1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
Individual Intelligence Tests
Wechsler Intelligence Scale

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-------------------------------------------

2
3
6

Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) ---------------

Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) ---------------

WAIS- III
WISC- III
WPPSI

CHAPTER 2
Group Intelligence Tests

SRA Verbal

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14

Purdue Non- Language Test (PNLT) ---------------

21

CHAPTER 3
Personality Tests
Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF)

---------------

26

The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) ------

33

Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

37

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CHAPTER 1
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
Author: David Wechsler
Publisher: Pearson PLC
User Qualification: Level C
Use of the test: The WAIS-III
The WAIS-III is the 1997 revision of the test originally published in 1955 and first
revised in 1981. The WAIS-III contains the following scales:
Verbal Scales
1. Information: 28 items on a variety of information adults have presumably had
opportunities to acquire in our culture. No specialized or academic information
included; however, some of the items cover quite sophisticated information.
2. Comprehension: 18 items that require examinee to explain what should be
done in certain circumstances, the meaning of proverbs, why certain societal
practices are followed, and so forth. The test measures practical judgement,
common sense, and the ability to understand and adapt to social customs. Score
on each item varies (0-2 pts) according to the degree to which the response
describes the most pertinent aspects of the question.
3. Arithmetic: 20 arithmetic problems similar to those encountered in elementary
math courses. Problems are administered orally and must be solved without paper
and pencil. In addition to math knowledge, test measures concentration and
systematic problem-solving ability.
4. Similarities: 19 items requiring examinee to describe how two given things are
alike. Score on each item varies according to the degree to which the response
describes a general property primarily pertinent to both items in the pair.
Measures concrete, functional, and abstract concept formation.
5. Digit Span: Two parts, Digits forward and digits backwards. Examinee
required to repeat 3 - 9 digits forward and 2 - 9 digits backwards. Measures shortterm memory, attention, and concentration..
6. Vocabulary: 66 words of increasing difficulty are presented orally and visually.
Examinee required to define the words. Score (0-2) based on sophistication of
definition. Measures verbal knowledge and concept formation.

7. Letter-Number Sequencing (Optional Test): Examiner presents combinations

of letters and numbers, from 2 to nine letter-number combinations. Examinee
must repeat each series by, first, repeating the numbers in ascending order, then
the letters in alphabetical order (e.g., 9-L-2-A; correct response is 2-9-A-L).
Measures "working memory," the ability to simultaneously recall and organize
stimuli of different, similar types. This also is a standard test on the Wechsler
Memory Scale-III.
Performance Scales
8. Coding-Digit Symbol: Numbers 1 - 7 are paired with symbols on a key
presented to examinee. Examinee has 120 seconds to go through a grid of 90
numbers and place the correct symbol above each number. Measures visual-motor
speed and complexity, motor coordination. There are two additional, optional
extensions of the coding test that measure the examinees skills in learning the
coding process after completing the initial task.

The WISC-III
Originally, the WISC (1950) was a downward extension of the WechslerBelleview test to children. A revision, the WISC-R, was published in 1974. The
WISC-III was published in 1992. Most of the scales in the WISC-III are similar to
those in the WAIS-R. Like the WAIS-III, administration alternates a Verbal scale
and a Performance scale. Also, whereas Digit Span is always given in the WAISR, it is an optional test in the WISC-R (it may be substituted for any one of the
other Verbal scales, if the other scale cannot be administered due to an examinee's
handicap or because administration of a scale was disrupted). Also, a Mazes
subtest may be substituted for the Coding test on the Performance scale. Order of
administration of the tests is as follows:
1. Picture Completion;
2) Information;
3) Coding;
4) Similarities;
5) Picture Arrangement;
6) Arithmetic;
7) Block Design;
8) Vocabulary;

9) Object Assembly;
10) Comprehension;
11) Symbol Search (Optional);
12) Digit Span (Optional);
13) Mazes (Optional).
The WAIS-III (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) is intended for use with Adults. On
the other hand, the WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) is
intended for Children. But the Irony is, The WAIS-III can be used also in
Children. While the WISC-III can also be used for adults like the WAIS-III
Description of the test: Dr. David Wechsler, an American clinical psychologist from
Bellevue Hospital developed the Wechsler Intelligence scales in order to equalize
with the Binet Scale. His initial test is the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale,
was designed to measure intellectual performance of adults.
Test administration: The procedures for administering and scoring the three
Wechsler scales are similar. Each test has two batteries of subtests grouped into
two general areas: 1) Verbal scales; and 2) Performance scales. The Verbal scales
measure general knowledge, language, reasoning, and memory skills, while the
Performance scales measure spatial, sequencing, and problem-solving skills.
The tests are administered to individual examinees by trained examiners, using a
complex set of test materials. Testing requires approximately ninety minutes. Raw
scores on each test are converted to standard scores with a mean of 10 and a
standard deviation of 3. Scale scores in the Verbal battery are summed and
converted to a Verbal IQ score; the same is done for the Performance scale scores
which yield the Performance IQ score. In turn, the Verbal and Performance IQ
scores are summed and converted to obtain the Full Scale (overall) IQ score. The
Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores are normativeIQs, having a mean
of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Full Scale scores beyond 130 place an
individual in the superior or "gifted" range.

Validity and Reliability:

WAIS
Well firstly a large standardization sample was used of 1880 Americans. This
sample was 50% male and 50% female. The individuals who formed the
standardization sample were aged from 16 years 0 months to 74 years 11 months.
The standardization sample was highly representative of the US population in
terms of age, sex, race, geographic region, occupation, education and urban-rural
residence. The individuals in the standardization sample were tested between Nay
1975 and May 1980 at 115 testing centres across the U.S.
The scaled scores were based on a reference group of 500 subjects in the
standardization sample aged between 20 and 34. Although scaled scores for each
of the 11 subtests are obtained using a single table based on the reference group,
IQs are derived separately for each of the age groups (there are nine e.g. 16-17,
18-19, 20-24, 25-34.70-74).
The test can be used for people aged 16 and up. It has found to be appropriate for
use with those over 74.
So the WAIS has a good standardization sample and it is also considered to be
reliable and valid.
The reliability coefficients: (internal consistency) are .93 for the Performance IQ
averaged across all age groups and .97 for the Verbal IQ, with an r of .97 for the
full scale. Reliability for the 11 substests is not as strong.
Split half reliability: .95+ (very strong)
Evidence supports the validity of test as a measure of global intelligence. It does
seem to measure what it intends to measure. It is correlated highly with other IQ
tests (e.g. The Stanford-Binet), it correlates highly with empirical judgements of
intelligence; it is significantly correlated with a number of criteria of academic
and life success, including college grades, measures of work performance and
occupational level. There are also significant correlations with measures of
institutional progress among the mentally retarded.
WISC
The test went through many revisions which took into consideration the
suggestions of test users, the recommendations of experts, and information
received through test pilots. The manual was written to give very specific
instructions concerning the administration of the test in order to increase
reliability; however, it is not specific enough in the area of interpretation (Little,
1992). *WISC

WPPSI
Data from the WPPSI-III validity studies allow a better understanding of the
relative performance of clinical and non-clinical groups, while giving the
examiner a better way to describe a child's individual performance relative to his
or her appropriate reference group.

Additional clinical studies using groups include mental retardation (mild and
moderate severity), developmental delay, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder,
cognitively gifted, autistic, expressive language disorder, mixed receptive/
expressive language disorder, and at risk for developmental delay

Additional validity studies linked the WPPSI-III to the Adaptive Behavior

Assessment System (ABAS), the Wechsler Individual Achievement TestSecond Edition (WIAT-II), and the Differential Ability Scales (DAS) are
added to reflect the IDEA Part C legislation which recommends the use of
multiple diagnostic criteria for identification of children for special services

All revisions were driven by an advisory panel of experts, extensive literature

review, customer, and examiner feedback, and additional professional expert
reviewerss
Scoring: Scores between 120-129 are classed as "very high." Scores between 110119 are "bright normal." Classifications of other scores are as follows: 90-109,
average; 85-89, low average; 70-84,

CHAPTER 2

Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)

Author: Raymond Bernard Cattell
Publisher: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing (IPAT)
User Qualification: Level B
Uses of the test: Facilitates identification of learning or emotional problems.
Description of the test: CFIT is a non-verbal paper and pencil test designed as a
culturally unbiased test to measure ones fluid intelligence, which is intelligence
involving reasoning and mental activities that do not involve previous learning.
As a culture-fair test of mental ability, it is designed to not be influenced by verbal
ability, cultural climate or educational level.
Test Administration: Group or Individual
Test Administrator: Psychologist (with diploma)
Scale Construction: CFIT is available in 3 levels.

Scale 1, ages 4-8, and mentally retarded adults. It has 8 subtests and requires
individual administration.

Scale 2, ages 8-13 and average adults. 46 items to be answered in 12.5 mins.

Test 1: 12 items, 3 minutes

Test 2: 14 items, 4 minutes
Test 3: 12 items, 3 minutes
Test 4: 8 items, 2.5 minutes

Scale 3, 13-17 and superior adults. 50 items t be answered in 12.5 mins.

Test 1 (Series): 13 items, 3 minutes

Test 2 (Classification): 14 items, 4 minutes
Test 3 (Matrices): 13 items, 3 minutes
Test 4 (Conditions/Dot Positioning): 10 items, 2.5 minutes
Standardized Sample: High school students (3rd grader), college students, adults
with higher education level following the overall score part A and for general
score (part A and part B).

Discussion of Reliability and Validity:

The testing and retesting of the scales 2 and 3 in the alternative forms have
proven that the culture fair IQ test is consistently reliable. Dozens of the studies
prove that full culture fair IQ test is reliable up to .80s. The validity of the culture
test has also been established. Its scores correlate in mid .80 with the general
factor of intelligence and show consistently strong relationship with other
mainstream intelligence tests such as WAIS, WISC, Raven Progressive Matrices,
Stanford-Binet, Otis and General Aptitude Test Battery.
Reliability Entirely satisfactory internal consistency of the general score
(Cronbachs alpha .80) slightly lower, but satisfactory nevertheless of the part A
(Cronbachs alpha .77-.81 depending on the sample). High absolute stability in
adults while low stability in high school students. The scores are significantly
better after 3 weeks.
Validity Construct validity refers to the degree to which a certain scale
correlates with the concept or construct which it purports to measure. Concept
validity is thus measured by correlating the scale with the pure factor and this can
only be carried out by performing a factor analysis. The relatively high loading of
the Culture Fair Intelligence scale on the fluid intelligence factor indicates that the
Culture Fair scale does, in fact, have reasonably high direct concept validity with
respect to the concept of fluid intelligence. The Culture Fair intelligence measure
loaded higher on the "General Intelligence" factor than it did on the
"Achievement" factor, which is consistent with the concept of the CFIT's being a
measure of "fluid" rather than "crystallized" intelligence. Convergent validity is
the extent to which the Culture fair test correlates with other tests of intelligence,
achievement, and aptitude.
Scoring Procedure:

Machine
Hand scoring using template

Ravens Progressive Matrices

Author: Doctor John C. Raven

Publisher: John Carlyle Raven first published his Progressive Matrices in

the United Kingdom in 1938. His three sons established Scotland-based test
publisher J C Raven Ltd. in 1972. In 2004, Harcourt Assessment, Inc. a division
of Harcourt Education acquired J C Raven Ltd. Harcourt was later acquired by

Pearson PLC. U.S. Distributor: The Psychological Corporation.

User Qualification: Level B
Uses of the Test:
The tests were developed for research purposes. Because of their independence of
language and reading and writing skills, and the simplicity of their use and
interpretation, they quickly found widespread practical application. For example,
all entrants to the British armed forces from 1942 onwards took a twenty minute
version of the SPM. The routine administration of what became the Standard
Progressive Matrices to all entrants (conscripts) to many military services
throughout the world (including the Soviet Union) continued at least until the
present century. It was by bringing together these data that James R. Flynn was
able to place the intergenerational increase in scores beyond reasonable
doubt. Flynn's path-breaking publications on IQ gains around the world have led
to the phenomenon of the gains being known as the Flynn Effect. Among
Robert and other researchers who preceded Flynn in finding evidence of IQ score
gains was John Raven, reporting on studies with the RPM.

Description of the test:

Raven's Progressive Matrices enjoy a long and famous history in the assessment
of general cognitive abilities in children. The Progressive Matrices usefully
provide an assessment of non-verbal ability, an important feature for our
ethnically diverse population.

The Ravens Progressive Matrices are in wide use throughout the world and come
in a variety of formats to cover educational, clinical and occupational uses.

Ravens Progressive Matrices measure of eductive ability the ability to make

sense and meaning out of complex or confusing data; the ability to perceive new

10

patterns and relationships, and to forge (largely non-verbal) constructs which

make it easy to handle complexity.

It is made of 60 multiple choice questions, listed in order of difficulty. In each test

item, the subject is asked to identify the missing element that completes a pattern.
Many patterns are presented in the form of a 4x4, 3x3, or 2x2 matrix, giving the
test its name.

There are three formats of Ravens Progressive matrices and all of these three
formats measure Spearman's g.

The Ravens Progressive Matrices comes in 3 formats:

* Colour Progressive Matrices (CPM) (for use with children (5-11 years of age)
and elderly people) there are 36 items in 3 sets of 12. It lasts for only 15-30
minutes. It is used to assess the degree to which examinees can think clearly or in
the case of older or impaired individuals, the extent to which their intellectual
abilities have deteriorated.

* Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) (for used with children (6-16 years of
age) and general population) there are 60 items in 5 sets of 12. It lasts for only
40-45 minutes. It is used to assess nonverbal reasoning in general population. In
educational settings, it is used as a language-free measure of intelligence. In
organizational settings, it is used to determine potential for success in technical or
mid-level management positions.

Suggested Uses: Recommended uses include measurement of a persons ability to

form perceptual relations and reason by analogy in research settings.

* Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) (top 20% of the population

(individuals from 12 years old up) - The advanced form of the matrices contains
48 items, presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). It lasts for
only 40-60 minutes. Items are again presented in black ink on a white

11

background, and become increasingly difficult as progress is made through each

set. These items are appropriate for adults and adolescents of above-average
intelligence. It can be used for advance educational and professional placement.
Test Administration: Group/Individual (paper and pencil)
Test Administrator: Psychology Major/Psychometrician
Scale Construction: John Raven constructed his test on this theoretical basis.
There follows a brief description of its main characteristics:
It is a test of intellectual capacity, of general mental ability.
It is a factor test; it evaluates the component of the G factor, the eductive
capacity, i.e. to make sense out of confusion, to shape variables, to go beyond that
which is given or obvious.
It is a non-verbal test.
It is a multiple choice test.
It is a test of multiple choice lacunar matrices. The individuals task is to
complete series of drawings in which the last drawing is missing, selecting the

appropriate one from a range of possible choices.

It has different presentations: General Scale, Special Coloured Scale (Booklet
Form and Board Form), Advanced Scales Series I and II. The author also devised
a Vocabulary verbal test two versions of which are available: one American and
one British. Since its creation, the test has been widely used in its country of
origin as well as in other countries. The test has been revised several times, to
obtain in most cases norms or scales suitable to different populations. In the last
version, important considerations have been made concerning general capacity,
educative capacity, reproductive capacity, G factor, general intelligence,
problem-solving and competences, in order to determine the psychological scope
each of these terms has. This allows a more appropriate interpretation of test
results in the clinical, educational and labour settings. The variations made among
the norms corresponding to a certain percentile, which vary the demand
depending on the scale used, follow this same pattern.
Standardization Sample: Ages from 5 years of age to elderly.
Validity: Spearman considered the SPM to be the best measure of g. When
evaluated by factor analytic methods which were used to define g initially, the
SPM comes as close to measuring it as one might expect. The majority of studies

12

which have factor analyzed the SPM along with other cognitive measures in
Western cultures report loadings higher than .75 on a general factor. Concurrent
validity coefficients between the SPM and the Stanford-Binet and Weschler scales
range between .54 and .88, with the majority in the .70s and .80s.
Reliability: Internal consistency studies using either the split-half method
corrected for length or KR20 estimates result in values ranging from .60 to .98,
with a median of .90. Test-retest correlations range from a low of .46 for an
eleven-year interval to a high of .97 for a two-day interval. The median test-retest
value is approximately .82. Coefficients close to this median value have been
obtained with time intervals of a week to several weeks, with longer intervals
associated with smaller values. Raven provided test-retest coefficients for several
age groups: .88 (13 yrs. plus), .93 (under 30 yrs.), .88 (30-39 yrs.), .87 (40-49
yrs.), .83 (50 yrs. and over).
Scoring: The SPM consists of 60 items arranged in five sets (A, B, C, D, & E) of
12 items each. Each item contains a figure with a missing piece. Below the figure
are either six (sets A & B) or eight (sets C through E) alternative pieces to
complete the figure, only one of which is correct. Each set involves a different
principle or "theme" for obtaining the missing piece, and within a set the items are
roughly arranged in increasing order of difficulty. The raw score is typically
converted to a percentile rank by using the appropriate norms.
Norms: Norm groups included in the manual are: British children between the
ages of 6 and 16; Irish children between the ages of 6 and 12; military and civilian
subjects between the ages of 20 and 65. A supplement includes norms from
Canada, the United States, and Germany.

Interpretation of Scores: Percentile

1-3 poor
5-14 Below Average
15-85 Average
86-96 Above Average
97 above Superior

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SRA VERBAL TEST

Author: Louis L. Thurstone
I.

Theoretical Foundation
The SRA Verbal Test is a short test of general ability designed to measure the
adaptability of an individual or even groups of individuals. The test consists of
two parts which are vocabulary or linguistic and arithmetic reasoning or
quantitative. These two items measure the mental skills and the presented
interspersed format with a restrictive time limit. The test presents the situation in
which the individuals must adjust fast from one situation to another one. The
score level depends on the power which is the ability to handle test items and
speed and how to respond to adaptability. Low scores are attributed either to
inability to shift from mental set.

II.

Development of the Test

Louis L. Thurstone, an American psychologist, was a pioneer in mental
measurements. He was noted to applying mathematical procedures to
psychological research. But applying the statistical method known factor analysis
to the results of intelligence test, he concluded that mental ability is made up of at
least relatively independent factor. Verbal ability, Numbers, Perceptual, Memory,
Reasoning and Word fluency. He also developed aptitude test. Thurstone was the
proponent of SRA Verbal Test.
SRA Verbal Test is a means to measure an individual over all adaptability and
flexibility in comprehending and following instruction and adjusting to alternative
types of situations and problems. This is also designed for use in schools and
industry. Forms A and B can be used at all educational levels from junior high
school to college from 12 to 17 years old and above, and all employee levels from
the unskilled laborers to middle management. This test is use by only those who
are familiar or who have an understanding of the English language.

III.

Description of the Test

The SRA Verbal is a short test of general ability designed to measure
adaptability. The items are two types: L for linguistic and Q for quantitative or
arithmetic. This test is shorter and more appropriate for persons who have slightly
lower general ability.
The items are arranged by increasing difficult in the following sequence: 2
linguistic, 1 quantitative, 2 linguistic and 2 quantitative. The single quantitative
represents a computational reasoning problem requiring proximately twice the
item of the other item types. Item types A and B are matched in the 2: 1: 2: 2
sequence and patch in accordance with difficulty.

14

IV.

Test Administration
Even though the SRA Verbal test is largely self-administering, the
examiner should be familiar with testing methods and experienced in
administering groups test. He should also know all the details of the test and be
prepared to answer any questions that might be raised by the examiner.
The testing room should be free from directions such unnecessary
noise, interruptions, uncomfortable furniture and poor lighting.
The SRA Verbal may be administered to groups as large as can be
conveniently restored. It is recommended that there should be one proctor for
every 75 examiner.
In the distribution of materials, the examiner distributes the test
booklet and a hard pencil to each examinee. In addition, each examinee should be
given a sheet of scratch paper for use in arithmetic problems.
Each examinee should print his name, group, age and the date on
the cover of the test booklet. This information is located so that the test booklet
can be filed and found easily.
Another procedure that is being recommended in the practice
exercises. The cover page of the test will familiarize the examinee with the test.
He is told how to solve the test problems, he is shown the solution to sample test
problems; and he gets to solve some practice problems himself. The examiner
should go around and see to it that the examinee understand the problem and
know exactly what to do, while taking the test.
After the given time to practice, examiner gives the starting signal.
Examinees should be given 15 minutes to work on the test. Examiner should tell
to the examinees to put down their pencils and close their test booklets after 15
minutes.

V.

Scoring the test

The SRA Verbal is scored by counting the responses on the selfscoring grid. The grid does not only simplify scoring but also provide a permanent
record of the applicants performance of the test.
To score, open the test booklet by tearing edge on the right and
then discard and carbon. Starts at the arrow and follow the solid lines and dark
boxes for the 1-score and the dotted lines and light boxes for the q-raw scores.
Count only those squares that contain an X. An X outside the square is not
counted or square with a circle around is not counted. The sum of 1-raw score and
the q-raw score square is the total raw score.

VI.

Test Interpretation

15

Raw score on either form may be converted to a percentile rank

stanine rank for interpretation. A percentile rank is value on scoring scale at or
belong which a given percentage of case fall. For example, a percentile rank of
(83%) of the scores fall. The stanine rank is a standard score ranking from (1-9)
with a mean. Stanine can be ranked or added, whereas, percentile cannot.
To determine percentile rank, locate the raw score in the norm
group, the read across the corresponding percentile or stanine rank. Remember
that (L<Q) and the score must be transmuted separately.
VIII. Reliability and Validity

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17

18

19

Purdue Non-Language
Test (PNLT)
Authors
Joseph Tiffin, Allen Gruber, Kay Inaba
Publisher and Publishing Dates
Science Research Associates, 1957, 1958
User Qualification: Level A

20

Uses of the Test

The PNLT is designed to measure mental ability, specifically abstract
reasoning skills.
Description of the Test
PNLT is a non-language group test of mental ability intended for industrial use. It
is culture fair and consists entirely of geometric forms which show that it can be
effectively used for persons having different cultural of educational backgrounds.
It has 2 forms: Form A and Form B, which is both composed of 48 items. It can be
taken through individual or group administration with the time limit of 25
minutes.
Test Administration
Instructions for administering after the distribution of test papers:
1. Print your name on the test booklet.
2. Do not open the test booklet until told to do so.
3. On the front page, look at the sample from the drawings that had been crossed
out.
4. In sample B, one of the five drawings is different from the other four. Cross out
this different drawing with a big X.
5. Look at sample C. In this sample, cross out the drawing that is different from the
other 4 with an X.
6. In the test, you will find sets of 5 drawings opposite each number. In each set of 5
drawings, cross out the different one with an X.
7. You may not be able to identify the different drawing s given in all of the sets, but
do the best you can. It will not pay you to spend a great deal of time on any one
set. You can will have 25 minutes- which is enough if you dont spend too much
time on some of the sets.
8. Dont skip around. Take the sets in order.
9. If there are no questions, open the test booklet and start.
10. At the end of 25 minutes, say: Stop. Please pass in your test booklets.

Scale Construction

21

The original item pool consisted of 120 geometric forms. These items were
randomly divided into two forms (Form z-1 and z-2). One hundred and eightyfour (184) students from southern Indiana High School were the subjects of this
study, 37 of whom came from the special division for retarded students. 130 of the
students were available for two class periods and these 130 students took both
Forms z-1 and z-2 of the test.
The test was administered to groups of students during regular school hours. The
test papers which had multiple answers on five or more items and those that had
ten or more omissions were discarded. Eight papers were rejected by this
procedure. Of the remaining papers, 159 on Form z-1 and 147 on Form z-2 were
scored with unit weights being assigned for each correct answer. The z-1 papers
numbering to 159 were divided into high and low criterion groups using the total
score on Form z-1 as the criterion. 8.1 High and 78 Low criterion groups or a total
of 159 papers were used to determine statistics. This proportion was expressed in
percent and was used as an index of the level of difficulty of each item. The
Lawshes Nemograph for estimating the validity of each item was also used for
the 147 papers on the Form z-2 criterion group.
Based on item statistics obtained, the items were selected to construct the two
matched final forms--- Form A and Form B. The criteria used for the selection of
the final form were: (1) An item should have a D-value of .5 or higher, (2) The
level of difficulty of an item should be greater than what could be accounted for
by chance (i.e., 20%).
All items in each form were arranged in order of difficulty. Table 2 shows the
equivalence of the two final forms.

Equivalence of Forms A and B

Average D--- Value

Average Difficulty

(% Correct)
Form A
First 12 items

1.14

Form B
1.12

Form A
86.6%

Form B
89.0%

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First 24 items

1.13

1.13

81.9%

82.5%

First 36 items

1.10

1.10

73.3%

73.9%

All 48 items

1.09

1.09

63.7%

64.1%

Validity
Situational Validity Studies of the test are not yet available. But, the test correlates
(r=.65) with scores on the adaptability test for 184 industrial salaried employees,
and (r=.55) with the adaptability test for 99 laborers. The validity shows a
significant portion of the variance covered by a standard mental test.
Reliability
The reliabilities of the Purdue Non-Language Test is presented in the tables
below. They were estimated by (1) coefficient of equivalence between the two
forms, and (2) internal consistency coefficients using Horsts modification of KR20 and odd versus even items computed by the Spearman-Brown formula.

Estimates of Reliability for the Purdue Non-Language Test

1)

EQUIVALENT FORM

RELIABILITY
a.
b.
c.
d.

2)

Civil Service laborers

U.S. High School Students
U.S. High school Students
Venezuela High School Students

INTERVAL CONSISTENCY

99

r= .86

27

r= .84

50

r= .78

37

r= .83

FORM

RELIABILITY
a.
b.
c.
d.

Industrial Supervisory Personnel

Civil Service Clerical Personnel
U.S. High School Students
San Jose, Cuba (appls) rural

184

r= .91 (Horst)

40

r= .93 (odd-even)

50

r= .91 (odd-even)

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e.

Tawana, Cuba(appls) urban

74

r= .90 (odd-even)

144

r= .93 (odd-even)

Scoring
To score the PNLT, simply refer to the scoring key and check the items that
were correctly crossed out.
Interpreting
To interpret, the raw scores will be checked with corresponding percentiles:
43-47: High
38- 42: Above Average
35-37: Below Average
26-34: Low

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CHAPTER 3
Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF)
Author of Test: Raymond B. Cattell, PhD, A. Karen S. Cattell, Heather E.P.
Cattell, PhD
Publisher: Institute of Personality and Ability Testing, Inc.
User Qualification: Level B
Number of Items: 185
Format: Polychotomous (3-point item scale)
Uses of the Test

Psychologists and counselors can use the 16PF assessment to:

Provide vocational guidance to identify occupations for which the individual is
best suited.
Assist with personnel selection and career development through measurement of
five primary management dimensions frequently identified to forecast
management potential and style.
Assist with clinical diagnosis, prognosis and therapy planning, The 16PF
instrument helps provide clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety,
adjustment, and behavioral problems.
Help identify personality factors that may predict marital compatibility and
satisfaction. Results also highlight existing or potential problem areas.
Help identify students with potential academic, emotional, and social problems.
Description of the Test
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (or 16PF), is a multiplechoice personality questionnaire which was developed over several decades of
research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. Beginning
in the 1940s, Cattell used the new techniques of factor analysis (based on the
correlation coefficient) in an attempt to try to discover and measure the
fundamental source traits of human personality.

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The 16PF Fifth Edition Questionnaire contains 185 multiple-choice items.

The questionnaire is written with simple (fifth grade) and updated language, and
is meant for individuals above 16 years of age.
Personality items have a three-choice answer format, and the middle
response is a question mark. The items are nonthreatening and ask about personal
preferences, interests, behaviors, and opinions. Items were also reviewed for
gender, race or cultural bias, compliance with the Americans with Disability Act,
and cross-cultural translatability.
Scales
The test consists of sixteen primary factor scales including a cognitive
ability scale, five global factor scales, and two super factor scales. In addition, it
features three response style indices to measure validity. All scales were
determined through factor analysis.
The sixteen primary scales are basic elements of personality. Each primary
scale contains 1015 items. The sixteen primary scales are Warmth (A),
Reasoning (B), Emotional Stability (C), Dominance (E), Liveliness (F), RuleConsciousness (G), Social Boldness (H), Sensitivity (I), Vigilance (L),
Abstractedness (M), Privateness (N), Apprehension (O), Openness to Change
(Q1), Self-Reliance (Q2), Perfectionism (Q3), and Tension (Q4).
Global scales are based on more items (4050) than primary scales, hence
are more reliable and robust. The five global scales are Extraversion, Anxiety
Neuroticism, Tough-Mindedness, Independence, and Self-Control. More
confidence can be placed in their accuracy. Each global factor is made up of four
or five specific primary traits. The global scales align fairly well with other BigFive measures. However, global scales are broad in meaning.
Super factor I, called active outward engagement, consists of both
Extraversion and Independence. It involves tendencies to socially connect to the
world, and to explore and master the environment. Super factor II, called selfdisciplined practicality versus unstrained creativity, consists of both Self-control
and Receptivity. Self-controlled people tend to be more tough-minded and less
receptive to feelings and new ideas, while impulsive and undisciplined tend to be
more creative and receptive to emotions and ideas.
The three response-style scales help to identify unusual response patterns
which especially affects predictive validity. The three response indices are the
Infrequency (INF) Scale, the Acquiescence (ACQ) Scale, and the Impression
Management (IM) Scale. Factors that affect accurate responding include low
reading comprehension, test anxiety, and giving socially desirable answers. The
INF scale measures whether the individual responded meaningfully or randomly,
while the IM and ACQ scales indicate whether the individual was motivated to
present an accurate self-portrayal.
Test Administration and Scoring

26

Administration and scoring is easy and can be completed by a trained

nonprofessional. The test can be administered individually or in group settings,
and requires minimal supervision. It is untimed, and has simple, straight forward
instructions. The paper-and-pencil format takes 35 to 50 minutes while
computerized administration takes 25 to 35 minutes.
The administrator may either read aloud the instruction or request
examinees to read silently, responding to their questions as necessary.
Hand scoring is quick and simple, and takes an experienced scorer only 6
or 7 minutes to complete. It requires a set of four scoring keys, a norm table, and
an Individual Record Form. Detailed hand-scoring instructions are provided in the
test administrators manual.
Computer scoring can generate additional scores and information that
enhance test interpretation. Test answer sheets may be mailed or faxed to the test
publisher, or scored on a personal computer via the Internet or software.
Score Interpretation
Scores are presented in stens or standard-ten scale, ranging from 1 to 10,
with a mean of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2. Sten 4 is considered low, sten 5
or 6 average, and sten 7 high. A+ indicates a high score (right pole) while Aindicates a low score (left pole) on the primary scale Warmth (A).
The 16PF primary and global scales are bipolar, with well-defined
meanings at both poles rather than varying degrees of the scale. A high or low
score on a scale is not regarded as good or bad. Rather, the score increases the
likelihood that the trait defined at the pole will be distinctive of the individuals
behavior. Whether that trait is determined to have positive or negative effects
depends on the context.
According to Cattell and Schuerger (2003), interpreting the 16PF
Questionnaire first requires the interpreter to consider all other sources of
information about the person to better understand the individual and the context in
which the testing is taking place. For instance the purpose for the testing, anxiety
or unfamiliarity with tests, results from other tests, life history accounts, and
interview data. This is followed by the evaluating of response indices, global and
primary scores. Then determine scale interactions and finally integrating all
information in relation to the assessment question.
Individual scores are compared to the mean score based on the 16PF
normative sample. Scores that fall outside the average range are the focus of
interpretation. Extreme scores are central to the individuals identity.
Interpreting Primary Scales
According to the 16PF Fifth Edition Administrators Manual (Russell &
Karol, 2002), having two to seven extreme primary scores is within the average
range. Extreme primary scores represent the strong behavioral tendencies that
may be difficult for the person to shift away from. The more extreme primary
scores an individual has, the more well-defined his or her personality style will

27

be. Possible explanations for few extreme scores are that the persons behavior is
average, unclear self-picture on certain traits by answering similar items in
inconsistent directions, or avoid making a poor impression or by choosing a
relatively high number of b responses.

Interpreting Global Scales

According to the 16PF Fifth Edition Administrators Manual (Russell &
Karol, 2002), 86% of the general population have zero to two extreme global
scores in their profiles. 10% had three extreme global scores, 3% four, and less
than 1% had all five global factors. People with three extreme global scale scores
have an above-average number of distinctive traits, and those with four or five
total extreme global scores are rather unique in the distinctiveness of their
personality.

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Primary scales may contribute to global scales in either a positive or a

negative direction. For example, a high score on the global Extraversion can come
from high scores on Warmth (A+), Liveliness (F+), or Social Boldness (H+) or
from low scores on Privateness (N-) and Self Reliance (Q2-).

Normative and Standardization Procedure

Information describing the norming process is vague. The current standardization
sample was released in 2002 and is based on a stratified random sample of 10,261
individuals, matched to the U.S. Census data from 2000 for sex, race, and age
(Cattell & Schueger, 2003).

Reliability
Test-retest Reliability
The 16PF Fifth Edition Technical Manual (Conn & Rieke, 1994, cited in
Cattell & Schueger, 2003) reports strong test-retest reliabilities, which are
estimated on a sample of 204 people for two-week interval and 159 people for
two-month interval.
Two-week test-retest estimates for the 16PF primary scales ranged from .69 to .
87, with a mean of .80, while two-month test-retest reliabilities ranged from .56 to
.79, with a mean of .69.

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Two-week test-retest estimates for the global scales ranged from .84 to .91
with a mean of .87, and two-month test-retest estimates ranged from .70 to .82
with a mean of .78.
International 16PF editions also show strong test-retest reliabilities. For instance,
one-month estimates of primary scales had a mean of .83 for the German edition
(Schneewind & Graf, 1998, cited in Cattell & Mead, 2008); .86 for the Danish
edition (IPAT, 2004c, cited in Cattell & Mead, 2008); and .73 for the French
edition (IPAT, 1995, cited in Cattell & Mead, 2008).
Internal Consistency
The test manual (Conn and Rieke, 1994, cited in Cattell & Schueger,
2003) also reports good internal consistency for the 16PF scales. Estimated on a
stratified random sample of 10,261 people, Cronbachs alpha ranged from .66 to .
86, with a mean of .76. Internal consistency estimates are not provided for the
global scales.

Validity
The three response style indices are used to measure validity.
Content-related Evidence: Factorial validity
Factorial validity of 16PF scales is particularly important as the 16PF
Questionnaire is developed through factor analysis. Several factor-analytic studies
have established strong support for the structure of the primary and global traits
across diverse sample groups.
For instance, Hofer, Horn, and Eber (1997) found the factor structure to be robust
across six diverse samples of a total of 30,732 individuals. Dancer and Woods
(2007) found strong support for the global traits through factor analysis of the
primary traits based on a sample of 4,414 business employees.
Factorial validity has also been confirmed in the international editions, for
instance German edition (Schneewind and Graf, 1998), Italian edition
(Barbaranelli & Caprara, 1996), Chinese edition (Jia-xi and Guo-peng, 2006),
French edition (Rolland and Mogenet, 1996), and Japanese edition (IPAT, 2007),
Construct-related Evidence: Convergent Validity
Convergent validity is established by the correlations between the 16PF
scales and scales on other instruments. Strong relationships with other measures
of personality help to validate the meanings of the 16PF scales. For instance the
NEO-PI-R (Costa and McCrae, 1992a), the California Psychological Inventory
(Gough, 1987), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers and McCaulley, 1985),
and the Personality Research Form (Jackson, 1989).

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There is good convergent validity for international 16PF editions too. For
instance, the German edition has strong correlations with the NEO-PI-R and the
Personality Research Form (Schneewind and Graf, 1998).

Criterion-related Evidence: Predictive Validity

Predictive validity of the 16PF scales has been established by its
usefulness in a range of settings, for instance employee selection, career
development, clinical and counseling, educational and research settings.
The 16PF scales have also been useful in understanding and predicting a
range of areas, for instance leadership potential (Conn and Rieke, 1994), social
skills (Conn and Rieke, 1994), creativity (Guastello and Rieke, 1993), and several
occupational profiles (Cattell, R.B. et al., 1970; Conn and Rieke, 1994; Schuerger
and Watterson, 1998; Walter, 2000).

The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)

Author of Test: Paul T. Costa, Jr. and Robert R. McCrae.

31

Publisher: Psychological Assessment Resources, P.O. Box 998, Odessa, FL 335560998. Phone: 1-800-331-8378.First published in 1990 as a revised version of
inventories dating to 1978; the revised edition was published in 1992.
User Qualification: Level B
Uses of the Test: These scales are useful tools for personality assessment and may
provide a useful bridge between basic research in personality psychology and
applied psychology.The NEO PI-R provides a broad-based assessment of an
individuals personality. This includes a thorough understanding of the clients
strengths and weaknesses. The NEO PI-R provides information relevant to
interpersonal style, character, levels of emotional well-being, aspiration levels,
and a wide range of other psychologically relevant information (Piedmont, 1998).

Some of the recommended uses are:

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Clinical uses for the NEO PI-R

Understanding the client
Differential diagnosis
Empathy and rapport
Feedback and insight
Anticipating the course of therapy
Matching treatment to clients (Costa & McCrae, 1992)

Description of the Test: The NEO-PI-R is the most recent version of Costa and
McCraes instrument to assess normal adult personality using the five-factor
model taxonomy of personality. It is one of the few commercially available test
based on this model. This test is designed to measure five major dimensions or
domains of normal adult personality.There is also a Form R-Men and a Form RWomen (Anastasi&Urbina, 1997). This instrument has also been studied for use
in a computerized adaptive test (CAT) procedure in administering the Revised
NEO PI-R (Reise& Henson, 2000).
Test Administration:The NEO PI-R is self-administered and is available in two
parallel versions. Each version contains 240 items and 3 validity items, and
requires a 6th-grade reading level.

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Form S, designed for self-reports, is appropriate for use with adult men and
women, including individuals of college age.

Form R, designed for observer reports, is written in the third person for peer,
spouse, or expert ratings. Use as an alternative measure or as a supplement to selfreports from adult clients.

Each item is rated on a 5-point scale.

Internal consistency coefficients for both Forms R and S range from .86-.95 for
domain scales and from .56-.90 for facet scales.

The NEO PI-R is validated against other personality inventories as well as

projective techniques.

The scoring is designed to make the NEOPI more useful to clinicians include
computer administration, scoring, and interpretation; a mail-in scoring system;
separate norms for college students; a short, 60-item version (the NEO Five
Factor Inventory, or NEOFFI) that gives scores for the five domains only and
may be useful when time for assessment is limited; and a test feedback sheet
(Appendix: Your NEO Summary) that can be used to involve the patient
therapeutically (Costa & McCrae, 1992b).
If the respondent has not provided a response to every item and no longer can be
contacted, the examiner must determine whether the data is validly scored and
interpreted. Results should not be scored if 40 or more responses are missing. If
less than 40 responses are missing, the scoring should take the neutral answer to
each item.
Scores can be reported to most test takers on "Your NEO Summary," which provides
a brief explanation of the assessment, and gives the participants domain levels
and a strengths-based description of three levels (high, medium, and low) in each
domain. For example, low N reads "Secure, hardy, and generally relaxed even
under stressful conditions," whereas high N reads "Sensitive, emotional, and
prone to experience feelings that are upsetting." For profile interpretation, facet

33

and domain scores are reported in T Scores and are recorded visually as compared
to the appropriate norm group, much like other measures of personality.

Standardization Sample: Norms are based on a sample of 1,000 subjects (500

males, 500 females) selected from three large scale studies of the NEO-PI-R. The
normative sample was stratified to match 1995 U.S. Census projections for age,
gender, and race. Separate norms are also provided for college-aged samples.
Validity: There is strong consensual validity between self, peer, and spouse reports
of the test. Construct, convergent, and divergent validity evidence for the scales
has been collected by Costa and McCrae. NEO-PI-R scales correlated with
analogous scales from other instruments.
Content validity-samples appropriately from the range of characteristics it is intended
to represent.In the NEO PI-R content validity is addressed by identifying six
distinct facets of sample for each domain, and by selecting non-redundant items to
measure each facet.
Criterion validity- means that identifiable groups of individuals differ in their means
score in theoretically predictable ways.The findings that patients in psychotherapy
score high on neuroticism and that drug abusers score low on agreeableness and
conscientiousness provide some evidence of this kind of validity for NEO PI-R
scale
Reliability: Domain level reliabilities range from .86 to .95 for both the self and
observer rating forms of this instrument. Facet level reliabilities are good ranging
from .56 to .90 for both self- and observer-report forms of the NEO-PI-R. Shortterm test-retest reliability has been found with the NEO-FFI and the NEO-PI-R.
Long-term test-retest reliability has been shown for the N, E, and O domains for
the previous version of this instrument.
Norms: The norm used is T-score, with a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10.

34

Very high
High
Average
Low
Very Low

65-75
55-65
45-55
35-45
25-35

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Author: Peter B. Myers and Katharine D. Myers
Publisher: Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CPP)
History:

35

The history of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator started with Carl Jung, the
founder of analytical psychology. Jung believed that people are either energized
by the external world (Extraversion) or their own internal world (Introversion).
He also observed that people took in information (Perceiving) or organized the
information and came up with a conclusion (Judging). He noted that people
generally engaged in one more than the other. Thus, in 1921, Jung published
Psychological Types in which he presented the idea of Jungian archetypes.
Isabel Myers, a psychological theorist, believed in the beauty of human
personality. Myers wanted to develop an instrument that would reflect ones
preference not only for Introversion or Extraversion but for Perception and
Judgment as well. With the onset of World War II, she developed the test to
resolve conflicts and help people decide on appropriate careers. She believed that
many problems involving human interaction and personal choices could be
handled more successfully with Carl Jungs theory of psychological types in
mind. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, developed by Myers, and her mother
Katharine C. Briggs, provides a structure for understanding both similarities and
differences among human beings (Myers).
User qualification: Level B
Form Construction: MBTI is also available in different forms, these are as it ff:
-Form Q (144 items)

-Form K (131 Items)

-Form M (93 items)

-Form J (209 Items)

-Form G (126 items)

-Form AV (50 items)
-Form F (166 items)
Form We Used: Form M (1998)
Number of items: 93
Format: Dichotomous
There are only two choices for each question which consists of word pairs
and short statements. The words and statements are not polar opposites; rather
they are chosen to reflect dichotomy preference.

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Example questions include:

1. I am most comfortable being
Spontaneous
A planner
2. Change for me is
Difficult
Easy
3. I prefer to work
Alone
In a team
4. I consider myself to be
Social
Private
Uses of the test: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed
to assist a person in identifying some significant personal preferences. The
Indicator is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee
training, leadership training, marriage counselling, and personal development.
Description of the test: The MBTI is a self-report personality-type indicator
consisting of a multiple-choice questionnaire. It is designed to identify the testtaker's relative positions along a set of four indexes. These indexes are bipolar
scales based on Jung's type theory. Its typology is composed of four pairs of
opposite preferences, called dichotomies, as shown below

E-I Dichotomy

Where you like to focus

You prefer to focus on

your attention
S-N Dichotomy

Extraversion

You prefer to focus on the

the outer world of

S

people and things

Sensing

Introversion
inner world of ideas

and impressions
Intuition

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The way you like to look

You tend to focus on the

at things

You tend to focus on the

present and on

future, with a view

concrete information

toward patterns and

gained from your

possibilities

T-F Dichotomy

senses
T Thinking

The way you like to go

You tend to base your

You tend to base your

about deciding things

decisions primarily

decisions primarily on

on logic and on

values and on

objective analysis of

subjective evaluation of

cause and effect

person-centered

J-P Dichotomy

How you deal with the

You like a planned and

outer world

Feeling

Judging

concerns
Perceiving

You like a flexible and

organized approach

spontaneous approach

to life and prefer to

to life and prefer to

have things to have

keep your own options

things settled

open

The MBTI assessment combines an individuals four preferencesone

preference from each dichotomy, denoted by its letterto yield one of the 16
possible personality types (e.g., ESTJ, INFP, etc.). Each type is equally valuable,
and an individual inherently belongs to one of the 16 types.
Test Administration: Group or Individual
Test Administrator: Psychologist (with diploma)
Scoring Procedure:
By hand with the Form M templates
Computer
Interpretation of the 16 Personality combinations:
ESTJ

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Extraverted Sensing Thinking Judging

Description
ESTJs are responsible, realistic, and conventional. Their primary function
is Extraverted Thinking while their auxiliary function is Introverted Sensing. This
allows them to recognize concrete needs and remember data in detail. They are
more focused on linking the past to the present. They use logic and traditional
principles to guide them through life. They are quick to come up with a plan and
finish it off. They place importance on closure. Because of this, they may take on
leadership roles. They are self-confident and assertive. They may be perceived as
critical and harsh, but this is only to ensure their plan works out (Butt ESTJ).
ESTJs are direct and honest and take their role seriously and are known as
model citizens. They thrive on order and continuity. Community is crucial to
the ESTJ. They love spending time with family and friends. They learn best in
situations where objectives are established (as well as details) so they can plan
ahead. Thus, they are good with deadline.
ESTJ weaknesses include their general inability to adapt to new
environments. They can be too demanding and fail to recognize other peoples
opinions and feelings. This is because they have a set value system. They may
also come across as too bossy (Portrait of an ESTJ).

ESFJ
Extraverted Sensing Feeling Judging
Description:
ESFJs are friendly, practical, and organized. The primary function is
Extraverted Feeling which makes them extremely capable of expressing their
emotions. Their auxiliary function is Introverted Sensing, in which outside data is

39

taken in and compared with their inner judgment. ESFJs are guardians of the
emotions of others. They are always looking to protect others feelings above all
other things. In decision making they always consider how their choice will
impact all those involved. They enjoy adhering to tradition and will go to great
lengths to follow standard social protocols (Butt ESFJ).
ESFJs are excellent leaders. They are driven and work hard in order to
accomplish the task at hand.
Their respect for protocol and tradition means that they strictly follow
seniority and expect others to do the same. They tend to view the world as either
right or wrong and have little tolerance for anything in-between.
ESFJ weaknesses include reacting too quickly and emotionally in a
situation that would be better dealt with in a pragmatic fashion. They may also be
so absorbed into their own viewpoints that they begin dismissing those of others.
ESFJs are also sensitive to criticism and may be overly concerned with how other
people perceive them (Portrait of an ESFJ).

ISTJ
Introverted Sensing Thinking Judging
Description:
ISTJs are loyal, logical, and responsible. The primary function of the ISTJ
is Introverted Sensing, which means they like things to be quantifiable. The
auxiliary function is Extraverted Thinking, so they will willingly speak if only

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data is to be presented; otherwise, the ISTJ will remain silent. They work with
facts and take a methodical approach towards solving problems. They will also
put themselves at risk to carry out any task assigned to them. They generally
know right from wrong in their areas of interest and responsibility which makes
them devoted and dutiful individuals.
ISTJs would rather see consistency in people, as seeing others keep up
their ends of the bargain can be extremely frustrating. They generally keep to
themselves until approached. Nevertheless, ISTJs will not try to appeal to
someone elses opinions, they would rather be truthful than tactful (Butt ISTJ).
ISTJs may have a tendency to dismiss other peoples opinions without
fully understanding them. They may also have selfish tendencies in which they
ignore everyone elses priorities. Structure is very important to them and this may
come across as being rigid (Portrait of an ISTJ).

ISFJ
Introverted Sensing Feeling Judging
Description:
ISFJs are traditional, supportive, and dutiful. The primary function is
Introverted Sensing, meaning they remember data in detail and relate it back to
reality. Their auxiliary function is Extraverted Feeling. They will tailor their needs

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to fit with those of others. Because they work so hard due to their dutiful nature,
they are often taken advantage of or taken for granted.
The ISFJ works methodically, as they possess good memory and analytical
abilities. They can also work in small groups or one-on-one situations because of
their patience and ability to deal with others. ISFJs have few close friends, but to
these friends, they are extremely loyal. However, ISFJs hate conflict, and will stay
out of fights, as they will instead run to find an authority figure (Heiss ISFJ).
ISFJs prefer not to delegate work and hate to be treated as doormats, but
are too modest to display their accomplishments. They also dont pay as much
attention to their own needs relative to those of others. Conflict and criticism is
not taken in well by the ISFJs as they are sensitive (Portrait of an ISFJ).

ESTP
Extraverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving
Description:
ESTPs are doers, pragmatic, and spontaneous. The primary function of
an ESTP is Extraverted Sensing in which they take in the world through their
senses and view it in a concrete fashion. They auxiliary function is Introverted
Thinking in which they are able to categorize data and apply it. They place limited

42

importance in concept and theory and prefer to focus on what needs to be done.
They view rules as guidelines and will follow them so long as it is convenient.
The ESTP often has enthusiasm for getting projects started, but often will lose
interest before project completion (Butt ESTP).
ESTPs have an abundance of enthusiasm and can easily motivate those
around them to work. They enjoy conversation and have a well-developed sense
for the attitudes of others. They are direct, hands-on, risk-takers, and have little
tolerance for those who hold them back from their goals. They can be insensitive
of others feelings, but this is because of their drive to get things done.
ESTP weaknesses include not being readily able to grasp what other
people are feeling let alone expressing their own. They may also be so
preoccupied with the present that they dont consider what happens in the longrange. This leads on to their tendency to take risks without thought. Because the
ESTPs live in the present, they may not be good with commitments (Portrait of
an ESTP).

ESFP
Extraverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving
Description:
ESFPs are very sociable, harmonious, and spontaneous. The primary
function of the ESFP is Extraverted Sensing, which means they let their feelings
and experiences dictate their decisions. Their auxiliary function is Introverted
Feeling, in which they know what they value. They are able to relate to others and

43

seek to identify with those who share similar interests. They live in the here-andnow. They are extremely outgoing: they enjoy looking for new possibilities,
people, and experiences.
ESFPs adore being in the spotlight, and revel in the excitement and drama
they see in life. They are great at working with people, and most commonly find
themselves working as a peacemaker in a group. They are extremely observant of
others, and are generous and caring. They are very accepting of everyone, and
treat everyone as a friend. They are practical, but love spontaneity (Butt ESFP).
ESFPs tend to be too materialistic. They may have the impression that
they must purchase the best items. They may also not pay attention enough to
their own needs because they prefer to live in the present and neglect the
consequences of their actions. Because they are always excited by new things,
they may have a problem with commitment (Portrait of an ESFP).

ISTP
Introverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving
Description:
ISTPs are independent, adaptable, and objective. Their primary function is
Introverted Thinking which allows them to analyze data and notice
inconsistencies. In turn, their auxiliary function is Extraverted Sensing which
makes them hands-on people who process data through their five senses. The

44

ISTP enjoys working with their hands while evaluating a complex system. They
enjoy deconstructing and reconstructing a system to better learn how it works.
An ISTP is always looking for ways to be involved in their work and
thrive in all-or-nothing situations. They work well in crises because they are quick
to make decisions and to put their thoughts into action. ISTPs are spontaneous and
prefer being able to react to the current situation than follow a plan. The ISTP
works best in an environment where they are able to work freely and view rules as
a hindrance to their spontaneity (Portrait of an ISTP).
While they have little respect for rules imposed upon them, ISTPs strictly
follow their own set of internal rules. If someone violates the principles that the
ISTP holds in high regard, they become hostile and stubborn. They can be
inconsiderate of others boundaries at times, but they are willing to accept people
encroaching on their personal boundaries in the same fashion (Heiss ISTP).

ISFP
Introverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving
Description:
ISFPs are artistic, loyal, and harmonious. Their primary function is
Introverted Feeling which allows them to know what they value and make
judgments based on these values. They strive to connect with others who share
similar ideals. In turn, their auxiliary function is Extraverted Sensing which

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makes them earthy people who have a love of aesthetic beauty (Portrait of an
ISFP). They live in a world full of sensation possibilities and have a strong value
system in which they constantly strive to meet in their own lives.
ISFPs will generally be inclined to choose careers which allow freedom
for creativity and displaying their personal goals. They prefer flexibility and do
not fare will with schedules. They learn best in a hands-on approach and may be
bored with traditional methods which emphasize abstract thinking. Logic is
secondary to the ISFP for they are uncomfortable dealing with objective systems.
In contrast, they prefer subjectivity and love music and the arts.
Weaknesses of the ISFP include their tendency to be cynical which does
not translate well onto others. They also prefer to live in the moment so the big
picture may be omitted out of the ISFPs goals. They have an extreme dislike of
conflict and criticism because they seek harmony and are generally irritated when
their personal space has been invaded.

ENTJ
Extraverted Intuitive Thinking Judging
Description:
ENTJs are decisive, strategic, and natural leaders. Their primary function
is Extraverted Thinking which allows them to be organized as well as aptly
categorize things. They have the keen ability to see the consequences before
acting on a plan. Because of their natural ability to devise contingency plans, they

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usually take on the role as the leader. They find themselves in charge because they
have an inclination to give structure to a project. Rather than establishing plans,
they look ahead and establish goals (Butt ENTJ).
ENTJs are willing to invest every resource (that they believe is efficient)
into achieving something. They dislike errors and can be demanding. Because
they are incredibly organized, inefficiency and personal problems that arise may
not be tolerated by the ENTJ. Because of this, they may be perceived as harsh by
their peers. ENTJs are quick decision makers and may have brilliant ideas.
However, they may not be readily able to act upon their idea. As Extroverts and
Thinkers, they are energized by challenging conversations.
ENTJs can be stubborn if new ideas do not coincide with their own. They
have no problem with conflict and may appear argumentative. They have a
tendency to be confrontational and may come across as aggressive. Because of
their natural leadership ability, they may appear to be controlling. ENTJs are not
in tune with others feelings and have difficulty expressing their own emotions
(Portrait of an ENTJ).

ENTP
Extraverted Intuitive Thinking Perceiving
Description:
ENTPs are curious, innovative, and outgoing. Their primary function is
Extraverted Intuition which allows them to see the different possibilities of a
scenario or when making decisions. Their auxiliary function is Introverted
Thinking. The ENTP is an individual who constantly seeks to understand the

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world around them. They are problem solvers and revel in the challenge of new
tasks. They are always looking for new ways of doing things and often ignore
rules and conventions. They are constantly looking to create change and enjoy
dynamic situations.
ENTPs are concerned mostly with the future and find little interest in the
details of the present. They tend to like to try new ideas and once proven move on
to their next challenge rather than follow through on their current project. They do
not follow procedure and prefer to look for new methods to improve efficiency
(Portrait of an ENTP).
In their relationships with others, ENTPs can tend to be inconsiderate of
those they consider to be inferior. They often argue for sake of learning from the
argument. They will change positions on a subject in order to learn as much as
possible. Often times they will ignore others unless they have their immediate
attention. In personal relationships they are fiercely loyal and will go to any
lengths for those they care for. (Heiss ENTP)

INTJ
Introverted Intuition Thinking Judging
Description:
INTJs are analytical, determined, and intensely individualistic. Their
primary function is Introverted Intuition in which they process data internally
through their intuition. Their auxiliary function is Extraverted Thinking in which
they approach situations with empirical logic. They enjoy introspecting and

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coming to new understandings with the world. They are deeply motivated by
inspiration. INTJs are idea generators and are willing to take every measure to
ensure their ideas become reality. They have high standards for themselves and a
lesser extent for others. One can call them perfectionists. They seem to have a
keen ability in improving anything of their interest (Heiss INTJ).
INTJs are also pragmatists and recognize their limits. They are known as
system-builders and seek to apply theoretical models. According to BSM
Consulting, they value intelligence, knowledge, and competence. INTJs dislike
route memorization and learn best when they are able to develop their own system
for learning in which they become absorbed into the subject.
INTJs can have trouble communicating in simple terms and can grow
impatient for others whom cannot catch onto their idea. They can also be
unwilling to adapt to new environments. They may be single-minded and dismiss
all other viewpoints. They may be so reserved to the extent at which they will not
share their idea before it is fully formed. INTJs have a tough time with people
who make their decisions based on their emotions and traditional social niceties
(Portait of an INTJ).

INTP
Introverted Intuition Thinking Perceiving
Description:
INTPs are reserved, logical, and abstract individuals. The primary function
of the INTP is Introverted Thinking while their auxiliary function is Extraverted
Intuition. This makes them abstract thinkers who are more interested in theoretical
concepts and ideas than what is immediate. The INTP is an individual who is

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constantly seeking knowledge and understanding. They are often disengaged from
the world around them and prefer to observe and understand rather than
participate and work. They approach situations objectively and seek to
understand. They are problem solvers, but once they have thought through a
solution they prefer to leave it to others to enact (James).
They have little concern for detail and prefer to look at a bigger picture.
They are constantly analyzing the world around them and are more concerned
with temporal change than all other things. If something has not moved and is of
little use it will often disappear in the mind of the INTP (James).
INTPs are independent and believe others should be as well. They often
look to learn proficiency in an area, but rarely look for mastery. For this reason
they expect others to be beyond error.
Weaknesses of the INTP include unwilling to try new thingsthis is
because the INTP may be uncomfortable with things they are not familiar with.
They are not naturally in tune with other peoples feelings and may not display
affection or approval when needed. When under stress, they may have an
unhealthy habit of showing intense emotion which leads to other personal
problems. The INTP may also appear caustic and indifferent to the opinions of
others (Portrait of an INTP).

ENFJ
Extraverted Intuitive Feeling Judging
Description:
ENFJs are altruistic, introspective, friendly, and idealistic. Their primary
function is Extraverted Feeling, so they naturally work well in matters concerning
other people. Their auxiliary function is Introverted Intuition which allows them

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to have a clear perception of the inner workings of the mind which makes them
aware of other people's needs.
The ENFJ is more reserved than other extraverted types. They refrain from
expressing their own beliefs if it is in the best interest of those around them.
ENFJs work more like chameleons or mirrors, rather than individuals to better
suit other people. They are capable of expressing their own values, of course, but
they would rather be supportive of others. However, they may sometimes feel
alone in a group of many because they cannot be themselves (Butt ENFJ).
ENFJs prefer things to be well-organized but do not like to be forced to
deal with logic and facts that do not connect to people. They like the idea of
possibilities and thus prefer planning over their own achievements. Some may
have difficulty making decisions and will rely on others to make decisions for
them. Further, the ENFJ may also judge things too quickly based on their own
morals and values without first analyzing a situation objectively (Portrait of an
ENFJ).

ENFP
Extraverted Intuitive Feeling Perceiving
Description:
ENFPs are animated, inspiring, and innovative. Their primary function is
Extraverted Intuition which makes them people-oriented while their auxiliary
function is Introverted Feeling. They are readily able to grasp feelings which

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make it easy for this type to connect with others. They convey themselves to other
people through speech, mannerisms, and expression. ENFPs enjoy both ideas and
people: they wish to be helpful and are generally admired. They are also
charming, for which most ENFPs are outgoing and friendly (Heiss ENFP).
However, they also have a short attention span and many emotional needs. When
in new relationships, they have a tendency to strive to be the center of attention.
They can be intellectual and serious, but at the same time, they can be eagerly
playful. Their judgment usually gives rise to humor, but if their feelings are too
open, they may drive people away.
ENFP weaknesses include their extreme dislike of conflict and criticism in
which they can respond with intense emotions. This is because they strive for
harmony and cannot tolerate situations that do not go their way. ENFPs may also
have a tendency to be smothering because of their enthusiastic demeanor
(Portrait of an ENFP).

INFJ
Introverted Intuitive Feeling Judging
Description:
INFJs are creative, compassionate, gentle, and complex. Their primary
function is Introverted Intuition while their auxiliary function is Extraverted
Feeling in which they are deeply concerned with their relationships with others as

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well has humanity at large. They have a desire to contribute to the welfare of all
and find it rewarding in helping other people realize their human potential (Butt
INFJ). INFJs value solitude as well as the opportunity to concentrate on what is
important to them. Their forte is writing because they are able to convey their
ideas clearly. If they find something particularly interesting, they will go beyond
and research that specific topic and often ruminate over it. They are often
perceived as the model student. Despite working well with groups and
individuals, they need time to recharge. They have a natural ability to relate to
others and usually find themselves to be the one their friends confide in (Portrait
of an INFJ).
INFJs have high expectations for themselves and others which may lead to
conflict. In turn, because they are sensitive people, they strongly dislike criticism
as well as conflicts and may not readily be able to tolerate it. They may start
losing confidence and become unhappy. They are perfectionists and always
wondering whether or not they are living up to their full potential. They also do
not believe in compromising because they have strong ideals.

INFP
Introverted Intuitive Feeling Perceiving
Description:
INFPs are introspective, creative, and idealistic. Their primary function is
Introverted Feeling in which they know what they value. They have the ability to
relate to others. Their auxiliary function is Extraverted Intuition in which they are

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able to see different paths/ways of doing something. They recognize different

possibilities and long to find their meaning in life. They seek to find the
underlying meaning of things. Almost everything experienced by the INFP
contributes to their value system which is then evaluated by the INFP as crucial or
trivial (Butt INFP).
The INFP is driven by the thought of making the world a better place.
INFPs are great listeners and are always to willing to help people. Despite being
reserved, they are quite warm with people they are familiar with. They are also
generally very flexible. However once an opinion/decision violates their values,
they will aggressively defend their cause. INFPs enjoy learning in environments
where they can be flexible and creative (INFP Personality Types). INFPs can be
overly sensitive to criticism, even in situations where no criticism was intended.
They may also be overtly consumed with an idea in their mind that they begin to
ignore anything that goes against their values. They may also be unable to let go
of a problem and themselves to become engrossed by it. They may also develop
strong grudges towards other people whom they think have oppressed them
(Portrait of an INFP).

Criticism of the MBTI

1. Is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator reliable?
According to the Myers & Briggs Foundation, Personality is qualitative and
therefore difficult to measure, so psychological instruments cannot have the same
consistency you would expect from, say, a ruler. But there are generally accepted
standards for psychological instruments. It should be recognized that the MBTI

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measures preferences, not the actual person. The type descriptions in this manual
are archetypes. Every person is unique in their own way. On a retest, people
generally scored the same three or four preferences 75% to 90% of the time
(Reliability). When a person does change type on a retest, it is generally a
dichotomy where their preference for one or the other is in between-- meaning
40% to 55%. It should also be noted that children are still developing so their
preferences change.
2. The MBTI forces people to exert a self-fulfilling prophecy as specified by their
corresponding personality type. In a sense, people act what they read.
When taking the MBTI, people should go in with an open mind and recognize
that there are countless numbers of type descriptions out in the internet. People
can readily write whatever it is they please. Taking information in the wrong way
may lead to miscommunication. It is important to note that the key purpose of the
MBTI is to help people recognize their own strengths and weaknesses as well as
those of othersit is not a medium designed to make people act a certain way.
One should make their own decisions and judgment when taking the test as well
as reading their own type descriptions.