GLOBAL CHANGE INFLUENCE ON VINE PHYSIOLOGY AND WINE

QUALITY IN PRIORAT AND MONTSANT (NE SPAIN)

Sav, R.1; Nadal, M.2; Pla, E.3; Lopez-Bustins, J. A.4 and de Herralde, F.1,
1.-IRTA, Ecofisiologia / Horticultura Ambiental; Torre Marimon, Ctra. C-59 km, 12.1, 08140, Caldes de
Montbui, Barcelona, Spain, (robert.save@irta.cat; felicidad.deherralde@irta.cat)
2.-Grup de Recerca Viti-vinicultura. Facultat dEnologia, Dept. Bioqumica i Biotecnologia, URV /Marcell
Domingo s/n. Campus Sant Pere Sescelades. 43007 Tarragona, Spain. (montserrat.nadal@urv.cat)
3.-Centre de Recerca Ecolgica i Aplicacions Forestals (CREAF). Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona E-08193
Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain, (eduard.pla@uab.cat)
4.-Group of Climatology, University of Barcelona, Montalegre 6, 08001 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,
(jlopezbustins@ub.edu)

ABSTRACT

In the last decades, viticulture in the Mediterranean has been improved by agronomic methods
based on ecophysiological and genetic knowledge of the cultivated species. The
Mediterranean ecosystem is characterized by a double stress. Climatic phenomena such as
variation of some atmospheric circulation patterns are affecting weather conditions at regional
level. Some models are generating scenarios of climate change that show how this region will
be affected by an increase of the duration (up to 12 months) and the frequency (3 to 8 times)
of dry periods. Consequently, plant growth, yield and quality will be affected.
Its known that global change and the associated climate change, together with an annual
increase in the variability of the viticulture sector, due to economical conditions, will increase
the vulnerability in this sector. World-wide, viticulturists have found the optimal grape
maturity correlated with the sugar content and have usually been using the ratio sugars/acids
as an indication of the ripeness degree for determining when the grapes are ready to be
harvested. Nowadays, to improve the quality of red wines, it is crucial to get information
about the concentration and quality of the phenolic compounds of the skins and seeds of
berries, since they are affected by drought.
The objective of present work is to study the effects of climate on alcohol degree of wines
from vineyards placed in an area of Mediterranean basin, potentially affected by global
change. Thus, we studied the evolution of weather along the last 25 years (1984-2008)
together with the changes in alcoholic degree of red varieties and agronomical practices are
studied. Results show as alcoholic degree increase is only partially explained by temperature
and rainfall changes. The surface atmospheric circulation in August would determine partially
the final alcoholic degree. Other factors due to global change could have more influence on
this variation.

KEYWORDS: grapevine, climate, vulnerability, production

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture in the Mediterranean is developed in a great number of crops, which have a
limited productivity due to environmental conditions, but actually this agriculture has been
improved by means of agronomic methods and systems based on ecophysiological and
genetic knowledge of the cultivated species. Agriculture is the main business of the land use

1
around the world, generating significant economic, social and cultural development, while
offering a wide range of services. It is important that agriculture, despite its specialization,
remains very sensitive to climate variability, which is the main source of global yearly
variability in agricultural production, although increasingly speculative phenomena additives
to produce this response (Aggarwal 2003, 2008; Rosenzwieg and Tubiello 1997). Agriculture,
viticulture in this paper, can be defined as the use of primary production in our benefit. The
number of varieties and rootstocks used are incredibly high due to the wide geographic range
in which they have been selected (Cabello et al 2003) and the important differences in
productivity, in qualitative and quantitative values (Sav, 2009).
The potential climate change due to global change, may increase the temperature locally or
generally (IPCC, 2007; Sheffield and Wood 2008), these small temperature changes can have
great influence at the level of atmospheric carbon balance (Valentini et al 2000). At regional
level, not all the worlds areas will be affected to the same environmental conditions change,
and consequently, the more exposed will be potentially more vulnerable to climate change
and consequently to direct losses of agricultural productivity (lower production) or indirect
(increased costs). Global warming will not be the same around the world (IPCC 2007). It
seems to be especially important in the Mediterranean. Furthermore, this area is the only one
in the world where most models agree in predicting less precipitation in all seasons
(Christensen et al., 2007). In our case, Catalonia and by extension the Mediterranean
ecosystem is characterized by a double stress (Terradas and Save 1992) and climatic
phenomena such as variation of the atmospheric circulation patterns are affecting weather
conditions at regional level. In summer, low water availability in the soil along with high
vapor pressure deficit at atmospheric level promotes inhibitions in plant growth and various
negative effects on their development (Money and Di Castri 1973, Save 1999). Some models
are generating scenarios of climate change that are showing as the Mediterranean region will
be affected by average duration of dry periods (4 - 6 months) and the length between periods
(more 12 months), being these episodes from 3 to 8 times more frequent than at present
(Sheffield and Wood 2008). This is promoting the main important stress, drought, that in our
conditions could be developed in the same space and time with other abiotic (flooding,
salinity, high temperatures, low cooling and freezing, high radiation, ozone, mineral
deficiencies, etc.) or biotic (insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, elicitors, competition between
species) stresses (Levitt 1980), which may promote synergistic effects on vegetation in
crops.
It is known that changing global climate, together with an annual increase in the variability of
the agricultural sector due to economical conditions, will increase the difficulties and risks in
this sector. In viticulture the factors that may act more directly on productivity are several.
The increase in temperature could promote increases in the potential evapotranspiration
(ETP), soil respiration, the amount of organic matter, which in turn reduces the ability of soil
to act as a storage place for water (Schultz 2000). The increase in CO2 that you increase
productivity and efficiency in the use of water, but in the end the plants develop a regulation
of photosynthesis and productivity returns to the original values or less (Drake et al 1997).
The increase in UV radiation promotes important morphological, physiological and
biochemical to try to avoid negative impacts on vegetation. Despite the negative effects on
growth, this can increase stress and some antioxidant flavonoid biosynthesis (Jensen et al
1998). The drought promotes reduction in growth, but in the Mediterranean area in general it
appears in combination with other stress factors, and therefore the effects can be modified by
interactions (Shaver et al 2000). Other stress factors, in the broad sense, are the occurrence of
pests, diseases and weeds, which can be mere anecdotes but happen to have significance in
crops, due to global change (Lipa 1997, 1999). However, environmental stress factors are a
2
major cause of lost productivity and reduced current crop of 3 to 7 times that of potential
productivity. The abiotic stress and competition with weeds represent 90% of this reduction,
diseases and insects only about 5%. Essentially all crops are seasonally or annually by
drought, cold or flooding (Faust 1986). Agriculture is the socio-economic sector that uses and
manages, approximately 80% of water resources (Sav et al 2009).
World-wide, viticulturists have been finding the optimal grape maturity correlated with the
sugar content. Winemakers have been using the ratio between sugars and acids as an
indication of the ripeness degree for determining when the grapes are ready to be harvested
(Gonzlez-San Jos et al 1991, Ribreau-Gayon et al 2000, Hunter et al 2004, Nadal et al
2004). The sugar content of the grapes at harvest has been taken as economic indicator for
grape growers. Both, sugar content on grapes and alcohol degree on wines have been
considered as quality parameters for many years (Bisson 2001, Kennedy 2002). Actually, it is
crucial to get information about the concentration and quality of the phenolic compounds of
the skins and seeds of berries. In the last two decades, winemakers began measuring the
concentration of phenols in order to improve the knowledge of the phenolic maturity and in
consequence, to harvest at optimal stage of ripeness.
Berry development consists of two successive sigmoid growth periods separated by a lag
phase. During the first growth period, several solutes accumulate in the berry, all of which
reach an apparent maximum around veraison. The most prevalent among these are tartaric and
malic acid. Tannins including the monomeric catechins also accumulate during the first
period of growth. The second growth period is distinguish by the tremendous increase in
compounds (the major ones being glucose and fructose) that occurs as a result of a total
biochemical shift into fruit ripening mode. Beyond sugar accumulation, the major
determinants of a wines quality are the secondary metabolites. In red grape varieties,
anthocyanin production (restricted to skin tissue in most cultivars) is probably the most
obvious compound of importance. In addition, many other important aroma and flavour
compounds are produced late in fruit ripening.
There are many factors including genetics, environmental and vineyard management- that
affect synthesis, accumulation and concentration of different compounds in berries. Light,
temperature and water affect physiological processes such a photosynthesis, respiration,
transpiration and source: sink relations.
In the last years, influenced by the scores of premium wines, costumers have preferred red
wines characterized with high color, good tannin structure and complexity. Actuality, hardly
any winemaker is delaying the data of harvest in order to get the best level of phenolic
maturity. They usually extend the maturity over one or two weeks, even when the level of
sugars already attained the 14 degrees of probable alcohol (Nadal et al 2008).
The objective of present work is try to study the effects of climate on alcohol degree of wines
from vineyards placed in an area of Mediterranean basin potentially affected by global
change. In this way as partial objectives will be studied the evolution of weather conditions
along the last 25 years (1984-2008) together with the changes in alcoholic degree of red
varieties and agronomical practices develop in different moments of this period of time.

MATERIAL, DATA AND METHODS

The study area

The study was focused on the Siurana river basin (Catalonia, NE Spain) which comprises two
nested wine regions, Priorat and Montsant. The wines produced in these regions are
3
recognised with the Designation of Origin (DO Montsant) and the Qualified Designation of
Origin (QDO Priorat).
The Siurana river basin is constituted by the valleys of the Siurana river, the main
downstream tributary of the Ebro river, and its tributaries the Montsant and Cortiella. It is a
mountainous landscape behind the coastal mountains under Mediterranean climate conditions
(Terradas and Sav 1992). It is a traditional wine production area since the 12th century. Soils
composed by shales are stony, dry and poor, characterized by a degree of porosity with a very
high percentage of stones between 70 and 90% (particles larger than 2 mm) which therefore
allows good drainage and enhances the effects of drought. All soils are very infertile and they
have organic matter content between 0.6-0.9 %. The slate soil pH is between 7 and 7.3 and in
the tertiary and alluvial soils between 7.8 and 8. Active limestone of this soil is about 8%
(Nadal 1993).
The study area is not a homogeneous county due to topographical differences that promote
drastic climatic conditions, which affect the maturation date. Moreover, the concentration of
anthocyanins is affected by changes in mesoclimates and vintage (Nadal 2008). The
autochthonous red grape varieties of the area are Grenache, noir and "peluda", and Carignan,
which have been cropped from more than 60 years, Cabernet Sauvignon was introduced
approximately 25 years ago. Some plots of Grenache are older than Carignan, but the majority
of new plantings are younger so that they are planted for 25 years until the present. Yields of
old Carignan vines are between 1500 and 3500 kgha-1, similar to Grenache from old vines.
Contrarily, the production in new plantings of Grenache has increased and often the range is
between 3000 and 8500 kgha-1 and Cabernet Sauvignon produced between 3500 and 7500
kgha-1 (Nadal 2002).

Alcoholic degree series

The alcoholic degree data of wines was gathered from the archive of the Catalan Institute of
Wine and Viticulture (INCAVI). This public institution certifies wine qualities and carries out
the official analysis of wine samples. It is located in Reus city and it has an analysis archive
since 1984. Data analyses of red wines samples located in the study area were digitalized
(Figure 1). Finally, 1764 analyses were taken into account to build the series. We discarded
all those years where the number of samples was less than 5.
The alcoholic degree was the most common and continuous parameter among all the samples.
The alcoholic degree is the real measure of ethanol or ethyl alcohol content in wine. This
parameter is the common basis used to characterize wine in commercial transactions.
INCAVI has two methods of analysis of the alcoholic degree, by near infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS) and more commonly by distillation (OIV 1990).

4
 145
140 DOQ Priorat -red wine-
135 DO Montsant - red wine-
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
Number of samples

85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008
Figure 1. Distribution of the number of samples by area and year.

Climate data series

The climate series used corresponds to Cabacs meteorological station (UTM 812467,
4573145), located in the study area, in the DO Montsant. The precipitation series from 1970
to 2000 is provided by the MOPREDAmes database (Gonzalez-Hidalgo et al 2009), and from
2001 to 2007 is provided by the Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET). According to von
Neumann test applied to the series, using the AnClim program (Stepanek 2007),
inhomogeneous values are not detected in data from both information sources. The
temperature data from 1971 to 2007 is provided by AEMET and collects maximum
temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin) and the average temperature (Tavg). The
series have monthly basis resolution.
Cabacs, has a Mediterranean-Continental climate with an average rainfall of 510 mm, an
average temperature (Tavg) typical of a Mediterranean area (14.8 C) and an annual thermal
amplitude of 18,9C, which reveals that this location is preserved from maritime influence.
From these results, (ETP) was calculated from Hargreaves formula.
To study the atmospheric circulation pattern we used the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data
(Kalnay et al., 1996) for the study period (1984-2008). The method carried out for identifying
the main atmospheric patterns is the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Barnston and
Livezey, 1987; Barry and Carleton, 2001; Lopez-Bustins et al., 2007), on a daily sea-level
pressure (SLP) grid at a resolution of 2.5. We selected the window 70N:30N - 30W:20E
over Western Europe, so we considered 357 grid points. We used the T-mode data matrix
(Huth, 2000). We applied the correlation matrix and rotation with the Varimax criterion
(Richman, 1986).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The alcoholic degree data of wines was in average 14.4C and 13.1C for Priorat and
Montsant respectively and similarly, they increased 0.037 and 0.046 year -1 (Figure 2). There
is a significant relationship between both origins and a significant relationship between
5
alcoholic degree and time, so this parameter in increasing along the last 25 years. The overall
increase of the alcoholic degree for both DOs is around 1.

Figure 2. Evolution of alcoholic degree data of wines from DO Montsant and QDO Priorat along the last 25
years.

Climate data show that rainfall did not change significantly during the study period (Figure 3)
and in a longer rainfall series from Tivissa (DO Montsant) (Figure 4). Thus, from these series
rainfall rate has increased close to 0.2 mmyear-1, which is not an issue for vegetations water
availability. Temperature increased drastically and significantly along 80 and 90 decades, and
from last years of 90s to present is slightly decreasing (Figure 3). On the other hand,
temperature has significantly increased. The overall increase for the study period is 1.0C.
According these values, ETP (Figure 5) developed a similar response to temperature, but
potential water deficit (ETP rainfall) did not show any significant tendency (WD = -
1,3583year + 3253; R2= 0.004NS).
In QDO Priorat, alcoholic degree showed a significant positive relationship with Cabacs
rainfall in May (R=0.48) and a negative significant relationship with average and minimum
temperatures during the previous winter (R=-0.46). No significant correlations were found
with temperature variables in Cabacs.

6
 mm 900 16,5 C
0,16 mm/ year

800
16,0

700
15,5

600
15,0

500

14,5

400

14,0
300

13,5 Rainfall
200

Lineal (Rainfall)
13,0
100
5-year mean series
5 per. mitjana de despl.
(Temperature)
(Temperature)
0 12,5
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Figure 3. Evolution of rainfall rate and temperature in Cabacs (DO Montsant) along the last 25 years

1400

Tivissa 0,19 mm/ year

1200

1000

800
mm

600

400

200

0
1912

1915

1918

1921

1924

1927

1930

1933

1936

1939

1942

1945

1948

1951

1954

1957

1960

1963

1966

1969

1972

1975

1978

1981

1984

1987

1990

1993

1996

1999

Figure 4. Evolution of rainfall rate in Tivissa (DO Montsant) along last 98 years.

In the DO Montsant, this wine parameter showed significant negative relationships with
rainfall in August (R=-0.44) and October (R=-0.39). Minimum temperature developed a
negative relationship with alcoholic degree in August (R=-0.43) and maximum temperature a
positive correlation in October (R=0.47). Colder conditions at the end of the summer would
favor higher alcoholic degree because it enhances the plant physiology (Nadal and Lampreave
2007). There was any significant relationship between potential water deficit (ETP rainfall)
and alcoholic degree (Alcoholic degree = 0.0043WD + 12.605; R = 0.1499 NS).
7
 1300
y = 4.1738x + 963.7
1250 R = 0.6812

1200
1150
1100

ET P (mmyr-1)
1050
1000
950
900
850
800

Years
-1
Figure 5. Potential evapotranspiration (ETp (mmyr ) at Cabacs (DO Montsant) along the last 25 years

These results are related to the August weather conditions of this geographical area. Almost
60% of the August days are explained by two atmospheric circulation patterns. They were
obtained by means of the PCA. Only the second one (Figure 6) is well correlated with an
alcoholic degree series. Its temporal evolution is negative and significant correlated with the
QDO Priorat alcoholic degree (R=-0.42). When NE flows over eastern Iberia are more
frequent, there will be wetter conditions in our study area. Wetter conditions dilute the
alcoholic degree when the berries are about veraison. It is related to the negative correlation
found between rainfall and alcoholic degree for the DO Montsant.

70 70

65 65

60 60

55 55

50 50

45 45

40 40

35 35

30 30
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6. The two most frequent patterns of the daily surface atmospheric circulation over Western Europe in
August for the study period. On the left Principal Component 1 and on the right Principal Component 2.

Overall, from our climate results we did not detect any strong relationship that could explain
the effects of temperature and rainfall in a wide sense on alcohol degree of QDO Priorat and
DO Montsant wines. As a consequence of the observed changes, increases in alcohol degree
could be attributable and explained by some agronomic treatments, which could be defined as
global change. The study area has been undergoing drastic changes since the 1990s, in the
varietal percentages and the grapevines growing systems. Most important changes were the
modification from bushed grapevines to trellis system in a vertical shoot positioning and the
decrease of vineyard establishment in terraces instead in slopes (coteaux), together with the
reconversion of abandoned crop areas into new terraced vineyard plantations. In most cases,
8
these land cover changes involve land terracing, with risers more than 2 m high and benches
with the soil surface structure completely altered. In this way it must be taken the important
change in the uses of soil into account (Table 1). So, according to the analysis of the Land
Cover Maps of Catalonia (CREAF 1993, 2000 and 2005), the vineyard extension in the study
area has increased a 40.7% from 2000 to 2005. These changes implied a variation in
geomorphologic characteristics (Ramos et al 2007), biological fertility (Calvet et al 2006),
slope and hydrological characteristics (Cots-Folch et al 2006, Marf et al 1989), or irrigation
implementation (Girona et al 2009).

Table 1. Evolution of landscape typologies in Priorat along last years (after Cots-Folch et al.2006).

Landscape typologies 1986 (ha) 1986 (%) 1998 (ha) 1998 (%) 2003 (ha) 2003 (%)

High density forest

(>40% vegetation coverage) 692.8 23.9 824.6 28.5 875.7 30.2

Low density forest

(540% vegetation coverage) 643.9 22.2 924.0 31.9 854.2 29.5

Chaparral 691.1 23.9 459.5 15.9 378.5 13.1

Pomology without irrigation 386.4 13.3 232.9 8.0 150.6 5.2

Abandoned pomology without irrigation 144.3 5.0 185.9 6.4 174.0 6.0

Traditional vineyard culture 255.9 8.8 95.0 3.3 106.8 3.7

Terracing vineyards 20.5 0.7 111.0 3.8 291.3 10.1

Urban areas 20.7 0.7 24.0 0.8 24.9 0.9

Rivers 37.1 1.3 35.6 1.2 36.9 1.3

Plant material has also suffered a transformation. It has been increased the number of
Grenache plantations (Cabernet Sauvignon in minor amount of) and reduced to practically
zero the new planting of the Carignan (Nadal 2002). The varietal percentage of Carignan has
halved in the last 35 years, while the Grenache remains in a similar percentage (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Varietal composition in QDO Priorat in 1975, 2000 and 2008. Car= Carignan, Gre= Grenache, Cs=
Cabernet Sauvignon, Gp= Grenache peluda, Me= Merlot, Sy= Syrah, Bl= pool white varieties, n= other red
varieties. Data from QDO Priorat; Nadal, 2002; INDO, 1979 and MAPA, 1995.

9
These modifications of plant material and viticultural techniques influence and have
remarkable effects on the increase of the alcoholic degree of the wine. On the one hand, it is
necessary to mention the increase of yield per hectare in the new plantations of young
grapevines where the trellis system is implanted (in some parcels with limited irrigation such
as support). On the other hand, Grenache is one of the Mediterranean varieties which her great
alcoholic yield is characterized by a high accumulation of sugar in the berries during the
ripening process. The alcoholic degree attained in their wines is much higher than in Carignan
wines. The Atlantic variety Cabernet Sauvignon also raises high amount of sugar in the
grapes. Consequently, the increase of Grenache wine production enhances an increase of the
alcoholic degree in the wines of the Priorat QDO. In the same way, DO Montsant established
new plantations of Grenache and Grenache peluda since the vintage 2001.
The above-mentioned changes, during the 90s, resulted in an increase of 53% in cultivated
surface and of 68% in wine production of wine in the last 20 years. The number of cellars
goes from 12 in 1990 to 90 in 2010 (QDO Priorat (unpublished); Nadal, 2002). The sales of
wine as racking, that in 1990 represented 90% of the elaboration, disappeared in 10 years and
all the wine production becomes bottled wine in 2000 (Nadal and Sanchez Ortiz, 2010). The
requirements of the QDO council specify the high alcoholic degree that the wine must attain,
and the fashion of red wines with a high concentration of in phenolic compounds, have
determined a delay of the vintage in order to achieve the level of quality that the market asks
for.
From these results we can conclude that, in spite of climate change, main changes must be
attributed to agricultural practices, and consequently the reduction of vulnerability is in our
hands.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fundaci Obra Social de la Caixa de Catalunya (ACCUA project)

References
Aggarwal PK. 2003. Impact of climate change on Indian agriculture. J. Plant Biol., 30: 89-
198
Aggarwal PK. 2008. Global climate change and Indian agriculture: impacts, adaptation and
mitigation. Indian J Agric Sci 78 (10): 911-19.
Barnston AG, Livezey RE. 1987. Classification, seasonality and persistence of low-frequency
atmospheric circulation patterns. Monthly Weather Review 115: 1083-1126.
Barry RG, Carleton AM. 2001. Synoptic and Dynamic Climatology. Routledge. London, 620
p.
Bisson L. (2001) In search of optimal grape maturity. Dept of Enology & Viticulture, UC
Davis, july/Ag, 32-43.
Cabello, F, Rodrguez-Torres, I, Muoz-Organero, G, Rubio, C, Benito, A, Garca-Beneytez,
S.(2003). La coleccin de variedades de vid de El Encn. Ed, Consejera de Economa e
Innovacin Tecnolgica. Comunidad de Madrid, Madrid, Espaa. Pp 205.
Christensen JH, Hewitson B, Busuioc A, Chen A, Gao X, Held I, Jones R, Koll RK, Kwon
WT, Laprise R, Magaa Rueda V, Mearns L, Menndez CG, Risnen J, Rinke A, Sarr A,
Whetton P. 2007. Regional Climate Projections. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z,
Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds). Climate Change: The Physical Science

10
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Cots-Folch, R., Martinez-Casasnovas, J.A. and Ramos, M.C. 2006. Land terracing for new
vineyard plantations in north-eastern Spanish Mediterranean region: Landscape effects of the
EU Council regulation policy for vineyards restructuring. Agric. Ecosy & Environ. 115: 88-96
Di Castri, F. and Mooney, H.A. 1973. Medyterranean type ecosystems. Springer-Verlag. New
York.
Drake BG, and. Gonzlez-Meler MA and. Long,SP. 1997. More efficient plants: A
consequence of rising atmospheric CO2?. Plant Mol. Biol. 48:60939
Faust, M. 1986. Research priorities for horticultural science. HortScience 21(6): 1475 -1480.
Girona, J. Marsal, J, Mata, M., del Campo, J., Basile, B. 2009. Phenological sensitivity of
berry growth and composition of Tempranillo grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) to water stress.
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 15 (3): 268-277
Gonzlez-Hidalgo, J.C., Lopez-Bustins, J.A., Stepanek, P., Martin-Vide, J. and de Luis, M.
2009. Monthly precipitation trends on the Mediterranean faade of the Iberian Peninsula
during the second half of the 20th century (1951-2000). International Journal of Climatology
29 (10): 1415-1429.
Gonzlez-San Jos, M. L.; Diez, C.; Santamara, G. 1991. Application of principal component
analysis to ripening indices for wine grapes. J.Food Composition Analysis, 4: 245-255.
Hunter JJ, Pisciotta, A, Volschenk, CG,Archer E, Novello V, Kraeva E, Deloire A. and Nadal
M. 2004. Role of harvestingtime/optimal ripeness in zone/terroir expression. Proc. Joint OIV,
GESCO, SASEV Intl Conference on Viticultural Zoning,1519 November 2004, Cape Town,
South Africa, 466478.
Huth R. 2000. A circulation classification scheme applicable in GCM studies. Theoretical and
Applied Climatology 67: 1-18.
INDO, Catastro Vitcola y vincola, Denominacin de Origen Tarragona, 1979
IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II
and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK and Reisinger A.(eds)]. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva
Jansen MAK , Gaba, V and Greenberg, B. 1998. Higher plants and UV-B radiation:
Balancing damage, repair and acclimation. Trends in Plant Science 4: 131-135.
Kalnay E, Kanamitsu M, Kistler R, Collins W, Deaven D, Gandin L, Iredell M, Saha S, White
G, Woollen J, Zhu Y, Chelliah M, Ebisuzaki W, Higgins W, Janowiak J, Mo KC, Ropelewski
C, Wang J, Leetma A, Reynolds R, Jeene R, Joseph D. 1996. The NCEP/NCAR 40-year
reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 77: 437-471.
Kennedy, JA 2002 Effect of maturity and vine water status on grape skin and wine flavonoids
American Journal f Enology and Viticulture 53(4): 268-274.
Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Vols. 1 and 2. T.T. Kozlowski
Edit. Academic Press. New York.
Lopez-Bustins JA, Esteban P, Labitzke K, Langematz U. 2007. The role of the stratosphere in
Iberian Peninsula rainfall: A preliminary approach in February. Journal of Atmospheric and
Solar-Terrestrial Physics 69 (12): 1471-1484

11
MAPA Registro vitcola provincia de Tarragona, VOL 43, 1995
Marf, O, Sav, R, Serrano, L, Olivella, C & Matas, J. 1989. Bioproductividad de cubiertas
vegetales inclinadas. Efectos del PhAr y la temperatura en Lactuca sativa L.. Proc. VIII
Reunin Nacional de la SEFV. I Congreso Hispano Luso de Fisiologia vegetal. Barcelona.
Nadal Roquet-Jalmar, M. Els vins del Priorat. Ed. Cossetnia, 2002. Valls (Tarragona, Spain)
Nadal M,Volschenk N, Hunter JJ. 2004. Phenolic extraction during fermentation asaffected
by ripeness level of Syrah/R99 grapes. Proc. Joint OIV, GESCO, SASEV Intl Conference on
Viticultural Zoning, 1519 November 2004, Cape Town, South Africa.
Nadal, M., Lampreave, M (2007). Experiencias de riego en las DO Montsant i DOCa
Priorato, In: Baeza Trujillo, P., Lissarrague, J.R. Snchez de Miguel, P. (eds) "Fundamentos,
Aplicacin y Consecuencias del Riego en la vid".Ed. Agrcola Espaola, S.A. Madrid, Spain.
Nadal, M., Sanchez-Ortiz, A. (2010) Territoires du vin: Priorat. Revue "Territoires du Vin".
http://revuesshs.u-bourgogne.fr/territoiresduvin/ (in press)
Ramos, MC, Cots- Folch, R & Martinez-Casasnovas, J.A. 2007. Effects of land terracing on
soil properties in the Priorat region in Northeastern Spain: A multivariate analysis. Geoderma
142: 251-261
Ribreau-Gayon Y, Glories Y, Maujean A. & Dubourdieu D, 2000. Handbook of Enology,
Volume 2: The chemistry of wine and stabilization and treatments. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
England.
Richman MB. 1986. Rotation of principal components. Journal of Climatology 6: 293-335.
Rosenzwieg, C. and Tubiello, F. N., 1997. Impacts of global climate change on Mediterranean
agriculture: current methodologies and future directions. An introductory essay. Mitigation
and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 1 (3), pp. 219-232.
Sav, R. 2009. What is stress and how to deal with ornamental plants? Acta Horticulturae.
813 :241 254.
Sav, R., Terradas, J. and Castell, C. 1999. Gas exchange and water relations. An
ecophysiological approach to plant response to environment. In Ecology of Mediterranean
Evergreen Oak Forests. Ecological Series. Springer-Verlag.
Schultz H.R. 2000. Climate Change and viticulture: A European perspective on climatology,
carbon dioxide and UV-B effects. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 6: 2-12
Sheffield, J. and Wood,E.F. 2008. Projected changes in drought occurrence under future
global warming from multi model, multiscenario, IPCC AR4 simulations. Clim. Dyn. 31:79
105.
Shaver, G.R., Canadell, J., Chapin, F.S. et al. 2000. Global warming and terrestrial
ecosystems conceptual framework for analysis. Bioscience50:871 881.
Stepanek P. 2007. AnClim Software for Time Series Analysis. Dept of Geography, Faculty
of Natural Sciences, MU, Brno. 1.47 MB.
Terradas, J., Sav, R. 1992. Summer-winter double stress and water relationships as clue
factors in the distribution of Quercus ilex L. Vegetatio 99-100:137-145.
Valentini, R., Matteucci, G., Dolman. A.J. 2000. Respiration as the main determinant of
carbon balance in European forest. Nature 404: 861-865.

12