
70
375
91.5 hp.
Problems
1.
What
door 40
ft.
is
by 20
ft.?
An
in. high.
is
If
in
problem 3
if
speed
is
is
moves
Let a
air
surface.
A is the area of the flat surface, the cross-section of the air stream
will
have an area of
16
a square
sin
If
feet.
AF
sin
o;
is
moving at a speed
of
AF
will
off in
a direction more or
tum.
less parallel to
the surface
it
retains
still
The amount
little,
Fig.
1.
Air striking an
inclined plate.
air
of turbulence will
be relatively
tt.
will
to 90.
when air
The moving
Necessarily
is
bound
to be
friction.
tion, the
air
flat
In aerodynamic work, the force resulting from air meeting a suris not as important as the two components of this force per-
face
component
called the
The
lift;
is
called
the drag.
The components
the
air,
of
lift
and drag
flat surface,
17
hy^AV^
multipUed
(A
in square feet,
coefficient will
flat
plate
is
and drag
cient {Cl)
efficient
/
/
V
/
/^
r
.12
/^
,08
/.
.04
/
((?>)
Cd-
.16
plotted
.20
being
coeffi-
explained
The
coefficients given
by actual
^Cl
.60
tests
on a
rec-
size,
the plate
stream
//
yy
first
the long
meets one of
These
edges.
.2
/
2
Angle of Attack
Fig.
co-
.24
2.
Graph
of
10
in
14
12
lence.
16
Degrees
Cl and Cd
The amount
turbulence would be
of
dif-
ferent
different.
Problems
signboard is 18 ft. long by 3 ft. wide. A 30-mile-per-hour
blowing at an angle of 10 to the plane of the signboard,
(a) What is the force in pounds on the signboard at right angles to
the wind direction?
(6) What is the force parallel to the wind di{d) What
(c) What is the resultant of these two forces?
rection?
is the component perpendicular to the face of the signboard?
2. A kite having 6 sq. ft. area is balanced by its tail so that it
1.
wind
is
per-hour wind?
What
is
18
in the direction of
Curved Plates.
movement
is
required?
the surface
direction
moving in a different
from
its original
If
path
the surface
is
ishment in speed.
Velocity has both speed and
In deflecting the air
direction.
Air striking curved plate.
of
force
Fig. 4.
Forces on a curved
face,
ac the velocity
plate.
surface,
and
as
it
the
leaves
Con-
structing a parallelogram of velocity, ahcd, the diagonal he represents the only velocity which
will give
ah,
is
hd
ac
cd,
CURVED PLATES
triangles ahc
Then the
and dbc are equal, and angle abc equals angle chd.
and since
By
19
e).
trigonometry, | side he
Side hc
2V cos i(180 -
2yJ
2Y^
cos (180
cos
7\/2(l
.=
e)
cos
-6)
e)
in velocity.
the curved surface and undergo deflection, the mass of air deflected in
The change
onds)
The
previously.
deflecting force
is
is
-,
is
is
in velocity takes
therefore
as
sec-
was shown
pA F2V2(1
(t
cos
friction,
e).
the
direction of the deflecting force will bisect the angle between the
shown by
in Fig. 3.
If there is friction,
it,
dotted
If
stream will follow a circular path while in contact with the surface.
Let be the center and R the radius of the arc which is the path of
the particles in the center of the air stream, as shown in Fig.
5.
20
to the circular path at a and h respectively, and call the intersection of these
Draw
e.
e to 0,
lines
Then the
circle.
and
oe
bisects
angle hec
is
oe
is
6/2.
is
hec,
angle aoh.
called
Draw
is
ah
6,
If
angle aoe
intersecting
As
Fig.
ah
is
Forces on a circular
5.
cylindrical plate.
by
oa, or
d
Vt/2
m 2 =
R
.
then
2^1
Vt
sm - =
-^cos.^
Vt
FV2(1 -
cos
72
d)
the surface
is
FV2(1 -
cos
e)
is
This
way
is
As an
example
Fig.
6.
Direction of reaction on
be
the fohowing
considered.
ft.
A
by 6
recft.,
is
gently
CURVED PLATES
deflected
air first
stream
What
is 1 ft.
is
sec, a
it
of air
in
36
ft.
wide,
having
traverses a distance of 6
ft.,
meet the
will
be
0.002378
The mass
or
slugs.
cos 10)
^r-zr=
U. J.0
.514
_^
= 46.5
deep, and 40
from front to
surface.
216,
1 ft.
ft.
long
ft.,
0.514
unchanged.
sec. is
its
Since, in passing
40V2(1
per
act?
volume
sec.
ft.
the force of the air against the metal sheet, and in what
direction does
In
21
,^
it.
36
of this
The
sec.
of air will
acceleration
per
volume
per sec.
will
Ihe force
be
,
will be
Problems
1. A curved surface, 36 ft. by 6 ft., deflects an air stream through
an angle of 5. The air stream is 1 ft. thick and first meets a longer
side of the surface.
The airspeed is 40 ft. per sec. before and after
deflection, and there is no turbulence.
What is the force against
the surface?
2.
3.
What
What
is
is
1 if
1 if
the airspeed
is
80
ft.
per sec?
2j?
is
CHAPTER
FLOW
AIR
If
a body
is
moved through
may be
III
air,
either
is
Turbulent flow
is
discontinuous or sinuous.
moving
tion, the
foUow
this path.
con-
~
^ ^^^^
cafled
Figure 7
>-
il-
Particle
AA'A",
Particle B, im-
Fig.
Streamline flow.
7.
is
discontinuous; that
is,
particles
that follow each other in the original air stream do not follow in
all
cases the
obstructions.
plate.
8,
particles in flowing
around
is
22
when the
intermittent, particles
first
is
resumed.
The
23
flow
is
thus
(a)
Fig. 8.
Turbulent
flow.
The
streamUnes
9.
Turbulence in
Layer.
outer side
it
is
7.
24
AIR FLOW
minute
vortices.
air
dominating part in determining the motion of the particles. Outside of the boundary layer, viscosity has little effect and air may be
considered as a non- viscous fluid.
With fluids of greater viscosity
than air, the boundary layer will be thicker.
Reynolds' Number. The English physicist, Osborne Reynolds,
made some interesting experiments with the flow of liquids in
By using a glass tube, and injecting small streams of an
tubes.
insoluble colored fluid, he was able to study the form of flow.
Using water as a fluid, and starting with one size of tube, he
found that at low velocity the flow of the colored liquid in the water
was a continuous line; that is, the flow was streamline or laminar
except for an infinitesimal layer touching the side walls of the tube,
where there were slight eddies. As he increased the velocity the
flow remained streamline, though the outside layer in which
burbling was taking place became slightly thicker.
Increasing the rate of flow
still
Above
it
was
streamline.
was
lessened.
Using
and
He
commonly abbreviated
as R.N.
is
called Reynolds'
Reynolds' number
number and
is
dimension-
less.
R.N.
V =
R =
p
fx
= '-^
(feet
per second)
= mass density
= coefficient of
Reynolds found that for fluid flow through pipes or tubes if the
R.N. was less than 1,100 the flow was laminar or streamline.
Although later experimenters found a somewhat higher number
as the critical condition, the value of 1,100 is the one commonly
SIMILAR FLOWS
used as being perfectly
25
safe.
is
certain
to be laminar.
Reynolds' number
is
With
critical
Reynolds' number
is
reached.
around objects, such as airplanes. It is conmoving around an obstruction may have a critical factor, corresponding to the Reynolds'
number for pipes, which will differentiate whether the flow wil^)^
of unconfined
Siir.
streamline or turbulent.
'
^0^
'
Similar Flows.
comparing
the*iftow of air
an
object, as
shown
(a)
in Fig.
T|ie
manner
(6)
(c)
Fig. 10.
Flow around
like that
shown
in Fig. 106
if
the speed
the velocity
If
similar figures.
AIR FLOW
26
VL
VL
is
would be as shown
in Fig. lOd.
Again
if
the size of the object and speed of flow were the same
as in Fig. 10a but the density of the air were increased, the flow
would be changed to a
106.
To summarize
If
the Reynolds'
other.
is
number
of the airplane.
Since the models are small in size in comparison with the actual
wings, in order to have the Rejmolds' number of the same magnitude as the Reynolds' number of the wing the velocity or the
density of the air in the wind-tunnel test must be much greater
atmospheres and
ft.
was designed
model wings up to 75
per sec.
SIMILAR FLOWS
27
For wings, the length of the chord is commonly used for this
dimension (L). If the test is conducted under standard conditions
(15 C. and 760 mm. pressure) the density of the air (p) is 0.002378
slug per cubic foot and the coefficient of viscosity (m) is 0.000000373
If the temperature or pressure is not
slug per foot per second.
standard, corrections must be made to density (p) and coefficient
of viscosity
Example.
(jjl).
=
=
^ _
^
^'^-
0.25
of 3-in.
air.
ft.
146.7
ft.
per sec.
r,oA nno
^^^'^^^
Example. Find the R.N. for model wing of 3-in. chord. Tests
run at 100 miles per hour. Air at normal pressure but at 100 C.
temperature.
r, ^
^'^'
0.002378
mX
146.7
0.25
0.000000454
..^
^^^
^^^'^^^
Example. Find R.N. for model wing of 3-in. chord. Tests run at
100 miles per hour. Air at standard temperature but 21 atmospheres
Note that /x is independent of pressure (except for expressure.
tremely high or extremely low pressures).
0.002378
^^- _
21
146.7
0.000000373
.25
_
"
4,yiu,uuu
^
Problems
1.
4-ft.
3-ft. 6-in.
chord moving at
Find R.N. for an airplane wing, 4-ft. chord moving at 150 miles
Air is -f-40 C. and 21 in. barometer.
4. Find the velocity at which tests should be run in a wind tunnel
on a model wing of 4-in. chord in order that the R.N. shall be the same
Air under
as for a wing with a 4-ft. chord at 100 miles per hour.
standard conditions in both cases.
5. In a variable-density wind tunnel, under what pressure should
tests be run on a model with a 3-in. chord, air velocity being 60 miles
per hour, in order that the R.N. shall be the same as for a full-size
wing of 4-ft. chord, moving at 100 miles per hour through the air?
Air temperature is the same in each case.
3.
per hour.
do'"
CHAPTER
IV
AIRFOILS
To be strucwould have to be a considerable amount of
This bracing, if located outside the plate, would cause
bracing.
much friction in moving through the air; if inside the plate, it
would increase the thickness of the plate. By curving the plate
even slightly it is possible to increase the weight-sustaining
property greatly. By closing in the under side and making it
more nearly streamline in shape, the resistance to forward moveFlat plates are not suitable for airplane wings.
side
116).
(see
They
Fig.
11a).
(^)
^ _y^5^^-^
conse-
quently covered up
this space, giving the
strips
(5)
^^^
^^
its
resistance to forward
motion.
29
of the National
is
airfoil.
(leading
If
airfoil is
Fig. 126,
predominantly flat, as in
the chord is the straight
most
of its
With
datum
Fig. 12.
camber,
Chords,
(6)
Double
(a)
Single camber.
more or
less arbitrary.
This
and the
airfoil
is
is
Whenever an
airfoil
is
known.
the length of the projection of the airfoil
Its S5mibol is
c.
airfoil
line;
table
AIRFOILS
30
TABLE
III
Shape of Clark
Percentage
of
Distance from
Upper
Leading Edge
Camber
Airfoil
Chord
Lower
Camber
3.50
3.50
1.25
5.45
1.93
2.5
6.50
1.47
7.90
0.93
7.5
8.85
0.63
10
9.60
0.42
15
10.69
0.15
20
11.36
30
40
11.70
50
60
70
80
90
95
100
10.52
0.03
11.40
9.15
7.35
5.22
2.80
1.49
0.12
Mean camber
is
Fig. 13.
Clark
wing contour.
Span and Aspect Ratio. Span is the distance from wing tip to
wing tip, inclusive of ailerons. It may be considered as the least
width of hangar doorway through which the airplane can be pushed
The symbol for span is h.
straight.
The area of a wing is the area of the projection of the actual
The sjmibol for area is S.
outline on the plane of the chord.
FORCES ON AN AIRFOIL
The
This
in
is
is
31
is
the ratio of
It is
customary
aspect ratio
be corrected
is 6.
in
ratio.
Relative Wind.
Relative wind
the wing
If
is
is
considered positive
if it is
if
it is
than atmospheric.
less
its
At
magnitude
As the angle
of attack
is
This
increased
is
still
edge.
If
airfoil
more, the
would
and the
in Fig. 15.
air
cannot
a change in direction.
contour of the
shown
is
to the
(Fig. 16).
made
wing to
forT\^ard
motion.
AIRFOILS
32
(b)
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
It will
Flow
Flow
of attack.
LIFT
forces
is
upward
forces
33
is
cent
is
10,
68 per
cent.
the airfoil
may
i.e.,
taking into
At
angle of attack
is
is
its
moves forward.
described
Drag
is
is parallel
to the
relative wind.
The
itself.
The standard
formulas are
j'fi-
P
^2 QV2
-^^^^
n P arro
Drag = Cd^SV^
is
aS is
T^
in
in square feet
V IS m
jr
pounds
j
f\.
feet per second
lift
if
That
is,
the formulas
34
AIRFOILS
and drag
and velocity
then be in kilograms.
The equations may be written in the form
Lift
will
= CLqS
Lift
^
y
P ^'
Drag = CoqS
and
The
Characteristic Curves.
cient Cd,
lift
drag
location,
coeffi-
for different
all
The
Since
lift
characteristic curves
coefficients are at
most angles
of attack
much
17.
larger than
drag
coefficients, the
in order to
angle of attack.
forces acting
on the wing at
upward or positive lift forces equals the sum of the downward or negative lift forces. The angle of attack, where the
upward and downward lift are equal, is called the angle of zero
For symmetrical sections, that is, airfoils that have the same
lift.
camber on both upper and lower sides, the angle of zero lift is at
of the
0 angle of attack.
From
lift,
the curve of
lift
coefficient is practi-
The
constant.
The
lift
slope
is
lift.
Y airfoil, it is
This angle of
maximum
18^; the
lift is
lift
coefficient is
a maximum.
of
maximum
some angle
slightly greater
than
lift,
till lift
90.
the
lift
coefficient
coefficient
becomes
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
The drag
coefficient
has a
drag, there
minimum
3i,
it is
value.
At
coefficient
35
minimum
the drag
of attack is
is
r P
.30
in
oercent chord
--'
_,^
.50
^
1.5
14
1
i
1.3
/
22
.22
\^
18
^Ql6
14
12
.12
10
.10
14
.08
1.0
><.
\,s
18
-<?.16
.20
1.1
'
20
12
/ \\ /
N /
>
/
/ \ \ -^
/
/
/
y
/
i
yy
/
.7
6
5
.4
'/^
4
2
.06
.04
.02
-1
/r
.3
.2
'
eS
-6-4-2
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Angle of Attack
Fig. 17.
With bigger
Characteristics of Clark
airfoil,
aspect ratio
6.
increases greatly.
AIRFOILS
^^==0.
36
is
The
zero
lift
is
With a
attack
is
symmetrical
airfoils,
there
is
practically
no movement
symmetrical
of the center
as
stable airfoils.
Lift Equation.
force
on the
tail
Then
if
the weight
is
W in pounds
rr
W=
XXX ^Kj\j.xx\jio
Sin
S in
Cl~SV'
square feet
1
V in feet
The above equation may be used
per second
W
>S
'-^^Ji-i
The ratio of total weight to the area of the wing (W/S) is the
wing loading, expressed in pounds per square foot. From the
above formulas it will be seen that, for a given angle of attack,
the proper velocity depends on the square root of the wing loading.
Example. What weight can an airplane have to fly level with a
Clark Y wing 250 sq. ft. in area, at 4 angle of attack and airspeed of
^
100 miles per hour at sea-level?
LIFT EQUATION
From
hour
Cl
Fig. 17,
146.7
ft.
37
at 4 angle of attack
per sec.
0.649
.(10237
250
146.7'
4,12(1) lb.
3,000
lb.
F =
=
=
a/q
97.9
V 0.791
ft.
^
X
0.00118
per sec.
Problems
(Standard
What
otherwise specified)
is
the
lift
on a Clark
when
At what angle
problem 3
fly-
is
hour?
6. What should be the area of a Clark Y wing to support a total
weight of 5,000 lb. when flying at 7 angle of attack and a velocity of
90 ft. per sec?
7. What weight will be supported by a Clark Y wing 525 sq. ft. in
area, at 5 angle of attack, and an airspeed of 120 ft. per sec. at sea-
level?
8.
What weight
same angle
tude
(air
will
of attack
is
ft.;
38
9.
AIRFOILS
At what airspeed should a
ft.,
Clark
fly at
Minimum Speed.
Examination of formula
F = 1/Pw
-^
I
/
tt
shows that, with a fixed weight and a fixed wing area (fixed wing
loading), the lift coefl&cient must vary inversely as the square of
the velocity. It is axiomatic that small angles of attack mean
highspeed; large angles of attack mean slow speed. The smallest
velocity will be when the lift coeflicient is maximum.
This
slowest velocity
is
Some
airplanes (low-wing
air
under their
This effect
not present.
airspeed
is
is
ordinarily negligible,
v^/ X
F.
t/
^Zmax.
c\
lb.,
V
=
=
300
67.0
ft.
1.56
0.00118
per sec.
Problems
1.
What
is
with a Clark
lb.,
DRAG
39
weighing 1,500
An
4.
lb. shall
wing loading in order that the landing speed should not exceed 35
miles per hour?
5.
An
in area.
ft.
What
is
the
more
greatest weight this airplane can have with a landing speed not
What
sq. ft.
8.
area.
the
is
minimum
has a Clark
wing 625
(b) at
(a) at sea-level,
sq. ft. in
10,000-ft.
altitude?
Drag
Drag.
is
The drag
air.
multiplied
by the
velocity (in feet per second units) gives the power, in foot-pounds
550
by
per
ft-lb.
sec.
-rrp
'^^^'
DXV
Din pounds
550
D = Cd^SV'
But
Therefore
H.P.req.
Example.
air at
move
80
Clark
in area
ft.
horsepower
is
Prom Fig.
is
What
the drag?
What
required?
17, at
a =
6,
Cd = 0.0452
Drag = 0.0452
H.P.rea.
req.
X 5:5^^ x
120
lb.
120
17.5 hp.
80
550
350
(80)2
40
AIRFOILS
Problems
What
1.
is
What
2.
is
ft.
ft.
in area, at 8
ft.
in area, at 8
What
3.
is
What
4.
sq. ft.
move a Clark
and airspeed
wing 430
hour?
wing 270
ft. per sec?
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
/
/
1.1
1.0
/
V
/
.9
/
/
/ ^ y
"^
-6
.6
.5
v
y
.4
r"'
-4
6
Angle
Fig. 18.
6'
.7
/
/
.8
10
12
14
16
18
20
of Attack
Difference in Airfoils.
Many
6.
Airfoils
DIFFERENCE IN AIRFOILS
41
airfoils.
The camber of
leading edge should be slightly rounded.
the upper surface should be such that the highest point or maxiordinate is between one-quarter and one-third the chord
The
mum
/^
/
/
.20
.18
.16
/
/
.6
.10
.7
.12
<
.5
.08
.06
y/
/
/
.04
.4
.3
.02
.9
.8
1.0
.14
l.l
.2
^^
.1
.--'^
/
-i>
()
>
<t
<3
i\
^ngle
Fig. 19.
1
f
1e
18
Attac k
but
it
No
An
lift
and
minimum
42
AIRFOILS
Non-symmetrical
drag.
have zero
airfoils
at
lift
slightly-
of attack
coefficient at
any angle
angles of attack.
1.3"
/
22
.22
20
.20
18
.18
i6
:i6
14
.08
.06
.04
.02
Cd/
.6
.5
.4
y
y
N /
/
/
(
.8
N,
1.0
.9
/
.10
/
/ s
1.1
12
10
1.2
.3
y-
.2
.1
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Angle of Attack
Fig. 20.
Characteristics of
M-6
airfoil,
aspect ratio
6.
common
lift
maximum
lift
(a)
What
at 2 angle of
drag?
the
lift
DIFFERENCE IN AIRFOILS
43
What
the
is
lift
c_^
.30
C.40
'Si
.50
ol
".60
^
/ \
.70 .24
.22
1.1
\/
.20
1.0
.18
1.2
.16
.9
.8
Cl/
.14
.7
.12
y
y'
/
/
.6C5'
.5
.4
.3
.2
'
.1
/
-2"
Fig. 21.
go
go
10
Angle of Attack
Characteristics of
RAF-15
12
airfoil,
14
160
180
20
aspect ratio 6
AIRFOILS
44
N.A.C.A. Four-Digit
Airfoils.
If
a line
is
maximum
if
is
same proportion
as the
is
straightened.
symmetrical.
The
0.2969 v^
0.1260 x
0.3516 x^
0.2843 x^
0.1015 x^
where y and x are the vertical and horizontal coordinates in percentage of chord. The above equation gives a maximum thickness
which is 20 per cent of the chord, and this maximum thickness is
located 30 per cent of the chord back from the leading edge. To
obtain a wing of any desired thickness t (expressed in fraction of
chord), each value of y found by the above equation is multiplied
by the constant
^/0.20.
For non-symmetrical
airfoils,
is
made
curved,
the thickness at the various points along the chord being kept the
same.
is
defined
leading
ward
fits
of the
maximum
median
line
Aft of the
-2 (2
maximum ordinate
px
a;2)
made an
description.
digits
N.A.C.A.
FIVE-DIGIT AIRFOILS
45
tenths of chord from the leading edge, and the last two digits
representing the
maximum
example, in
airfoil
median
is
line
of the chord
maximum
ordinate of the
-lOL
For
is
1.00
(b)
N.A.C.A.
Fig. 22.
N.A.C.A.
study of
Five-Digit
airfoils,
airfoils.
Continuing
Airfoils.
systematic
their
maximum camber
maximum camber
of the
median
line
of the
moving the
investigation that
median
line.
position of the
maximum
lift.
Two
groups
moment
of
maximum camber
The second
camber
median
The
line;
two
example, in
median
of the
The
median
five-digit designation
first digit
line in
gives the
if it is
The
amount
percentage of chord.
last
The
characteristics.
maximum
1 if it is
line is 2
maximum camber
this ordinate
is
For
of the
four-
AIRFOILS
46
twentieths (20 per cent) of the chord back from the leading edge;
the median Hne has a reverse curvature and the maximum thickness of the airfoil
is
The
Tapered Wings.
plan.
In tapering
it is
is
rectangular in
but, starting at the root (where the wing proper joins the center
section), the chord
is
The
is
168 c
A.R.
=6
Area = 3.719 C^
Length of MAC. = 0.843
LE.
MAC.
Aft L.E.
(Section
C-C
unfaired)
30%
Standard wing taper.
Fig. 23.
is
less
manner that
If
tip.
the same
towards the
It is
lines, joining
Stations
usual to
the points of
airfoil is
tip,
is
used throughout,
the thickness
make
is
also
make
in
Army
air.
adopted by the
When a wing is tapered by making the chord progressively
smaller from root to tip, while the same airfoil section is used
throughout, it is termed '' taper in planform only," even though
the thickness does decrease from root to tip. When the thickness
decreases at a faster rate than the chord, by using thinner airfoil
sections towards the tip, the wing is said to " taper in planform
and thickness."
is
47
if
is less,
the airplane
will descend.
340
320
300
280
260
240
I 220
J 200
^180
160
140
120
100
Vs^
s
v^
\\
^^
^^^i5
80
-<i
f^
60
40
^^
Fig. 24.
16
18
20
14
12
10
Angle of Attack
is
Ol -
T7 -
-o
2
If
(W/S)
is
is
changed.
AIRFOILS
48
additional load
is
Problems
1.
than
At
above
altitudes
in feet per
Since both
and drag
wing area
and the square of the velocity, to give hft and drag; at the same
angle of attack or at the same airspeed, both lift and drag will be
In order to fly level no matter what altitude, the
less at altitude.
lift must be equal to the weight.
As the wing area remains constant, when an airplane ascends
density
is less
its
standard value.
be increased to
flying at the
make up
by the
lift
lift
The
must
case of
first.
The angle
of attack being
all altitudes.
Then
poVo'
W=
Cl^SVo'
W=
Cl^SVx'
PxVx'
and
^ Vo'
VJ"
Px
at zero altitude
= Do = Cdi^SVo'
at x feet altitude
= Dx = Cdi-SYx"
Drag
Drag
V,'
49
^ Vo'
Px
D, =
Therefore
Cd^S^Vo'
^
Px
= Cd^SVo'
Therefore, whatever the altitude, the drag of the wing is the
same, provided the angle of attack is the same. This may seem
strange, but it should be borne in mind that with increased
altitude the airspeed must be greater, and this exactly counter-
Let H.P.o
a;-feet altitude.
H.P.o
H.P.
= DoX Vo
550
2).X V,
550
But
Do = D^
and
V,
= Fov/^
^
Px
H.P. =
Therefore
^^V^
H.P.
Px
The
that
is,
Px is less
same angle
than
po,
so that po/px
is
is
made
in the
greater than
atmosphere;
1.
With the
of attack, the
air
at sea-level.
When
is
to high speeds.
there
is
changes.
At slow
AIRFOILS
50
When
attempt
is
made
to fly at the
the greater
lift
coefficient to offset
mean an
If
ately
horsepower
Example.
flies
drag,
100
ft.
will
What
sea-level?
are the
lift,
wing
At
L =
sea-level,
X ^'^^^^"^^ X
400
2,378
lb.
D=
0.024
X ^-^^1^^^ X
^
^'^'
At
0.5
=
=
114
400
100^
100^
1b.
114X100
550
20.7 hp. required
10,000-ft. altitude
L =
0.5
^^^^'^^^
400
1,756
lb.
D =
0.024
X 9^99^1^ X
400
100^
100^
84.3 lb.
H.P.
84.3
100
550
=
Example.
sq. ft. in area
An
15.3 hp.
and
is
lb.
has a Clark
wing 350
What
51
airplane
At
is
flying at
sea-level
Cl =
4.000
0.002378
2
350
(1.47
100)
0.445
/a^42\
Therefore
and
Czr^.0217
D =
=
jjp
195
0.002378
0.0217
350
1.47
100'
lb.
^ 195
147
550
=
At
hp
52.2
10,000-ft. altitude
Cl
4,000
=
0.001756
2
=
a =
Therefore
and
350
(1.47
100)2
0.604
3i
Cd =
0.0308
D=
0.0308
204
lb.
H-P-=
204
350
lif
has a Clark
wing 250
^-^^i^^^
147
550
54.6 hp.
Problems
1.
An
area and
lb.
(a)
sq. ft. in
What are
What are
the
(c)
at 25,000-ft. altitude?
AIRFOILS
52
3.
An
in area.
An
It flies at
area.
An
airplane
wing and
is
ft.
(b)
altitude at the
(6)
wing 275
sq. ft.
at 15,000 ft.?
(b)
has a Clark
Y wing
What
(a)
350
sq. ft. in
the horsepower
is
at 20,000-ft. altitude?
flying at
angle of attack?
lb.
required at sea-level;
5.
at sea-level;
What
(a)
200
What
ft.
is
is
12
lb.
per sq.
if
ft.
(a)
has a Clark
What
is
the
flying at 20,000-
same speed?
Lift-Drag Ratio.
come
into action,
backward
force that
The
is
the
movement
of
of the airplane.
the airplane.
LIFT-DRAG RATIO
53
the expression
'^
The hft-drag
drag
''
same as the
over Z)."
ratio of
lift
coefficient to
coefficient.
Lift
^4^^'
Cr.
and is the tangent of the angle which the resultant force on the
wing makes with the horizontal plane.
At small angles of attack, drag coefficient is small but lift coefficient is also small.
At large angles of attack, lift coefficient is
large but drag coefficient is also large.
At the angle of attack of
minimum drag coefficient, it will be found that an increase of a
couple of degrees in the angle of attack will cause only a slight
increase in drag coefficient but
a considerable increase
be at an angle of attack
1J or 2 greater than the angle of minimum drag coefficient that
in the
L/D
lift
will
coefficient.
have
The values
Clark
its
of
it
will cause
It will therefore
greatest value.
LID
airfoil are
constant,
that
With weight
when D/L is least,
is,
lift is
when L/D
is
greatest.
it is
have
less total
is
that of
maximum L/D,
if
the angle of
This position
of speed
54
AIRFOILS
may
least
flown at slightly
is
amount
if
the airplane
is
flown
fort
it is
horizontal.
shall
be at the angle of
maximum L/D,
the wing
is
usually set at a
This angle
is
maximum L/D.
The
will
From
Solution.
is
lb.?
Y is
21.5
_W
_ 5,000 _ ^^'^
"
P=
D ~
^. -
SI = 2331b.
Problems
at
Plot
(a)
1.
(6)
angle of attack?
(a)
2.
is
Plot
is
(c)
What
3.
(6)
(a)
What
2,000 lb.?
M-6 wing
for
(6)
What
lb.?
(c)
What
is
{d)
What
POLARS
Polars.
Instead of plotting
lift
The curve
and drag
lift
55
coefficients against
may
coefficient is
/ ^^
1.5
1.4
Co with
20^^ ...^
f<
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
12"
/.
/
.9
o'.S
.
r/
.7
/<
.6
.5
.4
o*
.3
.2
.1
10
L
.02
.04
.06
.08
.10
.12
.14
.16
.18
.20
.22
.24-
Cd
Fig. 25.
Y airfoil,
aspect ratio 6.
AIRFOILS
56
by (p/2)SV^,
it
largest angle with the horizontal base line, having the greatest
Cl/Cd
ratio.
of
22
20
18
16
14
12
-J|0
10
11
2
Fig. 26.
L/D
.8
1.0
1.2
14
16
li
Y airfoil.
against Cl-
very
much
the plot of
In comparing one
L/D
airfoil
otherwise.
L/D.
57
POLARS
.Example.
sq. ft. in area.
at 90
ft.
per sec?
Cl =
Y wing 350
wing when flying
has a Clark
for the
W
3,000
0.002379
2
=
From
when
Fig. 25,
350
(90)^
0.891
d=
Cd =
0.891,
0.0561
H.P.
550
0.0561
0.001189
350
(90)^
550
31.0 hp.
~^
\^
12
y/s
V
/
i/
^'
// *
6/
'-2
X"
r
/
J
1
/
/
/
/
.02
.04
.06
.08
.10
.12
.14
.16
.18
.20
.22
.24
Cd
Fig. 27.
Example.
of a U.S.A.-35 airfoil.
airfoil,
aspect ratio
of a Clark
airfoil
6.
with that
AIRFOILS
58
In Fig.
where Cl
0.43
to curve
tangent at point
is
43
For Clark Y,
where Cl
and Cd =
0.55
from
L/D =
An
is
Maximum L/D =
18.3
21.0
What horsepower
airspeed
Fig. 26,
For Clark Y,
Example.
tangent at point
is
0.03.
21.5
is
when the
Solution.
Cl =
Isv^
0.001189
=
From
flight,
1.47)2
0.301,
L/D =
23.2
= L
2^0 ^
jy
0.301
when Cl =
Fig. 28,
For horizontal
2,000
180 X (120
23.2
D =
86.2 lb.
86.2
^'^'
=
=
120
375
27.6 hp.
Problems
1.
area.
200
2.
An airplane weighing
What horsepower is
ft.
2,500
lb.
when
ft.
in
airspeed
is
per sec?
An airplane weighing
1,800
lb.
the wing have in order that only 25 hp. will be required for the wing
when the
3.
An
airspeed
is
150
4.
An
lb.,
per sec?
which has Cl
airplane has a C-80 wing.
300
ft.
what
is
the
lift?
of 0.6.
What
When Cl
is
is
0.7
It
is
flying
the drag?
is
59
POLARS
An
6.
ft.
in area.
What
is
the drag
lb.
when
flying at
sec?
6. An airplane weighing 3,500 lb. has a U.S.A.-35A rectangular
wing of 54-ft. span and 9-ft. chord. What horsepower is required by
the wing when the airspeed is 150 ft. per sec?
7. What horsepower is required by the wing in problem 6 when the
airplane is flying at 100 ft. per sec?
24
_J|Q12
10
Pii
iil
.2
.6
.4
.8
1.0
airfoil,
aspect ratio
Cl
Fig. 28.
8.
An
per sq.
LID
versus
Cl
for
C-80
6.
ft.
What
is
the
Lj D when
airspeed
is
lb.
the
lift
and what
is
the drag?
An
airspeed?
lift
Because
Cz),
The absolute
of this,
Cl and Cb
coeflfi-
is,
they
60
AIRFOILS
lift and drag, provided the other factors
With the Enghsh units: hft and drag forces are
in pounds,
feet,
and drag
is
is
and velocity
in square meters,
is
in meters per
second.
Under standard
kg.
is
9.807 meters
is
1.2255
-^
From
Fig. 18,
Lift
Cl =
0.76.
= Cl^SV^
5^ X 35 X
0.76
2,660 kg.
40^
What
Solution.
From
Fig. 18,
Cl
0.585.
V =
V30xy^.585 X 0.0625
Engineering Coefficients.
universal custom to
instead of
L = KySV^
D = KxSV^
in square feet
V in
ENGINEERING COEFFICIENTS
Ky
is
the
lift
in
pounds
of a wing, 1 sq.
K^
is
61
in area, traveling at
ft.
Ky =
aKy^
= Kyg
Po
Kx =
(tKxo
Kxo
Po
and
or
and
K, =
C,x(^-^^)x{^''^'
^ \3;6ooy
=
K:, =
Cl =
Cd =
0.00256 Cl
Cd
Ky
K^
0.00256
390.7
390.7
Cl and Cd, being each multiplied by the same constant of transKy and K^ respectively, L/D is equal
L^Cl^ 0.00256 Cl
D
Cd
0.00256
Cd
^ Ky
K^
to use since
velocity.
without transformation,
AIRFOILS
62
The
It will
/ "^n
.0040
/
/
K
>y
.0030
/
nnnR
/
/
*^^
.0003
.0002
y
y'
.0020^
/
/
.0015
.0010
.0005
-4-2
4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Angle of Attack
Fig. 29.
with engineering
aspect ratio
airfoil,
6,
coefficients.
of attack
is
Solution.
From
At 4 angle
At
Ky = 0.00169
Kx = 0.000089
of attack:
L =
=
D=
=
zero altitude:
From Table
At
Fig. 29:
I,
a at 10,000
0.00169
400
125^
10,6001b.
0.000089
556
ft.
400
X 12?
400
X 12?
lb.
0.738.
10,000-ft. altitude:
L =
=
=
0.738
X
X
7,820
lb.
D =
0.738
=
=
0.738
X
X
0.738
410
lb.
0.00169
10,600
0.000089
556
400
X 12?
ENGINEERING COEFFICIENTS
An
Example.
sq.
ft.
At
wing 400
airplane weighing 5,000 lb. has a Clark
at 4 angle of attack at
in area;
sea-level?
63
What
altitude?
10,000-ft.
is
condition?
Solution.
At zero
altitude:
5,000
'Sf:400 X 0.00169
= 86.0 miles per hour
D = 0.000089 X 400 X 86.0
= 263 lb.
At
10,000-ft. altitude:
5,000
0.738 X 0.00169
-s/400 X
V 0.738
86.0
=
D =
0.738
0.000089
0.738
0.000089
=
=
0.000089
263
400
400
X 400 X
X SO'
lOO"
(v/Q-ygg
86.0J
lb.
is
Fig. 29).
section.
What is the
sq. ft.
load that can be carried at 50 miles per hour?
For the wing in problem 1, what is the minimum speed to carry
wing 150
maximum
2.
An
in area,
(b)
at 10,000-ft. altitude?
What
is
lb.
has a Clark
wing 240
sq. ft.
(6)
at 10,000-ft. altitude?
6.
loading to
level;
(6)
at 10,000-ft. altitude?
64
AIRFOILS
7.
Clark
An
airplane, with a
be the velocity
8.
level,
9.
wing loading
what
An
(a) at sea-level;
is its
at 3 angle of attack,
level flight
ft., has a
what should
at 10,000-ft. altitude?
(b)
minimum
minimum speed
airplane has a
For
wing 270
With wing
drag does not exceed 300 lb. (a) at sea-level; (6) at 10,000-ft. altitude?
10. An airplane weighing 1,800 lb. has a Clark Y wing.
What
should be the wing area, if the airspeed is 130 miles per hour when the
wing
is
at 1 angle of attack?
With engineering
Coefficients.
coeffi-
in miles per
is
DV
H.P.req.
D in pouuds
= ^7^
in square feet
in miles per
hour
Solution.
At
(6)
at 15,000-ft. altitude?
From
is
0.0000614.
sea-level
_
^
M.l'.req.
At
Kx
0.0000 614
72.0 hp.
(0.629
=
=
0.629
X
^
225
125^
15,000-ft. altitude:
H.P.req.
0.0000614)
225
125^
375
72.0
45.2 hp.
Problems
ft.
in
POWER
What
2.
200
IN
TERMS OF
65
Cd/Cl^^''
area,
What horsepower
is
in
of
area,
hour
5.
Power
Terms
in
of CbICj}''^.
air
may
to
move
72
but
^^
Cl^S
F=
and
Cl^S
Then
H.P.
=-^Cz)^.S
55U
550
2,
/p
P_g
,S
Cl3/2
An
airplane, with a given weight and wing area, will require the
power to move the wing forward at the particular angle of
attack at which Cd/Cl^^^ is the least. In other words, the angle of
attack at which Cl^^'^/Cd is the maximum is the angle of attack for
which the least power is required.
The above expression also shows that at any one angle of attack,
the power required varies directly as W^^'^, inversely as the square
root of the wing area S, and inversely as the square root of the air
least
density
p.
Example.
The wing is
Cd =
0.1.
An
flying at
AIRFOILS
66
Solution.
1
55Q
/0.002378
nnn.
A
'
A.OOO
300
0.1
1.23/2
sf'
58.6
move
if
H.P.2
- [W^J
^ / 5,000 \V^
~
H.P.2
H.P.2
100
V5,500J
115.4
Problems
1.
An
of attack.
as before?
2.
An
Cl =
0.9
when
flying at
5.
airfoil,
and drag
Lift
The
lift
67
Like
the resultant varies as the air density, the wing area, and the
used
in
= R = Vl^
Resultant
-\-
D^
lift
and drag
be
coefficients.
is
is
may
force acts
in
is
the angle
which the
lift
com-
acts.
is
This
is
an airfoil.
For all unsymmetrical airfoils, that is, those having greater
camber on the upper than the lower surface, the curves of centercharacteristic curves of
At angles
lift,
is
close to
is
force.
still
Depressing the
backward
AIRFOILS
68
attack,
of
pressure
still
still
more, so that a
stall
would eventually
result.
Conversely,
by
pressure which,
on the
lifting
movement
of the center of
nW
rpw^^.^c^^
\*~~^
/c
wm7^C
Diagram
Fig. 30.
mg
moments about
_^^^
Moments which
taken.
is
little
pressure
e ge.
manner
moments
act in a
edge
airfoil
or no center-ofmovement.
The moment of the resultant
^ ^rCC On the wing is the product
of the force and the distance
^^^^ ^j^g i^^e of action of
with
p X c X sin a
>/^^^
of
trailing
^^^-^^^JDrag
Direction of relative
having the
i.e.,
^
>/
sign.
negative in sign.
When
the
moment
the
moments
Moment
of the
is
C.P.
L and
This
is
is
sin
a;
of
XcXcosaXL
C.P.
XD
in percentage of
chord length,
c is
chord length in
are in pounds.
may
C.P.
sum
in foot-pounds.
also
be written as follows:
Moment
Cmo
= Mq =
+
moment
Cd
= Mo =
sin a),
Vm
CmqC -^^^^
feet per
second
feet,
69
In engineering units
Moment about
Kmo =
= Mo = KmoC^^^V^
a), V in miles per hour
leading edge
(C.P.)(i^y cos a
Kx
-\-
sin
Cmo
= (CP.)
V
V
(Cl)
Kmo = {S^^.){Ky)
and
hour
transformed to read
Cmo
Kmo =
and
0x^2
in feet per
^^ miles per
second
hour
of 42-ft.
of
120
ft.
per sec.
Solution.
From
Fig. 21,
when a =
Cl = 0.295
Cd =
CP. =
0.0156
36 per cent
Then:
Moment about
0.36
leading edge
(0.295 cos 2
+ 0.0156
=
sin 2)
002*^78
7
42
X T20^
-3740ft-lb.
Problems
1.
2.
of 8
of
Plot
ft.
chord and
48-ft.
span at a 7 angle
of attack
15 wing
with an airspeed
What
is
the
moment about
AIRFOILS
70
wing
of 45-ft.
span and
7f-ft.
wing
What
is
of 36-ft.
the
moment about
span and
6-ft.
Center of Pressure.
of finding the
Instead
moments about
Moments about
Fig. 31.
point not
Fig.
at leading edge.
{Cl cos a
Cn
sin
Then
31.
about
-M
is
in per-
a)^SV^
point
[(C.P.
will
be
pc]
c)
see
moment
the
the minus sign being used because the force shown in Fig. 31 will
above
An
is
-M
dividing
by
= Cl^SV'{cT. Xc-pc)
pSV^c gives
C.P.
XCl-
pCl
^^SV^c
letting
Cm, moment
coefficient
about point
p,
ISV^c
-Cm =
C.P.
XCl-
pCl
That is, for any angle of attack, the moment coefficient about
any point along the chord is the lift coefficient for that angle
multiplied by the difference between the position of the center of
pressure and the position of the point measured in percentage of
chord.
airfoils,
if,
71
is
plotted
It
up to values of Cl close to
the burble point. Any deviations from the straight line may be
accounted as due to experimental error. Assuming that it is a
closely approximates a straight line
4.0
3.0
-J
2.0
/
/
1.0
/
.2
.1
/3
A
C.
.5
.6
P from L
E.
straight line,
The
it
airfoil.
is,
0.25
when 1/Cl
practically
for
ay
-\- h.
may
be stated that
C.P.
airfoil
is
investigated.
0.25+_^(i-J
or
every
1.0
approximately
That
.9
Cl(C.P.
0.25)
is
-Cmo.25
Ci(C.P.
0.25)
AIRFOILS
72
The constant
is
there-
point,
Cmo.25.
point
is
called the
coefficient
C.P.
0.25
^^^0.25
Cl
in
moment
about any point p per cent of the chord back from the
leading edge gives
coefficient
-Cm-
+ CL{o.25-^y
+ 0.25 Cl - Cmo.25
-pCL
= -pCl
An inspection of this
moment coefficient
the
all
angles.
CuiO.^b)
An
Example.
flying level at
lift,
an airspeed
V =
Cmo{Cl=q)
Solution.
of
is
Cl =
146.7
ft.
0.002378
2
0.313
0.25
0.25
=
=
0.25
X ^^^2
.
Cl
-0.067
0.313
0.214
0.46
ft.
is
angle of zero
C.P.
is
per sec.
73
Cd =
0.06,
Solution.
Cmo
Approximate C.P.
Cl
-0.27 \
~
=
\ 0.84 )
0.322
Cmo
Exact C.P.
Cl
cos
0.84
Cd sin a
-(-0.27)
-\-
0.995
0.06
0.105
+0.27
_
~
0.836
0.321
0.006
Problems
1.
An
At angle
wing chord
of 6
(a)
moment
what
lb.
ft.
and
the
35 per cent of chord length back of the leading
the moment about the leading edge; (b) what is the
ft. is
center of pressure
edge:
is
flying at an
Cmq = 0.06.
ft. is
of zero lift
If
is
is
coefficient
lift.
At
leading edge.
edge when
center of pressure
lift is
is
zero?
angle of zero
lift
lb.
speed of
and having a
74
AIRFOILS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. S. Army Air Corps, Handbook of Information for Airplane Designers.
N.A.C.A. Technical Reports.
DiEHL, Engineering Aerodynamics.
CHAPTER V
INDUCED DRAG OF MONOPLANES
In the previous chapter, the action of air in flowing over wings
All the data given, or used in problems, were,
was described.
i.e.,
ratio, so that
any
airfoil.
of
all tests
any aspect
ratio.
The
75
'6
tip, because of the air passing out and up, the positive pressure
not as great as under the inner portions of the wing.
the
is
Lift,
and upper
show that
difference in pressure
wing
maximum
tips.
The
shown
distribution of
in Fig. 33a.
\i
^i
y ,,
.,
ttttf
a'
I"
Fig. 33a.
from
is
maximum
is slight.
is
Department
of
Commerce
braced wings, the lift shall be considered uniform from the center
of the span to a point one chord length in from the tip, and from
there
it
shall decrease to
Fig. 336.
Department
of
Commerce
lift
lift
(see Fig.
braced wing.
different
computations.
It is to be noted that, with a wing of large aspect ratio, the
decrease in lift at the wing tip is less in proportion to the total
ratio.
An
imaginary wing of
having no wing-tip
losses,
77
is
The
air.
air
the wing has therefore not only a backward motion relative to the
wing but also an outward motion as well. Near the center of the
span this outward component is weaker than near the tip. The
resultant motion is illustrated in Fig. 34a.
On the upper side of the wing, owing to air coming up and
inward over the tips, there is an inward component, which is
Leading Edge
\\\\\'
'^11 III
Trailing
Edg e
(a)
Leading Edg
:^\\\\
//////.
Trailing
Edge
%
Fig. 34.
Air motion
(a)
under
side, (6)
air
number
On
the
left
wing
trailing edge,
78
importance.
On
Fig. 35.
is
no wing-tip
vortices.
Wing-tip vortices.
is
The
relative
wind
is
79
comes in meeting the wing, this direction being the direction of the
stream before it has been disturbed by the approaching wing.
With a wing of finite aspect ratio, the air through which the
wing is passing has a downward velocity due to the wing-tip
Then the wing is not traveUng through air which has a
vortices.
air
Relative wind
^^
the wing's forward direction, but, instead, through air which has a motion
^^eanT^/^T
^'"^
,.
The
,1
relative to the
of the
two
^^- 36-
wmg
is
ii
^.
mean
the resultant
velocities, the
in
magni-
it is
a = ao
With an
there
is
-{-
ai
air in
80
considered,
and
it is
The
depend on the
forces
Hft
and drag
than the
moving
at the
of attack.
Profile
In Fig. 366,
let
Cr be the
coefficient
of the resultant of all the small forces acting over the upper
and
parallel to the
wind.
relative
would be the
coefficients
wings,
practical
relative
Fig. 366.
tion,
and these
coefficients
must
for
aspect
.infinite
These
and drag
a wing of
ratio.
For
lift
the
true
coin-
therefore be transformed to a
and
where
ai
may
Cdo sin
ai
Clo sin ai
Cdo cos
ai
sin a, is
tan
^^
of attack,
be taken as unity.
found that
cos ai
Cl = CiQ
Cd =
it is
Cdq
is
a,-,
is
a,-
Cm
sin oi is
very small in
may
be neglected.
is
If
81
angle
a, is in
itself;
i.e.,
sin ai.
Cl = Clo
Cd = Cioii + Cm
Cd = Cm + Cdo
and
or
The drag
represented
drag
of
is
coefficient.
is
itself is
drag equal to
When
drag and
flow.
Cm
Cm ly^y^
the drag
is
and the
^SV^.
Cloli
coefficient
The
coefficient.
coefficient
by the
ward velocity
where Cni
is
no induced
The drag is then due only to the skin friction of the air with
airfoil.
The amount of this drag depends
airfoil at
It is
airfoil
With
its
finite
The
is
coefficient of
minimum when
Dr.
that
a,-,
is
lift
as ordinates
When
is
the
axis.
82
is still
an
effect
At great
on the
air
purpose of calculation
if
one-half the
lift, i.e.,
Then
a;
27sT^2
swept area
is
circle
whose diameter
distribution, the
lift
the span.
Then
-T
Cl^SV'
L
2
ai
2p"fF^
equal to /S.
is
=
TT
Cm =
ClS
Trb^
,^^y.
pe ct ratio
also
is
Therefore
Cl
A.R.
CLai
Cl'S
7r62
Cl'
TT
It
A.R.
when
the
lift
is
a semi-elliptic curve.
This
83
makes
at
the same
is
is
very
slight,
any corrections.*
The expression given above
Since
attack in radians.
radian
is
Cl
ai (degrees)
induced angle of
57.3
ttA.R.
18.24
X57.3
Cl
A.R.
coefficient being
may
be found, as follows
= Cm-SV^
7r^62 72
* Glauert
has shown that, for rectangular wings, more nearly correct for-
mulas are
Cl
ai
and
CDi
The
A.R.
-^
ttA.R.
T and S
{l
(1
+ S)
T)
A.R.
A.R.
0.11
0.022
0.20
0.064
4
5
.14
.033
.22
.074
.16
.044
.23
.083
.18
.054
6 per cent.
84
V in feet per
second
7r|62 72
0.148 L^
For
weight.
=!'"
=^(?J
The weight
A=
1
TT
0.00119
VKh
268 (!)
125
The horsepower
V in feet per
H.P.z^-
= DiV
V in
550
1,730 1 6^7
0.00116
second
is
density, this
becomes
0.488
H.F.Di
85
^y^'
^ i^
tT
1251^
(fS
H.P. Di
or
375
2
(il
3
That
is,
in miles per
hour
induced drag
is
At any
is
altitude
by the
by the
the horsepower
altitude:
H.P.Dj
X
p
Vt7
6 V
in miles per
hour
39
A.R.
=
CLi
6.5
18.24
(degrees)
0.8
6.5
2.22
0.82
Cm
TT
=
Example.
What
is
6.5
lb.
duced
0.031
drag"*
What horsepower
is
has a span of 38
ft.
the airspeed
80
if
is
86
Solution.
117
Span loading
-r-
per sec.
ft.
2,000
38
52.61b. per
p.'
TT
73
0.00176
0.00176
1172
lb.
0.00116
ft.
^^
X 52.6'
X 117
15.5 hp.
Problems
1.
5-ft.
chord.
"When Cl = 0.65, what are the induced angle of attack and the
induced drag coefficient?
2. A rectangular monoplane wing has 38-ft. span and 7-ft. chord.
When Cl = 0.72, what are the induced angle of attack and the induced drag coefficient?
3. At an airspeed of 90 miles per hour at sea-level what is the induced drag of a monoplane weighing 4,700 lb. and having a wing span
of 52 ft.?
4.
What horsepower
is
flying at sea-level at
5.
is
lb.,
its
span
is
48
ft.
when
and
lb.,
its
wing span
is
35
ft.
2|
in.
and
What horsepower
7,000
its
wing span
ft.
per sec?
is
41
ft.
At 5,000
30
ft.;
10.
ft.,
what
is
(c) if
span
is
25
ft.?
induced drag, at
200 ft. per sec?
lb.
its
is
(6)
the
at
expression for
a,-
Ky = 0.00256
87
Cl, the
becomes
,,
,
ai (degrees)
=
^
18.24
Ky
^.00256 A.R.
7130 Ky
A.R.
where K^i
0.00256 Cm.
Since
Cl'
ttA.R.
C Di
0.00256 Coi
0.00256
7_^Y
\0.00256/
A.R.
K/
K.
0.00256 7rA.Il.
125
K/
A.R.
Corrections for Aspect Ratio of Monoplane.
As shown
two
is
in
made up
a
of
i.oo
-5
10
15
20
Degrees
Fig. 37.
Two
on Clark
Y characteristics.
same airspeed
will
88
attack
is
known
coefficient
lift
geometric
The
difference
Then
18.24
Cl
18.24
C.[^-i;
aA-aB= ^
=
The
the same
will
^r
Then
induced drags.
graph,
18.24 Cl
and
for the
same as the
two wings
difference in
airfoil section
and same
be
Cd(A)
Cd{B)
The
same
profile drags,
for
Cdo{A)
Cdo(,b)
+
+
CuiiA)
Cdub)
both wings.
Cdu)
Then
Cd{B)
CmiA)
ttA
ttB
Cdub)
^71 -1^
An
Example.
airfoil,
6,
at
an angle
of attack
Cl
of 0.381
if
is 4.
89
Solution.
Approximate:
ae-a,=
-
(-0.579)
CDie)
Cm,)
18.24
= -0.579
= 3.579 =
0.381 (i
i)
^^^ Xii-i)
TT
0.0170
(-0.00385)
= -0.00385
= 0.0208 Cd
for
A.R. 4
ae-ai =
18.24
0.381
= -0.611
(J^
-0.0038
With
it
aspect
airfoil as if
the
airfoil
were of
is
they
To
When
cient.
infinite
Lately
^^
1.033\
0.381Y1.054
is
coeffi-
is
of attack for
that aspect ratio to give the geometric angle of attack, and to the
profile
drag coefficient
is
coefficient for
Example.
Solution.
Approximate
a =
ao
_
"^Qo
=
=
Cd =
=
=
=
-\-
ai
18.24
,
"^
1.03
8
2.3
11.3
Cdo
0.067
0.067
0.109
Coi
+ ifi3
+ 0.042
90
Wing
cient of 1.03
and drag
1.6
Drag Coefficient --
Cdq Profile
12
1.0
^
>
/
/
>^
_^^
/'*/'
/
/
-Angle
of Attack Of,
1-2
lift coeffi-
.8
have
coefficient of 0.109.
-.2
-.4
-.6
-.8
/
/ \ V^
-^
'
[/
'16
-12
-8
-4
12
16
Degrees
.01
From
Gottingen 398
2, is
.03
Characteristics of Clark
Fig. 38.
Example.
.02
Fig.
airfoil for
18,
the
Cl = 0.293 and Cd =
Y airfoil,
lift
an aspect
.04
.05
.06
and drag
ratio of 6, at
an angle
of attack of
0.031.
Solution.
Q;(A.R.6)
Qjo
=
=
ao(A.R.6)
ao
2
+ a(A.R.6)
18.24
0.89
0.293
to give
Cl
of 0.293.
Cdo
0.031
Cdo
+ ^'^^^
X6
91
C'l>,-(A.R.6)
TT
=
=
Cl =
0.031
Cz)o
when
0.0045
Example.
Kx =
Ky
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
q:(A.r.9)
a(A.R.9)
K:c(A.R.6)
ii::c(A.R.9)
Kx{K.R.^)
By
and what
of 0.00245,
if
7130
0.00245
will
{\
be i^?
4)
0.97
Ky = 0.00245
00024? (i - i)
5.03 for
125 X
0.0000417
0.00017 -^0.00004
0.00013
pect ratio are known, the characteristic curves for any other aspect
ratio
can be calculated. Figure 37 shows the lift and drag coefl&an aspect of 8, as calculated from data for an aspect
no
effect
on the angle
lift.
Problems
1.
An
0.7.
(a)
when Cl
2.
ratio
3.
ratio
What
is
the
is
0.7?
(6)
Cd
An
airfoil
Cd =
5.
of 0.01
when Cl
is
What
is
the
L/ D
ratio?
airfoil section as in
(a)
An
airfoil
and Cd
attack will
L/D?
ratio
Cl =
1.32?
(o)
6,
At what angle
Cd
0.78 and
4.
airfoil of infinite
is
6,
infinity?
What
(6)
What
will
be the
Cl =
what angle of
With an aspect
(6)
Cl =
will
ratio of 9, at
be Cd'^
(c)
What
will
be
92
6.
An
airfoil
and Cd = 0.046.
attack will Cl = 0.85?
0.85
What
(6)
An
airfoil
0.64 and
Cd =
0.035.
7.
attack will Cl
8.
An
0.64?
and Cd = 0.031.
attack will Cl = 0.58?
0.58
9.
An
airfoil of
0.0025 and
From
(b)
What
0.000175.
Ky =
6,
6,
0.0025?
an aspect ratio
it is
of
Cl =
what angle of
Cl
what angle
of
be Cd?
will
With aspect
(a)
be Cz??
will
What
(6)
and
ratio of 8.5, at
With aspect
(a)
aspect ratio of
Kx =
What
(b)
Cl
what angle
6,
With aspect
(a)
ratio of 8, at
be Cd'^
will
airfoil
6,
With aspect
(a)
ratio of 8, at
will
plot the
Ky
what
be Kx?
lift
and drag
coeffi-
of 8.5.
In practical
The L/D
of the
use
A
may
flight, lift
equals weight.
L2
7rq
be rewritten as
l{Cl^SV^)
A
ir^V'W
LxCl
LxCl
TT
of
(A.R.)
two
may
Cd (monoplane) = Cd (model)
= Cd
ratio, the
be written as follows
+ Czji (monoplane)
+ (A.R.^^
(A.R.model)
Cdi (model)
(model)
TT
TT
monoplane)
93
then
(^)
monoplane
-^
j^
Knowledge
of
L/D
of the
A. xv. monoplane/
VA.JLV.model
TT
be found
weight.
Example. An airplane weighs 2,000 lb.; the wing area is 180 sq.
What is the wing drag at 4 angle of
the wing span is 39 ft.
ft.;
attack?
of attack
Solution.
Cl =
0.84,
Cd =
0.058.
(x)
model
^^ =
0.069
0.84
A.R. monoplane
39
- =
8.45
loO
0.84/1
^^^^
0.069- (g-g;^j
1
0.0129
0.0561
0.069
1
0.0561
Since
lift is
equal to weight
2,000
0.0561
D =
=
2,000
112.2 lb.
wing
tip.
is
Problems
1.
What
is
94
3.
span and
chord.
4-ft.
What
is
monoplane weighing 2,700 lb. has a rectangular wing of 42span and 6-ft. 0-in. chord. If Gottingen 398 airfoil is used,
what is the wing drag at 5 angle of attack?
5. A monoplane weighing 9,300 lb. has a Gottingen 398 wing
574 sq. ft. in area. The span is 66 ft. What is the wing drag at 8
4.
ft. 5-in.
angle of attack?
monoplane whose weight is 5,400 lb. has a C-80 wing 285 sq.
The span is 44 ft. What is the wing drag at the same
angle of attack for which model airfoil (A.R. 6) has a Cl of 0.7?
7. A monoplane whose weight is 4,360 lb. has a Clark Y wing 292
The span is 42 ft. 9 in. What is the wing drag at 8
sq. ft. in area.
6.
ft.
in area.
angle of attack?
8.
attack?
9.
area.
Span
10.
What
is
34
is
ft.
3 in.
What is
of attack?
With the
airfoil section
landing speed.
least possible
The
is
fixed
by the
Rec-
many advantages
is
to tapering a
wing.
95
tangular wing, the chord remaining the same from root to tip.
The
airfoil section is
two.
The first method of tapering in plan form is the only one commonly used. Besides constructional advantages and improvement
if the upper surface is flat, the under surface
outward and upward, which gives an effective dihedral.
This feature is explained in the chapter on stability.
By decreasing the chord near the tip, the lift and drag loads are
made small at the outer extremities of the wing spars. This
in performance,
slopes
makes
is
Area
= ^ =
36
216
TT
A.R.
sq. ft.
Rectangular wing:
D-
'
0^9^
TT
=
By
236
X
X6
0.00256
216
100^
lb.
found to be 44
is
ft.
^,
^ 09^ X
0.00256
216
100^
44
^><2l6
158
lb.
Problems
1.
When Cl
is
1.2,
of
what
40
is
ft.?
The chord
at the root
is
ft.
Both
96
leading and trailing edges are tangent to the arc of a circle of 1^-ft.
The fuselage is 3 ft. wide.
radius at the tip.
When Cl
2.
in.
74-ft.
When Cl
in. radius.
3-ft.
is
0.85,
in. radius.
When Cl
5.
Delta wing?
2-ft.
in. radius.
airfoil
ratio.
may
it
""
,_
""^
a =
a'
A.R.
A.R.'
57.3 Cl
ttA.R.
57.3
"^
Cl
ttA.R.'
the curve
true
slope of
az.L.
C,
-T
^"
^^ X
azL
Aa
97
'
lift
curve
angle of zero
lift
a'z.L.
Examining a
ratio of 6,
^J^
z.L.
^^,
large
it will
57.3
O.Z.L.
azx.
0.0718
57.3
0.0718
azx.
+
,
Z.L. ~~
az.L.
1.311
q;z.l
\6
0.0718
azL.
^^j^,
o;z.l.
\6
57.3
A.R.7
A.R.7
= zx.(0.782+gl,)
q;z.l.
0.782
1-311
+ A.R/
Q^Z.L.
A.R.'
0.782
A.R/
1.311
or
'z.L.
^^
where
Fa.r.
^A.R.
is
much used
=
0.782 A.R.'
in
stability
1.311
computations,
tail surfaces,
errors incidental
98
The
factor
pi.oo
90
.80
70
5
E.
Fig. 39.
10
M.A.R.
This factor, i^A.R., is used by the Army Air Corps and is based
on the average slope of a large number of airfoils being 0.0718,
where a is measured in degrees. The Department of Commerce
advocates a sHghtly different value, based on theoretical results
deduced for thin airfoils.
The Department of Commerce uses the symbol m to represent
the slope of the lift curve m = ACl/Aq;, where a is measured in
:
radians.
From
airfoils,
is
tt.
= m^ = 2t
Aoo
Then
ACl = 2
Aa^
TT
+ XClA.R.
but
TT
or
A(x
ACl
= Aa^
+ X
TT
A.R.
2 7rAa.
Therefore
^"
^""+.XA.R.
= ^""(l+A.R.)
Aae
6,
= Aa
^1
4^
or
Aa =|Aa6
+ gj
lift
0.0822
if
3
jm^ =
is
j (2
tt) if
is
in radians, or
me
99
37r
57.3
in degrees.
Returning to the
equation
earlier
A(i+^y
A =
Substituting from above
A=|Aae(l+^y
-
Aae
ACl
Then
ACl
Aa
using the Department of
Aae
Commerce notation
4
m = m&X
3+i^
Example.
of attack
What
is
when
lift
lift
is 6.
The angle
of zero
lift is
2.
Solution.
^6
^76
_ (_2)
0.076
0.0829
Problems
1.
What
2.
What
An
airfoil
slope of
6.
is
An
airfoil
6.
is
slope of
lift
100
3.
With aspect
attack.
when
ratio of 6,
Angle of zero
aspect ratio
lift is
airfoil
3.
What
8?
is
4.
for
an
6,
slope of
8j,
if
lift
curve
angle of zero
is
what
0.076;
2?
lift is
is
Cl
it is
necessary to
know
relative
the chord.
If the lift and drag components are known, the components
about different axes may be found by resolution. Since the resultant at high angles of attack is only a small angle back of the
vertical, the chord component at high angles of attack actually
upward and rearward positive, the chord comCc and the beam or normal coefficient On may
terms of lift and drag coefficients, as follows,
Calling forces
ponent
be expressed in
coefficient
Department
Cc = Cd
cos
Cn = Cd
sin
a
a
-{-
Commerce Method
of
Cl sin a
Cl cos a
of Aspect-Ratio Correction.
CoA-Cn, =
and
since
it is
^{j-l)
ratio of 6, the
OA zrry
18.24 KCl
+ lo
7^/>
^
n
010 KCj}
C^e + 0.318
a = as
and
^
Cd =
^ =
n
Cd ^
angle of attack
txi
a
c
coefficient for asdrag
-
..
. ,,
^
pect ratio of the
wmg
K=~
and
101
0.1667
R~
The Department
of
Commerce
fifth,
TABLE IV
Computation of Airfoil Characteristics
0.2
2 ae
3 Aa
-2.2
-0.2
-2.4
oc
5 Cdg
6 ACoi
0.4
0.6
0.6
3.4
0.8
6.2
1.0
9.0
1.2
12.2
1.4
15.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
0.2
0.019
0.012
13 Cl sin a -0.0084
14 Cd cos a
0.0113
Cc
16
C.R
0.0193
0.60
17
Cuc/i
18
Cua
19 CDi
20 Cdo
2,
3,
Aa =
18.24
6,
7,
Cd =
8,
cos a
5,
(6).
cos
(4).
(5)
17.
KCl-
a = (2) + (3).
from characteristic curve,
ACdz = 0.318 KCl^.
4,
11.0
0.098
14.0
0.132
Explanation
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
8.0
0.068
0.0113
0.9991
8 COS a
-0.0419
9 sin a
10 Cl cos a
0.200
11 Cd sin a -0.0005
12 Cn
0.2005
15
5.4
0.046
Cd
2.8
0.030
Fig. 17.
102
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
Item
9,
18,
Item
19,
Cdi
Item
20,
Cdo
sin
a.
sin (4).
11,
Cl cos a =
Cb sin a =
12,
C^ =
13,
Cl
10,
(10)
(1)
(7)
X
X
(8).
(9).
(11).
15,
a = (1) X (9).
Cd cos a = (7) X (8).
Cc = (14) - (13).
16,
C.P.
14,
sin
is for
aspect ratio
6,
from Fig.
17.
17, Cmc/4.
(7)
(19).
Note: Item 12, the beam or normal component, and item 15, the chord
component, are used in stress analysis but are not needed in performance
calculations.
Problems
1.
aspect ratio of
2.
wing with an
8.
of 7.5.
103
TABLE V
Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils
C'imax.
CMc/4
Maximum
Coefficient
Lift
about i
Chord Point
where Cl =
Moment
Airfoil
Coefficient
Aerodynamic
dCL
Center in
Percentage of
da
Chord
A.R.6
24.2
for
Qark
1.56
YM-15
YM-18
1.58
24.1
0.0716
0.0722
1.49
-0.068
-0.068
-0.065
23.6
0.0716
C-72
Gottingen
1.62
-0.084
23.8
0.0739
387
398
1.56
23.9
24.4
N-22
N.A.C.A.
1.60
-0.95
-0.083
-0.074
25.0
0.0745
0.0734
0.0743
0006
0012
2212
0.88
24.3
0.0748
1.53
24.1
0.0743
2409
1.51
2412
1.62
2415
1.55
2418
1.43
4412
1.65
CYH
1.47
M-6
M-12
Curtiss
1.57
-0.029
-0.044
-0.044
-0.040
-0.037
-0.089
-0.027
24.5
0.0736
24.5
0.0740
1.40
0.002
25.0
0.0744
1.25
-0.022
25.0
0.0705
1.21
-0.052
23.2
0.0719
27
1.59
0.0718
1.48
-0.077
-0.111
-0.076
23.7
35-A
35-B
23.4
0.0730
24.5
0.0749
1.60
24.6
0.0753
24.7
0.0753
24.6
0.0743
24.3
0.0743
24.0
0.0726
R.A.F.
15
U.S.A.
1.69
of the
National Advisory
CHAPTER
VI
is
7rqbih2
where Li and 61 are the lift and span respectively of one wing,
L2 and 62 are the lift and span of the other wing, q is (p/2) F^, and a
is a dimensionless factor dependent on the ratio of gap to average
span and on the ratio of the shorter to longer span, a is called
the Prandtl interference factor.
The added drag on the upper wing produced by the lower wing
the same as the added drag on the lower wing produced by the
upper wing. The total added drag has twice the value of that
for a single wing.
Then the total induced drag of a biplane is
is
Tvqbi^
7rqbib2
104
irqh'^
and
105
C2
with the subscripts for hft and span, then, assuming there
decalage, so that the angles of attack
coefficients are the
same
for
is
no
lift
both wings,
7rqbih2
Trqbi^
irqb
TT
but since
Di
TT
= Cdh^SV^
TT
where S
= wing
area
then
Cdi
= (J
^
(ci^
o-CiC2
H- Ci^)
a monoplane,
viz..
Cm =
TT
The
expression
Ci^
lent
A.R.
-
is
+ ^2 aCiC2 + C2^
,
monoplane aspect
E.M.A.R.
E.M.A.R.
= ,_^^ ^
,
Cr + 2 (7CiC2 + C2^
,
length,
ci
C2,
S
2c2(l+<7)
106
.24
.23
.22
\v y
//
\ \
^1
'
Span
Longer Span
1^
\
\
.20
_ Shorter
\\
\v
.19
.18
^.17
c
2.16
<3
o
2.15
(X
\\
14
\\
13
\\
.12
\ V
.11
\\\
cp\
A\
.10
\
^
\
.08
.35
40
.45
\^ \\
\ \
.09
.50
.55
.60
Fig. 40.
65
.70
107
the fuselage.
Another expression for E.M.A.R.
derived as follows.
is
The
of the
lift
ijl:
/jl
jjL
Trgh^"^
7rg6i62
irqbi^
rL
1^
(r+-r}
^"(l^rjir+'r)
Tvq
6i(m6i)
'
m(1
I II"-
-KqhA
mH1
o-zxr
n .o^ JCLgSy
^""'^^ ~
Trqhi^
7r6i2
The
expression -^
is
r)2j
biplane
cr^r
mHI
+
+
rn
ry
(T/xr
IJr~2)
ry
mHI
/ m'
Di
ix\\
(m6i)
r\
0'
Cl'S
(l
'
%^#^,+
+ rf
^
^^
given.
Gap
^ 4^ ^
Mean span
36
Q ^25
108
From
Area,
Area,
= 0.56
upper wing = 40 X
lower wing = 32 X
Fig. 40, c
=
=
193.2 sq.
ft.
3.75
120.2 sq.
ft.
Total area
313.4 sq.
ft.
4.83
= S
313.4
E.M.A.R. =
4.83'
0.56
4.83
3.75
3.75^
313.4
23.4
5.4
20.3
14.0
Problems
Find E.M.A.R. of a biplane with rectangular wings; upper span
6i in., upper chord 4 ft. 8 in., lower span 28 ft. 4j in., lower
chord 4 ft.
in., and gap 4 ft. 6 in.
2. Find E.M.A.R. of a biplane with rectangular wings; upper span
28 ft.
in., upper chord 4 ft.
in., lower span 25 ft. 3 in., lower chord
3 ft. 6 in., and gap 50 in.
3. Find E.M.A.R. of a sesquiplane with rectangular wings; upper
span 25 ft.
in., upper chord 4 ft. 6 in., lower span 15 ft.
in., lower
chord 3 ft.
in., gap 45 in.
4. Find E.M.A.R of a biplane with rectangular wings; upper span
27 ft.
in., upper chord 4 ft. 6 in., lower span 22 ft.
in., lower chord
4 ft. 6 in., gap 4 ft. 6 in.
5. Find E.M.A.R. of a biplane with rectangular wings; upper span
in,, upper chord 9 ft.
in., lower span 38 ft.
in., lower chord
38 ft.
in., gap 9 ft.
9 ft.
in.
1.
31
ft.
of a biplane
cause mutual induced drag, and the amount of this drag depends on
The
several factors.
The reasons
is
when
these
the least.
for not
If
the weight
for biplanes.
The
and equal
areas.
It is
may
etc.
It is also desirable in
109
visibility in landing.
of unequal size
The
is
to aid stability.
greater the gap between the wings the smaller will be the
built as
of visibility.
The
= -^
>S
V/x^
+
,
^
2
(Jiir
-A
contains
r I
may
be differentiated.
If it is differentiated
dr
Trqhi^
dr\
J^f-
/^^(l
(1
L^ r 2
(afj,
r(l
Trqbi^
Ifj,'^
r)^
ratio of
fir
r)((Tfj,
o-fxr
o-m)
(1
(m^
"
o-m)
ry
(1
ry
/x,
inapplicable.
u ?.--")('-f:;;)
irqW
with respect to
lift, is
+ r) - (m' + 2 a + r^) ]
(l + ry
J
~
^^
2
+ r + c/xr +
M^
(1 + ry
TrqbAu^'
r,
r,
r^)'
110
f^
equal to zero
is
when
when
infinity or
^
=-.
(TfJi
either a
unity or
less
less
than unity.
than unity.
-zr-^
- is positive;
If T is less
-^
is,
the slope of
c/x is
always positive.
(
is
If r is greater in
is
positive
A plotted against
the expression [r
uix
of
aij) is
the expression
that
than
(1
always either
o- is always
always less than unity
ju
plotted against r
is
and
r is positive.
is
negative,
0-/X/
negative.
Therefore,
when
-z
is
a minimum.
<ffJL
r is
Actually, even
if
the same
same
as the
airfoil section is
used for both wings, there will be interaction between the two
lift coefficient for the upper wing,
lift
lift
same as
Cl,
Clu = Cl
Cll = Cl
^Clu
=F
ACll
= Cl^ AClu-^When
ACll
both wings are the same area, the increments AClu and
are equal
and
of opposite sign.
AClu = K,
K^Cl
Common
lift
111
coefficients
and
assumes that r, the ratio of lifts, is also the ratio of wing areas.
Then if unequal spans have been decided upon for a biplane, the
areas should be divided so that there is least induced drag, that is,
r is
made equal to
-^
ti
1/ {X
(T^X
If
<T
when the
by the
factor
area.
ratio of the
o-^
is
divided
0-,
^=
<^ap
From
Fig. 40,
|i=l.ll
0.9
4.5
Mean span ~
a =
28.5
~
=
1.11
-^
^^
.
'
0.538
0.9
"^
_
~
- 0.538
- 0.538
0.632
Therefore the area of the lower wing should be 0.632 times the area of
the upper wing. The area of both the wings will be 1.632 times the
area of the upper wing, or the area of the upper wing will be 1/1.632
or 0.613 of the total area.
^=
0.632
^= 0.632 |l
-=
0.632
Cl
1.11
0.702
Problems
1.
lower span 24
ft.,
and gap 4
ft.
What
chords?
2.
55
in.
biplane
What
is
to
have
45-ft.
upper span,
38-ft.
112
3.
biplane
is
have
to
upper span,
40-ft.
(b)
20-ft.
24-ft.
What
(a)
ft.
4.
gap 45
biplane
5.
gap 5
is
What
in.
biplane
is
What
ft.
E.M.A.R.
have
to
upper span,
28-ft.
have
to
upper span,
28-ft.
for
20-ft.
E.M.A.R.
Ci^
(TC1C2
+ C2^
E.M.A.R.
^2(1
-,
r)2
arfjL
7-
and
ratio of spans
L2
02
r2
,.
y- = -^ = ratio of areas
oi
M
/.
/JL
'
M^
1
Making
(T
1/m
(T
g-M
ajJL
becomes
E.M.A.R. (Min.Z?i)
hi
)u2(l
o-m)'
(1
^&i^r
,S
L(l
(1
atxY
(7(m
_6i^r
(7/.
(7)(1
(1
(TM
0-/X
+ 2 o-mHm - cr)(l -
+ mHm' -
(Tfi)
M^)2
M^)^
afx)
(iu2
,S
[1
^bi^r i
0-/X
2(7M
(1-2^M + My
+ m' - + 2 o-V <^'
M^ l
cr^)
C7M
M^)^
S Li-2(7m+o-V+2(7m-2o-2-2o-V+2o-3m+^2_2
^vr
(t^
ctm)^
c^Vj
o-^)]
1
0-^+^2]
E.M.A.R.
Since
then
and
<
<
<
-
/x
fjL
fjL^
a
- 2
0-2
<
(Tfj,
+ a^
2
o-M
113
is
m'
1.
is
lift
monoplane aspect
ratio
be greater than the aspect ratio of the monoplane, since the E.M.A.R. of the biplane is the A.R. of the monoplane multiplied by a fraction which is greater than 1. Since the
induced drag depends on the aspect ratio, the biplane will have
less induced drag than the monoplane.
T 2 P/
(1 -2(7M
M^)
The above expression for E.M.A.R. = -^
IS
1-0-2
of the biplane will
lift
distributions
fJihe
L
E.M.A.R.(Min. A)
it
becomes
2<7&2
h^^\
rn
"o"!
W -2 ahM +
hi"
I
If
bi
and
62
E.M.A.R.(Min.Z)i)
S{1 -<r^)
62(1
8(12
/S(l
Also
if 61
6,
62, r^
/x
1,
-")
<^)
62
and the
0-)
ratio of
wing areas
for best
114
distribution
lift
becomes
m'
(T
(T
GIX
afj,
the areas
(lift)
the gap.
If
//
is less
than
Solution.
b2
bi
36
~40 ~
Gap
Mean span
cr
0.9
0.132
38
0.580
40'
E.M.A.R ~
400
(1
40'
-4,,X1.16
=
4.64
0.580
1
0.9
0.580'
0.92)
115
Problems
1. Assuming that wing areas are
E.M.A.R. of a biplane with total area
380
sq.
ft.,
what
upper wing
is
3o-ft.
of a biplane
best
distribution.
lift
What
5.
is
ft.
What
30
is
ft.,
ft.
in.,
and
10 in.?
6.
is
upper span 30
What
8.
ft.
in.,
is
is
376
ft.,
lower span 38
ft.
ly^/S
the
'^
-.
ratio for a
___,_
this factor
M^l
,
M^
''
-W + r)
=vVl+ 2 aril +
m(1 + r)
Vju' + 2 (7rM +
_
ft.,
is
1,182
is
1,596
monoplane
ratio of a biplane
r)
-.
Munk's span
by the symbol K.
Using
becomes
The aspect
usually represented
sq.
in.,
r-
6i2
being -^
factor
-^is
''
called
and
is
. ,
K^ the expression
E.M.A.ll.
for
(^
f-
7-2
E.M.A.R.
of a biplane
116
The
The
D-
^'
Example.
upper span
152 sq.
ft.,
is
h,
called the
Solution.
on
H = 0.879
Gap
_4.63_Q^^^
Mean span 30.5
From
Fig. 40,
.
K.
o"
1-1
0.54
= 0.9
0.879
Vo.879'
=
Kbi =
=
0.54
X 1.79
X 0.79 X
0.879
0.79^
1.07
1.07
34.2
ft.
32
Problems
area
1. Find equivalent monoplane span of an MB-3 airplane;
upper wing 124 sq. ft., area lower wing 122.9 sq. ft., upper span 26 ft.,
lower span 24 ft. 6 in., gap 4 ft. 5 in.
area
2. Find equivalent monoplane span of a PW-8 airplane;
upper wing 172 sq. ft., area lower wing 125 sq. ft., upper span 32 ft.,
lower span 32 ft., gap 4 ft. 7j in.
3. Find equivalent monoplane span of a Vought training plane,
area upper wing 143 sq. ft., area lower wing 140.7 sq. ft., upper and
lower spans each 34 ft. 5j in., gap 4 ft. 8 in.
4. Find equivalent monoplane span of a Curtiss observation airplane; area upper wing 214 sq. ft., area lower wing 150 sq. ft., upper
span 38 ft., lower span 35 ft., gap 5.35 ft.
117
7.
of
40
ft.,
ft.,
Effect
on Aspect Ratio
of
Gap
Variation.
In previous para-
graphs, the gap has been specified and changes in aspect ratio
62
62
62
+ c)
becomes
S{1
1)
Induced Drag of a Biplane.
S{1
7r(E.M.A.R.)
L
For
level flight,
Example.
lift
where q
TrqiKhiY
vf
P
= ^V^,Vm
feet per second
2
biplane
is
will
118
speed and that the lower span should be 0.8 of the upper span, which
What are best chords, and what is the E.M.A.R., if
to be 40 ft.
is
the gap
is
duced drag at
Solution.
0.167
then
0.167
From
Fig. 40,
For best
lift
0.477
distribution
_ 477 y^ Q g
- 0.477 X 0.8
0.64 - 0.382
~ 1 - 0.382
= 0.417
_
~
(0.8)2
1
0.417 ='-^M
Cl
'-^
0.522
Cl
=
+r) =
250
Siil
250
250
^1
S2
61
sq. ft.
1.417
=
=
=
=
176.5 sq.
0.417
73.5 sq.
40
ft.
176.5
ft.
ft.
176.5
62
=
=
=
_
4.41
=
^
2.3
1.138
^~
32
ft.
0.8
40
ft.
73.5
ft.
0.477
1
0.8
- OAff
+ 0.8'
is
the in-
^X
7.28
1.138
4000
TT
=
It is to be
119
109
0.00119
147
1.138
40"
lb.
7^
is
applicable
only when the ratio of areas is such that the induced drag is minimum;
if the areas are arbitrarily chosen without regard to this, the general
formula K^
Example.
lower span 32
6.67
ft.
What
must be used.
ft.,
is
Solution.
32
^^=40
= 0.8
G
i
(61
+ 62)
=
From
Fig. 40, a
r
_
~
=
^
^
40
6.67
32
0.185
0.477
32 X 3.5
40 X 3.45
112
138
0.81
(0.8)^
~
=
(0.8)2
-f-
0.477
(1
0.81)2
0.81
0.8
(0.81)^
1.096
4,000'
Di
IT
113
0.00119
X Tif X
1.096
40^
1b.
Problems
1. A biplane weighing 4,000 lb. has a total wing area of 250 sq. ft.,
upper span 40 ft., lower span 32 ft., upper chord 4.41 ft., lower chord
2.3 ft., gap one-seventh of longer span; what is induced drag at airspeed of 100 miles per hour ao sea-level?
2. What is the induced drag for the airplane in problem 1, if gap
is one-ninth of longer span?
120
3.
is
What
is
1, if
gap
A biplane weighs 4,000 lb. and has a total wing area of 250 sq.
upper span 40 ft., lower span 32 ft., gap one-seventh of longer span,
and chords such as to give minimum drag. What is the induced drag
at 100 miles per hour at sea-level?
5. What would be the induced drag for the airplane in problem 4
if the gap were one-eighth of the longer span and the chords such as
4.
ft.,
minimum drag?
What is the induced
to give
6.
drag?
7. A biplane weighing 4,000 lb. has an upper span of 40 ft., lower
span 32 ft., total wing area 250 sq. ft., gap one-seventh of larger span.
What should be chords and E.M.A.R. for minimum drag, and what is
drag at airspeed of 100 miles per hour at sea-level?
8. A biplane weighing 2,932 lb. has a total wing area of 257 sq. ft.,
the upper span 31.58 ft., lower span 26 ft.; chords are chosen for
minimum drag, and gap is 4.19 ft. What is drag at 150 miles per
hour at an altitude of 10,000 ft.?
9. A biplane weighing 10,350 lb. has a total wing area of 1,154
sq. ft., upper and lower spans are each 66.5 ft., the chords are equal,
and the gap is 9.17 ft. What is the drag at 120 miles per hour at sea-
level?
10.
The
1,510 sq.
are equal.
Curtiss
ft.,
each span
What
is
is
91
ft.
in.,
lb.,
the gap
is
its total
10
ft.
wing area
in.,
is
the chords
level?
The
and
391 X/(ci^
0-C1C2
+ C2')
125 X/(ci^
(7CiC2
C2^)
391 Ky
IZb
Ky
125
MHl
^^^y
r)2
X/
= KxiSV^
in miles per
hour
[l25^/(^]^^^
Z^
C2
y4
125 L
"(
DiX V
375
SV\KhiJ
It will be noted that the expressions for induced drag and for
horsepower to overcome induced drag are independent of lift and
drag coefficients and are therefore the same whether absolute or
engineering coefficients are used in the airfoil data.
Total Drag of Biplane Wings from Model Data. With the velocity not known, the total drag may be found from model data.
The
the
L/D
by
F.
L^
D -
LXCl
IT
LXCl
7r(E.M.A.R.)
122
Let Dib be the induced drag of the biplane wings and Db the
total drag of the biplane wings.
I^b
"
-Dmodel
+ A"6
LXCl
-^t model
^model
/ A
LxCl
7r(E.M.A.Il.)bipla
7r(A.R.)model
(^)
\^/biplane
=/D
\L/model
TT
\E.M. A.R.biplane
V^/model
TT
\{Khiy
mgineer
With engineering
coefficients, this
'biplane
)
(f
\-tv/model
In level
may
A.R.model/
becomes
1
^
125
Ky(j^,
(.A
\
A.R.model/
L/D
Oi; biplane
j^
A.It.model/
if
the
be found.
154.8 sq.
ft.,
Solution.
From
2X4.7
G^
h+
Fig. 40,
24.33
62
0.173
0.493
m'(1
K' =
ju^
30.1
r)2
2o-r/i
^^
0.808^ (1
0.808'
=
E.M.A.R. =
1.03
1.03
(30.1)2
103.7 H- 154.8
3.61
0.493
0.67)^
0.67
0.808
0.67
L/D =
0.791;
17.5.
G).
0.791
'biplane
17.5"^
1\
qJ
V3.61
0.0849
D =
=
If
3,116
268
0.0849
lb.
is
^t^
/b(l
ratio of
(1
+ a).
or the aspect
(T)
-'>'model
^
TT
"T
VA"R,
.x~A"R
,,/
\-f^--Cv. (one wing)
-fi--tv. model/
Example.
5,000
lb.;
Clark
section.
SoliUion.
/x
Gap
Span
From
Fig. 40,
=
~
=
l
6_
42
0.143
0.574
42^
^
=
7.84
L
i)
J_
0.791
17.5"^
~ 0.0655
D = 5,000 X
= 328 lb.
TT
fiA7_l\
V7.84
6/
0.0655
Problems
What
is
of attack?
124
3.
gap
is
4.72
What
is
is
total
300.6 sq.
ft.,
lb.
4.
in
airfoil.
ft.,
of attack?
CHAPTER
VII
PARASITE DRAG
When an
The
is
object
air flowing
drag.
resistance to forward
on these parts
is all
lift, it is
Parasite drag
is
due to turbulence.
Every
care
is
also
in the
ever possible the airplane parts that would cause parasite drag
are
made
streamline in shape.
is
referred to as structural
drag.
PARASITE DRAG
126
Some data
flat
The
plate area."
still
recorded as being in
resistance in
where a
equivalent
is
pounds
''
is
is
1.28
^ aV^, where p
is
in
the air
is
given at an airspeed of
some defined
airspeed.
If
is
to
the drag
is
10,000.
is
coefficient.
The
Co ^
^SF^, is
made up
of
two parts:
The
The
drag.
calculation of drag
is
is
therefore
parasite drag.
is
much
simplified
The
If
is
the equivalent
the
cient in this
coefficient
if
flat
profile
drag
Cdp
Then the
1 28 X
= o
i^
wing drag,
feet
is
Dp = Cdp ^SV^
V in
Dp = 0.00256 CDp&y
Y in
and
is
STREAMLINING
If
is
127
Cn*
'^^
_
=
"
is
-PlOO m.p.h.
0.00256
0.0392
10,000
Aoom.p.h.
S
Streamlining.
much
The purpose
of streamlining
is
to reduce as
through the
air.
The
air flowing
moving
If the object
object experiences no sudden change in direction.
always met the air in a direction parallel to the axis of the object,
there might be merit in having the nose of the object pointed or
knife-shaped. A very sHght change in direction of an object
whose entering surface is so shaped would increase the resistance
or turbulence enormously.
It is therefore best to have a blunt
Since an object whose rear end is blunt leaves a wake when
nose.
passing through air, and the air rushes into this region of low
pressure in a turbulent manner, the contour of a streamlined body
must taper back to a '' tail."
Any non-streamlined body can have its resistance or drag
greatly reduced merely by the addition of a blunt nose and a
tapered tail. If the contour is also a continuous curve the shape
approaches the ideal streamline.
Fineness. Fineness is the ratio of the length of a body, i.e.,
parallel to the usual direction of motion, to its maximum thickBest results can be obtained with a fineness ratio of about
ness.
4.
A fineness less than 4 shows a big increase in drag coefficient.
A fineness ratio greater than 4 gives a slight increase probably due
entirely to the added skin friction.
The preceding remarks about streamlining and fineness apply
both to solids of revolution Hke the gas-bag of dirigibles and to
the cross-section of objects like struts about which the flow is
two-dimensional.
Graphical
Method
The
following pro-
section.
If
PARASITE DRAG
128
Fig. 41.
If
section
is
little
increase in
airfoil.
and
F is
maximum thickness
0.6495
a, h,
and
F -
it is first
is
D/F.
necessary to
r.
Vo.4219 F'
= D/F
ar
2a
+r
in.
or 0.8
in.,
and
0.6495
0.1578
0.8
5.196
0.1540
in.
Vo.4219
25
129
0.1540
0.1578
0.976
a
2 a/r
in.
0.154
0.158
0.1170
in.
baseline
third circle is
With
as
marks on the
drawn.
With O2
as center
and
6 as radius,
first-drawn circle.
These radial lines are treated in pairs. The radial line above the
baseline, and making a given angle with it, is paired with the radial
In
line below the baseline, and making the same angle with it.
radial
lines.
and
are
such
Where
OR2
two
Fig. 41, ORi
ORi
Where
intersects the outer circle, a line is drawn parallel to OR2.
OR2 intersects the inner circle, a line is drawn parallel to ORi,
The intersection of these two lines is a point on the streamline
contour.
By
is
left of
drawn.
The
trailing
will
D=
0.00026
XdXV^
is
D=
=
V=
diameter in inches
V=
or
D=
0.000121
XdXV^
PARASITE DRAG
130
The drag
If
the wire
of
is less
high.
Stranded cable
will
D=
D=
two
0.00031
XdXV^
0.000144
7
7
XdXV
in miles per
in feet per
hour
second
it,
it
is
much
The drag
of this wire
0.000089
XT XV^
is
thickness in inches
is
is
or
D=
0.0000414
There
is
XT XV^
usually present, in
flight,
some vibration
of the wires.
Owing
fatigue
and
failure
with
little
or no warning.
will
is
liable to
drag
STRUTS
131
D = KwV^
w is width
V in miles
per hour
2.5
0.0000194
3.0
4.0
0.0000180
0.0000175
0.0000171
4.5
0.0000175
D = K'wV^
in feet per
second
Fineness
K'
2.5
0.00000902
0.00000836
0.00000812
0.00000795
0.00000812
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
By
as follows:
Fineness
3.5
or
is
in inches
PARASITE DRAG
132
Example.
Find difference in drag at 100 miles per hour, at seaft. long if they are round tubes f in.
in outside diameter or streamline f in. in width and have a fineness of
level, of
3.5
Solution.
Round:
D =
=
Too')
(0.0000175
(0.00026
46.8 lb.
Streamline
D =
=
Too')
2.6 lb.
Problems
1.
What
each J
in.
resistance in
is
thick and 21
ft.
pounds
of eight
an airspeed
long, at
sea-level?
2.
What
is
at 12,000-ft.
altitude?
3. What is the drag of the four interplane struts of a biplane if
they are streamline in shape with fineness of 3, thickness is f in., and
length of each is 5 ft. 10 in.? Airspeed 100 miles per hour.
4. What is the drag of 40 ft. of standard ^' streamline " wire,
f in.
thick, at 125 miles per hour airspeed?
5. A radio antenna mast is a round tube 6 in. in diameter.
It is
40 ft. high. What is the force on the mast in a 50-mile wind?
At the end
is
of
a strut, where
it
by the conjunction
distributed
FUSELAGES
133
An
Example.
The Vought
fuselage
has a cross-sectional area of 8.9 sq. ft.; at 110 miles per hour its drag
The unknown fuselage has a cross-sectional area of 12
is 102 lb.
sq. ft.; what is its drag at 145 miles per hour?
Solution.
=
8.9
110^
0.00095
Drag =
=
=
With wheels,
difference
coefficient
0.00095
239
X A X T^
12 X T45^
lb.
is
is
usually very
little
exactly parallel or at a
may
angles of attack.
pends on the
More
coefficients
with different
PARASITE DRAG
134
by the
speed to the
flat
any
flat
11
1.0
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.5
16
1.8
1.9
2.0
-^ , Speed Ratio
Vs
Fig. 42.
Example.
level;
its stalling
Solution,
From
Fig. 42, F, at
F
F
At
V/Vs =
1.64, is 1.02
at stalling speed
maximum
at
is
speed
4.00
is
1.00
stalling speed:
Equivalent
flat
plate area
3.06
12.0 sq.
ft.
1.02
At maximum speed:
Equivalent
flat
plate area
3.06
1.00
3.0 sq.
1.02
At
fuselage
3.06
1.28
440
0.0089
0.0089
stalling speed
Cz?
fuselage
1.02
0.0349
0.0089
At maximum speed
'^> fuselage
p^^
0.00874
1.00
ft.
LANDING GEAR
135
able,
an approximate idea
of the
drag
may
be gained by totaling
the resistance of the struts and the wheels, using Table VI.
TABLE VI
.
Drag
in
Tire
size
Bare wheel
26X3
28X4
30X5
32X6
36X8
44X10
54X12
64X14
10.8
14.1
18.1
22.8
33.8
51.2
75.9
105.6
Usual fairing
Full fairing
7.2
9.4
12.0
15.2
22.5
34.1
50.6
70.4
3.6
4.7
6.0
7.6
11.2
17.0
25.3
35.2
it has become common to use lowWith a smaller wheel the same landing shock can
with a larger wheel using high-pressure tires. The
tires.
be taken up as
they grip the ground better, they permit a smoother take-off and
landing on a rough field, and they afford a better traction on a
wet, muddy field. Brakes operate well, and owing to their proportions the drag
is less
tire
to take the
PARASITE DRAG
136
is
increases the drag but it also lowers the line of action of the total
drag force, so that, if the airplane is balanced before lowering,
there is a tendency to nose over when the gear is caused to descend.
is
lowered when
remember
is
attained
difficult to predict
by cowling the
may be
almost impossible in
engine,
and
it
is
all
the
little
which initiate the air disturbances. Fullsize flight tests appear to be the only method of finding out exactly
the precise value of any particular cowl. Tests would need to be
run at several different speeds since a cowling might be helpful
at one speed and detrimental at another.
Polar Diagram. The plotting of Cl against Co has special merit
when used in combination with the parasite coefficient, the latter
being expressed as a function of the wing area. It was pointed
out in Chapter IV that, with
plotted against Cd, if a straight
line is drawn through the origin tangent to the curve, the point of
tangency will locate the maximum L/D for the airfoil alone. Laying off the parasite drag coefficient in the form of 1.28 a/S, to the
left of the origin, gives a point such as P in Fig. 43.
A line through
details of the engines
point
maximum L/D
of the
POLAR DIAGRAM
In Fig. 43,
entire airplane.
Clark
it is
137
equivalent
flat
Then the
ft.
distance
OP
is
The ordinate
8.
1.6
H^
1
y ^8
1.5
/C
1.4
1.3
/
^
J/
/r
1.2
1.1
10
//
//
1.0
i
.9
-i
C,.8
.7
//
.6
f
>
.5
A
/
/.a
A_4o
/i
.02
.04
.06
.08
.10
.14
.12
.16
.18
.20
.22
.24
Co
Fig. 43.
gency
is
0.93
so that the
and the
L/D
abscissa,
airfoil
measured from P,
(Cz?
total), is
0.93/0.108 or 8.51.
0.108,
This
should be compared with Fig. 25, where the tangent drawn
from the origin would locate the angle of maximum L/D for the
wing alone as 1 and the maximum L/D of the wing alone as
21.5.
is
CHAPTER
VIII
ENGINES
The
bustion type.
may
cylinders
in
two rows
The
It
is
either
the internal-com-
is
form
in the
The
air
line or
of a letter V.
essential requirements of
At full
mobile engine has usually a higher number
materially from automobile engines.
differ
of revolutions
and
greater piston speed than the airplane engine, but whereas the
is run wide open and the bulk
than half speed, the airplane engine is
operation
its
is
at three-
The Department
of
Commerce
before approving a
new type
of
For 50 hours
of this test the engine must be run at wide-open throttle, and for
the other 50 hours at not less than 75 per cent of rated horsepower.
This test is more severe than those required by other countries,
and it is not believed that any automobile engine has sufficient
airplane engine requires a 100-hour endurance test.
reliability to pass
it.
The requirement
of lightness in weight
obtaining reliability.
pendability
if
all
It
would not be
is
a severe handicap in
rugged.
stresses of every
it is
the engine
It is not
is
till
the engine
is
is
usually not
full
power.
till
With
is
airplane operation,
wide open for the take-off and wide open for the climb.
the altitude selected for ffight has been reached that
throttled back.
138
the Department of
Commerce
139
of the
It is
only in fljdng
boats where the hull extends a good distance forward of the wing
to offset to
type
is
permissible.
size at the
what a misnomer
since
body
is
streamlined
motor.
The term
cooling
is
some-
it is
and unless the heat is removed, the engine parts would soon reach
a temperature at which they would have no strength. The purpose of cooling
is
heat from the cylinders and then having the liquid cooled by
air.
the same.
first
ENGINES
140
air-cooled engines
had
is
same horsepower.
ment
is
lb.
effective
per sq.
in.,
standard engines.
of cylinders,
Engine
failures
may
fuel trouble,
STEAM POWER
lubrication trouble, electrical trouble,
liquid cooling there
is
141
and cooling
trouble.
With
pump
failing, etc.
is
With
air cooling,
one of
eliminated.
Steam Power.
cessful flying
is
not feasible.
For ordinary
flying, this
all
consideration
per hp.
flying.
lose
there
is
increases so that
ENGINES
142
considered
steam
is
and
peril
from
boiler explosion
may
may
Eliminating these
many
forced
landings.
Steam turbines have received little consideration since for effimust be in such large units or must be run at
To
it
was thought that a flywheel was absolutely necesstill have a rotating mass,
an engine was
crankshaft.
The
propeller
was
affixed to
about a stationary
the cylinders.
The
air
cooled.
The
On
is
quite pronounced.
DIESEL ENGINES
143
desirable
to
prevent pre-ignition.
by vapor-lock
An
special
compounds
especially
volatile
a very cheap
oil,
but
Not only
also,
since
it
ENGINES
144
is
Owing
itself,
horsepower
less
not
all
the
The indicated
is
the
power of the engine to do outside work. The ratio of brake horsepower to indicated horsepower is the mechanical efficiency of the
The indicated horsepower
engine, usually about 90 per cent.
multiplied by the mechanical efficiency gives the brake horsepower.
The mean effective pressure, in pounds per square inch, multiplied by the area of the piston, in square inches, gives the average
If this force is multiplied
force acting on the piston during a cycle.
in
feet,
work, in foot-pounds,
the
stroke,
the
product
is
the
by
If the work per cycle is
applied to the piston during a cycle.
multiplied by the number of cycles per minute, which in the fourcycle engine
is
is
Horsepower (indicated)
This
PLANn
33,000
in
square inches
efficiency
Horsepower
indicated
the
is
Within a range
close
Above rated
and the mechanical
145
so that even
if
the throttle
is
at the
At
less
will
be
less.
no
60
70
80
90
100
Fig. 44a.
Effect of Altitude
for burning fuel.
burn properly.
If insufficient
for
adequate supply of
air to
vapor.
ENGINES
146
The mixture
B.H.P.
at constant temperature
B.H.P.o
and
B.H.P.
T3
TT
p =
./To
-^
V/
at constant pressure
Then
B.H.P.
B .H.P.o
1.00
.90
1.80
N s.
t-70
<u
Vpo/
\T,j
V
'^
nj
1.50
o
""^
|.40
o
^.30
(0
.20
.10
10,000
20,000
30.000
40,000
Altitude in Feet
Fig. 446.
In standard atmosphere
,4.256
\T,)
Po
and
P.
PO
(P.\
\Po/
147
Some
slight modifications
Vpo/j"
this relation at
Fig. 446.
is
given graphically in
CHAPTER IX
PROPELLERS
Function.
The
air
screw propeller
is
the torque power of the engine into forward thrust, thus impelUng
the airplane forward.
it is
termed simply
A wood
screw forces
its
way
into
face of the
nut by the back face of the bolt thread sliding against the front
With a marine propeller, it is the rear
The very
face of the blades which pushes against the water.
very shortly
first aircraft propellers were built with this viewpoint
thereafter, however, it was conceived that the blades might be
considered as wings, or rather as a number of wings of infinitely
Treating the blades as airfoils makes
short span set end to end.
of primary importance the front face of the blades, i.e., the upper
face of the nut thread.
all
airspeeds.
It is therefore
designed to give
maximum
conditions.
Momentum
Theory.
The
first
is
disk.
148
It is further
MOMENTUM THEORY
149
and that
and beyond
it.
Fig. 45.
Momentum
X is
a point in the
air
is
a point in the
air
Let
'TA
F(l
F(l
A =
Ax =
Ay =
V=
-f- a) =
+ h) =
p =
column at X.
column at Y,
velocity at X.
velocity at propeller disk.
velocity at
F.
atmospheric pressure
static pressure at
and F.
pi
P2
=
=
Since the volume of air flowing through each area in unit time
is
the same,
AxV =
AV{l-\-a) = AyV(1
h)
equal.
P+^V' = Pi+^VKl +
ay
150
PROPELLERS
No energy is added or subtracted to the air from a point immediately in the rear of the disk to point Y, so the total heads
at these points may likewise be placed equal.
P2
= p
+1 7^(1 +
P2
=p
+ ^vn{i + hy - a + ay]
hy
be noted that the velocity immediately in front is assame as the velocity immediately in the rear of
It will
sumed
+1 F2(l + ay
to be the
and an
infinite
(jT) is
acceleration,
on the
air
T=
ip2- pi)A
T = A p+^VK[l + hr-[l +
^AV'i
is
Thrust
is
aY)
P[l -
(1
+ ayij
2h)
momentum which
the mass of air affected per second times the change in velocity.
The mass
of air
is
is
is
by
-\-
a), so
Then
T = pAV{l + a)hV
= pA72(l + a)h
MOMENTUM THEORY
Equating
pAV\l
151
+ a)h=^A V\h^ +
6 + a6 =
+ 2 6)
+ 2a6 = 62 + 26
6)
26
2a =
To
"^r^
is
divided
or
Power output =
TV
= pA72(i
= pAFHl
+ a)67
+ a)6
air
column
in unit time,
K.E.K
= Mp4F(JLrho)]
= |^y(l
The
kinetic energy at
Z is
+ 6)?
[T^(l
+ a)(l+6)^
yv,^
KE.X = MpAT^dT^)]!^
The
Y and X
= |A7Kl
a)(l
+ a)(6^ +
6)^
is
which represents
the power input.
- | A Y\\ +
2 6)
a)
PROPELLERS
152
Substituting h
2 a:
Power input = |
A 7^(1
pAV%(l
a){2ah
2h)
aY
Therefore
Power output
Power input
Efficiency
pAV%(l +a)
pAV'b{l
1
This
is
+ay
due to rotation
of the
sHp stream,
profile
The only
^-^
^^.^.---''^
dT
^r
Fig. 46.
Each small
the results
^^t^--^^
27rRN
>
summed up
may
BLADE-ELEMENT THEORY
propeller
is
turning over
153
feet per
velocity of the element in the plane of rotation is 2 wR
airspeed
of
feet
per
If
airplane
has
an
V
second,
the
second.
the
Since the motion of
propeller is moving forward with that speed.
the airplane
is
propeller, here
is
motion of
of
disk.
angle
<^
tan<^
The magnitude
=
2 ttRN
V
-
W = sm
(W)
is
2 7rRN
cos
<^
of
section
blade angle
same velocity V, but the linear speed of rotation is greater for blade
elements nearer the tip of the propeller, so the relative velocity
will be greater at the tips.
The angle 4> is less for blade elements
Since
<t>
angle
/3
dL^Ci^hdRW^
PROPELLERS
154
The
resultant force
component;
lift
be called angle
let
B.
is
Then
cote =-j^
is so constructed that under design connormal revolutions per minute and design airspeed)
every airfoil section is meeting the air at the same angle of attack
then, if the same airfoil section is used throughout, 6 will be
(a)
If
ditions
(i.e.,
the same
all
The
tip.
cos 9
CL^hdRW^
cos 6
This resultant force, instead of being divided into lift and drag
components, is divided in components parallel to the propeller
and
is
</>
angle
force
<f)
is
at angle
dT = dFR
=
The torque
or tangential
itself,
which
{(!>
6)
C4hdRW^'-^^^^
2
cos^
component
dF = dFR
The torque
cos
is
sin (0
is
6)
cos ^
the
applied, is
BLADE-ELEMENT THEORY
the tangential force times
moment arm
its
155
R.
Letting
repre-
sent torque
dQ =
The power absorbed
R dFR sin
will
(0
+ d)
The
efficiency of
each element
is
sin (0
d)
by
VdT
Efficiency
2 7rNdQ
V dFR cos
+ 6)
(0
2 7rNRdFRSm((t>-{-d)
V^-^ = tan
Substituting ^
L
cf)
'Kti IS
y^rn
Tangent
is
same
tan (0
<f)
the
tan
'
^^''''''^
e)
is
tip.
(f>
zero
be
tan 43f
tan 46i
0.957
1.045
PROPELLERS
156
CL^hdRW^co^{<l>
dT =
The blade width
e)
cos 6
(6)
The
ratio
each element.
R{h/R).
Also W, the relative velocity, is equal to 2 tt NR/ cos <^. The
angle d is always small so that little error is introduced if cos 6 is
assumed to be unity. The distance R to each blade element is
expressed as
of the tip
R/Ri
and
Ri or R/Ri
D is the diameter.
D/2, where Ri
Making
is
the radius
dT
-i[
.2
Fig. 47.
h cos (0
d)
COS^
...
dJ^I] NW^
.8
10
BLADE-ELEMENT THEORY
tion along the radius
depend on the
may be
airfoil section
157
of the propeller.
V/(ND)
is
being
feet,
the
dimensionless.
The
element
by an individual blade
may
dPa
+ 6)
= 2TNRC4hdRW^ sin^0+^)
2
cos^
=
ttNR dFR
2 L4
sin (0
cos2
\RiJ
Rij
R/Ri
in Fig. 47.
by the num-
is
plotted against
(P^).
The equation
for
Pa=^PcN'D'
It will be noted, in Fig. 47, that the blade elements inside of
20 per cent R contribute no thrust. To withstand centrifugal
force the blades are made extremely thick near the hub and are
158
PROPELLERS
The
efficiency
(??)
of a propeller
may
coefficients, as follows
TV
P
{^iTcmD^y
^PcNW'
Tc^ V
Pc
ND
downward
velocity, or
if
circulating
momentum and
BLADE-ELEMENT THEORY
power into the basic dimensions
time
of
mass
159
length (L), and
(ikf),
{t).
The
maximum
particular value of
at one
V/{ND),
de-
er values.
for
gives
is
given
the
called
which
propeller
maximum
efficiency
design
V/{ND).
the
^80
c
The
v/
I 60
A^
'//
Iu 40
/'
=-<--^'
\^
5" Bladi"
angle
ri
\
I-.
I.
i~
-15
//
/',
Ow
20
^
^
_/<.
_
0.4
0.2
06
0.8
1.0
\2
1.4
NO
Typical
Fig. 48.
eflSiciency curves.
vary with the airspeed and revoluwith V/{ND). For a typical propeller they
This plot will apply to all propellers which
are plotted in Fig. 49.
are geometrically similar to the one for which the data are plotted.
It will be noted that the thrust coefficient decreases as the
cients of a given propeller will
V/{ND)
i.e.,
At the V/{ND)
increases.
torque coefficient
still
The
Any
is
is
thrust coefficient
mean
that the relative wind will meet the blades at an angle which will
lift
The
for
an
condition of zero
airfoil
and means
PROPELLERS
160
that the blades are moving forward the greatest possible distance
per revolution without developing negative thrust. Pitch being
by
the ideal or
I/tt, is
V/{ND)
mean
pitch, since it is
maximum
.20
.18
16
^V
^ ^
"TT^
.14
N^
V
.12
.10
\\
.08
\\
06
V\
.04
\\
.02
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
ND
Fig. 49.
When
zero.
the airplane
Under
is
stationary,
this condition,
is zero,
making V/{ND)
coefficients
have large positive values. The value of the thrust coefficient for
V/{ND) = is a measure of the ability of an airplane to accelerate from a standstill position.
Power-Speed
Coefficients.
The
expression
V/{ND)
is
a non-
dimensional quantity.
to
V/{ND)
for
another
coefficient
as a divisor, the
of
diameter
161
magnitude. Using
ehminated from the equation
different
is
power absorbed.
Substituting
-^ n.
N'Cs'
The
this coefficient is
known
power-speed
coefficient, since, if
may
be found.
Conversely,
if
the
screw
is
On
pitch
is
usually
made
less there.
Owing
is
account of
to the non-uniformity of
the pitch, the blade element two-thirds the radius was formerly
PROPELLERS
162
it is
and
since
to stock
infinite
it is
an
infinite
number
number
of pitches,
an
tips of
the location of the two-thirds point on the radius, and the meas-
element at a point 42 in. from the axis and call this the standard
or nominal pitch. The geometric pitch is the tangent of the blade
angle multipHed
by 2
axis.
tt
is
and
is
is
equal to
V/ N
feet.
effective pitch.
''
is
diameter.
With a
fixed.
is permanently
have blades with circular
Adjustable-pitch
propellers
in sleeves.
By
may be turned in their sockets,
have a new blade angle and consequently new geoAn adjustable-pitch propeller can have its blade
angles changed only when the engine is at rest, i.e., when the
plane is on the ground. A controllable-pitch propeller is one whose
blade angles may be changed in flight. This is accomplished by
The term variableelectrical or oil-pressure-operated devices.
so that they
metric pitch.
pitch propeller
pitch propellers.
V/{ND)
i.e.,
pitch
is
is
maximum L/D.
the angle of
is
there
is
is
V/{ND)
When
L/D.
the airplane
is
and the
element
point,
The blade
when the effective
crease in
pitch
163
is
full r.p.m.
so that the
is
V/{ND)
is
new geometric
is
to be maintained,
pitch,
which
will give
The equation
for
P in
p _
pV^
V in feet
N^Cs^
is
per second
as follows.
/ 88
550
H.P.
PX \
M.P.H.
60
y
;
i^hjjp _
44.5
R.P.M.'
M.P.H.-
X C/
is
modi-
PROPELLERS
164
For
sea-level conditions,
^
ti.r.
where p
44.5
is
X M.P.H.'
X C.
0.002378
R.P.M.'
X M.P.H
R.P.M.' X C/
0.106
''''
= M.P
0.638
R.P.M.i
R.P.M.^
XH.P.
M.P.H.
H.P.^
may be found.
This formula does not lend itself readily to slide-rule operation.
It may be solved by logarithms or by use of the chart of Fig. 50.
through the
In using the chart, a line is drawn from the origin
minute.
The
Example. The engine gives 400 hp. at 1,900 r.p.m. What should
be the Cs of the propeller for an airspeed of 150 miles per hour?
draw diagonal line
Solution.
See dotted lines on Fig. 50. From
through intersection of lines representing 150 miles per hour and 1,900
Where diagonal line intersects line representing power of
r.p.m.
400 hp., read on Cs scale
1.40.
Problems
(Use logarithms and check by nomogram.)
1.
at 1,900 r.p.m.
What
is
powered with
What
should be
the Cs of the propeller?
4. An Aeronca Collegian cruises at 65 miles per hour, with an engine
rated 36 hp. at 2,400 r.p.m.
What
ir> >*
o p
in
00
-H
-.
rsi
Brake Horsepower
Fig. 50.
165
PROPELLERS
166
propeller?
9.
Wasp
propeller?
10. A Northrop Delta has a maximum speed of 221 miles per hour
with a Wright Cyclone engine of 710 hp. at 1,900 r.p.m. What is the
Cs of a suitable propeller?
The diameter
is
per
sec.
mean
With
tip speed
If design
V and N are
fixed, increasing
down on
above 900
ft.
the efficiency.
design 7/(ArD).
Increasing the
mum
efficiencies for the large pitch ratio propeller are for greater
V/{ND)
values.
if
ratio.
In level
flight, throttling
167
Fig. 51.
than any of the other propellers plotted for some given V/(ND),
V/{ND) a propeller with less pitch will show a higher
at a smaller
efficiency.
efficiency versus
near the
same
efficiency.
PROPELLERS
168
In Fig. 51
is
shown
efficiency
rj
Fig. 52.
V/{ND).
Cs,
a higher efficiency
is
obtain-
If
is
169
desired
for a given Cs then a propeller with the blade angle giving the
At
slightly lower
If
high speed
angle
is
of a reasonably
will
efficiency
A propeller with
is
on, resort
plotted against
angles.
the
The use
general purposes.
by an
airplane
if
Solution.
From
From
From
is its effi-
1.40
0.79;
22 gives
What
ffies
Cs
ciency
7]
Example.
and
of Figs. 51
example.
illustrative
7]
0.81.
-^ = 0.725
but
F =
=
N=
PROPELLERS
170
i
220
T.
^^^^
^ =
=
V =
=
N=
_F
ND ~
=
for
and
From
31.7
7 in.
ft.
ft.
per sec.
26.7 r.p.s.
146.7
26.7
9.57
0.574
Cs
From
0.725
and V/{ND)
and Cs =
of 0.574
1.08
1.08
0.75
Problems
Find diameter, blade angle, and
propeller for
V =
3.
4.
V =
propeller for
V =
is
Also
It is quite often
influenced
it is
Example.
What
should be blade setting and efficiency for a varift. 6 in. in diameter for F = 150 miles per hour
able-pitch propeller 8
at 1,900 r.p.m.?
From
ND
From
Fig. 52 for Cs
1.40
~
=
31.7
Fig. 51 for Cs
1.40
8.5
and V/{ND)
Blade angle
From
0.816
0.816;
25
25:
171
Problems
1.
7-ft.
8-ft.
and power
all
therefore vary directly with density just as do the lift and drag of
a simple wing. Efficiency of a propeller does not depend on denAs long as the propeller
sity, merely on the V/{ND) condition.
advances the same distance per revolution, the efficiency will
remain the same, regardless of altitude. As pointed out in the
chapter on engines, the brake horsepower decreases with altitude
but at a greater rate than the density decreases.
At the ground, the engine turns over at a certain speed. That
speed is the speed at which the torque power or resistance of the
At that particular
propeller just balances the engine power.
speed of rotation, the propeller exerts a definite thrust which pulls
the airplane forward at an airspeed which is the velocity at which
the total drag, or resistance of the airplane to forward motion, just
At an
altitude,
if
the throttle
is left
at the
engine would tend to turn over faster, because the thinner air
would offer less resistance to the propeller; i.e., the power absorbed
by the propeller would be less. Speeding up an engine gives
greater power, but, since at an altitude the actual power per revolution drops off as the result of lessened volumetric efficiency and
this decrease is at a greater rate than the increase in power due to
putative increased revolutions per minute, the engine actually
is
may be
PROPELLERS
172
The drag
of
an airplane
in level flight at
varies
flight.
The advance per revolution, or V/(ND), not being the same for
a given airspeed at altitude as at the ground, the efficiency of the
The thrust horsepower at altitude
propeller will be different.
compared with the thrust horsepower at the ground for the same
airspeed is affected in two ways first, the brake horsepower of the
engine is less; and second, since the engine speed is less the effi:
is different.
Previously in this
^ _
0.638
H.P.'/'
X M.P.H.
X R.P.M.'/'
X p X M.P.H.^
WY. X R.P.M.'
2.136 X p'^' X M.P.H.
=
H:p:'/' X R.P.M.'/'
^5 _
Cs
The power-speed
44.5
coefficient varies
with the
fifth
X M.P.H.
X R.P.M.
X (0.002378)1/^ X
H.P.'/' X R.P.M
173
on
0.638
-2/5
-1/5
H.P.'^'
2.136
M.P.H.
-2/5
<^'"
TABLE
Altitude in
VII
Altitude in
A*
v^
feet
4 Z^''
V.7
feet
1.0
10 000
1000
0.994
11000
.935
2 000
.988
12 000
.929
3 000
.982
13 000
.923
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
8 000
9 000
10 000
.977
14 000
.917
.971
15 000
.911
.965
16 000
.906
.959
17 000
.900
.953
18 000
.894
.947
19 000
.888
.941
20 000
.882
Example.
What
propeller which
of 10,000 ft.?
0.941
ft.
Solution.
Csio,m
From
Fig. 52 for Cs
=
=
=
0.941
0.941
X
X
220
31.7
1.40
1.33
D=
C^o
=
0.7
19|,
9.9
ft.
V/ ND =
0.70,
PROPELLERS
174
will
the propeller that was selected previously for 150 miles per hour,
If
ground.
will
is
and N
The
be the same.
altitude
is
p =
^^-^
44.5
=
This horsepower
is
X M.P.H.'
R.P.M.' X C/
X 0.001756 X 150^
1900^ X 1.40^
^
^10,000
295
is
desirable.
Problems
1.
Find the blade angle for a 9-ft. propeller for flying at 15,000-ft.
an airspeed of 110 miles per hour, 210 hp. at 2,000
altitude, with
altitude with an airspeed of 150 miles per hour, 300 hp. at 2,000 r.p.m.
at that altitude.
3.
altitude with an airspeed of 150 miles per hour, 300 hp. at 2,000
altitude with an airspeed of 150 miles per hour, 250 hp. at 1,800 r.p.m.
at that altitude.
5.
Find the blade angle for a 9-ft. propeller for flying at 20,000-ft.
an airspeed of 150 miles per hour, 250 hp. at 1,800
altitude, with
postulates a large
is
V/{ND).
The horsepower
of airplane engines
down the
GEARED PROPELLERS
175
increasing
V/{ND).
the denominator of tt
1/5
\/
p p
iv/r
2/5
The
increase
minute increases
speed
is
undesirable.
With
bearings,
and
lubricated at
The
all
times.
shown by an
illustrative problem.
Cs,
it be
be increased to 160 miles per hour.
be
will
If
the propeller
D, and efficiency?
Solution.
0.638
1.86
150
is
geared 2 to
1,
what
will
PROPELLERS
176
From Figs.
27,
7?
1.86,
V/{NB) =
0.86:
15.8
=
Summarizing
12.9
1.08
ft.
and direct-driven
comparison:
Gear
2:1
Direct
ratio
R.p.m. of propeller
950
1,900
Cs
1.41
1.86
V/{ND)
0.76
1.08
Diameter, feet
Blade angle
Body
27
0.805
Efficiency
Tip speed,
12.9
9.1
21
feet per
The
Interference.
0.86
920
second
650
The net
V/{ND).
It
peak value of
of
an airplane
The
amount
of
propeller.
The speed of the engine may be reduced either directly by throtby reducing the airspeed by pulling back on the control
tling or
stick.
At a reduced
V/{ND) becomes
airspeed, the
less.
numerator
of the expression
coeffi-
becomes greater (see Fig. 49). For a twobladed propeller Cs = V/{ND V^c), if the power coefficient
cient of the propeller
PROPELLER PERFORMANCE
Pc
is
177
With a decreased
a faster
airspeed, the
H.P.
/ M.P.H.
0.106
R.P.M.' V
Cs
and Cs decreasing faster than the miles per hour, the horsepower
absorbed would increase if the revolutions per minute remained
the same. Actually putting more load on the engine will slow
it down.
Propeller performance is the effectiveness with which the propeller changes engine power into thrust power at all airspeeds.
Propeller performance is either stated in the form of a table or as
a curve of thrust horsepower at various airspeeds..
It usually is assumed that brake horsepower varies directly as
revolutions per minute, or, letting B.H.P.o be rated horsepower
for
B.H.F.
B.H.P.o
unsupercharged engines,
^ R.P.M.
KP.M.o
it
is
fly.
Since at airspeeds less than design airspeed, the engine will run
slower than design revolutions per minute, to find the engine speed
at each airspeed
it is
necessary to interpolate.
If
known,
Example.
r.p.m.
The
An
illustrative
example
follows.
PROPELLERS
178
The design
ft.
airspeed
is
are the
revo
HP
Cs
Fig. 52,
X ^-^
400
389.5
0.638
1,8502/5
=
From
What
1.146
V/{ND) =
120
X 120
X 389.5^/5
9.1
and Cs
1.146.
X 88
X 0.63
1,842 r.p.m.
Cs
400
379
Fig. 52,
''''"
1,900
X
X
0.638
1,8002/5
=
From
120
3791/5
1.165
V/{ND) =
1.165.
X 88
X 0.64
120
^ ~
=
9.1
1813
400
^'
'
^'
From
Fig. 52,
~
=
_
~
=
358
0.638
1,7002/5
120
358^/5
9.1
1.205.
X
X 0.66
120
X
X
1.205
V/{ND) =
1,700
1,900
88
1,758 r.p.m.
In Fig. 53 are plotted the assumed revolutions per minute against the
corresponding Cs values and a line is drawn through these points.
The
and
PROPELLER PERFORMANCE
From
179
of 21
IS
76 per cent.
B.H.P.
Thrust H.P.
=
=
=
=
=
400
1,830
1,900
385
B.H.P. X v
385 X 0.76
293 hp.
The foregoing method when worked out for each 10-mile-perhour interval is a series of calculations of some magnitude. A less
exact method, often employed,
makes use of the assumption
1850
percentage of
ciency
is
maximum
1800
effi-
percentage of design
The curve
V/ (ND).
55a shows
metal propel-
1700
wooden
propellers are
Fig. 53.
lers. If
in Fig.
1.14 1.15
different
efficiencies
slope.
1.17
18
1.19
1.20
Cs
what
16
example,
The
ordinates
of
this
maximum
efficiency;
likewise
yu
^
/
80
/
/
60
/
en
.5
.6
.8
.7
Design
Fig. 54.
Maximum
The use
of this
1.0
1.1
V/{ND).
.9
V/(ND) but
graph
1.2
1.3
1.4
will
V /{ND).
percentages of design
be illustrated in performance
'
PROPELLERS
180
accuracy
efficiency of a propeller
Fig. 54.
design
/
/'
80
LU
70
-So
40
^^^ ^^
\\
\
50
60
90
80
70
Percent Design
Fig. 55a.
100
120
110
130
V/(ND).
^^
1.00
--
0}
J^-95
R.P M.
1"
of
V/{ND).
in
at consta
it
airsp
eed
>-^
.90
.85
4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
24000
Altitude in Feet
Fig. 556.
Wood and
CONSTRUCTION
not be
181
Wooden propellers
The
straightening.
Magnesium
now
made by
forging.
is
is
squeezed into
done while
final
shape in iron
When
much
better.
Metal
Aluminum
PROPELLERS
182
propeller
test.
Nt = CaNa
Nt =
Na =
Ng =
r.p.m.
= CgNg
]^j,
will
Tested on
Electric
Meter
Engine
Ca
Cg
Ca
Cg
1.05
1.20
1.00
1.20
Metal
1.15
1.30
1.10
1.25
1.15
1.30
1.10
1.25
(fixed pitch)
Department
of
Commerce
is
that
the engine at
full throttle to
engine speed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.A.C.A. Reports.
oflacial
rated
CHAPTER X
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
The performance
manner.
Other features of
durance.
The
of
maximum
lift
air.
The
coefficient of the
move
parts
may
be grouped in various
ways.
If
a graph
is
it is
probably
simpler to find the horsepower needed for the wing and that for
183
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
184
The sum
the parasite.
of these
two
is
quired.
It is
Curves for
airfoils of infinite
duced in the final result if these drags are assumed to change not
with angle of attack but only with velocity. Making this assumption permits all the parasite resistance to be grouped and simplifies
the computation. This approximation causes very small error
at high speeds but introduces inaccuracy at low speed.
method
is
Each
exemplified in an example.
tabulate
lift
From Fig.
Cl and Cd for
Solution.
The
velocity
is
W
^.00256
v..
,
>S
VCl
/ w/s
For any particular airplane, l/ n
0025fi
series of calculations.
^^
185
this airplane:
,.
^^^.
Wing
loading
2,000
-oTa"
ft.
9.26
V 0.00256
=
Horsepower required
for the
0.(
.00256
60.2
wing
is
HP
^X^
^ Cp X
0.00256
X^ X
7^
375
375
and
For
For
flat
H.P.wing
0.00256
~
=
=
is
216
375
0.00147
0.00147
CdV^
0.00327
plates
^
^^-
0.00327
H.P.par.
0.0000331 F3
T^
375
this airplane
A variation of the
Fig. 17.
3.8
V^
375
above method
is
lift is
to
make
use of the L/
D curve of
equal to weight:
Weight
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
186
TABLE
VIII
Cl
Cd
H.P.req.wing
H-Prreq.par.
H.P.req.total
-4
-3
0.07
0.010
228
174
392
566
0.14
.010
161
61
138
199
_2
-1
0.215
.012
130
38
73
111
0.285
.014
112
29
46.7
76
100
26.5
33.6
60
20.3
13.9
34
29
a.
0.36
.017
0.645
.033
74.9
0.93
.060
62.3
21.4
12
1.19
.095
55.2
23.6
8.0
5.5
16
1.435
.139
50.2
25.6
4.2
30
18
1.545
.164
48.1
29.5
3.7
31
19
1.560
.180
48.1
29.5
3.7
20
1.540
.206
48.5
34.5
3.7
33
38
Columns
Columns
Velocity
5, 6,
is
found as above.
H.P. wing
Horsepower
in Fig. 56.
for the
wing
is
375
375
For
29
LjD
this airplane
HP
=
Horsepower required
J^
_200
5.33
X LID
is
found as above.
187
TABLE IX
2
L/D
Cl
H-
"'req.wing
-4
-3
0.07
7.0
228
174
0.14
14.0
161
61
-2
-1
0.215
17.9
130
38
0.285
20.4
112
29
100
26.5
0.36
21.2
0.645
19.5
74.9
20.3
0.93
15.5
62.3
21.4
12
1.19
12.5
55.2
23.6
16
1.435
10.3
50.2
25.6
18
1.545
8.7
48.1
29.5
19
1.560
8.6
48.1
29.5
20
1.540
7.5
48.5
34.5
ft.
Solution.
43.2
Aspect ratio
CDi
~
=
~T X
=
From
ain.
5
8.64
8.64
0.0368 Ci?
1.56
2.000
y Q ,00256
1.56
216
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
188
Equivalent
attack,
flat
Ae =
1.6 sq.
ft.
.,
At high speed, Cdpi =
,
1.28
2I6
0.00948
_l_l
240
tt itt J^
4-t 2
tt t
Jj^
44^ tt Jii 7
z/^7
220
200
180
160
|,40
a.
1 120
100
80
60
40
20
1.6
_,^
40
60
80
100
140
120
180
160
200
220
240
Horsepower required
Fig. 56.
Equivalent
attack,
Ae
flat
ft.
2.2
=
=
1.28
216
0.0130
found by
W
^^ ""0.00256
For
this
1.)
2.2 sq.
^^^^
The
(Example
problem, Cl
X SV^
2,000
^^^^^ ^
3,640
72
2I6
V^
Cl can be
189
area S,
it
may
H.P.totai
For
this
= Cp X
XSV^
0.00256
375
problem
H.P.totai
X S XCdV^
0.00256
0.00147 Cz? 7^
375
TABLE X
2
10
V/Vr,
Cl
Cdi
Cdo
Cdpi
Cdp
Cd
H.P.req.
48
1.00
1.58
30.5
50
1.04
1.45
.0773
.0310
2.5
.0237
.0367
.1450
26.7
0.0920 0.0446
60
1.25
1.01
.0376
.0140
1.3
.0123
.0253
.0769
24.4
70
1.46
0.74
.0202
.0120
1.1
.0104
.0234
.0556
28.0
80
1.67
0.57
.0118
.0105
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0448
33.8
90
1.87
0.45
.0074
.0100
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0399
42.8
100
2.08
0.36
.0048
.0100
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0373
54.8
110
2.29
0.30
.0033
.0099
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0357
69.9
120
2.50
0.25
.0023
.0098
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0346
87.4
130
2.71
0.215
.0017
.0099
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0341
110.5
140
2.92
0.186
.0013
.0099
1.0
.0095
.0225
.0337
135.8
Explanation of Table
cubed.
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
190
1)
80
70
is
90
100
no
140
Fig. 57.
Horsepower required
(Example
2.)
4,225
ft.
of
which 3.2
Solution,
62
M
35
38
0.92
Gap
5.35
Mean span ~36.5
=
From
Fig. 40,
<T
0.146
0.56
150
r
~214
= 0.737
K" ~
=
E.M.A.R. ~
(0.92)2 (1
(0.92)2
1.185
S
1.185
~
=
150
4.7
38^
214
0.56
0.737)2
0.737
0.92
(0.737)^
Cm
Cl'
4.7
TT
191
0.0677
(7z,2
TF
Fmir
00256
Czmax.AS
4225
=
Equivalent
tack,
Ae
0.00256 X 1.56
54 miles per hour
flat
364
3.2 sq.
ft.
380
360
340
/
1
300
280
^ 260
^220
?00
180
160
140
120
100
80
50
V
60
^/
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fig. 58.
Horsepower required
At high speed,
Ci>^i(h.s.)
3.2
1.28
364
0.0113
(Example
3.)
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
192
Equivalent
Ae
tack,
flat
6.2 sq.
ft.
6.2
=
If velocity is
1.28
0.0218
Cl =
W
0.00256
XS X
V^
Cl
4,225
0.00256
364
V^
4,550
72
For
this
problem
xi.r
.req total
req
lulju
Cd X
0.00256
QV^
X^ X
_ Cp X
0.00256
364
T^
y^
375
0.00248
Cd 73
TABLE XI
1
10
Cm
Cdo
Cdp^
Cdp
Cd
H.P.req.
V/Vrr^.
Cl
54
1.00
1.56
60
1.10
1.26
.1070
.0200
1.72
.0194
.0412
.1682
70
1.30
0.93
.0588
.0135
1.20
.0136
.0354
.1077
91
80
1.47
0.71
.0342
.0120
1.08
.0122
.0340
.0802
102
0.1640 0.0446
104
90
90
1.67
0.56
.0212
.0105
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0648
117
100
1.85
0.45
.0140
.0100
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0571
142
110
2.04
0.37
.0095
.0100
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0526
174
120
2.22
0.32
.0070
.0099
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0500
214
130
2.40
0.27
.0049
.0098
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0478
260
140
2.59
0.232
.0036
.0099
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0466
317
150
2.78
0.202
.0028
.0099
1.00
.0113
.0331
.0458
384
1) is
HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
Horsepower Available.
the airplane
is
The horsepower
available for
moving
by the
The
speed, either
193
maximum,
propeller
cruising,
is
developed.
maximum
speed, a propeller
is
chosen,
The completion
another propeller.
from
is
assumed
selected as this
propellers.
is
Applying
The
thrust horsepower.
is
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
194
on engine speed
of changes in airspeed
An
next found.
is
exact
in the
make
it
is
of Fig. 44a.
If the engine manufacturer furnishes curves or other information
as to the drop in horsepower with decrease in engine speed, they
"D
should be utilized.
made
of
T\/r
-p'
'^
ix.r.Ni.2
XT
pVr'p'
which
is
ij.xl.ir.2
brake horsepower.
At each airspeed there will be a corresponding engine speed, and
these determine the V/{ND) of the propeller. At each value of
V/{ND), the propeller efficiency is found, either from Fig. 48 or
more quickly but less exactly by Fig. 55a.
The
is
illustrated
the product of
The method
in this chapter,
140
80
70
90
100
no
Fig. 59
Solution.
Assume
t]
Cs
(Example
From
is
is
0.82
X M.P.H.
X (R.P.M.)2/5
X 135
0.638
(H.P.)i/5
0.638
150^/^
150
123.
1.57
1,8002/5
1.)
HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
From Fig. 52,
V/iND) of 0.87
a propeller
(r;
is
195
D = NX
0.87
_
~
1,800
7.59
135
X
X
88
0.87
ft.
TABLE XII
1
design design
m.p.h.
Brake
r.p.m. H.P.
V/ND
37.1
87.0
60
44.5
87.0
70
80
90
51.9
87.2
59.3
88.0
66.7
89.0
100
74.0
90.8
no
81.5
93.0
120
88.9
97.5
130
96.2
99.0
135
100.0
100.0
1565
1565
1570
1583
1600
1633
1673
1751
1781
1800
design
max.
V/ND
A^
50
10
H.P.
V
avail.
131
0.371
42.6
52.0
0.430
131
.445
51.1
61.5
.507
66.5
131
.517
59.5
70.5
.580
76.0
132
.587
67.5
79.0
.651
134
.653
75.0
86.0
.710
136
.710
81.6
91.8
.757
139
.759
87.2
95.8
.790
146
.795
91.5
98.0
.808
86.0
95.2
103.0
109.9
118.0
149
.848
97.5
99.5
.820
122.1
150
.870
100.0
100.0
.825
123.8
56.3
Explanation of Table
Column
is
per hour).
Column 3
is
(Note:
is
column
9.
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
196
The maximum airspeed obtained by the intersection of the curves is low, since the horsepower-available curve is based on using an improper, poor-performing propeller. With
a more nearly suitable propeller the horsepower-available curve will have
larger ordinates and the intersection with the horsepower available will
show a higher top speed. Allowance should be made for this in a second
assumption of maximum airspeed to select the more suitable propeller.
suited to this airplane engine combination.
Maximum Speed
by
at Sea-Level.
is
found
and
At
velocities less
plane cannot
and
if it is
^D
horsepower
is
required
for
level
flight
when
n
rrjji
o
^^
minimum.
Examining the horsepower-required curve, it will be seen that,
as speed decreases from the maximum, the horsepower decreases
to a
minimum
value, but
if
increases.
197
found by drawing
is
the velocity of
c.
attack where
minimum
+ ^
the
is
77-^7^
Y wing with
minimum.
aspect ratio of
6, it
the
maximum
(73/2
hour.
If
a curve
is
Cd
+ ^
abscissas, angle of attack; the curve will resemble the curve for
maximum
is
shown
in
(73/2
maximum
value of
.,
Cd
^^
is
at 11 angle of
maximum
weighing 2,000
throttle
and
^-^r^
lb.
with Clark
56.6 miles per hour airspeed as long as the airplane's total weight
is
2,000
lighter.
lb.
As time
elapses, fuel
consumed
will
flight,
make
the airplane
maximum
1.28 a
(11 for this Clark Y wing and ratio of parasite to wing area);
but as the airplane's weight decreases, the velocity necessary for
level flight at this angle of attack will decrease.
less,
With
less weight,
198
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
With
less throttle-opening,
tion (in gallons per hour) will be diminished, so the hourly decrease
in weight will be less.
The
mean
have a precalculated
pilot should
fly at
maximum
is
wing
of the
.,
flight.
will
an
so that
airplane can stay the longest time in the air on a given supply of
fuel.
wind.
The
foregoing
true whether in
is
is
still
important.
is more
amount of
To
sumption per hour but on the total hours required for the flight.
It is therefore advantageous to fly at greater speed, more specifically to fly so the wing is at the angle of attack of maximum
L/Dtotal-
Drawing a
line
CD,
minimum
fuel
given distance.
ratio of
The point
of
tangency
horsepower to velocity
consumption for a
be the point where the
Neglecting any variation
will
is least.
H.P.req.
To
3^5
(^^
><
0.00256
SV + ^^ X
0.00256 SV'\
V requires
^^
XT
Total consumption
1^^But
Constant
Distance
=
Cl
0.00256
hours.
therefore
^^^
-^
0.00256 SV'\
VELOCITIES FOR
199
Then
375 V
This has a
-^
With
minimum
value
constant, for
Cl
when
any
IS
Cl
airfoil section,
^'Hm
p^
has a
there
minimum
mmimum.
is
only one
value.
This
angle of attack will be slightly greater than the angle of attack for
angle of
becomes
minimum
^+(^)
t;
and angle of
..
mmimum c
7p
less.
Y wing alone;
the angle of
maximum L/D is
1;
The
2,000
CD
in Fig. 59.
pilot
lb.
wing area and parasite area are fixed. The speed for
any given angle of attack varies as the square root of the wing
As fuel is consumed, and the airplane is lightened, the
loading.
since the
The
Fg, the
200
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
Horsepower-hours
Distance
\/^^^'
375
Vo
375
i'^'-mU
Vg
/Cl\ ClX
"^
Distance \
'
0.00256
>Sf
when ^
,/Tr
Cl^^Wg
...
minimum or when
Cl'^'Vg
^^
IS
.,
ri
1-28 a
is
a maximum.
A chart or table may be made out for a given airplane for various strength winds and for various angles of the wind to the airThe ground speed, Vg, is found by trigonometry.
plane's heading.
W
^
is
windspeed in miles
^ IS angle of
wind from
dead ahead
The
prisingly small.
For the
illustrative
Problems
1.
ft.
equivalent
mum
flat
of
Clark
plate area,
is
1,800 lb.?
2. For the monoplane of problem 1, weight 1,800 lb., what should
be airspeed in still air to cover a given distance with least possible
expenditure of fuel?
RANGE
201
tail
5.
wind?
What
if
1,6001b.?
The
Range.
is
varies as W^^^
and
H.P. varies as W^^^. With less power being used, the rate of fuel
consumption is less, that is, the rate of change of weight is less.
Also, with less power required, the throttle is closed more and more,
which decreases the revolutions per minute of the engine. Since
the revolutions per minute decrease at a different rate from the
airspeed, the
propeller changes.
efficiency, of the
may
be
Let
Wt =
total
seconds after
take-off.
Q
=
C =
(B.H.P.) =
Qt
ex
'"^'
any time
(B.H.P.),
poo
(>;
is
'^
t.
,(B.H.P.).=g
W,V
(S 550
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
202
Then
^^^
(B.H.P.).
550
ns
Substituting in the initial equation gives
dQt
7-TT at
3,600
550
1,980,000
7Ji
Let
22
1,980,000^
77
77
f^j
^^^
X^x|^'
(i.e.,
the range).
Then
dR = Vdt
1,980,000
1,980,000^
consumed
is
zero
and
at the
^ X ^ X ^^
X^X^^
mind that
end of the
flight Qt
B =
1,980,000
^X^/^^
1,980,000
^X
1,980,000
2.303
1,980,000
2.303 v ^,
-^ log,
863.5
n
7^
L
-^
is
jY
_Q ^^^*
^X^X
logio
r^
L ^,
_ n ^eet
.,
5;280
=Q
W
logio
known
jY
_n
^i^^^
maximum
RANGE
The range
as calculated
can be achieved.
Amount
it is
203
of fuel
high speed
Common
high speed.
practice
RmsiX.
0.7 5 (Rb
Rvm)
+ Rvm
Example.
of fuel.
It
equivalent
maximum
is
involved
An
fuel
consumption.
has a Clark
flat
by using average
wing
of
216
It
sumption to be 0.55
lb.
Assume
maximum
fuel con-
velocity to
Solution.
Weight
of fuel (Q)
=
=
^ =
80 X 6
480 lb.
863.5
IX
5;;;^
log
^^r^Q
= SC3.5gxn.9 1o.g-J
= 808 miles
tivm
R =
=
=
480
180
X
X
135
0.55
655 miles
- RvJ + Rvn.
0.75(808 - 655) + 655
0.7 5 {Rb
770 miles
Problems
1.
gallons of fuel.
Its top
speed
is
lb.
and takes
It
with 4,000
has four twin-
off
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
204
row Wasp engines
maximum
The
fuel
of
Assume
consumption
is
propellers to
maximum L/D
have a
to be 14.2.
What
is
the
range?
An Aeronca
gallons of fuel.
Its
the range?
4. A Bellanca Pacemaker with total weight of 5,600 lb. takes off
with 200 gallons of fuel. Its maximum speed is 160 miles per hour,
and
it
maximum
efficiency
Assume
and maximum
L/D
to be 11.5.
The
fuel con-
sumption is 0.55 lb. per hp. per hour. What is the range?
6. A Lockheed Electra, weighing 10,000 lb., takes off with 194
Its maximum speed is 210 miles per hour and it has
gallons of fuel.
two Wasp Junior engines rated at 400 hp. with fuel consumption 0.48
per hp. per hour. Assume maximum propeller efficiency to be
82 per cent and maximum LID of airplane to be 14.5. What is the
lb.
range?
Rate of Climb at Sea-Level. Examining the curves of horsepower available and required versus velocity as shown in Fig. 59,
it will be seen that for any velocity less than maximum there is
If
greater horsepower available than is required for level flight.
engine
desired,
the
may
be
throttled
is
so
that
it
is
level flight
horsepower
required
for
level
flight.
it
only
the
If
is
furnishing
desired to increase the altitude, the engine may be opened to full
throttle when it will give the thrust horsepower shown on the
The extra power, which is the differhorsepower-available curve.
ence in ordinates for horsepower available and horsepower required at any velocity, represents the power available to do the
work of raising the airplane.
Power is ability to do work in unit time. By definition, a
horsepower is the power to do 33,000 ft. -lb. of work in 1 min.
Then the rate of climb, in feet per minute, can be found by the
205
formula
R.C. (ft.permin.)
- HJ'.^J X
(H.P-a.an.
Excess H.P.
33,000
33,000
60.
at angle of attack
a to the
and
parallel to
total drag
is
is
relative wind.
Lift
is
perpendicular
For conassumed to
the
propeller
is
parallel
For
axis.
to
Fig. 60.
tail
which
is
Forces in climb,
ordinarily considered
negligible,
T cosa = D
+W
Tsina+L =
sine
Gosd
T =
D=
W=
L =
'
thrust
total drag
weight
lift
sm
and, since d
is
T sin a may
T = D -{-W sind
L = W cosd
= T D
6
small,
L = W approximately
F, = F sin ^
But
=
=
V
Vc
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
206
Then
R.C.
(ft.
W ^xvx5f
per min.)
re
power output
= Useful
^
Total power
einciency
Since propeller
^
*^
rj
Thrust
7input
;
Velocity
Brake horsepower
TV = 'nX
B.H.P.
375
375
TV
^ = .XB.H.P..
== ii-t^-avail.
R.C.
(ft.
per min.)
X FX88
- DV)X
X375
375 X W
33,000
X W
(H.P.avaU. H.P.
(TV
req.
At every
For the
rate of climb.
shown
maximum
in Fig. 61.
illustrative
It will
this particular
is
com-
E 800
/-
"S
200
40
80
100
Rate
of
790
maximum
achieved, at
ft.
the airspeed
is
per min.
83 miles
\
60
is
per hour.
speed below
\
120 140
maximum, but
if
hour
climb at sea-level.
Fig. 61.
when
20
sea-level, of
//
400
airplane, the
rate of climb
600
J
o
and
/*
and
pull
back on
his stick
till
the airspeed indicator reads 83 miles per hour, the best climbing
speed.
maximum
is
able
is
low.
is
much
less so
for
At other
207
It will be
airspeed of 110 miles per hour and 83 miles per hour.
noted that while the rate of climb is improved, as shown by the
greater excess horsepower, the maximum airspeed is much de-
creased.
140
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
130
120
140
Fig. 62.
In Fig. 61
The
is
obtained
when the
climb
is 6.2.
By
of differing pitch.
is
airspeed
then 8.95
ft.
is
-^ 83,
of
be
angle of climb.
For the airplane in the illustrative example, the point of tangency is 66-miles-per-hour airspeed, and 700-ft.-per-min. rate
This gives an angle of chmb of 6.9.
of climb.
In military maneuvers, rate of climb is very important. While
" dog-fighting," the airplane that can gain altitude on its opponent
will have an advantage even if a wide circle is necessary to attain
this altitude.
straight,
is
and
it is
the angle of
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
208
obstacles.
field, it is
For the
example, with wide-open throttle, the stick should be
pulled back until the airspeed indicator reads not 83 but 66 miles
illustrative
per hour.
On a calm day
graph.
By
pilot
level flight.
airplane,
is
lifted into
may
be
the
air.
If
the
field is
it
above.
gear,
it is
no wind.
If
At the end
is
it is
is
at
up
till
the plane
is
of the run,
is
angle of attack, the wing drag will become very big, tending to
slow down the airplane. Because of this and also because excess
horsepower will be needed for climbing, the stick is not pulled
back until a speed has been attained which is somewhat greater
than the minimum or stalling speed. It is customary in calculations to use a speed which corresponds to 90 per cent of maxi-
mum
Cl-
TAKE-OFF DISTANCE
maximum
L/Dtotzi-
At
more
209
first,
the
lifting force
negligible.
plane rests less heavily on the ground. Since the weight on the
ground is less, the friction of the wheels with the ground becomes
less and less engine power is needed to overcome this friction.
When the airplane is just about ready to leave the ground, practically the entire weight is being borne by the wing.
The coefficient of friction varies with the surface of the runway,
depending on whether it is the smooth deck of a ship or a soft
gravel
field.
(/x)
are as follows
fi
Hard
/x
With a
which
is
Use
at design speed.
is
fx
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.30
the airplane
moving
/x
=
=
=
=
=
is
made
when the
when
airplane
is
^
'
The
Kto X B.H.P
R.P.M. X D
propeller
minus the
Fo
As the speed
(Fo)
is
= To- Wn
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
210
w
0.90Ci:n.ax.^^
Vo.91
.90
1.054
Fxnin.
IIU.UUU
S^
100,000
\
90,000
\
)
80,000
\
\
70,000
60,000
50,000
\
\
40,000
\\
\,
\^
s^
30,000
20.000
.20
Fig. 63a.
.40
.80
.60
for
Maximum
.00
1.20
1.40
Efficiency
V/ND.
TAKE-OFF DISTANCE
211
550
Tt
375
Tt
T.H.P.
T.H.P.
V in
feet per
second
or
in miles per
hour
--^^
1.00
.90
.80
,.70
a.
"
.60
.50
.40
/
//
.30
.20
.30
Fig. 63&.
The
60
.50
.40
1.00
.90
.70
minus the
is
air
\
It is
J^
/max.
airspeed.
error involved
i^o
when
force
V is
F at
is
so slight as to be negUgible.
zero,
airspeed
V will
is
Ft
be
F ^F,-
(Fo
Then,
when the
- FtW
Vt
M-[^']^.)
if
the force
velocity
is Vt,
is
the
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
212
Letting
Ft
f^f.{i-kI)
The
acceleration produced
force divided
Acceleration
-rr
dt
rds
-77
dt
?77
but
dt
VdV
ds
VdV
w^X~^y)
= ^Fods
vr
This
is
in the
form
xdx
a
-\-
bx
'
r xdx
=
J a bx
-{-
r2 [
^^
loge (a
hx)].
limits of
and zero
-i-.[--(t'-('-^)]
When V =
Vt
lb.,
tail is
up.
TAKE-OFF DISTANCE
213
Solution.
From
Fig.
63a Kto
Static thrust,
To
46,000
= Kto X B.H.P.
XD
46,000 X 150
~ 1,800 X 7.59
r.p.m.
505.0 lb.
Fo
=
=
=
To
505
- ixW
- 2,000 X
465
0.02
lb.
Take-off speed,
Vt
= B.H.P. X
= 150 X 0.825
= 123.8
= 1.054 X Fmin.
= 1.054 X 48.1
= 50.7 miles per hour
Tj
maximum
Vt
Fmax.
T.H.P.f/T.H.P.design
T.H.P.i
Thrust at take-off,
(see p. 195)
(see p. 186)
speed,
_ 507
" 135
=
=
=
=
0.376
0.580
123.8
0.580
71.8 H.P.
375
Tt
T.H.P.;
Vt
375
71.8
50.7
531
lb.
- 531-^^
^'^^
~
11.9
= 363
/max.
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
214
Fo
465
Ft
363
465
=
(50.7X1.47)2
436
0.219
2,000r
^..xM
..
ft.
Problems
1. Find the run in still air, after tail is up, to take-off an airplane
weighing 4,000 lb., the maximum L/Dtotai being 12.5, the stalling speed
being 55 miles per hour, the design top speed being 150 miles per hour;
the engine giving 200 hp. at 1,850 r.p.m. and the 9-ft. diameter propeller having an efficiency of 80 per cent under design conditions.
M =
2.
0.03.
lb.,
still air,
the
after tail
maximum
is
50 miles per hour, Fmax. being 140 miles per hour; the engine giving
300 hp. at 1,800 r.p.m., the 8-ft. propeller having 81 per cent efficiency
under design conditions. Field is hard turf, ju estimated as 0.04.
3. Find the distance in still air, after tail is up, to take-off a
weighing 4,300 lb., the maximum L/Dtotai being 6.4, Fmin. being 61 miles
per hour, Ymax. being 124 miles per hour; the engine giving 425 hp. at
1,750 r.p.m., the 9. 8-ft. propeller having 75 per cent efficiency under
Field is hard turf, fx estimated as 0.04.
design conditions.
4. Find the distance in still air, after tail is up, to take-off a Sperry
Messenger, weighing 1,076 lb., the maximum L/Dtotai being 5.44, Fmin.
being 27 miles per hour, "Fmax. being 90 miles per hour; the engine
being rated at 63 hp. at 1,830 r.p.m., the 6.5-ft. propeller' having
75 per cent efficiency under design conditions. It is estimated /x
DH
is 0.04.
5.
still air,
Grumman
770 hp. at 2,100 r.p.m.; the 9.5-ft. propeller having 82 per cent
Take-off is from the deck of a
efficiency under design conditions.
naval vessel, which is stationary.
Gliding Angle at Sea-Level.
the meaning of glide and dive.
Ordinarily a glide
pletely
off.
is
dive
There
is
no marked difference
in
called a dive.
may
off,
although
215
usually the
off,
Gliding angle
is
no appre-
is
The
forces acting
that
pulls
the
airplane
Forces in glide.
Fig. 64.
When
the airplane attains a steady speed along the flight path, the
weight multiplied by the sine of the glide angle just equals the
total drag.
The lift is equal and opposite to the component of the weight perpendicular to the flight path.
the airplane will " squash " or
If
the
settle,
lift is less
and the
than
path
flight
cos
6j
be
not
will
steeper.
following equations.
Wcosd = L
= ClX
W cos
Cl
and
Wsind =
=
=
Then
tan^
0.00256
SV
0.00256
0.00256
SV +
Aotal
CdX
(Cd-\- ^'^^
"")
Aotal
L
CD
1.28
Cl
1.28 a
0.00256
SV'
0.00256 V^
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
216
ft.
TABLE
lb.
XIII
Tf COS0
Cl
Cd
Cd+ ^
tan
-4
-3
-2
-1
0.07
0.010
0.032
0.456
24.5 0.910
3 300
47 100
217
0.14
.010
.032
.229
12.9
.975
3 540
25 300
159
0.215
.012
.034
.158
9.0
.988
3 580
16 650
129
0.285
.014
.036
.126
7.2
.992
3 600
12 620
112
0.36
.017
.039
.108
6.2
.994
3 610
10 000
100
0.43
.020
.042
.098
5.6
.995
3 615
8 400
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
0.50
.024
.046
.092
5.3
.996
3 620
7 240
cos 6
0.00256
72
0.57
.028
.050
.088
5.0
.996
3 620
6 350
0.645
.033
.055
.085
4.9
.996
3 620
5 610
92
85
80
75
0.715
.038
.060
.084
4.8
.996
3 620
5 060
71
0.785
.045
.067
.085
4.9
.996
3 620
4 610
68
0.857
.052
.074
.086
4.9
.996
3 620
4 230
65
0.93
.060
.082
.087
5.0
.996
3 620
3 890
62
12
1.19
.095
.117
.099
5.6
.995
3 615
3 040
55
16
1.435
.139
.161
.105
6.0
.994
3 610
2 520
50
In Fig. 65a are plotted angle of glide versus angle of attack and
It is to be
is
is
minimum
forward on the
The
stick.
When
it
maintain that speed. The angle of attack will then be 5 and the
angle of glide will be the flattest possible, namely, 4.8.
By
maintaining the
reach an emergency
field
The
pilot
can thus
a
field is at
may
be achieved
is
The
a function of
217
quits.
If
is
the
original altitude,
angle, as
tan ua
noted that
10
12
14
Angle of Attack
Fig. 65a.
The
is
fully
it
glides at the
same
angle.
than that of
maximum
lift
should be used.
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
218
by the
F,
For the
illustrative
the airspeed
is
is
= 7
sin
example at the
The
is,
then,
71
sin 4.8
=
=
71
0.084
hour
At a greater angle
vertical descent
of attack, the
may
be slightly
the airspeed
only 50 milss
is
50
is
sin 6
50
0.104
hour
make
At the angle
of zero
lift,
tangent 6
vertical dive.
For
weight pulls the airplane downward faster and faster, until the
Fig. 656.
Polar diagram of
This speed
is
Cd
For the
illustrative
'terminal
1.28 a
;S (Fterminal)^
)xo. 00256 S
example
2.000
\/ {(\
(0.032)
when
down any
velocities in dives.
0.00256
216
GLIDE TESTS
The data on
219
of a polar diagram, as
to scale of
Problems
1.
Clark
wing 36
ft.
by 6
ft.,
having 2
sq. ft.
equivalent
flat
plate
area of parasite.
2.
If
lb.,
what
is
the
What
if
the airplane in
1 glides
Glide Tests.
drag
coefficients.
cowling, etc.
The
noted.
airplane
The
of descent
is
is
tested in flight
in various glides
readings on an altimeter.
The
airspeed
is
flight.
Example. An airplane weighs 4,650 lb. Its wing area is 460 sq.
The wing section is Clark Y, aspect ratio 6. With airspeed indicator constant at 118 miles per hour, the airplane glides from
1,000-ft. to 500-ft. altitude in 26 sec.
Neglect propeller thrust and
drag.
Find equivalent flat plate area of parasite.
ft.
220
PERFORMANCE
AIRPLAiqE
Solution.
Vv= 500
=
=
ft.
19.2
glide,
=
=
in 26 sec.
per sec.
hour
13.1
Angle of
ft.
^^^
118
sin-i 0.1115
6.4
TFcos^
Cl ~ 0.00256^72
=
Cd
1.28 a
From
Cowing
is
0.014
Cd
0.014
= Cl tan d
= 0.282 X 0.112
= 0.0316
aspect ratio
airfoil,
i^ =
+ ^ =
+
6,
when Cl
is
0.282,
0.0316
0.0316
6.25 sq.
ft.
Problems
1.
lb.
area of 7 sq.
ft.
its
wing area
The
is
400
gliding angles.
total
flat plate
area of parasite?
221
W
v^.Cl
375H.P.req.
0.00256
(Cd
(0.00256 CdS
0.00256
1.28
0.00256 a)V^
\3/^
pf
+ 1.28 X 0.00256 a) ( ClX 0.00256
iSy
V varies
as W^^^
maximum
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
222
the intersection of the horsepower-required curve and thrusthorsepower curve, and no exact relation can be expressed for
change in top speed for change in weight.
The excess horsepower at any speed will be decreased with inis
creased weight.
The
power divided
The
The
air-
weight.
180
H.F Required:
.
W
W
160
W
/^
140
4000
3000
1b.1b.-
200OIb.-
|l20
45001b.-
^
^V
/
^ '^-<//
^ y>/
y
|100
80
^. p.
60
Av ailabU
^^
40
20
60
60
80
70
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Fig. 66.
curve; this
is
is
be noted that, as weight is increased, minimum speed is no longer determined by C^max. but by lower intersection of horsepower curves.
at sea-level.
Example.
It is to
An
load?
223
Solution.
Example.
power to fly
An
3,500
50
v^3,000
in level flight?
At same. angle
Solution.
7i
of attack
~ V ^1
V =
=
H.P
3,500
8oy/;
3,000
/TFV/2
H.P.
50.4 hp.
Problems
4.
lb.
with 3,000
5.
lb. less
load?
What
Change
in
is
Wing
Area.
lb. of fuel
have
de-
creasing the wing area has the effect of increasing the wing loading.
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
224
of the
wing
area.
of attack
V varies
as
Vs
1
H.P.req. varies as
Vs
160
216
sq.ft.
150
sq.ft.
% 120
Hor >epowe
Avail able-.
|ioo
^^
An
40
i
^
20
40
50
IT?
>^
^-'^
80
//
^/
/^ ^ /
/ // 7
Wing A ea
Wing A ea-
140
.^
^
^
^
^^
...^
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Velocity
Fig. 67.
minimum
speed have to
will
not
fly at
mean a
same
same air-
less
wing area
will at the
The
airplane with smaller wing area will have less drag and less horse-
power required.
225
angle of attack is
much
Near
greater.
stalling
speeds,
drag
An
tack.
is
minimum
horsepower.
minimum
gliding angle,
7min.
40y/25o
43.8
ftiiles
per hour
Problems
1.
An
ft.
of
hour.
how much
2.
ft. is
flying at angle
of best
is
3. A certain airplane with 450 sq. ft. of wing area flies with least
horsepower of 40 hp. at an airspeed of 90 miles per hour. After wings
have been clipped to 410 sq. ft., what is least horsepower and what
is
corresponding velocity?
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
226
An
ft.
of
if
area?
larger
decrease in payload.
minimum
maximum
It will increase
of climb
any speed.
When an airplane is at its top speed, it is flying at a low angle
At small angles of attack the change in Cd with change
of attack.
of angle is quite small, and the change in parasite drag coefficient
When an airplane is flying level, the rate of climb
is negligible.
is zero and thrust is equal to total drag.
at
-n
B.H.P.
550
73
= TV
= DV
Ki
B.H.P.
(.
550
B.H.P.
+ Iff).
^
"""''
550
^2
efficiency,
above expression
may
be reduced to
.;b,h.p.
V'- s
The maximum
airspeed
may
227
An
If total
weight
is
maximum speed
is maximum
unchanged, what
V ~\
=
B.H.P.'
Problems
i.
If
mum
^^
This
may
,B.H.P.
be rewritten as
v-K ir^KL
A
give a high
maximum
speed.
AIRPLAXE PERFORMANCE
228
The
R.C.
the
,
rate of climb
(ft.
speed.
per min.)
is
If
landing speed
reciprocal of
fixed,
is
high speed
power loading.
given by
33,000 (H.P.g
H.P.req.)
w
33,000
r?
60 Z)7
(B.H.P.)
W
33,000
TT;
rj
B.H.P.
33,000.
^/ B.H.P.
F
L/D
60
60\AV^
Ci
^^^1.28
S
33,000
77
TF/B.H.P.
....
The
first
^^
60
f-p^
1.28 a
Cl'^'
of the
Vsfw
^
power loading;
The
rate of
first
climb.
Span Loading and Aspect Ratio. The total drag is the force
which is overcome by the propeller thrust. Assuming that fuselage, landing gear have been " cleaned up " so that parasite drag
is reduced to a minimum, since the profile drag of most wings is
about the same, the only other way in which drag may be decreased is by reducing induced drag.
It \^ill be recalled that both parasite and profile drag vary as
the square of the velocity, and the horsepower required to overcome these drags varies as the cube of the velocity. The induced
drag varies inversely as the square of the velocity, and the horsepower inversely as the velocity. The induced drag therefore
less
and
less
229
The
wing.
profile
structural considerations.
is
Good
responsible for as
streamlining
is
much
as 70
two
characteristics
and
Wing
loading
Aspect ratio
^ W/S ^
b^/S
h^
CHAPTER XI
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
Horsepower Required. The performance
an airplane is affected by the density of the air. Lift, drag, and
horsepower required are all functions of air density. The thrust
and power absorbed by the propeller are functions of air density.
The brake horsepower of an internal-combustion engine depends
on density.
The fundamental equation for lift is
Effect of Altitude on
of
L = Cl^SV^
For
Then
level flight
if
A given
increase.
fly at
lift
equals weight.
The wing
Cl or
area, S,
must
must
either
it
must
is fixed.
or both
At
sea-level:
Ataltitudea:
TT7
Pon^T^
^ n
Cltt^^q
Po
^7
W=
Fo
CL^SVa'
,,
Va
=
=
=
sea-level
mass density
sea-level
at altitude a
Then
Pa
V
Since the density
is
Pa
always greatest at
sea-level,
v po/pa
is
always greater than unity, so that, at the same angle of attack, the
velocity at altitude must always be greater than at sea-level.
n = y^D^
(rr.
i^o
-^
l-28a \poo^^^
/^
) 2
1.2S a\ Pa
"^
ciTT
>
231
But
Va'=^V,
Pa
Therefore
= Do
That is, whatever the altitude, at the same angle of attack, the
drag or thrust required for level flight is the same. While the
density is less, the airspeed must be greater and the product
remains constant.
n.r.req.O
_DoVo
37^
H.P.req.a
= ~of^
t
H.P.req.o
horsepower required at
H.P.req.a
req.o
horsepower required at
altitude a
sea-level
DoVoy
Pa
375
H.P.rea.O
req.
X \/^
Pn
That
is,
at the
same angle
The minimum
W
^imax. n
^so
Pa Q
r
'^Lmax.
'Lmax. TT
n *J
Vsa
>
The square
in Table
I.
Pa
known
is
tabulated
for sea-level
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
232
sea-level,
a point
may
be
found, for the same angle of at tack, for any altitude bymulti-
and
Solution.
15,000-ft. altitude.
From Table
for a
for a
=
=
I:
1.16
10,000
ft.;
V^ po/Pa
15,000
ft.;
Vpo/pa =_1.26
TABLE XIV
From preceding
For
chapter:
For sea-level
10,000-ft.
For
altitude
-4
-3
-2
228
566
264
161
199
187
130
111
-1
112
76
100
60
H.P.req,
15,000-ft.
altitude
H.P.req.
656
288
231'
203
151
129
164
715
251
140
130
88
141
116
70
126
4
8
74.9
34
62.3
29
12
55.2
29
16
50.2
30
87.0
72.3
64.0
58.2
18
48.1
31
19
48.1
33
H.P.req.
39
94.4
78.5
55.8
34
34
35
36
55.8
38
eo.6
69.5
63.4
60.6
96
76
43
37
37
38
39
42
all altitudes.
233
over faster;
80
100
90
110
120
Hour
150
160
Fig. 68.
Performance at altitude.
follows.
Since for
rection factor
consequently
for the
same
Example.
differ at altitude
airspeeds.
The
from the
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
234
TABLE XV
Calculations for
Sea-level
10,000
Sea-
ft.
level
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
A^
Altttude
10,000-ft.
10,000
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
B.H.P
at re-
duced
B.H.P
V/ND
70'
1565
1565
1570
80
'1583
90'
1600
1633
1673
1751
1781
1800
50
60
100
no
120,
130
135
1522
1522
1530
1540
1550
1590
1630
1705
1735
1755
0.381
43.8
53.3
44.0
38.2
.456
52.5
62.8
51.8
45.1
128
87
.530
61.0
72.0
59.5
51.8
129
87
.602
69.2
80.5
66.5
58.0
130
88
.670
77.0
88.0
72.5
63.8
132
89
.728
83.8
94.0
77.5
69.0
135
91
.778
89.5
97.0
80.0
72.8
142
96
.815
93.7
99.0
81.6
78.5
145
98
.870
100.0
100.0
82.5
81.0
146
99
.890
102.2
100.0
82.5
81.7
(9)
(10)
Sea-
(4)
15,000-ft.
at re-
duced
(5)
(6)
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
135
1565
1565
1570
1583
1600
1633
1673
1751
1781
1800
1490
1490
1495
1510
1525
1555
1590
(7)
ft.
(8)
%
B.H.P
V/ND
design design
V/ND
60
Altitude
15,000
B.H.P
50
eff.
87
level
(3)
HP.avaU.
eff.
87
ft.
(2)
(10)
128
15,000
(1)
(9)
128
Calculations for
Sea-level
design design
V/ND
ft.
HP.avaU.
eff.
eff.
124
67
0.390
45.0
55.0
45.4
30.4
124
67
.468
53.8
64.0
52.8
35.4
125
67
.542
62.3
73.5
60.6
40.6
126
68
.616
71.0
82.3
68.0
46.2
127
68
.685
78.7
89.3
73.7
50.1
130
70
.745
85.5
94.5
78.0
54.6
133
71
.797
91.5
98.0
80.9
57.5
670
139
75
.835
96.0
99.5
82.1
1700
1715
142
76
77
.890
102.2
100.0
82.5
61.6
62.8
.914
105.0
99.0
81.7
62.8
143
235
Explanation of Table
Columns
Column
and
2,
and
last chapter.
Column
Column
3,
4,
5,
Column
Column
Column
7,
8,
9,
cent).
Column
10,
Maximum Speed
altitude is found
at Altitude.
by the
9.
at
any
altitude.
maximum
speed
less
is
at
altitude
than at the
ground.
Minimum Speed
altitude, that
is,
at Altitude.
The
an airplane must
or
minimum
fly faster to
keep from
with
stalling.
is
to the
pressure.
corresponding to the impact pressure at the ground of that airAt altitude, the impact pressure will be less for any airspeed.
speed than the pressure for that airspeed at sea-level so that the
The indicated airspeed at
low.
by the square
root of
at
minimum
velocity.
At
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
236
is
At any
horsepower
will
be required
minimum horsepower will be the same, but the velocity corresponding to this angle of attack will be greater at higher altitudes.
The
minimum
horse-
the same at
all altitudes,
minimum horsepower
The
the airplane
is
at Altitude.
The
required.
at all altitudes
Rate of Climb
by the
same reading
when
maximum LjD.
ability to climb
is
determined
700
^^^
600
5-
^^s^
500
^^-^^
u.
400
^^^
300
^^^^^
200
bsolute Ceiling
"^k
100
15000
10000
5000
Altitude
Fig.
The
As the
altitude
maximum
is
climb-
increased, the
237
almost the same as the angle of maximum Cl^^^ / CDtotsXTherefore with increasing altitude the speed for maximum climb
climb
is
increases.
If
the
Fig. 69,
maximum
it will
straight line.
lineally
with altitude.
section
climb
is zero.
ceiling or altitude
is
it is
possible for
At
horsepower-required curve.
one speed.
At
The
sufficient available
flight.
This one
At the absolute
ceiling control is
The
very sluggish.
rate of
infinitesimally small.
an
infinite
time to
reach the absolute ceiling, and no airplane ever reaches there unless
one conceives of an
More
practical
is
is
100
If the rate of
cHmb
is
ft.
assumed to change
Hs
H[(R.C.)o
100]
(Il.C.)o
is
per min.
=
=
Hs
(R.C.)o =
lineally
with altitude
minute
Example. For an airplane weighing 4,000 lb,, the excess horsepower at sea-level is 60 hp.; at 10,000-ft. altitude there is 17 excess
horsepower.
What
is
service ceiling?
Solution.
60
495
33,000
ft.
per min.
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
238
(R.C.) 10,000
H-
=
_
10,000
4,950,000
355
33,000
4,000
H
-
495iy
17
H=
140
140
495
per min.
ft.
140
4,950,000
Absolute ceiling
ff.
13,970
11,150
13,970
ft.
(g|)
ft.
Problems
(Assume that rate
1.
An
1,000
per min.;
ft.
its
its
absolute ceiling
is
16,000
ft.
What
is
is
its
service ceiling?
2.
The
service ceiling of
at sea-level
3.
its
An
is
950
an airplane
per min.
ft.
14,000
is
What is the
What is
lb.
ft.
Its rate of
climb
absolute ceiling?
service ceiling?
4.
The absolute
climb at sea-level
ceiling of
is
1,150
ft.
an airplane
is
17,000
What
per min.
is
ft.
The
rate of
10,000-ft. altitude?
5.
The
service ceiling of
at sea-level
ft.
is
1,000
ft.
an airplane
per min.
is
What
18,000
is
ft.
The
rate of climb
altitude?
Time
lineal
/i,
RC.A =
is
/i(R.C.)o
(R.C.)o
= (R.C.)o[^]
If rate of
climb
is
expressed in differential
different!
form as dh/dt
dh
(R.C.)o[^^]
dt
dt
dh
{R.C.)o{H
h)
Hdh
=/: (R.C.)o(^
(R.C.)oJk
h)
dh
H_
log.(^
in
absolute
ceiling
^^^"^^
l\0geH-\0ge(H-h)]
^'
''
(R.C.)o
h,
minutes
h)
(R.C.)o'^
,
time to climb to
altitude,
(R.C.)
(R.C.)o
H
^^'
H -h
rate of climb at
sea-level, in feet
per minute
= 2-^^^(RSyoi^^4^J
At
Example.
min.
sea-level
is
1,000
ft.
per
to 7.000-ft. altitude?
Solution.
t
2.303
9.5 min.
3^ X
^^^
15,000
VI 5,000
7,000/
Problems
1. At sea-level, an airplane weighing 4,000 lb. has 120 excess horse{a) How long will it take to
power. Its absolute ceiling is 9,000 ft.
climb from sea-level to 5,000 ft.? (h) How long will it take to climb
from
2.
of climb at sea-level
from
Its rate
to climb
A Waco
3.
airplane,
min. at sea-level.
whose
How
ceiling is 16,000
long will
it
to 10,000 ft.?
4.
Douglas
airliner
How much
ft.
it
is
a function
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
240
ti
2.303
logi
IH -i
{RC)o
2.303
logi
{RC)o
iOgio r
[h -h2
iOgio
^2
'
[h - hj
rlog
-hi
is
twice
ti,
log
H
H
t2/h
If
-h2
H -h
\H - h)
Ulk = 2
H
\H - hj
2
H^ - Hh =
Hhi - Hh2 =
h2
2Hhi +
hi^
h,^
h''
2hi
h2
Example.
altitude.
reaches 13,600
ft.
What
altitude.
H=
=
is
the ceiling?
(8,000)^
8,000
26,667
ft.
13,600
ceiling
Problems
1.
An
is
12,500
ft.
ft.
altitude;
What
is
STRATOSPHERE FLYING
241
What
altitude.
An
3.
6,000
ft.
the ceiling?
is
What
in a certain time.
climbs to a height of
ft.,
height will
it
time?
An
4.
in 20 min.
An
5.
What
height will
ft.,
Stratosphere Flying.
ground must, at
ft.;
in twice that
ft.
An
ft.
at the
it
airplane which
flies
at a certain speed
angle of attack; since weight and wing area are constant, either
Cl or
If
must
the airplane
little
same
altitude
10,000-ft.,
altitude.
15,000-ft.,
It will
30,000-ft.,
be noted that to
40,000-ft.,
and
at
10,000-ft.
50,000-ft.
160 miles
altitude,
Viewed
level,
in another aspect, with, say, 100 hp. available, at sea124 miles per hour can be flown; at 30,000-ft. altitude, 164
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
242
miles per hour;
any
men example
this
maximum
means a speed
154
Cl^''^/Cd
of 59 miles
At
that corresponding
is
The
altitude.
increase in
340
320
300
280
260
Horsepower Required
240
at
15,000
at
10,000
ft.
'^
'
1
1
Horsepower Required
at
1 /
Sea Level
\
180
/ /
/ '//
160
1/
140
100
n
^
^^^
c
60
.^^
40
60
80
120
140
160
Velocity
Fig. 70.
ft.
Altitude
ft.
Altitude
30,000
at
180
40,000
1
^Horsepower Required
100
//
C< ~
/j V-
9^
// /
40
/ //
\/
80
.120
20
5200
Horsepower Required
ft. /Utitude
220
o
-^
Altitude
200
220
240
260
altitude.
sea-level, it
Superchargers can
German
airplane
is
243
one proposed
Cdo ^
SV^
1-28
aV^ = {Cd,S
1.28 a) |
V^
^
""
CdoS
1.28 a
The weight
the
'^
divided
For a biplane
it is
(see
Chapter VI)
T
is
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
244
is
thrust horsepower
in the
{Lt)
termed the
is
The
Oswald method.
design
by the
conditions.
D.-tl.-T. rated
^design
-L
.-tl-i^ 'design
maximum)
_
'-
"
The
factor Ta
is
speed (7m).
T.H.P. at velocity 7
T.H.P. at velocity F
'^^ '^"^^'^
^^^ gg^je^el)
large
T:H:pr^^ea-le"vtl
number
of cases
(at
same
same
velocity
velocity.
F)
where R^
R/"
= V
^m
'
m=
m=
m=
m=
=
=
=
0.9
1.2
1.6
and
a-
0.165
0.835
=
The
power
1.198(0-
0.165)
rate of climb at
at that speed
R.C.
(ft.
per min.)
(H.P.avail.
H.P.,eq)
33,000
II.C.
Xl. Jr.
33,000 (
-H-'-l
avail.
W
X
B.H.P.rated
33,000
CdoS
^des.
1.28 a p
TaT^
550Tf|^^P^,^^
aJ- V
J-
33,000
W
1
substituting
req.
550
245
550 L,
VJ""-
550^^^^
po
(
J-
At
is
sea-level,
zero
33,000
when
Ls
a^^ V
550 Lp
flying at
maximum
bbO-ira^RV,
and
a
= R =
Ta
Ty
1.
POy
= 1-2
550 Lp
Lt
550
po y.
TT
2" l^r
PoT^Ti
550 L,
550x^^7,
550
po
LgLt
550x^7.
yjL,
LgLt
Po
550
TT??
LsLt
L//^
7^
PO
I
PO
550 7r?:V^
2
1/3
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
246
substituting
A =
77.3^(1-
0.487
LsLt
A = 52.8-jPll
y
In Fig. 71a,
the
maximum
{\
is
0.332
.
^^y'
LshV"
in miles per
plotted against
Vm/L
and from
Lt,
may
be found
hour
this
if
graph
the other
550 Lp
Lt
550 7r|F^
550
LsLt
Vr,
Po J
550
2^*
TT
^ 7.
c^RWJ
R.C.
33,000
33,000
550
33,000
Lt
(tj, -
(7R'
7r
I' o-i^F^y
(jR^LsLt
LLt
550 7r|F.
550 7r??cr/?F,
V in
altitudes
above
is
when
sea-level,
247
maximum
flying at
velocity,
zero.
12
11
10
'f-
a function of
"i
9
8
\
\,
10
15
20
30
25
40
35
45
50
A
Performance prediction curves.
Fig. 71a.
0.332 L,L,(1
(T^^)
1
aJ-
P tivm
v^^vrti
Vr.
^-^^^
cT^B
at altitude
where
^vm
^max. at sea-level
but
A =
52.8
'?!(-#')"
A =
159.1
1.198 ((7
0.165)crig,^^+i
0.332
^2R^j
^Y''
_^L,L,V/3
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
248
A is
R^m
is
plotted against
In Fig. 716,
1.00
^.
awpI
^^
v
.95
N,
S.
10,000
V,
ft
00
\\ \
-90
.85
Y's.ooo
\
\
'
\ \
i.80
\
A
\
',
ft.
'
.75
.70
2C .000
RvmJ
s a furiction c
fA
.65
.60
10
Fig. 716.
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
may
plane of the
Example.
first
example
in
Chapter
X is used.
Find the maximum velocity and rate of climb at seaand 10,000 feet altitude, for a monoplane weighing
lb.
rectangular wing 36
is
by 6 ft. The
The engine
ft.
249
ft.
rated at 150 hp. at 1,800 r.p.m., and the propeller uiider design con-
ditions has Cs
1.57
and
17.000
16.000
15.000
I,Ch as a function of
14.000
\\
13.000
\Sea
V
\
12.000
level
\
\
11.000
Wooo .
10,000
9.000
I
'
\\
\ \
8.000
10,0 )Oft\
5.000
4.000
\\
>
Fig. 71c.
\
25
/
15
\\
s
35
4a
Solution.
For Clark
Y airfoil
\
\
5,000
1.000
ft.
20'000\
\ \\ \
2.000
\
\\
\ \
3,000
\\ \\
6.000
s.
7.000
A at various altitudes
>
Cdo
^"
CdoS
0.01
1.28 a
2,000
284.7
216
1.28
3.8
45
50
250
PERFORMANCE AT ALTITUDE
^s
~
=
L
^'
-^
"
=
W
-^
2,000
(36)2
1.543
^
B.H.P.
-n
2,000
150 X 0.82
16.26
1.543
(16.26)4/3
(284.7)1/3
9.66
LsU =
1.543
25.09
Level
16.26
CHmb
flight
Altitude
Vm
Rvm
Vmh
L,(R.C.)
R.C.
14,900
916.3
5,000
0.970
129.0
11,250
691.8
10,000
0.935
124.4
7,550
464.3
15,000
0.884
117.6
4,250
261.3
133.0
Explanation of Table
CHAPTER
XII
TURNS
Centrifugal Force. Heretofore the flight of an airplane has
been considered in one direction. If direction is being changed,
centrifugal force while the turn is being accomplished must be
Before the turn starts and immediately after the
considered.
turn ceases, centrifugal force is not acting.
Acceleration is the change of velocity. Velocity has not only
magnitude but also direction. Even if magnitude is unchanged
but there is a change in direction of a velocity, that change is
That acceleration is always radially inward towards
acceleration.
the center about which the object is circling at that instant.
The force which causes the body to accelerate inward in a turn
is measured by the mass times the acceleration.
In constant circular motion, the acceleration is oi^R where co
is the angular velocity, or the acceleration is V^/R where F is the
linear velocity.
The
centrifugal force of
an airplane
in
a turn
is
C.F.
is
V=
R =
downward,
i.e.,
force
and weight.
on the airplane
is
If
flat
turn
is
made, that
is,
251
Except in flying in
TURNS
252
formation, this
that
skid,
angle of bank
is
is,
considered
is
If
move outward.
If
the
is
slip,
that
Lift
of
squash or
down
settle
resultant force.
If
lift
is
turn or
Fig. 72a.
cHmbing
Forces
a banked turn.
spiral.
From examination
of Fig. 72a,
if j8 is
C.F.
tan
jS
w
Yl
gR
big,
section, etc.
If
is
correct,
lift
The magnitude
of the
lift
force
must
L =
^
W
cos
g
sin
if
the weight
is
13
R
13
divided
by a number
less
than unity;
than 1, the
BANKING
quotient
lift
may
lift
is
For a turn,
equals weight.
The
253
lift
be increased either
it is
by diving
to get the
added
lift is
more power
than in
Example.
An
weight
6,000
Its
Y
2
is
required in a turn
level flight.
is
airplane
(a)
wing area
200
and Clark
Its
The
airfoil is used.
sq. ft.
is
lb.
What
angle of attack
is
needed?
is
(6)
What horsepower
required? The airplane turns at 150 miles per hour airspeed with a
30 angle of bank,
(c) What is the centrifugal force?
(d) What lift
is
is
needed?
of attack
What
(e)
is
is
needed?
What horsepower
(g)
is
(/)
What
required?
Solution.
^^^
^^
W
0.00256
iS
72
6,000
~ 0.00256 X
= 0.522
200
150^
a\ 0.00256 ^73
H.P.=(c.+lf^)'
=
(c)
{d)'
^
C.F.
Lift
=
=
=
=
=
+i^)
(0.025
175 hp.
T7 tan
iS
6,000
3,460
lb.
W^
cos
6,000
~
=
375
0.00256
0.866
6,930 lb.
0.577
200
375
150^
angle
TURNS
254
tan/5=^
(e)
gr
tan
32.2
2,600
1.47)2
0.577
ft.
Lift
(/)
0.00256
=
From
200
150^
0.603
Fig. 17,
a =
(g)
/8
X
X
(150
From
3.4
Fig. 17,
Cd = 0.03
/^
__^
1.28
a\ 0.00256
>S
73
375
/'r.r.nr.
[y.OSO
+
.
1-28
2 \ 0.00256
200
200
150
375~"
203 hp.
Problems
1. A plane of 2,000 lb. gross weight is turning at 100 miles per hour
with an angle of bank of 45.
(a) What is the centrifugal force?
(b) What is the lift?
(c) What should be the radius of turn?
2. An airplane is making a 40 banked turn of 800-ft. radius.
What should be the airspeed?
3. An airplane weighing 2,500 lb. has a Clark Y wing 250 sq. ft.
in area (A.R.6) and parasite with equivalent flat plate area of 1.5
sq. ft.
What horsepower is required in straight flight at 120 miles
an hour and in a banked turn of a quarter-mile radius at 120 miles
per hour?
4. A racing plane weighing 1,800 lb. is rounding a pylon at 340
miles per hour.
The radius of the turn is 100 ft. What should be
angle of bank, and what is centrifugal force?
5. An airplane weighing 5,000 lb. has a Clark Y wing of 300 sq. ft.
area (A.R.6) and parasite with equivalent flat plate area of 3.0 sq. ft.
(a) What horsepower is required to fly straight at 100 miles per hour?
(6) What horsepower to make a 35 banked turn if the same angle of
attack is maintained in the turn as in the straight flight?
Limiting Radius.
more
lift is
is
required than in
lift is
LIMITING RADIUS
attained
by
255
using
maximum
speed in straight
all
top speed to
Since
make
a perfect turn,
it
is
flight
impossible at
without shpping or
i.e.,
squashing.
limit to the
is fixed,
there
is
is
The
smaller
required; therefore,
The horsepower
may
coefficient
available at
be computed.
known.
be found.
computed, and from that, the corresponding minimum radius of
turn for a series of different velocities; it will be discovered that
at one airspeed, which is the same airspeed as that for best climb,
the radius of turn is smallest. With the assigned power plant
this will be the sharpest possible turn, though with increased
power a turn of even smaller radius can be made.
cient are then
the
lift
may
Find the minimum radius of turn for an airplane weighhaving a Clark Y wing 36 ft. by 6 ft. and 3.8 sq. ft.
equivalent flat plate area of parasite and a 150-hp. engine rated at
Example.
ing 2,000
lb.,
1,800 r.p.m.
Solution.
ample
This
is
in the chapter
power-available curve
-
is
Calculations are
first illustrative
is
made
a sample.
F =
H.P.avaii.
=
=
HP =rC
110
fr
ex-
ft.
per sec.
from
Fig. 59
1-^8 a \ 0.00256
i
1.28
^-^^
I
V^"^
Cd = 0.0335
X^SXT^
375
\00.00256 X 216 X
X 3.8\
X3.8
375
J
216
110^
TURNS
256
From
Fig. 17,
= 4,330
cos
/3
lio'
lb.
Lift
2,000
=
^ =
tanjS
tan/5
R =
=
The
4,330
0.461
62 33'
1.925
72
gR
162^
32.2
424
results of these
1.925
ft.
mum
speed
is
smallest value
The mini
when the air
500
c 400
^X
S300
oc
its
200
y
y
^
Spiral Glide.
100
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
120
Fig. 726.
Minimum radius
banked turn.
alti-
tude,
of properly
In discuss-
itself.
If
a turn
is
up-wind, greater
In general,
minimum
increased.
lift
lift
SPIRAL GLIDE
257
(L cos
jS)
that
is
component
of
lift
Summing up
(L sin
/3).
to represent total
D=
L
cos
Lr sm
.
Dividing the
first
jS
^
jS
TF sin
TF cos d
TFF2cos2(9
gives
cos
jS
Since 2
irr is
= TFF2
gL
cos2 e
sin
j8
is
mum
when
tan
irr
tan
d.
minimum.
gL
gL
sin
sin
Cl cos
/3
/3
cos
^Cl
/3
TURNS
258
W cos2
g^s(^^y
^ cos ^
sin
cos^ 6
/2
Since in
all
foj^^"'^
would be flown at the flattest
and cos 6 will be nearly equal
descent wifl be when both Cl^/Cd and
The
to one.
slowest rate of
have their largest values. An investigation of standard airfoils shows that Cj}ICd has a maximum value close to the burble
and sin 2 ^ will have its greatest value when jS is 45. The above
expression shows that with a bigger wing loading (TF/aS), the
sin 2
j8
minimum
rate of descent
is
decreased.
Vw
The
The loss
of 9.6 is V^ cos d/{g tan ^) or 214 ft.
one complete turn (2 irr tan 6) is 227 ft.
Loading in Turns. In straight level flight, the lift on an airplane
equal to the total weight of the airplane plus or minus a small
is
tail load.
This
is
Practically the
lift is
is
lift
is
32.2
ft.
cosine of the angle of bank, so that the greater the angle of bank,
is
259
3gr, 4gr,
etc.
is
'
Example.
:fj7
3.
cos p
is
Solution.
1
cos 45
0.7071
=
Load
1.41
lAg.
Problems
1.
Airplane
is
What
Airplane
is
Airplane
is
4o
Airplane
is
5.
Airplane
an hour.
is
What
of 100-yd. radius at
is
of 200-ft. radius at a
speed of 190
making a turn
is
a speed of 175
making a turn
What
is
a speed of 150
making a turn
What
is
of f-mile radius at
is
making a turn
What
making a turn
of 150-ft. radius at a
In a turn of this
complicated.
Some
may
be obtained by the
following considerations.
In a vertical bank,
ward.
Neglecting
lift acts inward; centrifugal force acts out" squashing," lift should equal centrifugal
force.
o
WV^
TURNS
260
In straight level
flown
when the
flight,
slowest speed,
angle of attack
is
that of
i.e.,
stalHng speed,
maximum
lift
is
coefficient
and
^4^^^ =
,R
Then
C^LmsiX.
L =
y s
gR
R=^X -^
Cl
and
The
that
is,
when the
angle of attack
squashes out-
be of greater radius
will
is
will decrease
minimum
when Cl =
Czmax.,
the
J^min.
The load
factor in a vertical
bank
CLmax.
will
be
2^^^
= 11
It is to
be noted that
at altitude the
minimum
minimum
DIVES
261
and what
is
is
What
is
The
radius.
is
initial
the radius,
Solution.
timin.
r~
Q
(40
1.47)2
32.2
Load
factor
107
-77-^
9.8
ft.
Problems
1.
minimum
is
Dives.
tail
to
move
up.
If the stick
movement
is
first
fairly
action
is
for
quick so that
the
tail is
onward
in a horizontal path.
TURNS
262
normal
tion
is
flight
flying upside
down.
When
conventional unsymmetrical
must be
at a high nega-
tive angle of attack with consequent big drag, so that the airspeed
be comparatively low.
will
The load
much
greater
in the dive.
If
L =
CLmax.2^^^
W=
CLm...^SVs'
but
and
Load
factor
tt?
72
much
less.
LOOPS
263
Problems
1. A Waco plane whose landing speed is 49 miles per hour is pulled
out of a dive at 175 miles per hour. What is the load factor?
2. A Lockheed plane whose landing speed is 64 miles per hour is
What is the load factor?
pulled out of a dive at 250 miles per hour.
3. An Aeronca whose landing speed is 36 miles per hour is pulled
out of a 120-mile-per-hour dive. What is the load factor?
4.
hour
A
is
stalling speed
is
What
is
the load
factor?
5.
stalling speed
is
What
Loops.
In looping, a turn
The loop
is
by diving
to gain speed.
its
back, and
will increase
again.
The
gained
if it is
loop to the top of the loop is the weight times the vertical distance
or 2 RW.
In climbing, the energy lost is the difference in kinetic
energy.
TURNS
264
Therefore
ARg =
7i2
V2'
72W ^-W
o=
W=^^R
g
Rg
Then
since
Fi^
Fa'
Fi2 -Rg^
Fi2
4.Rg
4.Rg
= 5Rg
But
Fi2
_W5Rg
9
= QW
or the load factor
is 6^.
is
zero,
which
is
CHAPTER
XIII
An
airplane
may
The
is
an imaginary
longi-
line
axis.
The lateral axis is an imaginary line
through the center of gravity of the airplane, perpendicular to the
axis, and horizontal when the airplane is on an even keel.
The
It is called the
axis.
The
vertical or
axis passes
X and Y
axes and
when the
airplane
is
is
vertical
on even
keel;
see
Fig. 73.
X axis
is
roll.
By
tacit
moment.
Rotation about the Z axis is called turn or yaw. If when viewed
from above the airplane rotates clockwise, it is positive yaw. A
moment tending to cause a right turn is a positive yawing moment;
that tending to cause a left turn is a negative yawing moment.
Angle of Attack of Airplane. Earher in this book, the angle of
attack of the wing was stated to be the angle between the direction
The wing chord is not
of the relative wind and the wing chord.
265
266
is
The
dence
is
is
The
angle of inci-
Usu-
the angle of
maximum
Control Surfaces.
L/Z) of the
It is necessary that
means be provided to
cause or stop rotation about any of the three axes, in order either
to maintain the airplane in straight level flight or to execute vari-
ous maneuvers.
It
is
universal
practice
nowadays to make
The
part
is
the rudder.
pilot.
Pushing forward with the right foot on the rudder
bar moves the rudder to the right and causes a right turn.
The control surfaces for producing or regulating pitch are the
horizontal tail surfaces.
The movable part is the elevator or
the
" flipper "; the " fixed " part is the stabilizer.
Though termed
" fixed," the stabilizer except on small light planes can be ad-
made by means
Movement
of the elevator
Pushing forward on
the stick causes the nose to go down; pulling back on it causes
is
the nose to
The
rise.
They are located at the rear of each wing tip. They are
by the control stick on a small plane and by a wheel
(Deperdessin or " Dep " control) on large planes; moving the
stick to the left makes the left aileron go up and the right aileron
go down, causing negative roll. Moving the stick to the right
causes the left aileron to go down and the right aileron to go up,
rons.
controlled
CONTROL SURFACES
The Wright
267
by providing
lat-
eral control.
that
is,
first
Upon
would cause
it
wooden
rib
moved down,
it
lift
changes the
airfoil section of
When an
aileron
is
quently greater
foil
Moving an
lift.
aileron
air-
less lift.
moved
the total
up.
lift,
Moving an
greater
attack
aileron
camber but
is
the
airfoil to
one of
greater.
rudders, are
more
268
considerable force
is
required to
move a
The
At high speeds
control surface
away
its
neutral position.
surfaces.
common
airfoil sections
To remedy
may
be used.
Closed
Open
Fig. 74.
Spoilers.
Spoilers.
spar.
It is
spoiler consists
FLOATING AILERONS
flat
269
By moving
The action
on that
smooth flow
The
the stick
lift is
of air over
consequently
greatly reduced.
The outstanding
objection to spoilers
When
is
is raised on one
on the other wing remains as before. The reduction
of lift on the wing with the raised spoiler means the same reduction
Though imin the total lift, and the airplane loses altitude.
material at moderate altitudes, this is exceedingly dangerous
close to the ground as a crash might result.
Floating Ailerons. The floating aileron was installed on the
Curtiss Tanager which won the Guggenheim Safety Contest in
wing, the
1929.
The
lift.
the spoiler
lift
The
aileron
floating aileron
is
the aileron
is
is
a symmetrical
Weight
is
behind
balanced statically.
Fig. 75.
Floating ailerons.
The ailerons are so rigged that they turn freely up and down
provided that the ailerons on opposite wing tips rotate together.
They will set themselves in the plane of the relative wind, much
as a weather vane points into the wind.
The pilot has no control
over this action.
The
No
270
Since the airfoils are symmetrical, and the positive angle on one
side the same as the negative angle on the other, the plus lift equals
In addition, the
lift and the total lift remains the same.
drag caused by the up aileron is the same as the drag of the down
one, so that there is no yawing or turning tendency.
Balanced Control Surfaces. Since moving a surface against the
pressure of a high wind requires considerable force, control surthe minus
Paddle Type
Handley-Page Type
C
Overhang Type
Balanced
Fig. 76.
ailerons.
The
axis about
which
is
is
displaced from
pilot
must
its
neutral posi-
effort the
exert.
SIZES OF AILERONS
271
aileron
the balanced type, the aileron is hinged about 20 per cent of the
chord back from the leading edge and so designed that, when in its
Down
Position
Up
Fig. 77.
down
Position
Frise aileron.
a smooth
In its
^'
up " position, the leading edge of the aileron projects below the
continuation of the curved lower surface of the wing, so that additional drag is arbitrarily introduced at this point.
When properly
designed, the drag of both ailerons is the same, and there is no
^'
is
yawing moment.
Sizes of Ailerons.
arm
is
expressed as
The
rolling
moment
is
usually
272
Le
coeflficient
of
rolling
mo-
moment = Le^SwV%
lift
=
V=
Sw
b
coefficient)
wing
span, feet
maximum.
It is
may
common
The
and the distance behind the wing will be discussed in the following chapter on stability. The elevator is
horizontal surface
The aspect
in the neighborhood of 3.
Occasionally an airplane
is
stalls,
and
it is
tail
them
surface
into a stalled
is
usually in-
273
moved up
or
down
has
be
Usually a
may
vertical screw is used to adjust the height of the front of the stabi-
by a crank or handwheel
any changes
acting on the
of setting
tail.
The
rigid,
A tab
tab
will
The
movement
If
motion;
the rotation
is
a helical
The
more pressure on
274
their left
to the
side, this
left.
a rotation
give
more
lift
this action.
The
left
ber.
left
wing
may
The
it is
quite
common to
to the left
by tightening the
rigging the
latter is called
wing greater
lift,
the
''
left
left.
symmetry.
is
have to apply
the
fin
and
will
It is to
CHAPTER XIV
STABILITY
Stability
Definition of Stability.
which,
The
is
is
moments which
act to restore
to its
it
moments tending
forces or
body
to return the
to its original
attitude.
Stability of
main
at the
re-
It
is
in space.
changing
The
its
factors
which make
preclude maneuverability.
which
whenever attempt is
For
stability,
made
plane
is
statically in equilibrium,
if,
when
in flight, the
sum
of all
moments about any point equals zero. The first part of the foregoing statement may be expressed as the body is in equiUbrium
:
horizontal forces
of the
is zero.
27 =
S^ =
SM =
If
the body
is
disturbed from
its
stability there
istic
275
STABILITY
276
moment which
of the restoring
moment.
airplane to
equilibrium position
its
acquire angular
Owing
This
momentum
so that
may
it will
moment
will
stability there
may
For dynamic
be oscillation.
stability, in addition to
mean
moment
is
mean
impossibility of control,
in this book.
longitudinal or
They
ing
may
vice versa.
ation of the
mean aerodynamic
made
277
section to the
M.A.C.
h
h{a
S{a
-\-\-
The length
26)
a =
h =
h)
of the
M.A.C. = i[a
is
_
~
s{a
3(a
+ 26)
+ h)
total
sweepback
78 is shown a
method of finding the M.A.C. of a wing
In
Fig.
graphical
panel.
center
section
and
Fig. 79.
=
Sc
to
Sf,
Sc
Sp
=
=
M.A.C.
of semi-center-section
M.A.C.
of
wing panel
STABILITY
278
The
length of the
M A P -r^"^
I
(^c-Cp)(h''-e)
h^'-h'
length
is
of
M.A.C.
wing
panel
Cc
length
of
M.A.C.
center
section
m(e
h"
m=
h')
distance of L.E. of
M.A.C.
of
wing
h'
found
in')
separately.
Fig.
(see
M.A.C.
is
80)
elevated
The distance
by which the
is
m.,(e-^')
h"
Fig. 80.
of
For biplanes, the M.A.C. 's for the upper and lower wings are
found separately. The length of the M.A.C. of the biplane is
Su =
M.A.C.
= eCuSu
eSu
+ ClSl
+ aSl
wing
The
of
upper
may
be used for
279
~ G
Gap
1.40
'
n-^n
1.30
r'oo^
Chore
1
o
.80
A
/.
^^.
-30 -20
-10
10
Stagger
Fig. 81.
Mean aerodynamic
chord
^
<is-^
;
Sl.OO
.90
/y/
^/
1.20
1.10
in
20
30
Degrees
Fig. 82.
in a biplane.
of biplane.
Problems
chord and
forward position of the center of pressure
being at 30 per cent of the chord from the leading edge. It was found
that the center of gravity of the airplane was to the rear of the maximum forward position of the center of pressure. To remedy this
situation, it was proposed to leave unchanged the center section of
the wing, the width of which was 4 ft., while the outer portions of the
wing were to remain parallelograms of the same area but were to be
given a sweepback of 2 ft. at each tip.
(a) Find distance from
1.
maximum
M.A.C.
Find distance that leading edge of M.A.C. has been moved back,
(c) Find distance that maximum forward position of the C.P. of the
M.A.C. of the wing has been moved back.
2. Solve problem 1 when sweepback at each tip is 1 ft., wing area
(6)
Solve problem
when
is
given a sweep-
back beginning at the center so that the sweepback at each tip is 2 ft.,
the span being lengthened so that the wing area remains unchanged.
4. Solve problem 3 when sweepback at each tip is 1 ft., the span
being of such a length that the wing area remains unchanged.
STABILITY
280
M.A.C.
of altered wing.
(6)
Find the distance that M.A.C. of the wing has been moved up.
8. Solve problem 7 when the dihedral at each tip is 1 ft.
9. Solve problem 7 when the center section of the wing is left unchanged, the outer portions being given a dihedral of 2 ft. at each tip,
the leading edge outside of the center section being given a sweepback
of 2 ft., while the trailing edge remains perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, the span being of such a length that the
wing area remains unchanged.
10. Solve problem 9 when the dihedral at each tip is 1 ft. and the
sweepback at each tip is also 1 ft., the span being of such a length that
the wing area remains unchanged.
Longitudinal Balance.
LONGITUDINAL BALANCE
281
Fig. 83.
Forces on an airplane in
flight.
thrust line
drag
is h, its
lift is e,
and the
Then,
tail is d.
T Xa-\- D Xh - LXedtz
Example.
Y wing
Clark
flat
Tail load
of 48-ft.
plate area,
of the airplane
is
is
20
in.
back
The
center of gravity
above the thrust line, and 8 in. below line of action of total drag.
It is 25 ft. from the center of gravity of the airplane to the center
of pressure of the tail.
What should be the tail load?
Solution.
Cl
W
0.00256
>S
72
3.000
0.00256
0.306
384
100'
282
STABILITY
From
Aotai
Since Sfl"
From
that
is,
when Cl =
Fig. 17
= (cd
('0.015
=
=
0,
Fig. 17,
0.46
Moment arm
Cd = 0.015
322
0.306,
^'^^3^
^^
) 0.00256
lOO"
lb.
Drag = Thrust
when Cl =
96
in.
44
0.306, C.P.
in.
of lift force
is
Tail load
384
must act
load
72,000
218
X 25 X
- 6,440
in.
^ttt:
to give positive
lb.
moment,
make measurements of
12
pitching
i.e.,
It
must be down.
is
desirable to
using
is
Even
if
tail area.
tail will
is set
parallel to
The
air flowing
TAIL ANGLE
283
the angle of
wing and
downwash
of the distance
For
very-
one applied.
angle of
downwash
at the tail
is
one-half the angle of attack of the wing measured from the angle
of zero
lift.
downwash.
should be borne in mind that the angle of
It
downwash
the
is
The
tail
of
tail
surface
is
it
The
downwash, which
in turn
wing.
Example.
to chord of
incidence
is
Solution.
Angle
Angle
Angle
Example.
incidence.
What
is
the
tail
when
angle
stabilizer is set at
relative
of attack of
of tail
of tail
wing
wind
as horizontal.)
li
with horizontal = 6^
with downwashed air
is
to chord of wing.
+2
What is
at
+10
+5, angle of
is
6i
10 = 16j
16j
Y wing,
= +12|
aspect ratio
angle of attack.
tail
6, set
at
+li
Stabilizer set
at
angle?
Solution.
5|
Problems
1.
incidence.
(a) if
at
+10
to
wing chord?
STABILITY
284
2.
Angle
is
main wing
parallel to
3.
6, set
+3
at
incidence.
of attack of airplane is
Airplane
cidence.
stabilizer
is
set at 5 to
at
is
6,
What
with 1|
is tail
in-
angle
if
wing?
4.
Airplane
set at
10
to wing?
stabilizer is set at
When
to wing?
is
lift
coefficient is
known, for the part of the lift coefficient against angle of attack
curve which is straight, the slope is constant. Assuming that this
slope is 0.0718, which is approximately true for all airfoils having
an aspect ratio of 6, then
Cl
'^^^-
If
6,
lift
'z.L.
lift
^A.R.
zx.
Z.L.
^AR.
angle of downwash,
e
= Wz.L.
2
Example.
wing
is
0.0718
aspect ratio of
of
to be
z.L.
Then
downwash needs
From Chapter V
corrected.
0.0718
8,
+7.
and
is
Fa.r.
lb.
Stabilizer set at
angle?
10
to
wing chord.
W
^^
""
0.00256 ,SF2
2,000
0.00256
0.314
250
of wing area,
Angle of attack
ft.
100'
What
is tail
TAIL
From
MOMENT
285
1.06
Cl
^
0.0718
i^A.R.
1.06
0.314
~
=
Angle of
Angle of
tail
tail
0.0718
2.08
Problems
Airplane, weighing 4,000
1.
and
+2.
ratio of 9,
plane
is
What
is tail
2.
lb.,
ft.
is
Angle of incidence
is
1.
angle?
lb.,
ft.
of
wing
area, aspect ratio is 6.24, and it is flying at 150 miles per hour.
If
10 to wing chord and angle of attack of wing is
stabilizer is set at
what
is tail
angle?
Douglas observation plane weighs 4,800 lb., has 376 sq. ft. of
wing area with E.M.A.R. of 5.2, and is flying at 120 miles per hour.
If angle of attack of wings is +5 and stabilizer is set at +5 to wing
4.
chord,
what
is tail
angle?
Tail
Moment.
the
tail
To
find the
moment about
on
of
due to the
tail load,
the
lift
tail surface.
The
tail
of pressure position.
The
surface
this,
lift
is
force
on the
tail is
ratio, or
what
is
may
6.
To
The
tail
correct for
STABILITY
286
by the
plied
Fa.-r.,
The
airfoil characteristics of
different
at is
the
is
tail
St
the
Fa.r.
for the
Example.
tail airfoil
from those
curves
lift
Find
a^.
is 40 sq. ft.
symmetrical airfoil section stabilizer is
set at 10 to main wing.
Distance from center of gravity of airplane to center of pressure of stabilizer is 14 ft. Main wing is Clark
Y, angle of attack of wing is 4, airspeed is 100 miles per hour.
Solution.
For Clark Y wing, angle of zero lift is 5.
tail
11
is
ft.,
_|_
=
=
4.5
Tail angle
ttt
3.07
angle
Aspect ratio of
From
Downwash
tail
-10.5
Lift force
on
tail
0.828
(down)
T46?7^
Problems
1.
section
Clark
tail surface,
is
30
symmetrical.
Y section
and
is
Stabilizer
is
has a span of 11
set at
at 2 angle of attack.
moment
tail
2.
foil
is
tail
section
Clark
if
airspeed
is
surface 45 sq.
is
symmetrical.
Y section
and
is
if
airspeed
is
its airfoil
is
15
ft.
What
is
in area has a
Stabilizer
is
span
of 13
set at 0 to
at 1 angle of attack.
moment
ft.;
ft.
What
is tail
MOMENT CURVES
A tail
3.
section
is
is
Clark
surface 47 sq.
symmetrical.
section
and
ft.
Stabilizer
is
287
at 6 angle of attack.
moment
The sum
the
tail at
if
airspeed
of the
is
moment due
to the
plane to balance at
is
longitudinal stabihty.
all
normal
of attack
What
is
it
air-
less positive
moment.
If
over
may
coefficient is
The moment
of the
lift,
is
the product
moment
arm, which also varies with angle of attack. The moment of the
tail is the product of its lifting force, which varies with its angle of
attack and may be up or down, times its moment arm. Suice the
tail
is
a symmetrical
the
moment arm
surface
move and
airfoil, its
of the
tail,
which
is
constant
Example.
6
ft.
The rectangular
wing, 36
ft.
ft.
by
area with
STABILITY
288
pressure of the tail
is
18
ft.
ft.
per
Find the moment curve {a) when chord of the stabilizer is paralto wing chord, (&) when stabilizer is set at 5 to wing chord.
sec.
lel
Solution.
0 Stabilizer
(2)
(1)
(4)
(3)
Cl
C.P. C.P.-27
0.360
0.645
0.930
1.190
1.435
0.424
0.347
0.316
0.300
0.296
0.154
0.077
0.046
0.030
0.026
(5)
(2)
Cl
(3)
(4)
C.P. C.P.-27
4
8
same
Mw
6.5 +1.
8.5 +3.
10.5 +5.
(10)
(11)
(12)
Cli
Mt
Stabilizer Setting
(7)
oco
16
(11)
(12)
-7.5
-5.5
-3.5
-1.5
+0.5
as
(10)
(9)
(8)
above
12
(9)
2.5 -2.
4.5 -0.
(6)
(5)
(8)
(7)
Mw
-853
-766
-660
-547
-573
5
(1)
(6)
Setting
t
Mt
Cit
-0.539 -160.0 +2880 +2027
-0.395 -117.2 +2110 +1344
-0.252 - 75.0 +1350 + 690
-0.108 - 32.1 + 577 + 30
+0.036 + 14.8 - 260 - 833
Explanation of Table
(2)
(4)
^SV^c.
(9)
X -^t^'^.
A
The
results
in Fig. 84.
While
289
attack.
With 5
3.000
\.
2.000
>
N
1.000
X
M..
\,
\,
X?^
\^ ^^^
\.
^
"l
-^c
\^
\
-1.000
^\* ^0
"-^^
-2.000
N
-3.000
12'
16'
Angle of Attack
Fig. 84.
Moment
Moment
Coefficient Curves.
It is usual to plot
moments themselves.
moment coefficient, Cmo, as shown
moment
coeffi-
The
v^ing
in
Chapter IV,
is
such that
c
M = C^(|>^T^^c)
=
=
and
Cm = Cl(p -
chord in feet
distance in percentage of chord back
C.P.)
C.P.
STABILITY
290
Fig. 85a.
Moment
coefficients
.10
\
.09
s.
.08
.07
>
.06
.05
f\
\l
.04
.03
.02
s.
s.
\
\\
\,
E.Ol
.02
>
.03
^^^^ ^^^^
.04
"c;:;^
.05
\ \\\
.06
>\
.07
10
12
14
16
18
Angle of Attack
Fig. 856.
Moment
is
291
coefficient,
when the
When
substituted for p.
moment,
is
above or below
is
so that
it
is
lift
known,
arm
and
of the
if
known
6 either are
is
lift
is
The moment
or can be found.
lift.
C.P. cos a
is
percentage of chord.
From an
sin (6
inspection of
a), expressed in
wing drag
of the
is
the per-
of the drag.
a.
Finding the
is
exactly the
While
earlier in this
wing,
it
chapter
it
tail
of
is
slowed up by friction
with the fuselage so that the air velocity over the tail surface is less
than the airspeed. It is usual to correct for this by assuming that
the speed at the tail is 90 per cent of the airspeed. Then the
velocity squared at the tail
Mwing
Cowing
is
Mtail
SV'C^
Clu^
^Mwing (^ SV'CJ
0.0718
(^
>Sftail7^aiia'
atail
i^A.R.
tail
1^X0.81- (iSV^c)
Cm =
Cjfwing
It is quite
0.0718
common
Cf
atail
i^A.R.tail
1^
X 0.81 ^wing
0.0718
1^ X
FA.R.taii
0.81
Substituting in above
Cm =
Cowing
Cfata.il
292
STABILITY
Find and plot wing moment
Example.
total
moment
The wing
coefficient
rectangular, Clark
is
Total horizontal
coefficient, tail
moment, and
for
43 sq. ft.; span of tail is 12.5 ft. Stabilizer is set at 5 to main wing.
The center of gravity of the airplane
is 30 per cent of the chord back of the leading edge of the M.A.C.
and 25 per cent of the chord below the M.A.C. Distance from center
tail
area
is
is
12
main wing = 48
6.5
Area
Solution,
Aspect ratio
From
of
of
^=
sq. ft.
7.39
312
48
wing
ft.
30
tan-i
25
50.2
^ g
25
5Q 2
1.043
M.A.C.
TABLE XVI
(1)
(2)
^ARe
Cl
4
8
12
16
(8)
(e-cx)
50.41
46.57
42.74
38.88
35.02
OiARQ
Ai27
39
0.21
0.37
0.54
0.68
0.82
0.36
0.65
0.94
1.19
1.44
(9)
sin(0
(4)
(3)
0.771
0.726
0.679
0.628
0.574
0.21
+
+
3.63
7.46
+11.32
+15.18
(10)
a) COS(0
Aie7.39
0.637
0.688
0.734
0.779
0.819
(5)
(6)
(7)
^''ARe
^^ARr^^AR,^,,
^^^^7.39
0.011
0.017
0.033
0.060
0.139
0.001
0.004
0.009
0.014
0.021
0.010
0.013
0.024
0.046
0.118
(12)
(11)
a)
R sin(0
0.301
0.283
0.265
0.245
0.224
a)
cos(^
0.249
0.268
0.286
0.304
0.319
a)
(13)
(14)
C.P.
C.P. sin a
0.424
0.347
0.316
0.300
0.296
-0.002
+0.022
+0.041
+0.059
+0.078
{Continued)
(16)
(15)
C.P. cos
(17)
Cl(C.P. cos a
- R sin
{d
Cd{R
a))
-0.0445
-0.0410
-0.0457
-0.0588
-0.0891
0.424
0.346
0.313
0.294
0.286
293
(18)
COs(0
a)
Cmw
C.P. sin a)
-0.0420
-0.0378
-0.0398
-0.0475
-0.0606
+0.0025
+0.0032
+0.0059
+0.0113
+0.0285
Explanation of Table
in
1/7.39).
1/7.39).
From
^/
12^32
~To~
A.R.
^-^^1^
in
in
column 5.
3.64
of 3.64, Fa.r.
43
312
X 0.874
X 1.043 X
0.874
0-81
12
^=
0.0124
TABLE XVII
(1)
(2)
aZ.L.(A.R.7.39)
4.79
8.63
12.46
16.32
20.18
2.395
4.315
6.230
8.160
10.090
(3)
(4)
<
Cut
-7.61
-5.68
-3.77
-1.84
+0.09
+0.0944
+0
0704
+0.0468
+0.0228
-0.0011
Explanation of Table
Column
lift
for Clark
Y) from
items in column
Column
Column
3 obtained
4,
STABILITY
294
moment at about
This is a stable condition for locked elevator,
elevator held in same plane with stabilizer; since a greater angle
As shown by
of attack
stalling
is
coefficient,
The curve
of total
equilibrium
is
moment
moved
coefficient is
of attack.
Problems
1.
Plot
moment
10
to wing chord.
an airplane similar to that described
in the illustrative example, except that it is a low- wing monoplane and
the center of gravity is 25 per cent above M.A.C., stabilizer set at
5 to wing chord.
ample with
2.
Plot
stabilizer set at
moment
coefficients for
Free Elevator.
This condition
is
where the
at its forward
The
air pass-
ing under the stabilizer impinges on the under side of the elevator,
moment about
moment due to the air
hinge due to
its
Lateral Stability.
is
symmetrical about a
not present as
lateral stability.
When
flying straight
wings) on the
and
left side of
level,
as on the right side and therefore there will be the same lift on
one side of the airplane as on the other side. If for any reason the
airplane tips, the wing on the side which is going down will meet
air, so that relative to the wing air not only is coming backward
at the wing (due to the forward motion of the airplane), but also
coming upward (due to the roll). The relative wind is then not
backward and upward, so that temporarily the
descending wing has a greater angle of attack. The other, rising,
wing is meeting air on its upper surface, that is, momentarily the
is
horizontal but
DIHEDRAL
wing has a
rising
relative wind,
which
295
is
have
tude.
wing
will also
rising
less drag,
This action
lift;
less lift,
is effective
is
actually rolling.
an airplane has ceased rolling and is flying level with one wing
low, there is the same angle of attack on both the left and the
right wings and there is no tendency on the part of the airplane to
If
right itself.
One
Dihedral.
of the
most
ways
effective
of securing lateral
A small dihedral
horizontal.
ample
is
sufficient to give
lateral stability.
When
an airplane
are tipped
sideslip;
up
but
some amount
side
angle of 1J or 2
if
the plane
is
only slightly
As soon
component.
as
tilted,
lift
the wings
there will
and weight
direction which
is
will
be
have a
still
With a
If
come from a
when the
relative
the side instead of from dead ahead, the angle of attack will
still
be the same on the right wing as the left wing. With dihedral,
if the right wing drops, the plane will slip to the right.
The
relative wind is then coming at the airplane from the right of
dead ahead. Owing to the dihedral angle, the right wing will
have a greater and the left wing a smaller angle of attack. This
will give more lift on the low wing and less on the high, tending to
restore the airplane to an even keel.
The first Wright airplane happened to have great inherent
stabiUty so the upper wings were given negative dihedral, called
cathedral, to decrease it.
This is never done in modern plane
construction.
Too much lateral stability makes a cross-wind
landing extremely
An
difficult.
is
down has a
greater
STABILITY
296
dihedral angle
is
As the usual
wing
(1
very-
Normal
Flight at or
Flight
above burble
point
-4
12
16
Angle of Attack
Fig. 86.
Autorotation.
As explained
20
24
Autorotation.
in a previous paragraph,
At low
28
or
medium
and the
when an
rising
The curve
lift.
of
where
maximum
it
rounds
lift,
the
of
with a
maximum.
wing
angles of attack, a
off to
lift
coeffi-
When
if
an airplane
is
maximum
Hft,
the airplane tips, the descending wing will have a greater angle
of attack
than the
slope of the
mean
lift
less lift.
rising;
curve
is
lift,
lift
and the
297
SPINS
the wing which
going
is
down
will
go
down more.
This rotation
is
termed a
flat
spin;
normal
spin.
is
high as 70.
is
relative wind,
balances
which
is
ing the
is
horizontal and
vertically
upward,
downward
it
Drag,
centrifugal force.
is
oppos-
effect of weight.
downward;
this
tend to
make
spin
the stick
is
balanced by
moments which
is
centrifugal inertia
Fig. 87.
Forces in a spin.
till
the airplane
is
in a stall;
by
the rudder
is
pulling back
then kicked,
To come
out of a
In order to do
spin,
it is first
this,
angle.
stick.
This
may
This action
tail surface.
While
STABILITY
298
will
be
When
the stick.
the airplane
mid-position should
The Department
of
Commerce
no
deep fuselage
stability.
use
wing
will
span
will
left
be greater and
wing
its original
heading.
its
will decrease.
case, the
change
in relative
CHAPTER XV
AUXILIARY LIFT DEVICES
Speed Range.
velocity
The
ratio of
maximum
is
With
velocity to
minimum
is
least 2.5.
The above is based on fixed wings. The landing speed is determined by the maximum lift coefficient and the wing loading.
If the maximum lift coefficient can be increased in any way, the
wing area can be decreased without changing the minimum speed.
Fixed Slot. G. Lachmann in Germany and F. Handley-Page in
England appear to have developed the slotted wing at about the
same time. The slot is a narrow opening near the leading edge
and parallel to the span. The small section in front of the slot
may be considered as a miniature airfoil. When the main wing
is
The
maximum
slope of the
lift
lift
coefficient is increased
of a slot.
With a fixed slot, at low angles of attack, there being less pressure
on the upper than at the lower end of the slot, air will travel upward through it. This will divert the main air stream and cause
burbHng so that the drag at low angles of attack is much greater
with the fixed slot than with the simple wing.
299
300
Automatic
Slot.
To
F.
auxiliary airfoil
minimum drag
credit for
The
by a linkage mechanism or a series of studs
rollers in the main wing, so that it will move
held
is
working in pairs of
from a closed position where the auxihary is butted against
the leading edge of the main wing to an open position where there
is a gap of an inch or more between the auxiliary airfoil and the
freely
main wing.
Fixed Slot at
Low Angle
of Attack
Fig. 88a.
By
examining Figs.
14, 15,
is
Wing
and
slots.
16, it will
is
utilized to
the drag
is
FLAPS
Flaps.
301
is
hinged so that
it
mean
on one side goes up, that on the other side goes down.
Flaps extend across the span, except for the small portion which is
aileron, and the flaps on both sides go down together.
Flaps are
aileron
camber
of the
lift.
/^ Wing
move
rearward.
with
slot ai id flap
/
o
/
.
10^
yi
/
V.
Wing
with
slot
Cl
f/
7
//
7/
//
w
1
//
//
0"
10
Angle of Attack
Fig. 88&.
Effect on
lift
coefficient of slots
and
flaps.
it is
connect the flaps with the stabilizer; otherwise the airplane will
be thrown out of balance longitudinally.
With
flaps,
the
maximum
lift
coefficient
can be increased 50
302
per cent.
At low angles
normal
and
flaps
maximum
may
lift
be installed
coefficient
Both slots
on the same wings, and by so doing,
may
to be very practical.
are increased.
Among
CHAPTER XVI
UNCONVENTIONAL TYPES OF AIRCRAFT
Autogiro.
In the autogiro,
lift is
In the early models, a small fixed wing gave part of the Uft; in
all the lift is obtained from the rotating
autogiro are
Vertical Pivot
Friction
shown in
Fig. 89.
and
Damper
(b)
Fig. 89.
Autogiro.
freely.
303
is dis-
304
The
The
airfoil
most
section
is
the
it is
lift.
tilt
AUTOGIRO
305
94 angle of attack.
most
airfoils,
zero
lift
airfoil
occurs at 93 or
At 90 angle
small
lift,
^:S^
Resultant
Resultant
Velocity
(b)
(a)
Forces
Resultant
in Vertical
Descent
^n
Lift-^
<"'
A /"^^
1
Relative
Wind
"
/
'
Component
causing
Rotation
(c)
Forces
Fig. 91.
in Flight
^\
t>
less.
The
relative
306
The speed of rotation will be constant at about 100 r.p.m. If, for
any reason, the resultant should act backwards from the vertical,
would immediately have a component tending to retard roThe decrease in rotational velocity would change the
direction of the relative wind to give a larger angle of attack,
which would cause the line of action of the resultant to move forward again.
it
tation.
When
main
the autogiro
is
moving forward
head
slightly backward.
Rotation of the rotor head is counter-clockwise viewed from above,
and this rotation is always in effect before take-off. Then a
blade on the right side has greater speed than a blade on the left.
is tilted
greater
lift
is
being
When
force produced
accelerate.
by the action
When
is tilted
of the relative
is
If
the resultant
much
wider tread
is
The shock-absorbers
GYROPLANE
Gyroplane.
307
airfoils
have a
fixed angle
changed
Fig. 92.
Gyroplane.
set 90 apart.
is
are
with the rotor disk altered as the blades proceed around the disk.
This movement
hub.
is
cam
at the rotor
lift
angle offering a
minimum
rotor.
308
resulting in
a stick
more
lift
movement
The
control stick
is
and on the
Conversely
left.
on the
left side
to
on the
fixed
stage,
it is
be as safe as other rotatingwing aircraft and holds possibilities of a greater speed range.
It should
aerodjoiamically sound.
Cyclogiro.
The cyclogiro, sometimes termed the '' paddle"
wheel
airplane, is of the rotating- wing type, having several
normal
By means
Fig. 93.
of
cams
Cyclogiro.
may
The
The
may
three symmetrical
be understood by
airfoils
A, B, and
on a
circular
its
center 0.
pilot.
In Fig. 94a,
it
From
posi-
be controlled by the
The
CYCLOGIRO
309
>J
j^-
^Peripheral/
velocity/
y<- Upward
'
wind
wind
Resultant'
Upward
wind
Peripheral
velocity
Resultant force
Fig. 94.
Operation of cyclogiro.
310
As long
At some speed
left side of
the cyclogiro;
Figure 94
on the right
To
0'
shifted
lift.
CHAPTER XVII
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
it has been shown
on the airplane strucSome of these forces, lift and weight, are dependent on the
ture.
size and design; other forces, inertia forces, are dependent on the
suddenness with which maneuvers are executed. In one kind of
maneuver a certain part of the airplane is stressed highly, and in
another kind of maneuver a different part of the airplane may have
In designing parts of an airplane, each part
its greatest stress.
withstand the greatest stress that that part
to
planned
must be
ordinary maneuver. The term *' applied
in
any
may receive
"
forces produced on a structure by the
actual
the
means
loads
maneuver.
The load factor is the acceleraduring
a
accelerations
of
terms
tion expressed in
g.
For safety, parts are made of greater ultimate strength than
The
just enough to stand the greatest loading they will undergo.
Load Factors.
by the
load.
The load
factors in
flight.
Many
calcu-
by accelerometer readings
The gust load factors are
30-ft.-
per-sec. velocity.
312
satisfactory
Wood.
Wood was
in small lots
justified.
construction, but
present time.
is
not
is
it is
factory.
Plywood, which
is
made
someIn one
plywood has been used for wing covering. Plyvery unsatisfactory in the tropics as the combination of
heat and moisture causes the glue to lose its strength.
Probably the main reason that wood has been largely superseded
is its lack of uniformity.
It must be aged or seasoned before
It
fabrication.
must be protected by varnish from absorbing
Because of its nonmoisture. There is usually a large waste.
uniformity and the ever-present dangers of defects not discernible
on the surface, a high safety factor must always be applied in the
or
two
wood
airplanes,
is
design of
Cloth.
first
wooden members.
The first airplanes had
The standard
lb.
sewed in place,
it is
per
in.
it
and the
was un-
minimum
tensile
makes
cloth
colloidal solution of
Doping the
fabric
riveting.
Chrome-molybdenum
is
steel,
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
This
steel,
313
95,000
lb.
When
properly heat-treated
in.,
easily.
Aluminum Alloys.
aluminum alloys are used for airthan the pure aluminum. The alloys are treated in
various ways to minimize the danger of corrosion. Originally the
term duralumin was applied to one specific composition alloy;
now it is common practice to use the term duralumin loosely to
cover all strong aluminum alloys. The most popular alloy has
4 per cent copper, | per cent manganese, and J per cent magnesium; it is used for tubing and sheets. Changes in the composiincreases its strength, so that
craft rather
tion are
made
Duralumin has a
denum
chrome-molyb-
Then a
is
around 100,000
lb.
per sq.
in.
weight and 58.0 per cent of the strength of a piece of steel of the
same cross-section. If the duralumin piece had a larger crosssection so the weight were the
same as that
314
anode of
The duralumin
is
the
An
Stainless Steel.
alloy of steel
containing
nickel,
difficult to fabricate.
Ordinarily 200,000
and a
18 per cent
httle less
lb.
per sq.
in. is
a fair
The maximum resistance to corrosion is obtained after heattreatment. The heat of the ordinary welding process causes
stainless steel to lose some of its properties.
A special method of
spot- welding, called
does not
harm the
'^
steel.
In 1932, an amphibian airplane was built in this country enIn Russia, stainless steel is used a great
was
to
still
The
entire
MILITARY PLANES
At higher
315
becomes of paramount
bulkheads.
Military Planes.
Train-
ing airplanes should have a fairly low landing speed, and this will
speed.
The
as high a speed as
The
pursuit plane
is
It
The equipment
may
machine guns,
a bomb rack for carrying small demolition bombs, radio, and oxygen tank. On some airplanes, fixed machine guns are installed in
the wings to be operated from the cockpit.
Figure 95 shows an Army observation airplane. It is a highwing braced monoplane, designed to give the observer extremely
good visibility of the ground.
Figure 96 shows an army attack airplane. It is a low- wing cantilever monoplane.
Special attention should be drawn to the cleanness of design, the absence of wire bracing, and the streamlining
consists of
two
fixed synchronized
Figure 98 shows an
Although
:i
316
Fig. 95.
Fig. 96.
Fig. 97.
MILITARY PLANES
317
Fig. 98.
,j?Sslr^-
Fig. 99.
Fig. 100.
318
is
photograph.
Figure 99 shows a twin-motored amphibian observation
air-
water.
Fig. 101.
is
NON-MILITARY AIRPLANES
319
and with
The
boat hull
is
is
1,330 sq.
ft.
hydrauHcally operated.
maximum
the
is
The
fuselage
is
all-metal
mono-
coque construction; the wings are multi-box all-metal construction. Flaps are of the split trailing-edge type and extend between
the ailerons. The wing span is 26 ft. the wing area is 209 sq. ft.
The weight empty is 2,550 lb., and the useful load, 1,650 lb.;
;
the
maximum
speed at sea-level
is
Wasp
It is
The
fuselage
is
all-metal
mono-
streamlining.
braced monoplane.
The
Cyclone engine.
fuselage
is
of welded
The wing
chrpme-molybdenum
all
of
web
chrome-molybdenum
is
Special attention should be drawn to the Zaptype flaps in the illustration in their " down " position. The
fabric-covered.
wing span
is
7,320
is
lb.;
84
ft.
lb.
the
ft.
maximum
speed
is
167
miles per hour, and the landing speed 52 miles per hour.
320
Fig. 102.
Fig. 103.
Fig. 104.
Seversky Amphibian.
NON-MILITARY AIRPLANES
321
Fig. 105.
the wing
is
lb.
32
;
ft.;
Airplane.
aluminum is used on
The wing span
The weight empty is 935
Monocoupe Sport
The
lb.
the
ft.
maximum
speed
is
CHAPTER
XVIII
INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are practically indispensable for
Although on short hops around an airport the
necessity for instruments is slight, on cross-country flights, safety
demands that every possible instrumental aid be given the pilot.
On the Wright brothers' first flights, their only guide was a long
streamer of cloth tied to one of the struts. It served as airspeed
indicator: at low speeds the rag hung limply down; at higher
Introduction.
safe
flying.
speeds
its
position
dicated slipping
It also in-
of turn
and
Many
Wright
flights,
strument
will
be
in-
vital.
at
all
times.
more
desirable to
than to have it
working at all, the pilot
will disregard it ; if it
Interpreted, this
means that
it is
may
its
apparently
indications and,
if
is
func-
they are
in-
result.
ENGINE INSTRUMJ^NTS
323
measured.
It is
amount
as accuracy or correctness.
An
may
instrument
be greatly in error.
Another important feature in instruments
instantly to
absence of
is
any change
lag.
in the
lies,
Much
an airplane engine
is
When
a hand throttle.
it is
set
engine will continue to turn over at that speed unless some part
of the engine or its auxiliaries is not functioning properly.
power
if
will increase
a bearing
expand.
is
and
is
For example,
hot and
slow up the revolutions per min-
The added
friction will
it
will get
INSTRUMENTS
324
and journal
till
''
freeze."
misses completely.
If
oil
or water
is
if
Most of the other troubles cannot be rectibut with the advance warning the pilot can often
land before his engine has quit entirely.
Tachometers. The tachometer indicates the revolutions per
minute of the engine. Although its most valuable function is to
warn of impending engine trouble, it is at all times useful in aiding
the pilot to set the engine at the most economical cruising speed,
On the line, it helps the mechanic in judging to what extent
etc.
an engine is " tuned-up." If an airplane engine can be throttled
down to 250 r.p.m. and it turns over without missing, it is in very
good condition; if it can be throttled down to 200 r.p.m. without
by
closing shutters.
missing,
it is
in excellent condition.
The chronometric
type has more working parts and therefore the production cost
should be greater than for the centrifugal type. With wear of the
loses in
is
Chronometric Tachometer.
(i.e.,
CHRONOMETRIC TACHOMETER
The
but
if
If
325
is
is
vary-
new
position.
up.
gear.
P5^^
Fig. 106.
This
worm
The
is split
independently along
longi-
three segments
may move
On
is
it.
is
INSTRUMENTS
326
The
collar
S moves
a scale.
Assuming segment A in mesh with counting gear G, at the beginning of the 1-sec. counting period, the rotation of G starts
moving segment
to the right.
movement
of
linear
G.
ment
The
slowly.
The
r.p.m.
on the
is
rotated
THERMOMETER
327
ally, since
attempt
is
is
parts wear,
inaccurate,
parently
inertia of the
produces
Weight
may
The
moving parts
functioning.
delay
Centrifugal tachometer
mechanism.
and
sure of the
failure,
oil
system.
Because
also to
loss of pressure
means engine
before take-off.
failure of
oil,
pump,
line;
or broken
line.
The gages are usually of the Bourdon type, the expansion member being a seamless drawn bronze tube of elliptic cross-section
One end
communicated to a pointer.
Thermometers. Thermometers are used to
ture of the cooling liquid, the lubricating
or heads.
oil,
mum
efficiency,
or freezing point,
thermometers: the
thermometers must be
distant-reading; that is, there must be an indication on the instrument board in front of the pilot of the temperature at some
The
aircraft
All
INSTRUMENTS
328
medium; the
oil
or the
electric
engines.
the liquid
is
connecting tubing, and the pressure chamber of the gage are filled
It is essential that the free surface
with the vapor from the liquid.
of the liquid be inside the bulb, since in a closed system containing
a liquid and its vapor the vapor pressure depends on the temperature of the liquid surface in contact with the vapor.
The
on the expansion
of the
liquid with heat, so the pressure changes will be lineal with tem-
type
will
be
much
greater at the
Owing
ALTIMETERS/
altitude are insignificant;
329
Both types
use a fine capillary tube connecting the bulb to the gage, and care
must be taken
in dismantling
an airplane that a
careless
it is
mechanic
a copper
wire.
The
electric-type
thermometer
connected to a millivoltmeter.
The " hot junction "
stantin.
effect is
achieved
if
is
customarily a thermocouple
One wire
may
is
be calculated correctly.
ft.
may
ft., it is primarily essential that all the photographs be taken at exactly the same altitude in order that each
part of the mosaic be the same scale. It is very desirable that
this altitude be known correctly to check ground distances.
In flying over mountain ranges in cloudy weather, flight should
at about 12,000
be made at
mountain
sufficient altitude to
tops.
The
INSTRUMENTS
330
correction
somewhat
medium
fog,
is used.
An aneroid is a thin metallic box
shaped like a poker chip. The flat sides are very thin and flexible.
Formerly these sides were corrugated to give flexibility, but
When pressure on
better results are obtained with flat sides.
the outside is removed, the aneroid expands. As the flat sides
move outward, this motion is magnified and transmitted to the
reason an aneroid
pointer.
The
in units of altitude.
is
marked
on
off,
on the altimeter.
till
ANEROID ALTIMETERS
331
hundred
Modern
The
is
given
at that altitude.
correct, the
tempera-
vary in
these conditions do not exist the altimeter will not read correctly
air
flying
INSTRUMENTS
332
there-
fore, there
tubing
where there
is
To make
large area.
if
will
is
of
then make
little lag.
Inertia
is
It should
altitude.
not standard,
correspond
with
i.e.,
if
the
if
is
subject to the
same
errors
standard
pressure-temperature-altitude
relation.
At
are used, the time interval being measured for a sound to travel
Boehm in Germany
to the bottom of the ocean and echo back.
and Jenkins in the United States have attempted to adapt this
scheme to aircraft but with only moderate success.
A capacity altimeter depends on the principle that the mutual
electrical capacity of two adjacent plates increases with the
approach of a third plate. Two plates are fastened to the botof the fuselage and their capacity increases as the plane nears
the earth, which acts as the third plate. This device acts admirably as a landing altimeter because the sensitivity increases
Owing to weight and cost,
greatly as the altitude becomes small.
tom
this
type
is
rarely used.
333
him
in his
weather predictions.
the Graf was to drop plaster eggs and time the interval
shattered on the water.
but if any wind is blowing, the airspeed and ground speed are
not the same. The airspeed indicator is a valuable aid to the
It warns him when the plane is near its stalling speed.
pilot.
By
variations of its indications, he knows if he is nosing-up or diving.
In taking-off, the airspeed indicator tells him when he has attained
He can know when he is at best climbing speed,
sufficient speed.
speed corresponding to L/Aotai maximum, etc. In dives he is
warned when the speed is becoming excessive for structural
strains.
dicator
makes use
of a Bitot tube,
The standard
which
is
airspeed in-
The
will
be
p.2
Pt
Ps
+ ^o-
is
mass density
V is
If
the airspeed, V,
is
P,
1.075 p72
INSTRUMENTS
334
and
If the Pitot
=
With
this
air at
Ps
standard density (p
0.00747 pV^
becomes
Pt=
Ps
0.00001776 72
Pt-
Ps
or
If
7=
0.00001776 72
237.3
Vp^^HP^
water, since
per sq.
in.,
or
=
7=
h
1 in. of
water
is
0.000491 V^
45.2
is
against a U-tube of
Vh
is
lb.
V is in miles
per hour
Pitot tube,
is
Pitot and static pressure, at the point where the Pitot and static
It is
Under
makes very
is
little
of the Pitot tube will not affect the readings of the airspeed in-
With the
dicator as long as there is even a pinhole opening.
opening totally sealed over by ice, the airspeed indicator fails to
function.
Some Pitot tubes have means for being electrically
heated to prevent ice formation.
It
by
could be
The reason
any deposit
mud
read incorrectly.
Altitude Correction for Airspeed Indicators.
The
Pitot-static
INSTRUMENTS
336
is travehng at the same airspeed at altitude as at the ground, will be subjected to less pressure
difference at altitude since the density (p) is less.
These airspeed
The mechanism
same
density.
rough rule
is
to
speed
is
by Vp/po,
ing speed
is
known
If
In other words,
if
at
some high
is
the
stall-
when the
on the point
put in a
airplane
stall
is stalled.
or no friction.
When
is little
The
netism.
is
represented
337
by magnetic
lines of force
of iron
and other
These
causes.
lines slope
downward, except at
or steel, tends to
In the United States, it is
customary in making compasses to suspend the needles from a
point considerably above the needles so that there will be little
lie
tendency for the needles to dip. They will be free to swing into
the vertical plane of the magnetic lines of force. At only a few
places on the earth are these lines running true north and south.
Compasses therefore do not indicate true north, but when they
are in the plane of the magnetic lines of force, they are said to be
The difference between true north
indicating magnetic north.
and magnetic north is the magnetic variation (or magnetic declinaVariation is said to be plus or westerly when the compass
tion).
indicates a north which is west of the true north; variation is
easterly or negative when the compass indicates a north which is
east of the true north.
Charts or tables
tell
is
The
variation
changes from year to year so that the most recent chart should
always be used.
The pull of magnetic force is in the direction of the magnetic
lines of force; it is only the horizontal component of this force
Near the
that has a directional effect on the compass needles.
earth's magnetic poles the direction of the force is nearly vertical
so that the
little
direction.
which
Direct electric
is
currents also
affect
of steel or
the compass.
The
considerable
compass
INSTRUMENTS
338
indicates a north which
westerly or plus;
is
when
is
is
called
Fig. 108.
Magnetic variation
for the
changed.
The
etc., is
By
true heading.
interpolating
if
339
is
deviation.
To find a magnetic
Example.
is
14
W.
is
286.
INSTRUMENTS
340
Problems
1.
Compass heading
What
2.
is
80.
head 195
It is desired to
What
10 E.
true.
What
3.
is
W.
true heading?
is
is
com-
pass heading?
5.
Compass heading
What
6.
is
355.
true heading?
is
Magnetic heading
is 5.
Deviation
is
What
20 E.
is
compass
heading?
there
spider
is
the
''
The compass
being mounted
backwards at
is
virtually looking
the compass, the point on the card corresponding with the southseeking end of the magnets
usually
From
marked with
is
marked
(North).
The card
is
5 graduations.
stellite
up from the
bottom of the bowl. A retaining device prevents the pivot from
jumping out of the cup (see Fig. 109).
All airplane compasses are of the liquid type.
The compass
magnets and card are inside a spherical metal bowl which has a
glass window on one side, and the entire bowl is full of mineral
The liquid serves two purposes; it buoys up the card so
spirits.
that there is less friction at the pivot, and it damps the swingings
resting in a jewel-cup
on the top
of a post extending
of the card.
by the
airplane's nose
341
Drawer
Compensating
Magnets
for
Sylphon-
Magnetic Needles
'Glass
Expansion
Chamber
Fig. 109.
Window
^Retaining Claws
and are termed periodic. The period is the time required to swing
from an extreme position on one side to an extreme position on the
other side and return. Whether the amount of swing is large or
V/ith excessive dampsmall, the period is practically the same.
periods
are
not of the same duration such compasses are
ing, the
termed aperiodic. An aperiodic compass, if disturbed, will require a longer time to return to north than the more common type
;
of compass, but the aperiodic card will not swing so far past north.
it
will
yet, aperiodic
342
INSTRUMENTS
a directa distant-
is
is
netism
is, the part affected by the earth's maga considerable distance from the part the pilot reads.
is
consists of three
and an
indicator.
from
steel,
usually in
it
can be easily
if
he
is
The induction compass depends on the principle that, if magby a moving wire, a difference in electric
If the wire moves
potential is created at the ends of the wire.
netic lines of force are cut
magnetic
parallel to the
lines of force,
no
galvanometer
that the
will indicate
coil is
number
ceive of a
maximum
Instead of a single
coil,
one
may
con-
wrapped around
the galvanometer.
are not in the east- west plane, they will be connecting with a coil
when
it is
east-west plane.
As long
as the airplane
by even a
slight
amount to one
If
side,
is
343
side.
from above.
is
given
this
till
heading
will cause
Propeller
.^
Fig. 110.
mounted
in slipstrearri
The
corrections
directions.
negligible,
made by
but
if
deviation
is
is
wifl
when
the
is
INSTRUMENTS
344
i
left.
One
and vice
the needle
versa.
is
compass
is
make
the pilot has only to fly so as to keep the needle of the gal-
in-
and because
of
Company
DIRECTIONAL GYRO
345
After being set, the
The card
may
The
is flicker-
The
openings.
is
One opening
in a case
is
>
Direction of Flight
Lr Vertical
Axis
Vertical
Rotor
Ring
Horizontal Ring
Card
Caging Surface
Horizontal Axis
Caging
Knob
\^
Caging Arm
Synchronizer Pinion
Synchronizer Gear
Fig. Ill
causing a partial
vacuum
Directional gyro.
(3 J in.) inside
the case.
The other
is
This hori-
is
111.
Ordinarily
INSTRUMENTS
346
the synchronizer pinion
To
is
is
arms are
The
raised.
shown
nozzles, not
They aid
jets.
shaft
is
up
in
if
the
tipped, the nozzle on the high side strikes the side of the
buckets, while the nozzle on the low side strikes the face of the
any
The turn
particular direction or
heading.
on zero
airplane
If
it
the pointer
not
is
about a vertical
pointer
is
is off
axis;
zero
is
Air
Nozzle
turning
it
the
if
shows
Rotor Wheel
Gimbal Ring
turning.
its
zero position.
The turn
Pointer
indicator
rostatic in principle.
is
gy-
The
an axis which
is
perpen-
Turn
indicator.
and
is
ordinarily horizontal.
The
shaft of
BANK INDICATORS
347
may
In the turn
tion
by a
centrallizing spring.
The
rim.
Air
is
to
make
end
A right
turn
move up
or
pilot's seat.
cause precession to
The gimbal
move
left
and in turning
plane
is
laterally level
plane
is
properly banked.
flight to indicate if
the air-
INSTRUMENTS
348
same
direction.
vertical
which
is
an apparent
spirit
with wings
level,
if
inner wing
is too low, the liquid goes to the inner or low end, the
bubble appears at the high end.
Because with a spirit level a bump will cause the fluid to surge
back and forth, and there being no way of damping this bubble
is
the ball-in-glass-tube
ground.
With the
end of the
tube that
in turning flight the wings are banked the correct angle, the
To correct the airplane,
ball remains in the center of the tube.
the pilot needs to remember only the simple rule, to move the stick
in the same direction that he would move the ball in bringing it to
is
If in straight flight
too low.
if
Usually the bank indicator and turn indicator are in the same
the combination instrument being called the bank-and-
case,
turn indicator.
Pitch Indicators.
clinometer to
tudinally.
tell
The
pitch indicator
With constant
is
a fore-and-aft in-
mean-
The
PITCH INDICATORS
349
however, after the nose has gone down, and the decreased airspeed comes after the nose has gone up. To ehminate this sUght
lag which tends to cause overcontrol, and also because in cold
weather there
is
ice, it is desirable
ment is started, owing to inertia the liquid surges backward and the
bubble moves forward in the direction the spirit level is being
When
moved.
constant motion
When
centered again.
the
is
movement
is
becomes
surges onward so that the bubble goes to the rear of the glass.
when
is
not moving or
the vehicle
is
is
accelerated
backward
effect of
deceleration.
a plumb-bob
is
momentarily at
would
be led to believe that he had nosed up. If the nose of the airplane
drops 10 after the airplane has attained a constant speed con-
opening and this angle of dive, the plumbbob on the side of the cockpit will indicate the 10 downward
As the nose goes down, however, the speed increases, and
angle.
this increase of speed may be at such a rate that the plumb-bob
may actually be thrown backward, indicating to the pilot a cHmb.
sistent with his throttle
If
till
mounted on the
side of
an airplane
a simple
it will
is
may cause
remain forward of
constant.
will give
its
spirit level
wrong indications
a longitudinal inclinometer.
is a gyro-controlled pendulum, as shown in Fig. 113. A short-period pendulum is connected by a link to the gimbal ring of a gyrostat. The gyro wheel
INSTRUMENTS
350
rotates about
an
but
it
may rotate
about a vertical
axis.
A dashpot,
not shown in
the figure, prevents the mechanism from oscillating back and forth.
<
Direction of Flight
of
rAxis
Gimbal
Ring
Plvolt
Fig. 113.
Pitch indicator.
is
with the pendulum to move forward away from the pilot. This
tends to move the pendulum backward towards the pilot and show
an " up " indication on the dial. During the time that nosingis taking place, the speed of the airplane is being slowed down.
This deceleration tends to throw the pendulum forward. The
precessional force is greater than the decelerating force so that the
When the airplane has
pointer is moved in the proper direction.
up
assumed a steady upward angle, there are no decelerating or precessional forces and the pendulum determines the setting of the
pointer.
GYRO-HORIZON
351
The speed
indicator.
Gyro-Horizon.
information,
Right
it is
Although the
it is
the desired
Bank
Left
Bank
Direction of Flight
Rotor Housing
Horizon Bar
Gimbal Ring
Pendulum Assembly
Airport
(c)
Fig. 114.
Gyro-horizon.
and
of pitch
The gyro-horizon
of bank.
is
INSTRUMENTS
352
The
what
is
ordinarily
bottom
After doing
by
four ports
At the bottom
two are on the fore-and-aft axis of the airAt each opening is a vane, hung
when the
rotor housing
is
exactly vertical,
one vane completely closes its port as shown in the lower left-hand
diagram in figure, while the opposite vane completely opens its
port as shown in the lower right-hand diagram. Air streaming
out in a jet from an opening when none is issuing from the opposite
side causes a reaction tending to swing the bottom of the gyro
housing in the opposite direction from the side from which the jet
This force combined with the inertia force of the gyro
is issuing.
rotation causes precession in a direction at right angles to the air
RATE-OF-CLIMB INDICATORS
353
pilot
is
is
moving
Rate-of-Climb
artificial
Although
Indicators.
pitch
and
indicators
horizontal,
hori-
altimeter will
not
tell
him
tell
a pilot whether he
is
going up or
which he
is
sensitive
down but
will
gaining or losing
altitude.
Capillary
Tubev
Fixed
Pivot
-Pointer
^Pin
C*^^'"-
3J
Fig. 115.
Rate-of-climb indicator.
INSTRUMENTS
354
a
long,
aneroid
When
at
is
the altitude
is
sponding to the new altitude, but some time must elapse before
can escape or enter by the capillary tube for the air
sufficient air
ing to the
new
altitude.
In cHmbing, the
air inside
the aneroid
is
This motion
is
is
and
it will
Drift Indicators.
all altitudes.
Whenever there
is
a cross-wind, an aircraft
does not travel over the ground in the same direction as the airThe actual path of the aircraft over the ground
is headed.
craft
is
the track
To
The
is
simply the
drift.
astern there
is
no
rear appear to be
it
If
drift.
is
moving over
The
basic principle of
all drift
indicators
is
essentially
The wire
is
rotatable in a hori-
If
wire.
the airplane
is
355
GYROPILOT
The observer must mentally average out
straight path
and
move
For over-water
flights,
flares
On
by
the hori-
zontal tail surface are painted lines radiating from a sighting point
The
central line runs along the center line of the fuselage; the
other lines are 5 apart. After dropping over the bomb or flare,
The
till
gyropilot
radio,
and engine
human
pilot
may
The human
control.
attend to navigation,
pilot
maneuvers.
The
directional gyro
be so operated as to bring
predetermined path.
There are three sets of pick-up devices, one on the directional
gyro and two on the gyro-horizon. The device is essentially as
Leading from the air-relay to the air-tight box containing
follows.
its
the gyroscope are two tubes whose ends are normally open, as
shown in
Fig. 116a.
airplane
disturbed
is
position
be
left
The
one tube
of
will
will
open.
is a small box divided into halves by a thin diaeach side is a small air inlet and a tube connecting
with the gyroscope box. The air inlet openings are smaller than
air-relay
phragm.
On
When
the gyroscope
is
When
the airplane
tilts
diaphragm and
it
stays in
is
its
is
equal suc-
mid-position.
suction through
is
moved
is
a piston-rod
INSTRUMENTS
356
which has on its other end a balanced oil valve. This slide valve
on an oil circulating system. When the valve is in its midposition, the oil-pump forces oil into the valve and it returns
through pipes a and b to the oil sump.
is
Servo-piston-^
Servo-piston-
{a)
(6)
Fig. 116.
Mechanism
of
a gyropilot.
When the valve is to one side as in Fig. 1166, the oil from
pump passes through the valve to pipe c leading to one side of
servo-piston.
From
oil
valve,
and pipe
b to the
the
passes
sump.
and three servo-
The movement
of the servo-piston
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.A.C.A. Reports 125-128.
U. S. Army, T.R. 1440-50.
Sperry Gyroscope
oil
the
Co.,
The Sperryscope.
is
transmitted to the
CHAPTER XIX
METEOROLOGY
Introduction.
The
ancients
believed
that
the
presence of
and more by
aviators.
Meteorology
When
way, his
drift.
what
altitude
With
increasing knowledge of the technique of weather foreand the growth of flying demanding a more exact and
thorough prediction, in recent years there has been improvement
Today,
in the precision and minuteness of weather prediction.
in addition to ground observations made twice daily at some 250
stations in the United States, upper-air measurements of temperature, pressure, and humidity are made daily by the Weather
Bureau at seven stations, by the Naval Air Service at seven, and
casting
357
and
in addition to the
Weather
METEOROLOGY
358
Bureau system of intercommunication, the Department of Commerce maintains a teletype system at the principal airports.
The upper-air measurements are made by means of a meteorograph carried aloft by an airplane or by small unmanned free
balloons called sounding balloons. The meteorograph is a small
combination instrument containing a clockwork-operated smoked
drum on which are recorded temperature, pressure, and humidity.
The temperature-indicating unit is a bimetalHc strip of dissimilar
metals which bends on heating. The pressure-indicating unit
The humidity indicator consists of a number
is a tiny aneroid.
of animal hairs stretched over an elastic framework.
Temperature. The heat radiating from the sun passes first
through our atmosphere before reaching the earth. Dry air
absorbs practically no heat from the sun, but moist air does
absorb it. As half of the air is below 22,000 ft. and the air above
that altitude has scarcely any moisture content, practically
all
the
The
earth's surface.
These
rising currents of
of
be due to convection.
When
a mass of air at a given temperature is compressed adiais, without the addition or subtraction of heat, the
temperature of the air increases. Conversely, when a mass of
air is allowed to expand without heat being added or heat being
allowed to escape, the temperature drops. The heat conductivity of atmospheric air being very low, if a mass of dry air moves
from one level to a higher level, since the pressure is less at the
higher altitude, the air will expand very nearly adiabatically and
consequently drop in temperature. This drop will be approximately 1 F. for every 185-ft. increase in altitude. On the other
hand, air moving downward 185 ft. should increase 1 in temperabatically, that
PRESSURE
359
altitude difference.
Both
is less
presumed to be constant.
At night, the ground cools quickly so that the air adjacent to the
ground drops in temperature. When this occurs, the air gets
warmer as one ascends a short distance. This is termed reverse
temperature gradient. At a comparatively low altitude, this
reversal stops and the temperature decreases as further ascent is
made.
On weather maps, lines, usually dotted ones, are drawn connecting geographic points that have the same ground temperature.
These lines are called isotherms.
Humidity. Warm air can hold more water vapor in suspension
than cold air can. The amount of saturation of air with water
vapor is called the humidity. Absolute humidity is the actual
amount of water vapor present in a cubic inch or cubic centimeter
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of moisture
of air.
present in the air to the
amount required
ration.
When warm
lute
humidity
air
may
is chilled,
the abso-
If
the relative humidity increases to more than 100 per cent, precipitation will take place.
column
of air extending
METEOROLOGY
360
millibars
750
mm.
of
Warm
air
make
Considering the earth as a whole, as the equatorial regions receive nearly three times the
amount
of heat received
by the polar
it
Where
where
there are big spaces between the isobars, the winds are very mild.
WEATHER MAPS
361
This
east wind.
is
movement
is
on a large or
small scale.
is
a low-pressure
that there
is
moving
in
Low,
in
High,
Fig. 117.
shown
radially
right, so
Wind
Northern Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
instead of
moving
radially
slow
movement
METEOROLOGY
362
Although a study
it is
''
low."
differences
semi-permanent.
air
Clear weather
Cold
move eastward
at
air
will
be seen that,
if
a line
drawn
through the
center of the low in a
northeast to southwest di-
is
Warm
Fig. 117c.
air
rection as
Weather
dotted
in a low.
shown by the
line,
winds on the
When
the
area marked
warm
air
warm
approximately in the
being of lighter density
air,
air
and flows over the cold air. The mass of cold air meeting
warmer air at B, Fig. 117c, forces its way under the warm air.
The leading surface of a mass of air in motion is called a front '^;
rises
the
''
^ a
sharp planes of discontinuity between warm and cold air. Wherever a mass of air at one temperature meets a mass at a different
that at
is
warm
air.
a cold front.
temperature, there
cold
front, that at
is
warm
warm and
front de-
HIGHS
363
as the air
moves northward,
may
be quite ex-
tensive.
In the southwest section of the low, the cold front is much more
The change in temperature is quite sudden, and
sharply defined.
the precipitation
cold front
is
is
much more
intense.
bumpy
'^
to the
pilot.
On
the northwest side of a low, the air is cold. Cold air holds
moisture in suspension. Any increase in temperature permits the air to absorb more water vapor, so that in this sector are
clearing weather and blue skies.
little
By watching the way in which smoke drifts away from chimneys or flags flutter, a pilot may often be able to ascertain the
wind direction on the ground during the day. Knowing the direction from which the wind blows enables the pilot to estimate the
direction of the center of the low, and he can head his airplane so
as to avoid the extremely
remember
is
known
bad weather.
as Buys-Ballot's
law.
It
is,
briefly,
to
In highs, the isobars have the same oval shape as in lows, but
The pressure gradient being less,
the winds are less in strength than those found in a low. A high
the isobars are farther apart.
usually covers
lows.
METEOROLOGY
364
Continuing
west winds.
The
Above
up to a height
of 20,000
ft.
Roughly,
ground.
Clouds. The suspension of water vapor in the air is determined
mainly by the temperature. When the temperature is high, a large
amount of water vapor may exist; when the temperature is low
only a small amount of water vapor can be held in suspension.
Consequently,
if
moisture comes
a mass of
warm
air carrying
in contact with or
a high percentage of
moves completely
into a cooler
(a)
warm
Warm
is
chilled
if
when
the mountains
CLOUDS
(c)
Air
(d) Air
is
forced to rise
may
part with
365
its
much
moisture.
when a warm
Air
is
forced to rise
like big
summer
rivers,
creeks,
etc.,
during
still
or autumn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HuMPHEEY, Physics
of the Air.
CHAPTER XX
AVIGATION
Introduction.
Avigation
is
than other
can travel the shortest
When aircraft follow railroads, highways, or
possible path.
winding rivers, the only gain is due to the superior speed of the
reasons for this speed are:
means
of travel;
aircraft.
most
By
first,
and second,
aircraft
etc.,
to follow the
river, or
sphere.
The earth
366
pole.
Their direction
367
is
Circles
formed by
any place on the earth may be deand longitude. The latitude of a place is the
length of the arc of the meridian through the place, between the
equator and the place. It is measured in degrees and minutes,
and is designated north or south according as the place is north
The geographic
noted by
its
position of
latitude
The longitude
between the plane of the meridian through the place and the plane
of the meridian through Greenwich, England.
The angle is
measured in degrees and minutes, and longitude is designated
west or east according as the place is west or east of Greenwich.
A circle formed by any plane passing through the center of the
earth is called a great circle. The shortest path between two
places on the earth is along the great circle passing through the
two points.
A map or chart represents in miniature, upon a flat surface and
according to a definite system of projection, a portion of the earth.
Although the two names are used indiscriminately, a chart pictures a portion of the earth the greater part of which is water,
whereas a map depicts a portion of the earth's surface which is
mostly land.
No spherical surface can be depicted correctly on a flat surface.
There can be no accurate maps.
There are four uses for maps: (a) to find distances, (b) to find
directions, (c) to recognize natural features, and (d) to compare
areas.
two
and approximately
it
cor-
cannot be
The
three most
common
maps made by
For
AVIGATION
368'
may
be considered
flat;
becomes important.
Post Office maps, and the airway strip maps issued by the Department of Commerce and Army Air Corps. This projection can
usually be identified
of the three
common
This scale of
miles is correct in the central portion of the map but is likely to be
slightly inaccurate near the sides of a map of such size as to cover
it.
an
best suited to
maps which
maps
It is
maps
satis-
For
is
it
considerable distortion
The
map
is
the
If
may
When
be
due east-west
lines.
by
On
On
the
the
circles,
map
and the
GREAT-CIRCLE CHARTS
369
its limit of
rhumb
is
line.
On the
is
construction
This scale
To measure
not constant.
two
places, is used as
degree of latitude
being 6,080
ft.
is
and fractions
measuring
unit.
This
of a degree of latitude.
long.
The
it is
shortest path
is
a great
mercator chart.
Hydrographic
namely, of the North
Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian
Oceans. These charts have the property that a straight line
between two points on the chart represents the great circle through
these points on the earth, and shows all the localities through which
The meridians are straight lines,
this most direct route passes.
either parallel as shown in Fig. 118, or converging towards the
Great-Circle Charts.
of seamen, the
pole.
The
line.
By reading the latitude and longitude of
each point, they may be transferred to a mercator chart. On
the mercator chart, a smooth curve is then drawn through these
On the great circle, direction is constantly changing.
points.
points on this
circle,
a series of
straight tracks are flown approximating the great circle, the head-
The
AVIGATION
370
that, in
making a record
from
(c)
Fig. 118.
A Great
Circle Projection
Common map
projections.
saved
is
is
GREAT-CIRCLE DISTANCE
371
on a
great-circle chart,
off directly
is
The
Great-Circle Distance.
circle between two points
formula
cos
D=
sin
La
sin
is
quite complicated
usually computed.
B may be found
by the following
Z) is distance
A
La
Lb is latitude of point B
is
it is
and
Lb
provided,
is
longitude difference
between points
latitude of point
and
Example. Find the great circle distance from Curtiss Field, Long
Island (40 45' N., 73 37' W.), to Le Bourget Field, Paris (48 50' N.,
2 20' E.).
Solution,
La =
Lb =
LOab =
40 45',N.
48 50'
73 37'
2 20'
of opposite
=
=
cos 40 45' cos 48 50' cos 75 57' =
=
cos D =
=
D =
sin 40 45' sin 48 50'
On a
75 57'
0.6528
0.4914
0.7528
0.7576
0.1211
0.6582
0.4914
0.1211
is
0.2428
0.6125
52 14'
is
60
is
Distance (D)
=
=
52
3,134
14
miles
Problems
1. Find the distance from Rome (41 54' N., 12 29' E.) to Natal,
Brazil (5 37' S., 35 13' W.).
(Del Prete's flight.)
Find the distance from San Francisco (37 47' N., 122 28' W.)
Honolulu (21 22' N., 157 48' W.). (Hegenberger's flight.)
2.
to
AVIGATION
372
Find the distance from Cranwell, England (53 05' N., 0 25' W.),
South Africa (22 43' S., 14 20' W.). (Flight of
Gayford and Nicholetts.)
4. Find the distance from Burbank, California (34 12' N., 118^
18' W.), to Floyd Bennett Field, N. Y. (40 40' N., 73 50' W.).
(Flight of Haizlip and others.)
5. Find the distance from Harbor Grace, Newfoundland (47 43' N.,
3.
to Walvis Bay,
(Flight of
The
Velocity Triangle.
the ground
is
air,
and that
of the air
The
and
direction.
The
is
Drift
is
To
Velocity triangle
ity
velocity, use is
made
two component
velocities being
drawn
to the
same
scale
and
in
of the
its
diagonal.
By
omitting two
is
The
is
illustrated
An
airplane
is
What
Draw
and
line
drift?
AB,
let
VELOCITY TRIANGLE
direction of
ABhe
From
northeast.
373
hour.
The
line
Angle
so that track
is
54.
Problems
1.
There
is
track,
and
2.
An
is
track,
and
An
There
is
What
drift?
There
3.
drift?
airplane
4.
is
track,
and
5.
An
hour.
There
What
drift?
airplane
There
is
is
What
are ground
The
into the
wind from
known, the
own motion
must be headed
wind in combination
aircraft
wind
is
374
AVIGATION
problem, the airspeed is known but not its direction; the track is
known but not the ground speed. Various devices have been
made for solving this problem mechanically. The graphic
solution is illustrated by the following example.
Example.
per hour.
There
is
Airspeed
is
What
Draw
150 miles
should be
the proper heading, and what will be the
ground speed?
line
AW,
AX
^^
^;o
Fig. 120.
Velocity
tri-
line
AX at
Then
point 5.
triangle
ABW
is
the velocity
tri-
angle.
heading.
Problems
It is desired to fly
Wind-Star,
Although, at
is
many
may
be entirely different
WIND-STAR
375
by use
of
with a
two
fair
degree of accuracy.
cross-hairs
on the
drift indicator
1216
By
on an east heading.
is
drawing
line
AB see
Fig.
AX
From
BA'
is drawn in a direction
westward); the length BA'
is 150 units.
Then A 'B represents the airspeed and heading after
heading has been changed. Through A' a line A'X' is drawn of
represented.
point B, a line
(i.e.,
AVIGATION
376
Fig. 121.
Wind-star.
headings and
A^W
When
drawing bears a
name
is
the
of the wind-star.
by measuring the
drift
ASTRONOMIC AVIGATION
on two headings,
it is
From
377
From
the non-arrow end of the wind- vector as center and with the air-
The
For example, the wind having been found on a north heading and an east heading as Fig. 121?), it is desired to find the
heading which will give a true northeast track. Through point
draw a line of indefinite length WX" in a southwest direction;
With B as center and 150 units as radius, intersee Fig. 121c?.
ing.
sect line
Then
direction of A''
B is the proper
192 miles
per hour.
it is
is
obtained.
knowledge of
altitude.
Problems
1.
is
On
a 15
left drift.
speed and (6) direction; (c) what heading should be flown to obtain a
due north track; (d) what will be ground speed?
2. On a 15 heading there is a 10 left drift; on a 75 heading there
Airspeed is 160 miles per hour,
(a) What is wind
is a 20 left drift.
speed and (b) direction? (c) What heading should be flown to obtain
a northeast track? (d) What will be ground speed?
3. On a 60 heading there is a 5 right drift; on a 120 heading
Airspeed is 140 mile per hour,
there is a 10 left drift.
(a) What
(c) What should heading be to fly
is wind speed and (b) direction?
(d) What will be ground speed?
east,
On marine
is
AVIGATION
378
an
For
and
this reason,
also to enable
Computation
of the position
Astronomic avigation
is
flights,
such as
Radio Avigation.
Radio
is
an important adjunct to
flying.
ment
of parts
Radio
is
series of dots
own
station.
With
RADIO BEACON
379
the bearings from two or more ground stations, either the pilot or
one of the ground operators can draw corresponding Unes on a map
and the
If the
Radio Beacon.
The Department
of
is
the utiHza-
Commerce has
PureV
Pure
Fig. 122.
Radio beacon.
many
equipment
is
required
The
by the
is
Fig. 122.
No
not necessary.
special skill is
pilot.
is
shown diagrammatically
is
in
designed to send
it is
relatively
AVIGATION
380
means
plane
AB.
which
is
The
is
on the
airplane,
When two
letters
or long dash
(
If the reception of one
).
than the other, the powerful signal
be heard while the weaker signal will be either faint or in-
pilot will
be a
audible.
signals
when the
radio beacon
is
frequently used.
zone, a visual-type
The
is
The
the amplitude of
which are
RADIO LANDINGS
painted white;
white vertical
longer
is
the
when
ampHtude
of vibration, the
lines.
line.
The
are the
same
381
length.
greater the
same
When
intensity,
the airplane
lines
T zone, the circuit for one reed is receiving greater intensity so that
one white Hne is longer and the other is shorter. The visual beacon
tiring for the pilot, but since the receiving hook-up is slightly
more complicated there is more danger of failure.
The radio beacon guides a pilot in a proper direction. With a
cross-wind, the pilot will probably zigzag a bit till he finds experimentally a heading which does not direct him from the B zone
Although there
across the T zone into the V zone, or vice versa.
is a zone of silence directly over the beacon, a pilot flying in fog
cannot rely on silence meaning he has reached his destination;
The beacon
his receiving set might have developed trouble.
gives no indication of the distance to the transmitting station.
In mountainous districts, the radio waves suffer peculiar distortions and echoes which affect the accuracy of the beacon.
The beacon requites a special transmitting installation.
Radio Compass. By constructing the receiving antenna in the
form of a coil or loop, and by suitably designing the tuned circuits
in rotating this loop about a vertical axis till a signal fades
is less
A radio
AVIGATION
382
cated outside the landing area but not more than 1,000 ft. outside
field.
Transmitter B is located farther from
over
headed
for
A, continuing
If
an
without
changing his heading, should bring the airplane directly over the
landing area. The transmission from A and B are on different
airplane
flies
his flight,
frequencies.
The
transmitters at
is sufficient if
The antenna
and
up
It
at a distance of 25 miles.
is,
the
At each
station,
and
J5, is
also a
marker beacon.
This beacon
wave length
pass over
all
obstacles
RADIO LANDINGS
As soon
383
as the wheels touch the ground, the pilot cuts the throttle,
rest.
A either by the
" zone of silence " or from the signal from the marker beacon
The
pilot
knows when he
is
located at A.
pilot
The
altitudes
men-
CHAPTER XXI
AEROSTATICS
Aerodynamics treats
Introduction.
statics deals
with
air at rest.
to employ the term balloon only for craft which has no motive
power and the term dirigible balloon or simply dirigible for a
The term airship is
balloon supphed with motive power.
synonymous with dirigible; an airplane should not be called an
is
airship.
balloon.
is
of the sus-
by
springs, is
384
INTRODUCTION
valve-rope which hangs
down
385
coming through
and
non-rigid.
Valve
Valve
Netting
Envelope
Appendix
Concentration
Ring
Basket
Basket
Band Suspension
<a
-Valve
Mooring Bands
Vertical
Stabilizing
Lobe
Fig. 123.
first
The
rigid
number
who was
type has a
its
of individual cells.
shape,
The
semi-rigid type has a metal keel the entire length of the ship, taking
AEROSTATICS
386
care of the transverse loads, the gas being in a single large envelope.
The
non-rigid
is
Since, in non-rigid
the gas.
is
relied
Gases.
Hydrogen has
been used for more than a century and is best from the point of
lift but has the disadvantage that, if it mixes with air, it is highly
inflammable and explosive. Helium though furnishing less lift
than hydrogen is perfectly inert so that in its use there is not the
fire hazard always present with hydrogen.
Previous to 1915, helium cost approximately $2,000 per cubic
During the war the cost to the United States government
foot.
was reduced to $400 per 1,000 cu. ft. At present, owing to improvements in the method of extraction from natural gas, the cost
The cost of hydrogen is about $5
is about $10 per 1,000 cu. ft.
being chiefly responsible for the lifting power.
per l,000;'cu.
ft.
Laws
is
as follows
Air
0.07651
lb.
Hydrogen
Helium
0.00532
lb.
0.01056
lb.
0.0323
of Aerostatics.
0^ ^
\(S^
lb.
any standard
textbook on physics. Briefly these laws are as follows.
Archimedes' law: the buoyant or upward force exerted upon a
body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid dis-
aerostatic work.
placed.
Charles' law
volume
of a gas varies
\o^
LIFT
387
would exert by
Joule's law:
Pascal's law:
itself if
out the
is
the same at
all
points through-
fluid.
body
rises.
If
is
is less
than the
somewhat
similar
hull.
no pressure
little
or
difference.
Lift is obtained
directly
from Archimedes'
principle.
Unit
L = V{Ba - A)
The
net
lift
or useful load
From
by the
following equation:
L =
gross Hft in
V=
volume
Da
Dg
is
=
=
pounds
lift
standard pressure.
If
Pq
is
the
AEROSTATICS
388
The
foregoing
is
true only
the gas
if
is
in a perfectly elastic
container.
Example. A cloth bag contains 1,000 cubic feet of air, the temperature being 59 F. and the pressure 29.92 in.
What is the volume if the
pressure
is
increased to 40.0
in.
0F.?
Solution.
i
,
-r 1
29.92
^^^460
519X40:0
1'^00
663 cu.
ft.
flated.
Any
a decrease in the
If
means that
the appendix
is
closed,
though the appendix is usually tied shut while the balloon is being
handled on the ground, the tie-off is broken as soon as the balloon
leaves the ground.
Di^To
Do
Ti
Pi
Po
envelope
same.
air,
conditions becomes
lift
/^o
^go)
= V(B
n
y yi^a,
gross
volume
Dflo
D,o
T P\
/
T P
L = V[Dao^^ i
L =
V=
^^
^0/
D,,
J^i
rp^
389
in pounds
of bag in cubic feet
weight of a cubic foot of
air under standard conditions
weight of a cubic foot of
lift
Pi
Tq
^
=
=
Ti
p^
p^
Standard pressure
actual pressure
What
is
the
lift?
Solution.
Lift
Dgo)~X^
= V{Dao=
=
10,000 (0.07651
703
0.00532)
^X
2II2
lb.
Problems
1. A 30,000-cu.-ft. free balloon is full of pure hydrogen; air and
What
gas are at a temperature of 80 F. and a pressure of 26.3 in.
is
the
2.
lift?
are at a temperature of 75 F.
is full
of
pure helium;
and a pressure
of 27.5 in.
air
and gas
What
is
the
lift?
3.
the
4.
10
is full
F.
of pure hydrogen;
and a pressure
air
and
What
of 21.3 in.
lift?
at a temperature of
10
F.
and a pressure
of 21.3 in.
air
What
is
the
lift?
5. A 30,000-cu.-ft. free balloon is full of pure hydrogen; air and gas
are at a temperature of 20 F. and a pressure of 23.7 in.
What is the
lift?
lift
When
greater than
its
a free balloon,
weight,
full of
it rises,
gas
and be-
AEROSTATICS
390
As the
appendix.
creases;
rate,
which
gross
is
lift
which
is
decreases.
by the
The
unit
lift
just equals
lift
the weight.
the bag
is
There
escape
is
A free balloon
lift
basket or hung on the netting to ensure that the balloon will not
When ready to start, the balloon is weighed-of.
This process
is
lift.
In this condition, a
man
stand-
move
the
up
The
rise.
As it rises, gas will escape, so
the accelerating force will
At
the
start,
that the Hft will decrease.
be equal to the difference between the weight and the lift; i.e.,
the force in pounds will equal the pounds of sand put over. In
ascending, since the difference between the weight of the balloon
and the lift will be less owing to the decreasing lift, the upward
accelerating force diminishes.
At the height where the Hft has
decreased till it equals the weight, there will be no unbalanced
lessened.
balloon will
391
To ascend
more
further,
is
reached.
A bag,
which is only partially inflated at the ground is weighedoff in the same manner as a fully inflated bag.
When a little
ballast is dropped, however, the balloon will immediately rise to
its
upward
to that altitude.
to escape,
weight
On
till
lift,
equilibrium
and
lift
reached.
is
when
its
Using Table
I,
interpolating
if
may
is
no special merit in
rises.
bag
for
par-
amount
upward
Ar-
velocity.
have considerable
If
momentum
lift
will decrease.
above
fill
its
the bag,
than
AEROSTATICS
392
first
is
to decelerate the
time his
and is about to
thrown over so that the weight remaining equals the
is
ing
then-exist-
lift.
of pure
What is lift at
At
is
5,000-ft. altitude
What
At ground
L =
=
At
8,000 (0.07651
570
5,000-ft. altitude:
0.00532)
lb.
To determine
if
bag
is full
_8 000??^'x^
-8,U0U
24.8,^519
=
L =
=
At
9,391 cu.
ft.
(volume at
9,391 (0.07651
570
5,000-ft. alt.)
0.00532)
lb.
10,000-ft. altitude:
To determine
475
if
altitude;
To
i.e.,
10,000 (0.07651
549
bag
is full
29.92
o r.r.^
= 8,000X5^9X20= 10,951 cu. ft. = volume
L =
-
^ X ^q^
951 cu.
0.00532)
has escaped.
519
21 1
^ X ^g^
lb.
Pi
Po
From Table
_
~
=
I
8,000
10,000
0.8
by interpolation Pi/Po
is
393
Problems
and temperatures
1.
cu.
ft.
What
(a)
at altitude.)
is
altitude?
2.
What
(a)
ground with
under standard atmospheric conditions.
at the ground?
(6) What is the lift at 5,000-ft.
15,000 cu.
ft.
is
altitude?
the
(c)
The
of pure helium
lift
What
is
the
lift
at 10,000-ft. altitude?
total
cu.
of
ft.
Any
pressure increases.
rium,
if
gas
is
balloon starts
is
gone.
When
the balloon
is
in equilib-
valved, the
lift
lift.
The effect of the increase in
atmospheric pressure while descending will be to decrease the
volume of the gas in the bag. The same weight of gas as at the
beginning of the descent will displace less and less volume of air,
but the density of the gas and air will increase as the volume
decreases.
The
lift
will
all
the
which
is,
an upward
downward
velocity.
The upward
less
force.
than
excess of
lift,
lift
will decrease
the
downward
AEROSTATICS
394
If it is desired to
amount of gas to
must drop ballast as he nears the desired altitude.
At the instant that his downward progress is checked completely
and before he starts to rise again, he must valve just enough gas
in equilibrium, the pilot, after valving a shght
start descent,
to gain equihbrium.
good
must be
sacrificed in
maneuvering.
In landing, the pilot comes down towards the ground, and at the
proper height, which he has learned by experience, the pilot tosses
ing
of gas.
it
Example.
bag
10,000-cu.-ft.
full
is
of
hydrogen at 12,000-ft.
and is in equilibrium,
What
*cu. ft. of
is
gas
7,000-ft. altitude,
is
what
valved,
what
is
lift
(6) If
at this altitude?
at 7,000-ft. altitude?
lift
the loss of
is
What
(e)
ballast
(d)
(c)
100
At
What
must be dropped at
Solviion.
(a)
Li2,ooo
10,000 (0.07651
494
L =
(6)
(c)
77,000
(d)
L7,ooo
0.00532)
^^ X |^
lb.
100 (0.07651
5 1b.
9,900
8,468 cu.
8468 (0.07651
489
19 03
23^0^
0.00532)
^^ X ^
494
0.00532)
ft.
23 09
519
^^ X ^
lb.
Ballast to be dropped
(e)
Ly.ooo
= 5
Problems
1.
cu.
ft.
30,000-cu.-ft. balloon
of pure
is
SUPERHEAT
ground,
(a)
altitude,
(d)
(e)
What
altitude?
15,000-ft.
what
is
is
the
lift
If
(c)
is
(b)
What
is
in equilibrium at
at the ground?
balloon
395
ft.
the
lift
at
15,000-ft.
altitude?
2.
20,000-cu.-ft. balloon
Superheat.
The
heat waves but also of the shorter light and electric waves.
is
It
to a smaller extent
the atmosphere.
may
This effect
through surfaces.
air.
Kite balloons are moored to the ground for observational purIn perfectly still air, the same conditions apply as in a
poses.
free balloon.
loon takes
up
If
any breeze
is
any superheat
heat, so that
any superheat.
the additional
lift is
quickly
lost.
AEROSTATICS
396
to expand.
ness of the bag; for a fully inflated bag, superheat will force out
gas; in either case,
lift is
increased.
If
a balloon or airship
phere.
If
the balloon
is
lift
due to the difference in weight density of the air and gas at the
same temperature. Should the balloon stay on the ground with
the sun shining brightly, the gas will receive superheat and will
expand. The additional lift involves adding ballast to prevent the
balloon or airship from rising. The weight of ballast that must
be added exactly represents the additional lift due to superheat.
When rising, the balloon moves upward through the air, and this
is
The
superheat
is
known.
it slightly.
if
the
number
of degrees of
If
the balloon
is
flated, the
will
in the envelope;
more
lift
will
be increased.
It will
the increase in
is
illustrated
Example. An 8,000-cu-ft. balloon is fully inflated with pure hydrogen under standard conditions. What is the additional lift due to
superheat of 40?
'
SUPERHEAT
397
Solution.
Lift without superheat
Weight
of displaced
=
=
=
superheat =
=
Gain =
=
of superheated gas
Lift with
8,000 (0.07651
569.5
0.00532)
lb.
air= 8,000
Weight
=
=
0.07651
612.1 lb.
8,000
0.00532
519
39.5 lb.
612.1
572.6
lb.
572.6
39.5
569.5
3.1 lb.
Check.
Volume
of superheated gas
Volume
of escaping gas
Weight
of escaping gas
559
8,000
=
=
=
8,616 cu.
=
=
616
kTq
8,616
616 cu.
ft.
8,000
ft.
0.00532
519
3.1 lb.
Solution,
Lift without superheat
Volume
of superheated gas
Weight
Weight
of displaced air
of superheated gas
=
=
8,000 (0.07651
8,000
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
8,616 cu.
0.00532)
569.5 lb.
8,616
559
cTq
ft.
0.07651
659.2 lb.
8,000
0.00532
42.6 lb.
659.2
42.6
616.6 lb.
Gain=47.11b.
Problems
1.
is
Both
air
'
AEROSTATICS
398
2.
On
is
the
lift?
3.
(6)
in.
4.
(6)
What
5.
(a)
is
What
the
lift?
of pure hydrogen.
ft.
What
Atmospheric pressure
(a)
in.
is lift if
is filled
What
is lift?
(6)
all its
Any
in.
29.9 in.
is
What
the
is
is 40 F.
the sun goes behind clouds and
lift if
superheat?
Example.
10,000-cu.-ft. balloon
is
inflated with
What
is
hydrogen
the
of
95
lift?
Solution.
Gas
is
=
=
0.95
676.3
10,000
(0.07651
0.00532)
lb.
Check.
Weightof 9,500
Weight
Weight
Weight
cu. ft. of
pure hydrogen
of 500 cu.
ft.
of
dry
air
impure gas
=
=
=
=
=
=
9,500
50.5
500
0.00532
lb.
0.07651
38.3 lb.
88.8
lb.
10,000
NON-RIGID AIRSHIP
399
cloth
bag
is
is relied
upon
to
fill
envelope.
dished
in,
Partial inflation
will
be cupped or
During inflation the ballonet is filled with air while the main
bag is being filled with gas. On rising, the expansion of the gas
causes the flexible wall of the ballonet chamber to collapse, expelling
air.
When
all
main envelope.
down from
blower
If
is
used to
pump
On
descend-
To
its
pressure height,
main envelope
will still
be flabby.
For
full
this reason
The
lift.
AEROSTATICS
400
When
reduced by the
move
is
The gas contracts, air is forced into the ballonet, lift is reduced, and
therefore ballast must be discarded.
The ballonet capacity is small compared with the gas capacity
an
airship.
Because
air is heavier
was obtained
additional
lift is
Example.
so small that
ordinarily this
neglected.
it is
A non-rigid
off?
Solution.
Original
lift
40,000
160,000 cu.
11,7001b.
ft.
^x|^
540
of displaced air
of displaced air
=
=
=
169,410
9,410
738
169,410 cu.
9,410 cu.
lb.
ft.
160,000
ft.
0.07651
gain in
^X
519
30 2
29^
lift
Check.
Kin
Original
lift
= 160,000
= 11,700
(0.07651 -0.00532)
lb.
^Jq
3Q 2
X 29^
RIGID AIRSHIPS
Weight
401
= 169,410 X0.07651
= 13,314
Weight
519 30 2
X^
X29^
lb.
= 160,000 X 0.00532
519 30
X^
X 29^
= 874 lb.
= 13,314 - 874
= 12,440 lb.
Gain in lift = 12,440 - 11,700
= 740 lb.
Problems
1.
at standard conditions.
2.
What
is
is filled
its
50,000-
with hydrogen
hydrogen
superheat
is
35 F.
(a)
What
all
is
capacity
is
filled
with
the total
superheat
lift?
is
(6)
How much
ballast
lost?
Rigid Airships.
consists of a series of
envelope.
402
AEROSTATICS
the gas
The
streamline shape
is
The dimensions
preserved
of three
famous
Los
Angeles
ft.)
Graf
Zeppelin
^^^^^
2,470,000
3,700,000
6,500,000
658
776
100
785
132
91
Slenderness ratio
7.2
Maximum velocity
cover.
7.7
258,000
153,000
182,000
60,000
(miles per hour)..
80
73
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chandler and Diehl, Balloon and Airship
Warner, Aerostatics.
Blakemore and Pagon, Pressure Airships.
Burgess, Airship Design.
U. S. Army Air Corps, TR 1170-295.
6.0
403,000
Gases.
84
APPENDIX A
NOMENCLATURE
(From N.A.C.A.-T.R.
474.)
aircraft
direction.
in
aircraft
for
flight.
propeller,
of
mean
constant.
aerodynamics
line
of air
and
other gaseous fluids and of the forces acting on solids in motion relative
to such fluids.
aerostatics
of bodies
An
ahead of
the hinge axis, the lower surface being in line with the lower surface of
the wing. When the trailing edge of the aileron is raised, the nose portion protrudes below the lower surface of the wing, increasing the drag.
airfoil
Any
surface, such as
an airplane wing,
it
moves.
The outline an
to the plane
section A cross-section
symmetry
an
reference plane.
or to a
heavier than
which
airplane A mechanically driven fixed-wing
against
the
wings.
supported by the djrnamic reaction
airplane having the horizontal
and
canard airplane A type
control surfaces in front
the main supporting
the
pusher airplane An airplane with the propeller or propellers
main supporting
airplane An airplane
which the devices used to obtain stabihty
the wing,
and control are incorporated
tractor airplane An airplane with the propeller or propellers forward
the main supporting
airship An aerostat provided with a propelling system and with means of
airfoil profile.
of
airfoil section.
of
airfoil
airfoil parallel
of
specified
aircraft,
of
is
air,
air
its
stabilizing
of
surfaces.
of
aft of
surfaces.
tailless
in
in
of
surfaces.
403
A dirigible balloon;
lighter
than the
APPENDIX A
404
non-rigid airship
An airship
whose form
is
airship
rigid
ture,
semi-rigid
rigid
is
of
is
and
ballonets.
The speed an
airspeed head An instrument which,
air
speed
of
to
etc.,
are maintained.
airworthiness
The quality
of
an
and safety
for
given
altitude
datum
of
an
aircraft
above a
plane,
The height an
above the earth.
The altitude corresponding to a given density in a
standard atmosphere.
The altitude corresponding to a given pressure in a
pressure
absolute altitude
of
aircraft
density altitude
altitude
(1)
standard atmosphere.
airship
amphibian
become
(2)
The
an
full.
An airplane designed to
rise
water.
angle:
aileron angle
position.
The
It is positive
when
its
is
neutral
below the
neutral position.
blade angle
position.
It is positive
when
is
below
405
APPENDIX A
and a
The angle between the
path during a
when
an
attack
angle The angle
a body and the
attack The acute angle between a reference
glide
flight
gliding angle
of
of
zero-lift
air.
airfoil
line in
angle of
reference hne
and
absolute angle of
airfoil
lift
lift.
and drag,
for infinite
Hft coefficient.
an
ratio.
airfoil for
of attack
the
same
area,
measurement
of (performance calculations)
and
fillets
being ignored.
The area
and the
being ignored,
fillets
fin
APPENDIX A
406
performance of
aircraft.
in use in the
United
and
A type
is
of rotor plane
symmetry
called the
is
second,
is
wing
axis;
and the
these axes,
to right, the
axis,
normal
The
axis.
tions.
A condition of steady flight in which the resultant force and moment on the airplane are zero.
The position of an airplane when its lateral axis is incHned to the
bank
A right bank is the position with the lateral axis inclined
horizontal.
downward to the right.
To incline an airplane laterally; i.e., to rotate it about its longibank
balance
biplane An airplane with two main supporting surfaces placed one above
the other.
a propeller blade contained between the surblade element A portion
tudinal axis.
of
faces of
blades.
propeller
blade made at any point by a
a
A
cross-section
blade section
of
blade face
surface of an
called
airfoil.
of
plane parallel to the axis of rotation of the propeller and tangent at the
centroid of the section to an arc drawn with the axis of rotation as its
center.
boundary layer
A layer
moving stream,
body placed in a
reduced as a result of the
in
is
camber
The
rise of
the curve of an
airfoil section,
ceiling
absolute ceiling
level at
which a given
APPENDIX A
407
service ceiling
rate (100
rate
ft.
may
is
of the
center of pressure of an
longed
if
there are
if
airfoil
necessary, which
more than
The point
is
one.
in the chord of
an
airfoil,
pro-
and the
line
The
center-of-pressure coefficient
center section
wing
or any wing having no central panel, the limits of the center section are
arbitrarily defined
by the
struts or fuselage.
chord
An arbitrary datum
airfoil are
measured.
surface at
two
It
line
of
an
is
and trailing
an imaginary
mean
line,
edges.
chord,
a cabin.
control
column
ing
its
is
and
upper end
an airplane.
its
The quality
of
an
decalage
of the
wings of a bi-
decalage
is
airfoil.
drag
of
total air
wind.
of
of
of
lift;
APPENDIX A
408
profile
total
drag.
effective
profile
induced drag of a wing with the same geometric aspect ratio but eUiptically loaded.
engine:
direction.
liquid coolant.
of
tail fin,
skid
fineness ratio
body, as an airship
line
fishtail
fin, etc.
The
hull.
airplane
is
swung -from
tail of
an
flap
path
The
flight
refer-
ence to a frame fixed relative to the air or with reference to the earth.
flow:
laminar flow
A particular type
of streamline flow.
The term
is
not turbulent.
is
usually
when the
APPENDIX A
409
the
fuselage
member itself.
The body, of approximately
relies
on the strength
due to bending
horn
of
aircraft, to
which
is
when operating
developed by a
at full throttle
cylinders.
charge to the
Interceptor
back of a wing
APPENDIX A
410
of
one
another.
of
or water
aircraft
anism for reducing the shock of landing. Also called " undercarriage."
A type of landing gear which may be withdrawn
into the body or wings of an airplane while it is in flight, in order to reduce the parasite drag.
leading edge
The foremost edge of an airfoil or propeller blade;
level-off
To make the flight path of an airplane horizontal after a climb,
retractable landing gear
glide, or dive.
dynamic
lift:
The component
The
the
of the total
ratio of
to the drag of
lift
any body.
load:
load
also
payjoad
of
viz.,
is
freight,
fuel,
oil
power loading
The gross weight of an airplane divided by the rated horsepower of the engine computed for air of standard density, unless otherwise
stated.
Span loading
The
an airplane to
monoplane span.
tinsymmetrical loading (stress analysis)
its
equivalent
wing loading
longeron
principal longitudinal
of the
framing of an airplane
number
of
points of
support.
in
line (of
aircraft
of flight
its
line
airfoil profile)
of
profile.
for
control, altitude
monoplane
surface,
sometimes
in
is
located at, or
is
located at, or
of
in
near, the
bottom
of the fuselage.
APPENDIX A
411
nacelle
of
in flight.
referring
nose-over
of
its
of
through an
of oil
oscillation:
its
blade angle,
zero-thrust pitch
tube.
in
pitch.'*
ratio
tube
The
difference
parallel or coaxial
Pitot tube
APPENDIX A
412
support derived
is
hydrostatic forces.
The plan
of
an
airfoil as
lines
at each section rotated about the airfoil axis into a plane parallel to the
plane of projection and with the airfoil axis rotated and developed and
and lower
line of the
contours of an
airfoil,
profile.
propeller
Any device
or air;
through a
fluid,
such as water
when mounted on a
adjustable propeller
them
at their
optimum
the pitch
may
propeller
tractor propeller A propeller mounted on the forward end
the engine
or propeller
The
propeller
the thrust power to the input power
a
joining the centroids
propeller rake The mean angle which the
the
a propeller blade makes
a plane perpendicular to the
sections
propeller root That part
the propeller blade near the hub.
force on the propeller which
propeller thrust The component
the
the direction
advance,
The net driving force developed by a propeller
propeller
shaft.
of
shaft.
ratio of
eflBciency
of
propeller.
line
of
of
-^ith
axis.
of
of
is
parallel to
total air
of
thrust, effective
exerted
by the
in the resistance
of the propeller,
without translation.
propeller tipping
tip.
propulsive efl5ciency
flight
of
ratio
of
effective thrust
and
the airplane.
The maneuver
A maneuver,
pull-out
pull-up
of transition
into a short chmb, usually from approximately level flight (c/. zoom).
A loading consudden pull-up (or sudden pull-out) (stress analysis)
APPENDIX A
413
\
elevator
of up-
dive).
(c/.
The
pressure
the aerostatic gas
the
the
the contained
can cover under
range, maximum The maximum distance a given
partial
ratio of
of
in
gases.
all
aircraft
by
given conditions,
maximum
range at
speed
altitude at all
and
An
maximum
descent of an aircraft.
A non-dimensional coefficient used as a measure of the
Reynolds number
dynamic scale of a flow. Its usual form is the fraction Vl/v in which
is
and
fluid,
Z is
V is the
righting or restoring
moment
any small
fluid,
scale effect).
aircraft
rotational displacement.
to reduce
roll
(c/.
ring cowling
its
maneuver
axis is
maintained.
aileron roll
arising
in
roll
roll
of
roll
roll
controls,
is
aircraft,
airfoil
aircraft.
is
of
coefficient,
effect
coefficient,
of
rise
in
of
of
is less
of
of
axis
is
axis.
inclined
When
skidding,
sinking speed
craft
aircraft relative
lateral
air,
it
it is
lateral
the opposite of
in
still
air
equilibrium,
slip
propeller.
Slip
may
effective pitch
function
The
APPENDIX A
414
span
of
less
loss,
speed:
of
aircraft
of
flying
lift.
air-
helical
maximum
hft
mean
{cf.
of
spiral).
flat spin
axis
is less
of
attitude.
is
of
is
uncontrolled spin
A spin in
or no use
little
in effecting a recovery,
A
approximately conical or paraboloidal shape, which
with the propeller hub and revolves with the
A maneuver in which an airplane descends a
small pitch
spinner
fairing of
is
fitted coaxially
spiral
propeller.
in
and
helix of
normal range
of
flight angles.
split
A maneuver consisting
of a half
snap
roll
followed
by a
pull-out
by a
Spoiler
loss of altitude.
to disturb the
drag.
smooth
air flow,
with consequent
loss of lift
and
of a
wing
increase of
APPENDIX A
stability
That property
of
415
it,
moments tending
when
its
equihbrium
is
normal axis of
dynamic stability
aircraft,
i.e.,
aircraft
is
disturbed, to
damp
its
it,
up by the
inherent stability
Stability
longi-
lateral stability
tudinal axis.
in
longitudinal stability
to restore
its
original condition.
lower.
The condition an
or airplane
which
operating at an
maximum
on a surface at
pressure The force per unit area exerted by a
to the
a
a
supposedly continuous, comstreamline The path
of
stall
in
airfoil
it is
lift.
fluid
static
rest relative
fluid.
of
monly taken
particle of
relative to a solid
fluid,
fluid is
moving;
it
tends
pheric pressure.
APPENDIX A
416
flight.
tail
skid
take-ofE
A skid
The act
its
chord.
trailing
turn
airfoil
mate magnitude
craft.
velocity, terminal
of angular velocity
air-
APPENDIX A
visibility
417
and identified.
To change the form
warp
tip.
toward the
tip.
weight:
empty weight
The
structure,
power
plant,
and
fixed
equipment of an
amount
of ballast that
must be
carried to assist in
mak-
wind tunnel
An apparatus producing an artificial wind or air stream, in
which objects are placed for investigating the air flow about them and
the aerodynamic forces exerted on them.
A general term applied to the airfoil, or one of the airfoils, designed to
wing
develop a major part of the lift of a heavier-than-air craft.
equivalent wing (stress analysis)
A wing of the same span as the actual
wing, but with the chord at each section reduced in proportion to the
ratio of the average beam load at that section to the average beam load
at the section taken as the standard.
wingheavy, right or left
The condition of an airplane whose right or left
wing tends to sink when the lateral control is released in any given attitude
of normal flight.
A maneuver in which the airplane is put into a climbing turn unwing-over
til nearly stalled, at which point the nose is allowed to fall while continuing the turn, then returned to normal flight from the ensuing dive or
APPENDIX A
418
glide in
evolution.
wing
rib
A chord-wise member
its
is
sharpest.
A cross-section
wing section
of
A skid placed near the wing to protect the wing from contact
the wing structure
an
wing spar A principal span-wise member
the
the wing when the
the shape
wing-tip rake A term
wing skid
tip
of
referring to
tip
edge
is
The amount
of
is
airplane,
tip of
of
symmetry.
wire (airplane)
antidrag wire
ward
of rake
is
It
is
resist
lift.
lift
wire
lift
force;
flying
of
symmetry;
wire (airship):
antiflutter wire
ment and
A wire
due to variations
wash.
A wire joining the vertices of a main transverse frame.
chord wire
yaw
An angular displacement about an axis parallel to the normal axis of
an
zoom To climb for a short time at an angle greater than the normal climbaircraft.
upward
APPENDIX B
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Chap.
(1)
ft.
(2)
ft.
Chap.
(1)
0.001225
(2)
0.000634
(2)
0.000992
4190
(3) 0.000810
(3)
Chap.
(1) o. 79.8 lb.
(2)
0.000376
page 16
II,
lb.
page 7
I,
0.000472
Chap.
(1)
page 6
I,
Chap.
(1)
page 3
I,
II,
(4)
1.8 hp.
page 17
(4) a. 125.5 lb.
1.2 1b.
6.
15.2 1b.
c.
81.4
1b.
h.
1.1 lb.
d.
81.4 lb.
c.
87 28'
6.
(6)
11801b.
840
lb.
Chap, n, page 21
(1) 11.9 lb.
Chap.
Ill,
(1) 4,480,000
(3) 3,400,000
(2) 5,900,000
page 27
(5) 26.6
atmos.
per hr.
4,570
lb.
(5) 8.4
(6)
606 sq.
ft.
per hr.
1.9''
(4) 4.6
(12)
(3)
419
33
lb.
per sq.
ft.
ft.
APPENDIX B
420
per hr.
per sq.
(3)
418
sq.
ft.
ft.
(2)
b.
per hr.
308
664
lb.
(3)
237 hp.
lb.
(4)
15.4 hp.
b.
21.7 hp.
(2)
116
8661b.
(6)
(4)
lb.
3,2501b.
per hr.
259
259
(1) a.
176
lb.,
70.5 hp.
b.
150
lb.,
60.3 hp.
c.
148
lb.,
59.6 hp.
(2) a.
299
400
548
lb.,
1b.,
100 hp.
133 hp.
(5) a.
lb.,
183 hp.
b.
lb.
(2) b.
c.
189
250
lb.
c.
d.
236
lb.
b.
c.
(3) a.
b.
b.
lb.,
73.0 hp.
lb.,
92 hp.
77 A hp.
-1.5
1.7
b.
87
lb.
(3) b.
83
c.
d.
107
lb.
lb.
244
(5)
(9) a.
lb.
(2)
350
sq. ft.
(3)
194
lb.
b.
(10) 118
ft.
lb.
lb.
per sec. or
18.8
(8)
11,900
909
a.
(5) a.
b.
4.5
b.
7.8
(6)
per sq.
a.
20.45
b.
lb.
ft.
ft.
per hr.
per hr.
(9) a.
6.
ft.
110.91b.
88.4 lb.
(2)
(3)
286 sq.ft.
(4) a.
14.5 hp.
b.
18.4 hp.
30.6 hp.
'
APPENDIX B
421
7,890
ft-lb.
(3)
13,400
ft-lb.
(4)
3,430
ft-lb.
2,220
(5)
lb.
-5,440
-.114
-.0326
(2) a.
6.
c.
(4)
-.008
b.
(5)
.4
c.
-.078
(6)
-.05
(3) a.
ft-lb.
Chap. V, page 86
(1)
1.4,
0.016
(2) 2.42,
(3)
125
0.0304
lb.
(7)
82
72
(8)
9.7 hp.
(6)
(9) a.
lb.
b.
88 lb.
119 lb.
c.
172
lb.
(10) a.
268
lb.
lb.
Chap. V, page 91
(1) a.
b.
(2) a.
b.
(3) a.
0.027
0.0295
(5) a. 8.7
b.
b.
b.
b.
-0.6
0.028
(8) a. 1.9
0.079
7.3
(6) a.
19.4
(7) a.
0.015
b.
23.7
0.036
-0.4
(4) o.
25.9
6.
0.040
(9) a. 7.3
0.036
b.
0.000142
Chap. V, page 93
(1)
141.6 lb.
(5)
(2)
166
(6)
(3)
48
(4)
145
lb.
lb.
lb.
(7)
549
258
276
lb.
lb.
(9)
295
lb.
lb.
(8) 671.3
IK
Chap. V, page 95
(1)
0.0452
(3) 0.0308
(2)
0.0372
(4)
(5) 0.0375
0.0324
Chap. V, page 99
(1)
0.0657
(3) 0.56
(2)
0.0974
(4) 0.492
(6) 0.408
4.47
(2) 4.6
(3) 3.9
(4) 3.7
(6) 2.93
6.
67
lb.
APPENDIX B
422
(3)
a.
0.154
(4) 0.25
b.
0.257
(6)
0.293
(5) 3.7
(3) 3.98
(7) 4.50
(4) 4.25
(8) 5.15
(9) 6.60
(6) 4.36
(10) 6.29
(10) 38.9
ft.
112
lb.
(6)
114
(3) 113
(4) 111
(5) 112
lb.
(7) 4.5
254
lb.
(1)
(2)
ft.
lb.
2.19
ft.
lb.
7.13
ft.
lb.
Ill
(8) 57.4 lb
(9)
(10)
1661b.
299
lb.
lb.
(2)
255
lb.
(3)
183
(5)
1561b.
(9)
1.22
lb.
(6) 1.46
1.85
1.29
(6)
(3) 0.87
(7)
1.55
(4) 0.90
(8)
1.37
(2)
(10) 1.85
76 per cent,
73 per cent.
(3) 24"
(4)
18"
(6)
2V
APPENDIX B
423
(3)
2V
(4)
(2)
23
22
(5) 26^
(3)
(2)
(4)
5042 miles.
231 mi.
(3)
3307 mi.
(4)
1341 mi.
(5)
(5)
1023 mi.
(5)
587
(6)
1280
ft.
(3)
(2)
1373
ft.
(4)
664
172
ft.
ft.
ft.
per hr.
per hr.
(6)
hr.
hr.
(4)
(3)
hr.
per hr.
per hr.
per hr.
per hr.
per hr.
104 sq.
ft.
per hr.
per hr.
per hr.
(3)
270 hp.
(2)
(4)
(4)
473
ft.
(5)
500
ft.
per min.
per min.
min.
10.0 min.
(2) 47.8
(3)
min.
15.0 min.
(4) 23.0
(5)
min.
10.8 min.
ft.
(3)
(2) 20,250
ft.
(1)
10,200
ft.
APPENDIX B
L24
2,000
lb.
b.
2,8301b.
c.
672
(2)
(5) a.
70.5 hp.
6.
b.
ft.
92 hp.
121 hp.
(3) 6.9
1.5
(2) 4.9
(4)
(5)
17.9
(5)
202
(5)
14.4
12.2
226
554
ft.,
8.6
(3)
ft.,
8.8
(4)
ft.,
6.5
12.7
(3)
11.1
(2)
15.3
(4)
17.7
b.
0.9
ft.
b.
0.5
ft.
c.
0.9
ft.
c.
0.3
ft.
0.4
ft.
c.
0.4
ft.
0.8
ft.
c.
0.6
ft.
b.
0.9
ft.
b.
0.4
ft.
c.
0.6
ft.
c.
0.3
ft.
0.9
ft.
(9)
0.4
ft.
a. 8.4 ft.
0.8
ft.
(10) a. 7.9
ft.
0.4
ft.
b.
b.
-10.25
(2) a. 0.50
9.75
b.
-9.50
(3) 1.25
(5)
-6.00
-9.50
(5)
-1.5
(3)
16,020
(9)
279
(4)
(3)
(2)
-10.0
(1)
7,000
-5.6
(4) 7.5
(2)
1,890
Chap.
ft-lb.
(5) 17
(1) 55
(2) 200
(6)
345
(3)
270
(7)
(4)
328
(8)
155
27
(10) 119
ft-lb.
APPENDIX B
425
(6)
1,885 mi.
85 mi. per
99 mi. per
(4)
(5)
hr., 245,
20
hr., 131,
11 right.
left.
(1) 15,
(4)
(2) 35,
(5) 214,
88 mi. per
hr.
h.
c.
60
14
c.
64
d.
d.
(1) a.
h.
34 mi. per
hr.
(2) a.
c.
d.
(3) a.
h.
(2)
588
lb.
(3)
1,169
(4)
1,083 lb.
1b.
(6)
1,8291b.
498
498
lb.
(2) a.
lb.
h.
c.
990 lb.
990 lb.
9901b.
(3) a.
6.
60 lb.
188 lb.
(4) a.
198
3,560
c.
251b.
1,350
c.
71b.
d.
25,600 cu.
e.
1,3431b.
1b.
h.
c.
d.
ft.
e.
186
344
965
954
1b.
1b.
lb.
1b.
730
734
lb.
(3) a.
lb.
6.
(4) a.
1,957 lb.
6.
h.
488 lb.
524 lb.
625 lb.
702 lb.
(5) a.
6.
742
688
lb.
lb.
ft.
13,463
lb.
lb.
6.
905
lb.
ft.
INDEX
Akron, 402
Altimeters, 329-333
Altitude, standard, 3
effect
Accelerations, 311
effect
261-262
in loops, 263-264
in turns, 258-260
Accuracy, 323
Adiabatic changes, 358
effect
in dives,
center
of
pressure,
70-72, 103
Aerology, 357-365
of flat plate, 17
Aerostatics, 384-402
of wings, 31
balanced, 270
differential,
271
for zero
269
Frise, 271
41
28
68
42
unstable, 67, 68
Airplane,
axes,
angle
of
attack
of,
265,
265
Airscrew, 148
Airship, 384, 399-402
Airspeed indicators,
333-335
true,
97
thick,
91,
272
standard, 1-3
stable,
lift,
geometric, 78
Air, constituents, 1
definition,
88
effective, 87,
floating,
performance,
171-174
on wing drag and power,
48-50
Altitude-pressure relation, 3, 331
Aluminum alloys, 313, 314
Amphibian, Seversky, 318, 319
Aneroid altimeter, 329-332
Angle of attack of airplane, 265
365
fog,
Aerodynamic
airplane
effect
Advection
on
230-241
dynamic, 235,
336
427
INDEX
428
Archimedes, principle
Area, equivalent
of,
386, 387
Biplane,
swept, 82
Aspect
87-96
30
on performance, 228, 229
effect on wing characteristics, 87
equivalent monoplane, 104, 105,
definition,
effect
112, 117
factor, 96-100, 284,
286
89
monoplane, 87, 94
of models, 75, 92, 121
lift
distribution in a, 108-
111, 279
126
C-80
airfoil, 41,
59
130
Cable, drag
Autogiro, 303-306
Camber, 29, 41
Canard type airplane, 266
Automatic
300
Autorotation, 296, 297
Avigation, 366-383
astronomic, 377, 378
radio, 378, 383
Avigation instruments, 329-356
Axes, airplane, 265
slots,
C-80, 41, 59
Balsa, 125
Bank
of,
2,
359
INDEX
Climb, time
Cloth, 312
to, 238,
429
Cyclogiro, 308-310
240
59
129, 130
of,
engineering, 60-64
17
flat plate,
power-speed, 160-163
profile drag, 81,
thrust, 158
torque, 158
372-377
Course, correction
great-circle,
of,
338
371
effect on,
372-377
Crab, angle
Cumulus
of,
373
clouds, 365
Curved
plates, 18-21
air, 2, 3,
386
relative, 3, 61
Dep
control,
moment,
wind
reckoning, 366
Department
Department
89
propeller, 158
drift,
Dead
Density, standard
33
tail
266
of Agriculture, 357
Commerce,
of
76,
98,
271
on
stability,
of,
278
295
399-402
Distribution of
Distribution of
lift
lift
in biplane, 112-
115, 279
219
372-374
tests of,
Drift,
INDEX
430
Drzewiecki, 152
Dynamic
Dynamic
formance, 230-250
on engine performance, 145, 146
on propeller performance, 171-174
Effect of ground, 38
Effect of span loading, 84, 86, 228, 229
Effect of weight, 221
Flight, ghding,
214-218
230-235
183-204
Efficacy, 52
193
Fog, 365
Force, centrifugal, 251
Efficiency of wings, 52
Modulus
of,
82
9
Electric thermometers, 329
Elevators, 266, 272, 273, 294
free,
Elasticity,
294
Engineering
coefficients,
60-64, 87,
120
Envelope, balloon, 384, 386
Equihbrium in dives, 261
Equilibrium in level
flight,
280-294
275
Equivalent flat plate, 125, 126
Equivalent monoplane aspect ratio,
84, 85, 112, 117
Equivalent monoplane span, 115
static,
of,
125, 135
INDEX
Geared
propellers, 174r-176
GUde,
256-258
spiral,
Gliding angle,
21^219
431
351
humidity, 358
ice-warning, 329
pitch,
348-351
Biplane, 107
Gyroplane, 307
Gyroscopic horizon, 351-353
89
Isotherms, 359
Instruments, 322-356
Interference, body, 176
Handley-Page
slots, 299
Headings, compass, 339
Hegenberger, A. F., 381
Hehum, 2, 386
Herman, F., 121
High angle of attack, 32
Interference
factor,
Prandtl's,
104,
Inverted
Inward
262
flight,
flow,
77
High-lift airfoils, 42
Horizontal
definition, 14
minimum,
K
Kinematic viscosity, 8
49
required in level flight at sea-level,
39, 183
Humidity, 359
Lachmann,
G.,
299
Lag, 323
Laminar
flow, 22,
23
Landing-gear, resistance
of, 125,
retractable, 136
Landing speed, 38
Lateral control, 267
Ice-Warning Indicator, 329
Impact Pressure,
12, 13
135
INDEX
432
LID
122
Leading edge, 29
Lenticular wire (see streamline wire),
130
279
387-398
Load
factor, 256-264,
311
in dives, 262
Minimum
Minimum
drag, 35
fuel consumption, 54, 196-
200
in turns, 256-261
Minimum
Minimum
186, 191
Minimum
Longitude, 367
Model
tests,
of,
75
Longitudinal inclinometer,
Moment
Loops, 263-264
Moment,
coefficient, 66-69,
Low
angle of attack, 32
272
280
tail, 282, 285, 286
thrust, 280, 281
wing, 70-73, 287-289
stalling, 265,
Magnesium, 313
Magnetic compass, 336-344
Magnetic variation, 337
Magneto compass, 344
Momentum,
Monocoupe
airplane, 321
Maneuverability, 275
Monoplane,
correction
Map
projections,
circle,
gnomonic or great-
369
289-293
diving, 280
11
148-152
Monocoque, 315
for
aspect
87-94
mean aerodynamic chord, 276-279
ratio,
mercator, 368
polyconic, 368
Munk, M., 81
Munk's span factor, 115
Maps, 366-371
Maps, weather, 361-363
Mutual Interference
of biplanes, 104
Materials, 311-314
Maximum
Maximum
ordinate, 29, 41
Mean aerodynamic
chord, 276-279
N
N.A.C.A., 2, 29, 110, 278, 331
N.A.C.A. airfoils, 44, 45
INDEX
N.A.C.A. engine cowling, 136
N.A.C.A. wind-tunnel, 26
Navigation, 366-383
Newton's laws, 11
Nimbus clouds, 365
flow,
77
flat,
125, 126
by
required
Outward
433
absolute
wings,
co-
39
efficients,
by airplane
required
at sea-level,
183-192
by
required
airplane at altitude,
230-232
Power-loading, effect on performance,
226, 227, 228
Power-speed
227
coefficient, 160,
163
Pressure, dynamic, 11
Pressure, center of, 66-69
distribution along chord, 32
flat plates,
13
89
Projections, map, 366-371
Propeller, adjustable, 162
Profile drag, 80, 81,
blade angle
167
construction, 180-181
controllable, 162
effect
on
tail,
273
controllable, 162
162
experimental mean, 160
geared, 174-176
momentum
geometric, 161
pitch,
variable, 162
power-speed
effective,
176-179
coefficient,
thrust
torque
of,
333-335
154^159
156-158
Purity, 398
160, 163-
192
262
INDEX
434
Similar flow, 25
SHp, 162
RAF-15
airfoil characteristics,
43
402
slenderness, 402
Recovery from dive, 262
Relative humidity, 359
Relative wind, 31, 78
Relative wind, true, 78, 80
moment,
273, 274
Span
218
landing, 38
191
38
terminal, 218
Speed range, 299
Speed versus angle of attack, 47
Spin, 272, 297, 298
Spiral glide, 256-258
Spoilers, 268, 269
stalling, 38, 183, 186,
take-off,
dynamic, 276
lateral 276, 294,
295
282-294
longitudinal, 276,
static,
275
Stabilizer, 266,
Rotation, 265
tail,
300
Slots, 299,
252
Slipping,
Slipstream, effect on
273
Stainless steel,
Stall, 268,
Stalling
314
272
moment, 265
Scale effect, 26
Star, wind,
Sensitivity,
323
374-377
Steam
engine, 141
186,
INDEX
steel,
312-314
4,
435
Pitot-Venturi, 335
Tubing, resistance of, 129
Turbulent flow, 23, 129
Turns, 251-259, 265
Turn indicator, 346, 347
Twist, 263, 274
Two-dimensional flow, 81
359
Streamline flow, 22
Variable
density wind
tunnel,
26>
103
Variable pitch propeller, 162
273
Suspension band, 384
Sweepback, effect on M.A.C., 277
Swept area, 82
Symmetrical airfoils, 35, 41, 68
vertical, 266,
Tabs, 273
Tachometer, centrifugal, 326, 327
chronometric, 324-326
Visibflity,
Tail
Viscosity of
air, 7, 8,
23
109
moment, 285
Take-off speed, 38
Warm front,
94,
96
361
Washin, 274
Washout, 274
Weather Bureau, 357
Weather maps, 361-363
Weight, effect on performance, 221223
Weight, specific, of air, 3, 386
specific, of gases, 386
Wheel control, 266
Wheels, resistance of, 135
Wind, aloft, 364
atmospheric, 360, 361
effect on fuel consumption, 199, 200
relative, 31, 78, 80
Wind star, 374-377
Troposphere, 4
Wind
Taper, standard, 46
Temperature, atmospheric,
359
Terminal speed, 218
Thermometer, 327, 328
Thrust, 53, 150, 154, 210
Time to climb, 238-240
2,
Torque, 156-158
Townend ring, 136
Track, 372-377
Tractor airplane, 139
Trailing edge, 29
358,
INDEX
436
Wing, definition
Wing
[loading,
of,
36,
28
37,
47,
48,
110,
223-225
Wing
moment
coefl5cient,
Wing
Wing
70-73,
Yaw, 265
289-294
structure, 52
tip vortices, 77, 78, 104
Wire, resistance
of, 129,
Wood, 312
Wooden
propeller, 180
Work, 14
130
Zap
flaps,
302
Zoom, 208
AUG
#fi^
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ENGINEERlMQ
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UBRARY