AncientEgyptianMetallurgy 10008571

A N C I E N T E G YP T I A N
ME
TA L L U R G Y
C H A R L E S G R I FF I N
N
Cro wn
In
OT E
L I M IT E D, P UB L I S H E R S
A ll
a re n e t ,
p os tage
e xtra
F ull y I ll u st rat e d Pp i Vi 2 2 1
Pric e 1 08 6d
I R ON I N A N T I QU I T Y
J N E WT ON F RIEN D D S o P H D F I C
duct yT h
f M t l T n iti n P i d s I n
Ag
8 V0
Clo th
P rice s
C oN TE N T s
Intro
or
ro n a s
e so
o a
Ci
A
er
ilisa io n
In
SU B%
ri a
I
p
er a
er o
and
ro
the
rre n
yp
P t
.
CT
le as n a
D scove r
Cu
e a s
ro n an d
he R o mans
I n E ur o e
ro n
in B r a n
al e s ine
In
In
nd a
In E g
t
In
ro n an d t h e N e w W o rl d
In
ina an d % a an
F inis
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Orname n t
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t he Vi i g I
it
i
I
M p t mi
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C
h
p
A E I NDE E I ND E
v
y
p
i
g cc u t i
u
imp
v t i y
I Im p i l 8
gl y d E l g t l y B
St
i C
Pp i xviii 6 60
u
L an g ag e
D o and
ag e , o f a
l e l ang
n s
h ig h l y impo rtant
as
H lf L th
er
p ct
o f e arl y
an
ro n
v o.
as e
o u nd
an
in
a
2 1 0s
E cl d
n
ose
L ITE R AT U R E
C E R A M IC
Co m p il e d Classi e d
ea
D c ib d b y M L S OL ON
d
Publi h d i ll L gu g
th H i t y
iv t
f Pub li c Mu um
P
l
t t he C t l gu
f C
h i h t h D c ipti
ccupy
m ic Ob j ct
and
es r
yt c I
t
ch y
C ic
C ct
uct S
p t tp c
t
t i p t t P c t the A c t
M u ct
P tt y P c i
Aw
t m b v u l i u tu y C m c t
A n A nal i al nd e x t o he W o rk s
t h e T e no l o g o f t h e e ram
A rt ; a so
i o ns an d o f A
o ll e
io n a l e s in w c
an im o r an
la e
he mo s m
and t o
an fa
o rie s o f
o
er
an d
o r e la n
,
n a
an
a a o
es o
ri e
o r an
L is
e ra
s of
ie n
an
s or
s,
se
on o
es r
a e s on
a e
s o
an d
o d e rn
o rk o f
ine s i
le
al
to
se r o
s s
of
e ra
B url ng t on M
ag azine
T IR E DITIO N th ughl y R vi d d E l g d I n L g 8
Cl th
Pp i xxii 6 3 1 Wi th 2 1 7 Il l t t i incl udi g 5 F ld ing Pl t
H
o ro
3 08
se
an
n ar e
vo
o ns,
u s ra
ar
a es
TH E
N ON - F E R R O U S M E T A L S
B Y P R O F W M G OWLAN D
E me ri tu s P rofes sor of M e ta llu rgy a t t he R oya l S ch ool of M i ne s L o ndon
T R e fract o ry M at e rials
O T
L
e ad
R
o as ting F lux e s an d S l ag s C o pp e r
C
N
E
N
S
G o ld Pl atinum
Zinc Cad m ium
Smi lvne r
M
C
e rcury
T in N ick e l
o b al t A nt i
o y
A rse nic B i smuth A lum in ium I ND E X
A v e ritab le c l assic o f it s k ind o u t he me tallurg y o f no n fe rrous m e tals U p t o d ate
T h e wo rk will b e we lco m e d by m e t all urg i st s M t nt ng World
.
T H IR D
E D ITIO N
h ughl y R vi d With 1 9 5 Ph t
1 0 6d
D i g m d Figu
o ro
a
ra
se
o o -M
s , an
re s .
i cro graphs
T H E M I C R OS C OP I C A N A L YS I S OF M E T A L S
BY
SM ON D A N D J E ST E AD
FL ORI S
R E ISE D A N D CO RR E TED
D ME T
.
FRS
.
P S ID N E Y
PAR I M t ll g p h y c id d
C
M t h d f A yPAR II
Th
S ci c
f P li h i g PAR
ic A
ly i
f C b
III
M
ic
c
p
St l
Th
A E ND E S I ND E
Of ll t he b
w
h ich h v d l t with t h i ubj ct i it m y p ct u l y t h i
m i
up m C h mi l W ld
L ON D ON : C H A R L E S G R IF F IN
CC
L T D 42 D R U R Y L A N E W C 2
V
oN T E N T s
e
en e o
IC
PP
o ne re
a ns s
e a
e re
ro s o
as
na
s s
an
ssa
ar o n
ee s
o ns
ra
o ok s
re
B Y
ca
ea
or
s s
as
s, s
re
M A % OR H
w a s, b e
GAR L AN D
fo re t h e W ar S u pe rinte nd e nt
Citad e l
C airo
,
of
L ab o rato ri e s
t he
at
T h e r st ye ar o f t h e w ar h e
inte nded , t h e m anuf ac ture
re nad e ,
g
G allip oli
inve nte d
of
a nd su p e r
,
G arl and
t he
t o the
se nd ng
D ard ane ll e s
and
I n Oct o b e r, 1 9 1 6 , h e
tre kke d 1 n
de stro ying t h e
.
tw ic e
m e ntio n ed
and
t h e A rab ian
Ord e r
in d e sp atc h e s
R e sid e nc y,
War
of
se
o rd e r
t irne s
A rab ,
an
aw ard e d
E l N ah d e h ,
N il e ,
t he
ve ral
as
H e w as
t he
Af t e r t h e
disgu i sed
T u rki sh R ail w ay
M C
t he
C air o f o r Ar abia , w h e re
de se rt
t he
he
l e ft
a nd
w as
h e w as w ith L ord Al l e nb y at t he
C air o ,
as
D ire c to r
of
t h e Ar ab B u re au
le ave E gypt o n a c c o unt

h e alth arriving in E ngl and o n M arc h 28 t h
di e d sudd e nly S i x d a ys l ate r A pril 2 nd
I n 1 9 2 1 h e h ad t o
,
of
ill
He
ANCI E NT E GYPTI AN
ME TAI L URGY
.
B Y
M A J OR H
M C
.
L AT
SUP
E RI N T E N DE N T
0F
A
A
L
R
g
F C S
M I
N ST
L A B OR A TORI ES AT
ND
.
E TAL S,
CIT A DE L
TH E
C A IRO
AN D
O B AN N I ST E R M E N G ,
P ROF ESS OR or M E TALL U R G Y I N T H E UN I VE R S ITY
.
W it h f
( lit any p hot os m

uc rog rap be
L ON
GRIFFI N
42
D ON
C OM P A N Y, L I M I T E D ;
DR U R Y LA N E
1 927
%A ll
LI VE RPOO L
M inn S il ust rat iona 3 ncl uomg
ront isp ie ce ano 1 1 3
CH ARLE S
or
R ig h t s R ese r v e d
P R E F A C E
not e attach e d to t h e F ro nti spi e c e o f thi s volum e

t e ll s t h e tragic sto ry o f t h e d e ath of t h e distingui sh e d
author six day s aft e r h is re turn from t h e sc e ne of many
y e ars labo u r
Du ri n g th e se y e ar s in Egypt M aj o r
G ar land had e xc e pti o nal oppo rtuniti e s f o r t h e coll e ction
and tho r ough e xamination of ancie nt m e tal sp e cim e ns
M e ss r s
n o t e a sily obtainabl e by oth e r m e tallu rgi sts
i G rifn o n c e again hav e se r v e d m e tallurgical s tud e nts
In
by e ncou raging t h e autho r t o p u t t o g e th e r in book form
h is e xt e n s iv e n o t e s and c r itical m e mo randa which
oth e rwi se might n e v e r h av e b e e n mad e public
Un
c fo rtunat e ly a c h apt e r on G o ld and S ilv e r int e nde d to
W e include d w a s o nly re pre se nt e d in t h e M anusc ript
0
: by note s t o o scrappy to b e of an y re al value
I t was a d e licat e ta sk e ntr ust e d t o m e by t h e P u b
lish e r s t o e xami n e and e dit t h e e xtre m e ly int e r e sting
and inf o rming not e s an d giv e th e m th e ir n al arrang e
m e nt f o r publi shing but it h as p rove d both fascinating
and instructiv e
T h e p r actical point s b r o ught o u t by this w o rk are ( 1 )
T h e valu e of mic r osc o pical e xamination in t h e s tudy of
anci e nt sp e cime ns ( 2 ) T h e pro bability of a much e arli e r
iron ag e in Egypt than that g e n e r ally acc e pt e d : ( 3 )
ci re p e r du p r o c e s s f o r casting s
T h e e arly u se o f t h e
and ( 4 ) t h e c o mparativ e ly lat e u se o f c o ld working
as s ociat e d with ann e aling f o r t h e s haping o f v e s se ls
TH E
etc
I)
3 6 6 3 9
P R EF A C E
Vi
wo rk of ancie nt p e ople on t h e me tals known to

the m h a s b e e n always of gre at inte re st to m e tallurgists
and t h e de tails of A ncie nt E gyptian M e tallurgy give n
in this book are comm e nde d with conde nc e to stude nts
whilst arch ae ologists will nd many e nriching sugge stions
T he
LI VE RPOO L
D e ce mbe r, 1 9 2 6
O B
.
C ON T E N T S
HAP T E R L
S u c f M t l t t h An c i t E gypti ( ) Outli
f E gypt i
H i t y ; ( b) S u c f M t l t t h A c i nt Egyp ti n
C
e a s
r es o
s or
en
ans
e a s
r es o
C HAPT ER
Bronz e
Indu s
ty
r
of
An c i t E gypt
en
Egypt
ne o
an
a s,
H;
34
CHAPT E R
T h e I ron A g e in
PAGE
II
85
C HAPT E R
IV
Anc i t E gypti n T l
en
113
o o s,
C HA PT E R V
T he M e
t ll
a
o g rap
hy
of
Antiqu
Me
C HAP T E R
No
Co ll e ct o rs o f Ant iqu e
s e rv at i o n
( 2 ) R e p airin g
for
es
N DE X
Me
1 22
als,
VL
t l Obj ct
a
Cle aning
an d
P re
181
2 09
OF
L I ST
F ro ntisp iece
1
P ORTRA IT
10
11
12
or
OR G ARL A N D
to
M t l S t tu e o f Kin g P iu pi I with a sm all e r one of

C i Mu u m V I t h D yn sty
Bron z S t tu tt of R m ese s I V
Pho t o graph fro m C a
A n E l y Egypt i n M t all u gis t
a
e a
se
a ro
I L L U S T R A T I ON S
L e ad
H dd
z F t
ro
ar
e,
l4
15
16
17
18
44
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
45
46
47
S t tu f H o rus
B nz V s
S ct i n o f B onz V se
S t tu tt f G o d T ho th
S ct i n th ugh A m j o int
J in t f H u
ro
or
or
50
51
52
53
s,
t lH d fPd t l
A w T ip
S t tu tt f O i i F nt Vi w
B ck Vi w
f o r Orn am e n
uld f
Pitt i g
Mo
49
ro
Mo ul d
e o
48
48
a e,
rro
n s on
ea
es a
e o
s r s,
Arro w T i p
Co pp e r N ail XVI I I t h Dyn ast y
Copp e r R a o r
E gypt ian Ve sse l ( R o m an o r B y
ro
W o d nS c o ph agu
e
ar
59
59
61
R o m an L adl e
B ro n z e Vase XVI I I th
o
56
60
54
s,
14
43
e o
42
Un n is h e d Castin g sh ow in g G at e s
C h is e l Mar ks o n Unn ish e d Cast in g
B ro n z e D Oo r F ast e nin g
S t atu e tt e o f R am e se s I V B ack Vie w
a
ge
41
l3
rt o n a
41
l3
40
40
ea
h is S o n
P AGE
39
ro
31
o
B on
S cti n f B n z e F o t
B nz Ch m B ox
S u n an d S n k E m bl e m
H d Of S t tu tt
S t tu tt e o f G dd ss Isis
B d y f I is A m e m o ve d
B on z S n k C o wn
r
T i tle p age
re s s e s
ea
a ce
ar
61
z ti
an
ne
63
64
D y ty
s,
n as
64
67
'
L I S T OF
x
FIG
35
36
37
38
39
ro
70
a e,
71
r,
( Op e n )
72
73
R o m an P o t ,
41
42
43
or
46
47
ro
49
as
ran
on e
ar
ra
ar
en er s
s n
e rn
s n
e rn
e,
Dy
XI I t h
n as
ty
93
1 10
ee
1 12
1 14
1 14
1 16
e,
1 17
S o ck e t t e d A x e
H d
ea
118
Cutt in g o u t Kn if e
R i v e t H e ad s on B ro n z e D o o r H in g e
M i c ro structu re o f Cast S ilve r
o f S ilv e r C o pp e r Al l o y
o f C as t B ras s
50
88
e,
e o
88
VI I I
e,
s on
A xe,
48
n as
r an
75
e, I v
re
ar
o o
e ro
se
an
a rs
ra
45
75
p i in R m P t
S t tu in D i it
t h Dy
ty
S t tu i G y G it X t h Dyn ty
Py m id H i glyphi c i B l ck G it
Chi l M k
H d S t S t tu
Ph t m ic g ph f Cu b f M ild S t l
M dl fC p t
Sh p
B w D ill
N t iv u i g M d
Ad z
N t iv u i g M d
Re
44
rr
40
1 20
51
ro
P AG E
B tto m o f B n z V s
B nz Mi o
Co ll p ibl S t n d ( Cl ose d )
34
ILL US T R A T I ON S
12 1
52
53
54
55
1 24
1 25
12 7
127
57
58
59
S ilv C Op p All y h win g Eut ct i c

c f M d rn Wo k d B
f T wi t d B s
h win g S lip b nd
of
56
er
s e
er
X 90 d
ra s s
Wo rk e d B rass ann e al e d at 600 f o r h alf an ho u r

M i c ro s t ructure o f A nn e al e d B rass a f t e r f u rth e r A nne alin g t o 8 00
f o r h alf an h o u r
o f C o pp e r D a gg e r s h o wi n g C o re s
,
9,
65
66
67
68
69
Co pp e r D agg e r aft e r Ann e alin g

M i c ro s t r uctu re o f Co pp e r S t ri p XI I t h Dyn as ty
Co pp e r S tri p ( Fi g 6 4 ) Ann e al e d x 9 0 diam
M i c ro structu re o f C o pp e r R a z o r ( Fi g
2
d
Fi
g
9
a
Anne al e d
n
s
(
Co pp e r Kn if e
M i c ro structu re o f C o pp e r Knif e
X 7 5 di am
C o pp e r Kn ife ( Fi g 69 ) aft e r Anne alin g X 7 5 di am
M i c ro structu re o f A x e h e a d ( Fi g
n e ar C ut t in g E d g e
S am e as Fi g 7 2 afte r Ann e alin g
70
71
72
73
1 49
1 49
1 47
148
1 50
1 39
1 48
9)
64
1 37
62
63
131
1 35
s,
1 34
ra ss ,
60
61
1 50
1 50
1 51
1 51
1 51
1 51
1 52
LI S T
F IG
74
c t uctu
( Fi g
t uctu
M ic
Mi
ro s r
re
ILL U S T R A T I ON S
OF
h wi g C
n
L e ad
and
o re s
pt
o s
in
xi
ro n
P ot
1 52
75
G old R in g s h o win g Co re S t ruct u re

o f T wis t e d B ra ss
X 9 0 di am
o f Gil t C o pp e r S t ri p
X 1 00 di am
R ive t sho wing Fine Cry st als X 90 diam
M i c ro st ructu re o f S ilv e r B e a d
X 9 0 di a m
o f S ilv e r C o pp e r S t a tu e tt e
o f B ro n z e L a
dle ( Fi g
x 1 00 di am
o f Orn am e n t e d P o t s h o wi n g F l o w l in e s
ro s r
re o f
77
78
79
1 55
1 56
1 55
80
1 53
1 56
1 58
81
82
o m an
Mic
84
85
86
87
88
89
ro n
t uctu
R p i d P ti f R m P t
f J i t in R p i d P t
f B
z h wi g I clu i
f U fu d S c p
Vi w f S u f c f C pp D gg
S cti h wi g I t
l S l ct iv C
i
t uctu f C pp G v h wi g C
i
M ic
h wi g C
i
f C pt i c S il v
f S ilv
i ch All y
f C pp
N il h wi g C
i
f A
H d h wi g C
i
f R m n B
z %
Egypti H i g ( B z )
t uctu f Hi g h wi g Im pu it i
d C
i
M ic
f B
z A w T ip
f R m n P t (B
z)
f B
z A w T ip
Egypti G v
t uctu f G v
M ic
F gm t f C pp f m C
i P duct
Mi c t uctu f F g m t f C pp
f B
z A w T ip
U cl
d S t tu tt
f u d
Cl
d S t tu tt
U cl
d Mumm y E y
S m
1 07
ft Cl i g
R p i d S t tu tt f I i
C ti g
B k Li H d d G d
P p d F t d P in d J i t
R p i d Li H d d G d
ros r
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
1 00
1 01
1 02
1 03
1 04
1 05
1 06
1 07
1 08
1 09
1 10
111
1 12
1 13
1 59
1 59
re o f
on s
a re
e s
r a e o
er
n e rn a
ro s r
re o
er
an
ro s r
en
xe
ro n e
ro n
e an e
re o
a re
ro
en
re
ar e
a re
o rr o s o n ,
ar ,
e s an
ro n e
rr o
e r,
o rr o s o n
en
ra
ro n
rro
e as
e,
e,
o rro s o n ,
rr o
ro
e an e
e as
o rro s o n ,
o rro s o n ,
er
as
on -
oo
on -
e an n
er
e o
an
ea
ro
o rro s o n
ra
1 62
1 65
1 55
1 66
1 67
1 67
1 68
1 69
1 70
1 71
1 72
1 72
1 73
1 73
1 75
1 75
1 77
e r,
1 77
1 79
1 87
1 87
1 87
1 87
2 02
2 03
2 02
1
ne
161
s s,
ea
se
e s
ra
e r,
e an e
s o ns o
161
o rro s o n ,
ro n e
er s
re o
ro s r
ra
ea
ro n e
ra
ro s r
ra
re o
an
er
e e
an
e r,
er r
er s
a re
ro n
on o
or
o n
1 58
ar ,
90
P AGE
o n s,
2 05
2 07
AN CI E N T
M E TAL L U R GY
E G YP T I A N
'
C H A P T ER
S OU R C E S
M E T AL S
OF
TO THE
E G YP T I A N S
( )
a
O u t l in e
of
AN C IE N T
E g yp t i a n H
is t o ry
thoughtful p e rs on of t h e p re se n t day it must

app e ar re markable that man had i n habit e d t h e e arth
f o r hu n dre ds of th o u s ands of ye ars b e f o re h e b e gan
to u se m e t ay Duri n g that tre me n d o u s lap se of time
h e had e m e rg e d fr o m a stat e o f utt e r barbari s m and if
w e are to b e li e v e s om e s ci e nti st s had de v e l o p e d fr om
an ani mal pr op e lli ng him se lf o n four le g s i n to a b e ing
of human fo rm capable o f makin g imple me nts and we apon s
f o r indu s trial and warlike pu rp o se s
T h e primitiv e nativ e s of E gypt like th o se o f oth e r
pre hi sto ric land s in the ir se ar ch f o r impr o ve me n ts
upo n t h e st o n e thr owin g me thods of hunti ng and warfare
of the ir simian c o in h ab it an t s quickly le arnt t o fashio n
ve ry u se ful imple me nt s o f int and b e fore t h e b e ginni ng
of t h e hi storic a g e t h e workman ship of the se re ache d a
T O the
A N CIEN T EG Y P T I A N
I lI E TA L L U R G Y
standar d of e xc e lle nc e sup e rior to that of any othe r

anci e nt countr y
Egyptian hi story may b e tr ac e d back som e
ye ars
B e fore that w e only know that man e xist e d and that a
c e rtain stage of civilisation had b e e n attaine d imme diat e ly
prio r to t h e inve ntion of t h e art of writing at which point
l hi s to ry b e gins
T h e r s t g e ne r al application of me tals in Egypt do e s
appe ar to hav e b e e n ve ry much ante rior to t h e
n ot
inv e ntion of writing N O d o ubt t h e cutting and e ngr aving
of stone s upon which re cor ds and me moir s we re to b e
made calle d f o r tools o f a mat e rial le ss friable than
int with which it w a s o nl y possible to make rough
sc ratchings upon t h e sur fac e and t h e ancie nts we re
thus compe lle d to t ry othe r mine r als that we re lyin g
in plenty ar o und the m b e ing thus l e d f o rwar d to t h e
di scov e ry of m e tals which advanc e d t h e art of re co r ding
thoughts and de e ds to an e xte nt now dif cult to
appre ciate
I t is howe v e r not imp r obable that me tals had th e ir
I n s pit e
r st application in de str uctive imple me nts
of t h e e xc e lle nc e of de sign an d workmanship that t h e
manufacture o f int arr ow tips kniv e s and othe r small
imple me nt s had re ache d it is c e rtain that t h e di scove ry
of me tal s had a pr ofoun d and b e n e cial in ue nc e upon
by re nde ring
t h e m e th o ds us e d in w ar and hunting
possible t h e production of much more s e rvic e able we apons
than th o s e pre viou sly in u se
M uch di scu s si o n h as take n plac e am o n g st arch ae ologist s
as t o t h e actual country and time o f t h e r st u se of
cop p e r an d
and it is a v e ry fascinating
o the r m e tals
subj e ct l T h e re is h o we v e r little doubt that if t h e
Egyptian s can not b e said t o have b e e n t h e rst to apply
coppe r to the ir ne e ds the y we re among st t h e rs t and
.
so U R C E S
0F
E TA L S
the y are e qually as de se rvin g o f c re di t f o r it as t h e othe r

ancie nt nation s who may o r may not have anticipate d
the ir di sc o ve ry b e cau se the ir application was inde pe nde n t
a n d o riginal
F u rthe r it may b e said that in the ir a pp li
cation o i t h e the n known me tals e ach in it s mo s t suitable
dire ction and in the i r skill in fa shi o ni ng and w o rking
the m t h e E gyptians we re s e c o n d t o n o o the r p e ople of
the ir time
I t h as b e e n assum e d by som e e xp e rts that imm e diat e ly
p rior to t h e I st Dyna sty Egypt was invade d by a fo re ign
nation who b r ought into t h e c o untry much re ne me nt
in art and state sman ship as we ll as a kn o wle dg e of m e tals
a nd
of a mature d civili s ati o n
o th e r e vide nc e s
T hi s
w o uld me an howe ve r that in some oth e r an cie nt country
the re pre viously e xiste d a r ac e o f p e o ple o f supe rio r
culture who mu st the re fore have b e e n t h e fathe r s o f
but up t o t h e pre se nt none o f t h e land s of
c ivilisati o n
t h e old w o r ld h a s p r oduc e d di stinct in di cations that it s
s tat e of p ro g re s s w a s in advanc e of that o f t h e Egyptians
ye ars b e fore C hri st
P re V io u s t o 1 000 B C
all t h e chie f u se ful me tals we re
b e ing worke d by t h e Egyptians and t h e o nl y one s that
a re
an d we re
n o w of e xt e n s iv e indust rial imp o rta n c e
the n unkn own are zinc ni cke l and aluminium Of zin c
a n d ni cke l
it may b e s aid that although the y se e m in
di spe n s able to us now w e could manage with o ut the m
a s di d t h e
ancie nt Egyptian s whil st aluminium is a
m e tal of quit e m o de rn di s cove ry which h as only b e c o m e
indi sp e n sable sinc e aviation b e came a pr actical sme nce
I t is n o t u nl ike ly that had larg e de posit s o f zinc and
n ick e l o r e s e xi st e d in t h e cou n t ry t h e Egyptian c r aft s
m e n would have di scov e re d and u se d th e m
T he y
c e r tainly u se d all t h e m e tal s that occurr e d in th e i r o w n
c o unt ry in sufci e nt quantiti e s to b e of u se
and re adil y
,
A N CIEN T EG Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
took up t h e u se of tin whe n it w a s introduc e d from othe r

countrie s the re b e ing no tin b e aring mine r als in Egypt
its e lf
I t is almo s t impo s sible to re alis e how much mankind
in g e ne r al owe s to day to t h e di scove ry of m e tals I t
will on ly b e ne c e ssary to plac e b e fore t h e re ade r a picture
of a world min us machine ry which b e side s owing its
origin to t h e inve ntive g e ni us of mode rn m an w a s
primarily made po s sible by t h e di scove ry of t h e u se ful
P r actically all mode rn impr ove m e nt s de p e nd
m e tals
dire ctly o r indire ctly upon m e tal s and o u r pre se nt stat e
of pr ogre s s would have b e e n imp o s sible witho ut the m
A r ch ae ologi st s divide t h e e arli e st hi stor y and p re
history o f a country into p e riods re pre s e nt e d by t h e
di ff e re nt and pr ogre ssive stag e s of culture that e xiste d
and to the se t h e t e rms S to n e B r o n z e and I r on A ge s
E ach of th e se stag e s is furth e r divide d i n to
a re appli e d
and lat e p e riods to which suitable nam e s
e ar ly middl e
a re
give n
N o p re c i se dat e s can b e a ssig n e d to t h e
di ff e re nt p e riods in an y c o un try b e cau se the y are me re ly
stage s which g r adually shade o ff int o o n e an othe r a s f o r
instan c e in t h e ca se of t h e B ronz e A g e b e cau se s tone
impl e m e nt s co n tinue d t o b e made f o r c e nturie s aft e r t h e
rst u se of copp e r o r b r onz e
I t is u s ually c o n side re d with re gar d to Eg ypt that
t h e S t o ne A g e t e r minat e d ab o ut 4 000 B C
but the re
is re ally n o h o p e of o u r e ve r b e ing able t o x a date
e ve n r o ughly f o r t h e e arli e st m e tal o bj e cts b e cau se th e y
a re p re hi s to ric
T h e S tone A g e was f o llowe d by a pe riod during whic h
C oppe r was u se d Af te rward s on t h e i n tr oduction o f
tin t h e B ro nz e A g e pro p e r b e gan T h e se cla ssical stage s
of civili sation will b e re fe rre d to lat e r as al s o will t h e
highly cont e ntious s ubj e ct of t h e comme nc e me n t o f t h e
-
OF
O U R CE S
E TA L S
in Egypt a stage of cul ture which may ye t b e

prove d to have e v e n pre c e de d t h e B r on z e A g e in this
c o un
try of paradox e s
A tt e mpts are s ome time s made to trac e a de nit e line
of de marcati o n b e twe e n th e s e various p e riods but s ure ly
it is a mi stake to e xp e ct that an ag e of say b ronz e would
unde r an y circum stanc e s sudde nl y o r e ve n in a c e ntury
or t w o
change to o n e of ir on simply b e caus e o f t h e
introduction of t h e latt e r F o r instanc e in o u r own time
t h e inv e ntion of e l e ctric light di d not at onc e s e al t h e
fat e of gas illumination but t h e two illuminants we re
aft e rwar ds e mploye d side by side a s no doubt th e y will
c ontinu e t o b e f o r g e ne ration s A n d furthe r may it not
b e said that e v e n to day w e are almost as much in an
alumin ium ag e as a st e e l o n e which latt e r t e rm is
s om e tim e s u se d in co nn e ction with t h e p r e s e nt e r a
I t is th e r e fore not re markabl e that t h e dat e s o f t h e
c omm e n c e me nt s a n d e ndin gs of t h e stag e s of culture in
pre hist oric an d e arly hi storic time s cannot b e x e d
de ni te ly A ft e r t h e B r o nz e A g e b e gan int would b e
n
i
d
e
e
d
it
i
known
that
it
was
us
e
d
f
o
r
g
e
n
r
ations
and
e
s
(
)
s imila rly aft e r t h e intr o duction of ir on b r o nz e continu e d
Eve n aft e r int di s app e are d fro m ge ne r al
t o b e u se d
industrial u se it continu e d f o r ag e s t o b e e mploye d f o r
re r ai sin g pu r pos e s a n d b r o nz e has n e v e r wholly gone
into disu e t u de e v e n t e mporarily in fact it has re maine d
in u se as w e shall di s cuss late r made up of ve ry similar
propo rtions o f t h e constitue nt me tals a s whe n rst intr o
d u c e d thou s an d s of ye ar s ago
I t is pr op o se d t o give h e re only a ve r y r ough outlin e
Of e arly Egyptian hi s to ry in o r d e r that t h e re ade r may
b e in a position t o f o llow more re adily t h e allusion s to
pe riods and dyna stie s that follo w in sub se que nt chapt e r s
and f o r f ul le r de tails t h e authe ntic works of P rofe ssor
I r on A g e
A N C IEN T E G Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
F linde r s P e t rie , S ir G aston M aspe r o ,
and othe r s should
cons ul t e d
T h e histo ry of ancie nt E gypt is di vide d into pe riods o r
which are furthe r subdivide d into dynastie s in
e poch s
a s o m e what arbit rary manne r fol lo wing a syst e m rst
adopt e d some
ye ars ago by an E g yp t ain historian
nam e d M ane tho and which has b e e n acc e pt e d by arch
T he re is
ae o l o g ist s w i th varying amounts of c re de nc e
al s o a pre dynastic pe riod during which t h e s e parat e
stat e s forme d by t h e original in c u rsio ni st s into t h e N ile
Valle y we re graduall y amalgamat e d into o ne nation
unde r o n e P haraoh I n thi s re mot e p e riod small a rticle s
of copp e r such as pins and thin article s from hamme re d
gold we re made having b e e n probably hamme re d fr om
native m e tal whilst j ar s and bowls of e xquisit e symme try
we re pr oduc e d from t h e harde st stone s by p roc e ss e s o f
simple grinding alone
T h e I st Dynasty dat e d fr om about H Q 3 5 00 and as
t h e art of wr iting was at that time w e ll advanc e d w e
kn ow from re cor ds which have b e e n pre se rve d that e ve n
t h e Egyptians th e n obtaine d s uppli e s of tu r quoi se f rom
t h e p e ni nsula of S inai
I t also se e ms p e rf e ctly cle ar that in t h e re mot e days
o f t h e I st Dynasty t h e Egyptian s had an intimat e kn o w
le dge o i C oppe r o re s and of t h e proc e sse s f o r e xtractin g
t h e m e tal which suppo r ts t h e Vi e w that t h e r st u se o f
copp e r in this part of t h e w o rld must have p re c e de d t h e
I st Dynasty by c e nturie s
A S h a s b e e n me nti o ne d a lre ady in t h e p re hi sto ric
p e riod gold had b e e n w o rke d and by t h e time of t h e
I st
Dynasty t h e goldsmith s art had re ache d a h igh
s tat e o f p e rf e ction
though pre se nt day me mb e rs of t h e
c r aft will pr obably not wholly agre e with thos e arc h ae o lo
gists who unfavourably compare mode rn golds mi th s
be
O U R CES
OF
E TA L S
work with t h e old Egyptian c h ef s d aeu v res

B e fo re
t h e clos e of thi s dynasty mouldin g was known and gold
and copp e r casting we re in u se
T h e I I I r d Dyna sty t e rmi nat e d what is some time s
calle d t h e archaic p e riod
Dur ing t h e I v t h and subs e que nt Dynastie s mini ng
op e rations f o r t u r qu o I S e we re vigorou sly carrie d on in
S inai
G old was obtaine d from t h e h ill s along t h e R e d
S e a and a f e w othe r plac e s in Egypt
S tone was quarrie d
all ove r t h e country to pr oduc e t h e pyramids statue s
and tombs H uge block s of gr anite 5 0 to 6 0 tons in
we ight we re b r ought down t h e rive r from t h e di strict
of t h e r st C ataract I t was a p e riod whe n art and in
du st ry our ishe d as th e y had ne ve r p re viously our ishe d
anywhe re in t h e wo rld G old and C Op p e r we re u se d ;
silve r was known but was r are and the re fore much
more valuable than gold
I n thos e e arly days m e tals must hav e b e e n e nti re ly
m o nopoli e s of t h e C ourt T h e e xp e ditions to t h e min e s
and quarrie s we r e s e nt in charg e of t h e highe st o f ci al s
some time s e v e n t h e King s s ons and s o no doubt t h e
rs t m e tallurgist s in t h e world we re e ithe r Of r oyal blood
o r occupi e d p o st s of g re at impo rtanc e u n de r t h e c r own
During t h e M e mphi t e p e riod tin was po ssibly rst
introduc e d fr om ab road Wi th t h e e xc e pti o n of a sma ll
i
n
e stat e d t o dat e back t o t h e I I I r d Dynasty
of
b
on
z
r
p
and which is u suallyre gar de d a s an a c cide ntal p roduction
of copp e r tin all oy t h e e arli e st article suppos e d to b e
of b ro nz e that has b e e n found is a life siz e s tatue ( F ig 1 )
of a King n ame d P iu p i I of t h e VI t h Dyna sty ( se e al s o
p 3 6 I t is now in t h e C airo M us e um and
C hap
although t h e M us e um catal o gu e a sse rt s that thi s s tatue
is o f b ronz e and give s an analy sis d o ubt e xi sts in some
quart e r s a s to whe the r it is re ally of that alloy and a
'
A N CI
Fig
EN T E G Y P T IA N
M t l St t
e
Ki g P i p i
C i Mu um
a u e of
a ro
se
E TA LL U R G Y
with a s m all e r o n e
VI t h
Dy
n as
ty
.
of
h is
so n
O U R CE S
OF
E TA L S
f uture analysis may show that it is only C opp e r in whi ch

cas e t h e introduction of tin int o Egypt will stand in
ne e d o f b e ing dat e d forwar d some c e nturie s b e caus e
the re is no o the r authe ntic b r onz e sp e cime n in e xist e nc e
o f a p e ri o d ant e ri o r to t h e XVI I I t h Dyna s ty
A t t h e s ame time it s h o uld b e poin t e d out that t h e
having b e e n e ithe r partly o r as t h e author
s tatu e
b e lie ve s wholly p roduc e d by casting t h e me tal may
quite pr obably b e o f b r onz e as some di f culty would
have b e e n e xp e rie nc e d in castin g an obj e ct of this nat ur e
in e v e n o nl y comparative ly pur e copp e r
Existing sp e cime ns make it fairly c e rtain that durin g
t h e I v t h Dyna s ty o r e v e n b e fo re i ro n w a s e mploy e d in
Egypt f o r industrial purp o se s b u t a di s cu s si o n of t his
fascinating subj e ct is re se rv e d f o r a sub se qu e nt chapt e r
T h e M e m p h ic P e riod w a s follow e d by t h e r st T h e ban
r
T
e
n
re
f
om
h
b
capital
iod
Empi
which
e
s
h
e
e
P
e
r
o
r
w
t
(
)
include d t h e n t h to t h e XVI I t h Dyn a stie s and t e r mi
nat e d about B C 1 6 00
T h e X I I t h Dyna s ty s tand s out a s a v e ry p r o sp e r o u s
one
and du ring its c o ur se t h e Egyptian s made an in
v a sio n of S yr ia anoth e r w e althy land of old tim e s which
w a s sub se qu e n tly to b e com e an imp o rtant s ou rc e of
m e tals of all kinds to t h e Vict o ri o u s Egyptians
F ro m t h e an cie nt re co r d s w e l e arn that in t h e X I I t h
Dyn a sty t h e mine s in S inai we re admini ste re d in a
me tho di cal manne r
Each mine was plac e d un de r a
fore man and a re gular o utput of o re e xp e ct e d fro m it
Value s we re at thi s time r e ck o ne d in te rm s of we ight
in copp e r and again t h e ar chae ologi st s t e ll u s that t h e
j e we lle ry o f t h e p e riod compri se d r e gal o rnam e nts t h e
w o rkman ship of which has not b e e n s urpass e d by lat e r
day goldsmiths
I n t h e B ritish M u se um is a m e mo rial table t o r s t e la
,
A N C IEN T E G Y P T I A N
I O
E TA LL U R G Y
of a mi ni ng insp e cto r of t h e XI I t h Dynasty On it h e

stat e s that h e worke d t h e m ining dist ricts and made
t h e chi e fs wa s h out t h e gold
T h e XV and XVI t h Dynastie s we re fo re ign one s t h e
Egyptian s r st e xp e rie nc e of alie n r ule T h e invade rs
came from A sia and are known by t h e name of H yksos
T h e y only r ule d f o r about a c e nt u ry but during that
time b e came tho roughly E gyptianis e d assume d P haraonic
title s and app ropriat e d t h e statue s of king s who had
T he ir rule had little e ff e ct on t h e
re igne d b e fo re t he m
art of t he p e riod
and none on t h e E gyptian industrie s
and c r afts ; in fact in all like lihood the y we re ruling
a p e ople f ar in advanc e of the ms e lve s in the s e matt e r s
T h e rst T h e ban p e riod e nde d in gre at conf usion with
T h e Egyptians ov e rpowe re d th e ir
t h e XVI I t h Dyna sty
chas e d the m o u t of t h e country and an E gyptian
r ule r s
P har aoh w a s onc e again s e t upon t h e th r one
T h e XVI I I t h Dynasty ushe re d in a n e w e poch t h e se cond
T h e ban o r as it is s om e tim e s calle d t h e Empire P e riod
a p e riod of maj e sty and might f o r t h e country during
which A sia w a s s ubdu e d and N ubia t h e country of
gold was forc e d to pay an annual tribut e of fr om 6 00 to
8 00 pounds w e ight of t h e p re ci o us m e tal fr om t h e mine s
the re which aft e rwar d s b e came a continual sourc e of
incom e to t h e Egyptians
T hat t h e mine s and quarri e s we r e k e pt in t h e hands
of t h e re igning monarch is shown by t h e P har aohs gre at
A h m o se I st t h e rst
int e r e st in th e ir de ve lopm e nt
king of t h e XVI I I t h Dyna sty made Vi sits of in sp e ction
to th e m
T his dynasty witne ss e d t h e ri se of a g re at
e
e
e
H
r
c
o
qu n nam d atshe put who e igne d as
re g e nt with
King T hutmo se I I I rd T his r oyal lady is note worthy
b e cau se sh e e re cte d two imme n se ob e lisks at Karnak
and ove rlaid with gold
e ach we ighin g ov e r 3 5 0 ton s
.
O UR C ES
OF
E TA L S
II
app e aranc e of t h e untarnishable cove ring o f the se

monume nts shining in t h e s ple ndour of t h e Egyptian
must have b e e n e ntranc in g and t h e valu e p r o
su n
T he
dig io u s
was an able admini strator an e mpire

builde r an d a military str at e gist o f no m e an orde r
H e inc re a se d t h e tre a sury of t h e kingdo m by imm e n se
quantitie s of gold and silve r which h e capture d in S yria
and w e re ad in t h e ancie nt re cor ds that durin g his re ign
He
a w e ighing o f about four tons of gold took plac e
occupie d his spare time in de signi ng ve ss e l s n e e de d f o r
H is s o n A m e nhot e p I I nd su cc e e de d him
t h e t e mpl e
and ably admini ste re d t h e Empir e inc re asin g e nor mously
Af t e r o n e
t h e w e alth of t h e t re asur y by his conqu e sts
b r ought back thre e quart e r s of
o f his e xp e ditions h e
a ton of gold and about 4 5 tons of copp e r During this
re ign th e r e w a s con side r abl e int e rcour s e with t h e e ast e rn
M e dit e rr ane a n countri e s an d E gyptian inu e nc e s wo rke d
upon t h e art of oth e r nati o ns
S ilv e r b e cam e mo re
pl e ntiful than hith e rto and ch e ap e r than gold
main tain e d t h e
A n oth e r P har a o h A m e nhot e p I I I
but afte r that t h e XVI I I t h
e mpi re f o r n e arly 4 0 y e a rs
Dynasty dr e w t o its clo se in di so r de r and re ligious re v o lu
tion : t h e S yrian de p e nde ncy w as lost and p rie stc raft
as sum e d a c o ntr olli ng inu e nc e in t h e gove rn me nt
1 205 includ e s
T h e X l x t h Dyna sty B C 1 3 5 0 to
t h e rst two k ing s known by t h e nam e of R am e s e s a
name which is n o w re nown e d almo st all ove r t h e civilise d
world I t is t h e conc e it an d purloining pr oclivitie s of
t h e s e cond R am e s e s how e v e r that hav e b r ought t h e
nam e into such pr omine nc e H is conc e it t o ok t h e form
of e re cting c o ll o ssal statu e s of hi ms e lf all ove r t h e count ry
whilst h is pir acy in adopting nume r ou s statue s of h is
kingly pre de c e s sors e rasin g the ir in sc ription s and
T hutmo se I I I r d
A N C IEN T EG Y P T IA N
12
E TA LL U R G Y
ubstituting his o w n nam e and achie v e me nts I n spite of

th e s e we akn e s se s h e w a s a mi ghty b uilde r and as an
in stanc e of this o n e o f h is statu e s may b e quot e d whic h
is made of a s ingl e block of s t o n e we ighing about a
thou sand ton s T h e stude nt will nd it int e re sting to
picture t h e ancie nt Egyptian workme n pre paring t h e
s ton e
moving t h e s tatu e and e re ctin g it without t h e
u se of machine ry o f any kin d and acco r di ng to a rc h ae o l o
gi sts without any o the r s mall t o ols than th o s e of copp e r
a n d b r onz e
A mongst t h e oth e r achi e v e m e nt s of R am e s e s I I
it
may b e m e ntione d that h e had 5 1 daught e r s and about
twic e that numb e r of sons H is mummy is in t h e C air o
M u se um and vi sito rs may gaz e upon t h e fac e of t h e
old kin g much t h e same as it must hav e b e e n as h e l ay
upon his de ath bie r thousands of y e ars ago
U nfo rtunat e ly t h e s ucc e s s o r s of R ame se s I I of t h e
s am e nam e
who f o rm e d t h e x x t h Dynasty we re not s o
e n t e rp r i s i n g
and little is kn o wn ab o ut the m e xc e pt
that unde r the ir rul e t h e Empire fe ll away an d t h e powe r
o f t h e P ha ra o hs b e cam e tho ro ughly s ub o r di n at e to that
o f t h e p ri e sts
A photogr aph , take n fro m a b e au t iq y
e x e cut e d b ro nz e statu e tt e o f R am e s e s I V
will b e f o und
s
in F ig 2
T h e lat e r R
.
ame se s in the ir de sire o nly f o r e a se an d

luxu ry all o we d t h e prie sth o od to b e co me powe rful an d
we althy an d s o t h e follo wi n g dynasty t h e XXI st was
o n e o f p ri e s t s
kn o wn as t h e P rie s t s of A m o n who s u c
c e e d e d in g e tting t h e whol e of Egypt unde r th e i r cont r o l
f o r a time
T owar d s t h e e n d o f t h e dyna s ty howe ve r
t h e country split up into two ki n gd o m s
t h e p ri e s ts
maintaining autho rity in U pp e r Egypt wh il st de sc e n d
ant s o f t h e di re ct r o yal lin e r o se up in t h e D e lta and
se t up a king of th e i r o w n at T a n
,
'
O U R CES
OF
E TA L S
I3
F r om
thi s uns e ttle d p e riod w e have re lics of inte re st

I t is not surpri sing to nd that
t o t h e m e tallu rgist
t h e pri e sts who s e e me d to b e li e v e that t e mpo ral as w e ll
as spiritual rule could b e wo rke d from o n e de partme nt
T he
di d not shri n k fr om comme rcial unde rtakings
.
F ig
ro n 7 e
S t t u tt
a
e o
m e se s
IV
control of all t h e me tal was plac e d in t h e h ands of high

ofcial s of t h e p rie stly h o u se and thu s w e n d that o n e
w h o was t h e chi e f of t h e m e t all ur g is t s a ls o b o re t h e
A picture
g ran di os e title of S upe rio r of t h e S e c re t s
,
A N C IEN T EG Y P
IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
of thi s int e re sting p e rson is give n in F ig 3 I t is a photo

graph of t h e cartonag e plac e d ov e r t h e mummy and is
suppo se d t o b e a life like re pre se ntation of t h e de c e as e d
M e tallurgi sts Visiting t h e mu se um at C air o may thus
.
Fig
A n E l y Eg ypt i
ar
an
M t llu rgi t
e a
Ph t g ph f
o o
ra
ro
Cart onage
look upon t h e f e ature s of o n e Of the e arlie st o f the ir

pre de c e ssors in t h e scie nc e and will no doubt wonde r
whe the r t h e e xp e rt was r e ally as youthful as h e is re p re
s e nte d
O U R CE S
OF
E TA L S
owing to t h e lib e r al policy of t h e Egyptian A nti

i
e s D e partm e nt in allowing photog r aphs to b e fr e e ly
u
i
t
q
take n in t h e M u se um that it is po ssible to i nclude this
and othe r inte re sting re p roductions of antique s ke pt
the re
A ft e r E gypt had b e e n mo re o r le ss di vide d f o r about
a c e nt ur y and a half a L yb ian succ e e de d in obtaining
t h e thr one and in b ringing t h e whol e of t h e country
unde r o n e c rown but t h e hi gh prie st s of A m o n still
maintaine d the ir powe r in c e rtain localitie s
During t h e I r do mination t h e L yb ian s b e came Egypt
H ow
ianise d as t h e oth e r ali e n r ul e r s di d b e f o re th e m
e v e r th e y w e r e ov e rthr own ih turn by N ub i an 1 n v a d e r s
who founde d t h e X x v t h Dynasty ( B C 7 1 2 to
or
Ethiopians
L ike the ir p re de c e s s o r s t h e N ubians
had no arts o r in du strie s and the re f o re did n o t in
u e n c e t h e c r aft s of t h e Egyptians at l e ast not b e ne
I t is
c iall y
.
of t h e x x v t h Dynasty t h e Egyptians had

though f or
e xp e ri e nc e of al i e n r ul e f r om anoth e r s o ur c e
T h e A s syrians who in
a compar ativ e ly s hort time
fo rm e r y e ars had b e e n subj e ct s of t h e Egyptian Empi re
invade d t h e country drove out t h e N ubians and took
t h e kin g ship into th e ir own hands
T h e l e adi ng hi s torians d o not stat e that t h e S yrians
b rought in any improve m e nts upon t h e me tal and
k indr e d indu stri e s and inde e d th e ir domination se e ms
to hav e b e e n of a pure ly de structive nature although
it was such a short o n e T he y are said h o we v e r t o hav e
l e ft b e hind a se t of iron tools compri sing chis e ls s aws
etc
of S yr ian manufacture which are still in
r asps
e xist e nc e
T h e dyn asty that followe d t h e x x v rt h
e xt e nding
from B C 6 6 3 to B C 5 2 5 forms a b right b re ak in an
A t t he
e nd
A N CIEN T
I lI E TA L L U R G Y
EG Y P T IA N
othe rwis e gloomy p e riod of ancie nt Egyptian histo ry

With t h e aid of G re e k me rc e nari e s t h e native s we re
onc e again able to ove rpowe r the ir fore ign rule r s and
a P har aoh of the ir own upon t h e throne
T his
se t
p e riod of re storatio n kno wn fro m t h e name of t h e
capital S ais as t h e S aitic P e riod is pr obably t h e mo s t
inte re sting and imp o rtant fr om a pure ly me tallurgical
point of Vie w b e cau se it is t h e only e poch that yi e lds
any con side r able quantitie s o f me tal obj e ct s of Egyptian
as we ll as G re e k wo rk and style P robably 90 p e r c e nt
of m e tal antiquitie s re c ov e re d from e xcavations b e long
to this p e riod I n it a gre at re vival of art an d l e a rn ing
took plac e and G re e k inue nc e up o n t h e arts and c r afts
b e gan to b e f e lt A t le ast o n e city of G re e ks was foun de d
in Egyp t during this dynasty
B u t Egypt was f ar t o o valuable a land to b e u n
attr act e d by t h e h e ads of r ival s tate s and t h e P e rsians
aft e r the ir Victori o u s mar ch ac ro ss A sia e n t e re d t h e
country and subdu e d it aft e rwar ds r ulin g it with s o me
s e v e r ity f o r about 1 1 0 y e ars fo r ming t h e XXVI I t h Dyna sty
which last e d from B C 5 2 5 to B C 4 08
T h e P e r sians we re the ms e lv e s skill e d in m e tal wo rki n g
A f e w sp e cim e n s
a n d had an a rt di s tinctiv e ly th e i r o w n
of th e ir b r o n z e wo rk hav e b e e n found in Egypt from time
to time but of c o ur se the re is n o thin g t o indicat e
whe the r the se we re made in t h e c o untry by P e rsian
wo rkm e n o r w e re m e re ly introduc e d in the ir manu
f a c t u re d f o r m
A s yst e m of coin ag e w a s in itiat e d in Egypt by t h e
P e r sian s and in o th e r ways th e y as si st e d t h e pr osp e rity
of t h e coun try but t h e Egyptians e ve r ungrat e ful
thre w o ff t h e P e rsian yoke an d t h e Ki n g s of t h e XXVI I I t h
x x rx t h and x x x t h Dy n asti e s w e r e nativ e s who h e ld th e i r
authority by t h e h e lp of G re e k m e rc e narie s A ft e r s o me
.
OF
O U R CES
E TA L S
ye ars howe ve r t h e P e rsians re c o nque re d t h e country

but onl y f o r a shor t time an d the y we re nally ove r
thr own about B C 3 3 2 by M ac e do n ian invade rs who
we re assi st e d by t h e Egyptians the m se lve s
T h e hi story of t h e anci e nt Egyptians r e ally t e rminat e s
at this point b e caus e aft e r t h e M ac e donian conque st
the y we re ne ver again fre e but so many me tal anti
i
o
h
u
i
e
s
hav
e
b
e
e
n
found
b
e
longing
t
e
P
tol
maic
t
t
e
q
and R oman P e riods whic h followe d that s o me n ote
should b e made in a book of this nature of t h e inue nc e
on t h e me tal wo rking c r aft of th e se chang e s of domina
tion
A t t h e d e ath o f t h e M ac e d o nian r ule r A le xande r
in B C 3 05 t h e P tole maic pe riod b e gan an d during its
course Egypt b e cam e t h e rich e s t count ry in t h e wo rld
T h o ugh th e ir rule rs we re G re e k s t h e Egyptian s we re
p e rmitte d to re tain th e ir o w n nati o nality languag e and
re li gi o n
L ike p re viou s i n vade r s o f t h e c o unt ry t h e
P t o l e mi e s b e came Egyptia n i se d t o a g re at e xt e n t and
ado pt e d t h e habits of f o rme r P haraoh s
I t is to t h e b e n e facti o n s of o n e of t h e P t o l o m ie s to
t h e t e mpl e s of Egypt that w e o w e t h e R o se tta S tone
whi ch h a s pr ove d t o b e t h e k e y of an cie n t Egyptian
hie r oglyphic writin g b e caus e it w a s i n s c rib e d in thre e
styl e s of writing inclu di ng hie roglyphic and G re e k
N o outline of this dyna sty w o uld b e c o mple t e with o ut
me ntion o f that re markable woman Que e n C le o patr a
who w a s t h e la s t o f t h e P t o l o m ie s and wh o s e charact e r
stan ds e mbo ss e d in hi sto ry a s a fa s cinating and powe rful
,
'
o ne
me tal antiquitie s of t h e P t ol o m aic P e riod though

nume r ous are not as ple ntiful as tho se o f t h e S aitic
P e riod whi ch p re c e de d it
A lthough t h e Egyptian s had
long b e e n e xp e rt in me tal wo rking it is not unlike ly
T he
C)
A %
A N C I EN T E G Y P T I A N
E TA L L U R G Y
that the y l e arnt se v e r al n e w pr oc e sse s fr om t h e G re e k s

such a s t h e r ai sin g of ve sse ls of intricate s hap e from
disc s of silv e r copp e r and gold which b e cam e e a sy to
th e m as soon a s th e y had le arnt to apply syste matic
anne aling
On t h e d e ath of C l e opat r a in B C 3 0 Egypt b e cam e
a R oman pr ovin c e and it is fr om that dat e that fo re ign
inue nc e s b e gan to affe ct Egyptian arts c r afts and
cust o ms in such a p r on o unc e d manne r that t h e latt e r
w e re sp e e dily e xtinguishe d although many of t h e
R oman Emp e r o r s could n o t with s tand t h e fa s cinations
of t h e Egyptian ritual f o r w e nd that e ve n the y adopt e d
t h e P har aonic titl e s and cu stom s and cau se d much r e
buildin g and re pairing to b e done to t h e national t e mple s
B y t h e tim e of t h e R o man C o n qu e s t Egyptian civil
is at io n had onc e mo re fall e n fr om it s g re atne s s
and
cons e que ntly t h e m e chanical g e niu s of t h e R omans
found a re ady e ld f o r it s application
T h e G rae c o R oman P e ri o d pos se s s e s adde d int e r e st
f o r t h e m e tallurgist b e caus e of t h e g e ne r al u se of a
coinag e an d th e re fo re fur ni she s ple nty of me tal sp e ci
m e ns in b ronz e silve r gold and e v e n l e ad f o r t h e
purpo se s of s cie ntic inv e stigation T h e R omans had
a mint at A le xan dr ia
T h e r st u se of zinc as an int e ntio n al addition to copp e r
dat e s from R oman tim e s
During t h e R oman o ccupation t h e G re e k languag e
e ntire ly
Egyptian f o r o fcial purpo se s
supplant e d
C hristiani ty w a s intr oduc e d and in spit e o f t h e p e rse
c u t io n of c e rtain of t h e R oman gov e r no r s
se e ms to hav e
o uri she d as it h a s ne ve r sinc e ouri sh e d in Egypt
T h e C h ri stians o r C opts a s th e y are still calle d b ro ke
away from t h e tr a di tions and conve ntions of pagan
a rt
A s a result of t h e Vigo ro us p e r s e cutions to which
,
OF
O UR CE S
E TA L S
the y we re s ubj e cte d by some of t h e R omans and by all

t h e A r ab r ul e r s s ubs e qu e ntly and of th e ir re l e gation
t o s e clusion in is o lat e d di stricts and s e ttl e m e nts it is
not s urprisin g that although the ir form s of archit e ctur e
d e sign and de coration we re not without b e auty and
di stin ction follo w ing as th e y did t h e B yzantine styl e s
th e ir c raftsman ship in stone wood and in m e tal was
on t h e whole of an inf e rior o r de r
T h e t e n e ts of th e ir faith may hav e pre clude d t h e
b e lli sh
e mploym e nt of skill e d pagan arti s ans in t h e e m
m e nt of the ir re ligious e stablishme nt s but it s e e m s more
pr obable that t h e s cul ptors t h e artists t h e m e tal wo rke r s
and othe r pagan c r aft sm e n we re pre ve nt e d by the ir o wn
av e rsion to t h e n e w re ligion fr om e x e cuting com mi s sions
f o r it s followe rs b e caus e t h e C opts had no obj e ctions
to inco rp o r ating in th e ir monast e rie s t h e hi e ro glyph
cove re d stone s of forme r Egyptian t e mple s o r to adopting
t h e foundations of t h e latt e r f o r t h e ir o wn e di c e s
T h e sp e cim e n s of C optic m e tal wo rk that are l e ft to
us are g e ne r all y of poor workmanship and a re not
nume rous
Outside t h e monast e rie s and s e ttle me nts G rae c o
R o man art su pplant e d that of t h e Egyptians
T he
public b uil di ngs and m o num e nt s we re charact e ris e d
by b e auty of de sign and ni sh but p rivate prop e rty
app e ars to have b e e n made much more e conomicall y
M uch of t h e me tal w ork of G rac co R oman typ e s fo u nd
in E gypt was v e ry probably fashi one d ab r oad although
it must b e s aid that f e w of t h e article s will b e ar com
pari s on with those of t h e same style found in Eur op e
T h e many li ttle b ronz e gure s of t h e Egyptian gods
whi c h t h e G re e ks c o nv e ni e ntly re cognis e d as the ir o wn
di vini tie s we re no doubt mad e locally
I n t h e ye ar A D 6 4 0 t h e R omans we re t u rne d out of
,
'
A N CIEN T EG Y P T IA N
20
E TA LL U R G Y
Egypt by t h e A rab hor de s who conqu e re d t h e country

and made it a pr ovinc e of the ir E mpire which it re maine d
until 1 5 1 7 a p e riod of 8 7 7 ye ars T his book is not con
c e rne d with e arly A r ab m e tal w ork but it may b e stat e d
that sp e cime ns of it are not as nume r ous as might have
b e e n e xp e ct e d T h e A r ab M us e um at C air o although
it contain s s ome ve ry inte re sting re lics in b r ass and
silv e r pos se s se s only a me agre colle ction which is su r
p rising se e ing that it de als with a c o mparative ly re c e nt
hi storical p e riod T h e olde r mosqu e s of Egy
pt howe v e r
contain isolat e d re li cs of me rit
T he re are two f e ature s of ancie n t Egyptian hist o ry
that s tand out pr omine ntly T h e r st is t h e numb e r
of chang e s o f capital that took plac e F r om t h e b e ginning
of t h e hi storic p e riod down to B C 3 3 2 whe n t h e coun try
cam e unde r M ac e doni an r ule no le ss than ni n e citie s
had occupie d t h e position of m e tr opolis and s ome o f
the m more than onc e
T h e se cond f e ature is t h e p e r
sist e nc e of nativ e art industri e s and re ligion N o t o n e
of t h e f o re ign invasi o ns until that of t h e G re e ks which
w as re ally not an invasion can b e t r ac e d to hav e had
any s e rious o r lasting in u e nc e upon t h e art of t h e
coun try but in st e ad w e nd as w e have o bs e rve d p re
v io u sly that
owing no doubt to t h e advanc e d civilisa
tion of t h e Egyptians t h e fo re ign r ule r s b e came Egypt
iani se d and ad o pt e d t h e mann e r s an d cu stom s of th e ir
n e w subj e cts
Eve n t h e advanc e d but clum sy art of t h e
A ssyrians with whom t h e Egyptians had t h e clos e st
as s ubj e ct s a n d mast e rs and als o
re lation s f o r c e ntu ri e s
a s t r ade rs
did not hav e any p e rmane nt e ffe ct up o n
Egyptian style o r upon t h e pr oc e sse s Of indu stry On
t h e o th e r hand Egyptian inu e nc e s con side r ably a ffe ct e d
t h e civili s ati o ns of t h e diffe re nt fo re ign stat e s that cam e
int o contact with the m I t is c e rtain that t h e Egyptians
,
O UR C ES
OF
E TA L S
2 1
had nothing to le arn from any o f the ir ne ighbours in

t h e manipulation and u se of m e tals ri ght up to t h e G rae c o
R oman p e riod and that in spit e of constant int e r cou rse
with C re te S yr ia and othe r m e tal producing countrie s
Egypt de ve lop e d its b ronz e industry and its gold silv e r
and othe r o rn ame ntal w o rk on quite inde p e nde n t line s
T h e pre c e ding outlin e of Egyptian hi st o ry is n e c e s
s arily a v e ry b r i e f o n e
T h e re ade r will have Ob se rv e d
that it cove rs a p e riod of s ome v e th o u s an d y e ars
but h e should take n o te that e arly Egyptian chronology
is by n o me an s a se ttle d matt e r
Ar ch aeo logy is a s cie nc e
ba se d almo st wholly upon inf e re nc e s an d indicatio n s
T h e re is v e ry littl e d o cum e ntary o r di re ct e vide nc e o f
an
n
n
r ni n g s om e p e r i o ds of conside r abl e e xt e nt
ki
d
co
c
e
y
whilst in many ca se s t h e doubtful t e stimony of cla ssic
lit e r ature has to b e acc e pt e d a s t h e onl y s ourc e of in
f o r matio n
I n xi n g dat e s f o r t h e e arli e st e v e nts the re a re s e v e r al
syste ms o f chro nol o gy in u se e ach of which r e c e ive s its
m e a sure o f suppor t from Egyptologists e qually e mine nt
T h e re are howe v e r disparitie s of th o usand s of y e ar s
b e twe e n t h e dat e s a ssigne d by the m to t h e comme nc e
m e nt of t h e dynastic p e riod and w e can onl y e xp e ct
v e ry rough appr oximation s in t h e datin g o f matt e r s
and e ve nt s so inde ni te F o r in stanc e w e may compare
t h e sy st e m s uppo rt e d by t h e lat e S ir G aston M a sp e r o
and othe r s which plac e s t h e I st Dyna sty at ab o ut B C
5 000 with that advocat e d by D B re a st e d in h is in c o m
par able H is tory Of A n ci en t E gyp t a work which e ithe r
in it s e xt e nde d o r ab ridg e d f o r m t h e s tude nt would do
we ll to consult I n it h e u se d what is t e r m e d t h e sho rt
s y s t e m which plac e s t h e I st Dyna sty about B C
3 4 00
% u st a s the re are di ffe re nt sy st e ms of dating s o are
th e re variou s sy st e ms of sp e lling and writin g t h e n ame s
,
A NCI
22
EN T E G Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
of Kings and t h e casual re ade r will probably nd a

little dif culty in tr acing t h e same p e r sons and plac e s
in t h e hi storie s and account of di ffe re nt mode rn write rs
S ome arch ae ol o gists show an unfo rtunate tast e f o r a
me thod of writing t h e name whi ch app e ars to t h e
layman to re nde r the m cumb rous and unpronounc e able
T h e scie nc e of ar ch ae ology is a v e ry comp re he nsiv e
one
inde e d it may almost b e said to e mb rac e all t h e
oth e r sci e nc e s a s we ll as t h e arts A n d t hi s is pr obably
why w e occa sionally nd in works on t h e Isu b j e c t that
w e are ask e d by writ e r s in th e ir e nthusiasm and admir a
tion f o r t h e prowe ss of t h e ancie nt E gyptian art ic e rs t o
b e lie ve that the y achie ve d t h e impo s sibl e
T his t e nde ncy to ov e r r at e and att e r h as b e e n e x
t e nde d to me tallurgical matte rs I t fo ste re d t h e ide a
that t h e ancie nt Egyptians poss e ss e d se c re t harde ni ng
proc e ss e s f o r copp e r and b r onz e and it has con side rably
hinde re d t h e acc e ptanc e of any the orie s as to t h e know
le dge and u se of ir on by t h e e arly dyna stic Egyptians
With re gard to dating a wor d of e xplanation is n e c e s
T h e re ade r who nds two diff e re nt authoritie s
sary
assigning o n e and t h e same e ve nt to dat e s
y e ar s
o r mo re
apart is apt to b e come comple t e ly sc e ptical
in t h e matt e r Ye t t h e e xplanation is a simple o n e
S om e ye ar s ago an ing e nious me thod of xing t h e dat e
of c e rtain e v e nt s in ancie nt Egypt was di scove re d bas e d
on t h e facts that t h e Egyptian civil cale ndar containe d
onl y 3 6 5 day s inste ad of app roximate ly
and that
in con se qu e nc e t h e s e asons we re always b e coming gradu
ally di splac e d by
day e ach y e ar o r o n e day in four
ye ars and so coming r ound to th e ir corre ct positions
in t h e cale ndar e ve ry 1 4 6 0 ye ars ( 3 6 5 X
I f in a give n
ye ar of a give n king w e are told that a c e rtain dat e o f
t h e civil ye a r corre s ponde d with a c e rtain dat e of t h e
,
O U R CES
OF
E TA L S
true o r solar ye ar w e can by a simple p ie c e o f arithme tic

x that ye ar to it s position in a
S othi c C ycl e
of
ye ars but w e can ne ve r b e s u re from mathe
m at ic al conside rations alone which S othic C ycle f o r
such cycle s b e gan in 4 2 4 1 B C 2 7 8 1 B C and 1 3 2 1 B C
With re gar d to t h e XVI I I t h Egyptian Dynasty f rom
which w e have thre e of the s e So calle d S othic D at I n g s

the re is comple t e agre e me nt b e twe e n Egyptologists that
it is to t h e last of the s e cycle s that t h e e ve nts must b e
assigne d and work ing on this basis w e g e t f o r t h e b e ginni ng
of that dynasty t h e dat e of 1 5 8 0 B C With re sp e ct to
t h e XI I t h Dynasty t h e positi o n is s lightly di ffe re nt
H e re w e hav e o n e S othic Dating which would plac e t h e
b e ginni ng of t h e dynasty in 2 000 B C o r 3 4 6 0 B C
y e ars e arli e r ) accordi n g as w e plac e it in t h e s e c o nd o r
I t may b e said
rst of t h e cycle s e nume r at e d above
at onc e that t h e large maj o rity of Egyptologi st s agre e
in acc e pting t h e lowe r dat e 2 000 B C T h e high e r dat e
has now o nl y o n e advocat e of an v di stinction
3 46 0 B C
though a f e w scholars are incline d to de ny t h e vali di ty
of t h e S ot hi c me th o d of dating and to adopt arbitrary
dat e s in b e twe e n t h e highe r and t h e lowe r B e fore t h e
XI I t h Dy n asty all is gu e sswo rk but h e re again th e r e is
a fairly ge ne ral agre e me nt that t h e I st Dynasty should
b e dat e d v e ry roughl y about 3 4 00 B C
C e rtain Egypt
olo gists would plac e t h e dat e muc h furthe r back than
thi s but the re are no adv o cate s f o r a much lowe r
dat e
T h e dat e s from t h e XVI I I t h Dyna sty to t h e x x x t h
may b e re garde d as approximat e ly c e rtain b e ing ba se d
on t h e known le n gth s of t h e kin g s re igns and che cke d
in t h e lat e r p e riod by e xte rnal para lle ls
T h e followi ng table give s a s u rve y of t h e c hr onology
adopt e d by t h e advocat e s of t h e L owe r Dating
,
A N C I EN T EG Y P T IA N
24
E TA LL U R G Y
Arch a i c Pe rio d I st t o I I I rd Dyn as ty

Old K in g d o m I v t h t o VI t h Dy n as ty
Firs t In t e rm e diat e Pe rio d Vc t o KI t h
,
3 400 t o 2 9 00
B C
.
2 9 00 t o 2 4 7 5
B C
2 4 7 5 t o 2 000
B C
2 000 t o 1 7 8 8
B C
1 7 88 t o 1 5 80
B C
1 5 8 0 t o 1 3 50
B C
1 3 50 t o 1 2 05
B C
1 2 05 t o 1 090
B C
Dy ty
M iddl K i g d m X t h Dy ty
L t I t m di t P i d X t h t
Dy ty
X
t h Dy
ty
X
t h Dy
ty
ty
t h Dy
X X t Dy
ty
XX
d Dy
ty
d Dy
ty
XX
X X V h Dy
ty
t h Dy
ty
X X t h Dy
ty
t h Dy
ty
X XV
t h Dy
ty
XX
t h Dy
ty
t h Dy
ty
Pt l m i c
Rm
n as
n er
a er
n as
VI I I
n as
n as
x xv
n as
VI
n as
x xv n
III
n as
Ix
n as
xxx
n as
o e
n as
94 5 to 7 4 5
B C
.
745 t o 7 1 8
B C
7 1 8 t o 7 12
B C
.
7 1 2 t o 663
B C
6 63 t o 52 5
52 5 t o 4 08
B C
4 08 t o 3 99
B C
3 99 t o 3 7 8
B C
A D
.
e t al s
30
of
B C
3 32 t o 3 0 B
( 0) S o u r c e s
B C
.
to
3 7 8 t o 340 B
1 09 0 t o 9 4 5
an ,
A ra bian
XVI I t h
n as
I I Ir
n as
IIn
III
n as
Is
n as
xx
er o
n as
lx
a e
n as
II
A D
.
6 40
6 40 t o 1 5 1 7
t o t h e A nc ie nt E
g yp t i an s
mine s from which t h e anci e nt Egyptian s obtain e d

supplie s of t h e diffe re nt m e tals the y us e d w ith t h e
silve r and tin w e re situat e d ch ie y in
e xc e ption of
parts of Egypt b e twe e n t h e N il e and t h e R e d S e a I n
the s e are as we re found gold copp e r le ad and iron as
we ll as various pre cious stone s f o r w hich e xte nsiv e
mining op e ratio n s w e re also carrie d on
Ov e r 1 00 ancie nt gold wo rkings hav e b e e n trac e d in
Egypt an d t h e S udan but none in S inai I t is not im

possible that supplie s we re obtaine d at tim e s from t h e
land of M idian o n t h e e aste rn sho re of t h e R e d S e a
T he
O UR C E S
OF
E TAL S
old working s are known to e xist but the s e hav e

not ye t b e e n prop e rly e xamine d
T he re is in e xist e nc e a plan of a gold m ine dating
from t h e Xl x t h Dynasty and this ancie nt an d
valuable docume nt b e ing t h e e arlie st map of any kind
that w e poss e ss shows in a some what ske tchy man ne r
t h e mountains from w hich t h e gold was obtaine d t h e
sit e w he re t h e wa shing w a s done and t h e sto re hous e
toge the r with t h e roads conn e ctin g the s e plac e s but
t h e actual position of t h e min e has not b e e n d e t e rm in e d
a s t h e data giv e n on t h e map are insufcie nt
F rom oth e r cont e mpo rary re co rds it has b e e n found
that t h e m e talli c gold was obtaine d by c ru shing t h e
q uartz grinding and washing on incline d plane s much
in t h e sam e way as vanning is done to day T h e grain s
of gold we re afte rw ards m e lt e d and ru n in to ingot s
T h e gold containe d a fair p ropo rtion of silv e r as such
nativ e gold usually do e s but it is improbable that t h e
if the y
e arli e st Egyptian m e tall urgists kn e w this
or
di d that the y we re aware of any p roc e s se s f o r s e parating
it in fact analy se s made by B e rth e lot show that t h e
gold from e arly mummie s and othe r antiquitie s contains
about 1 3 p e r c e nt silv e r
I t is like ly that som e of t h e r st gold article s we re
made by simply hamme ring native nugg e ts o r by
we l di ng se ve ral nugge ts tog e the r but thi s must have b e e n
con ne d to small ar ticle s
T h e larg e quantitie s of gold obj e cts b ro ught back by
t h e Egyptians aft e r r aids and conqu e st s in A sia and
e ls e wh e re must al s o not b e fo rgott e n wh e n conside r ing
the ir sourc e s of supply T he se spoils of w ar app e ar to
have b e e n re c e iv e d in various forms s uch a s ingot s rings
she e t s and e ve n ni she d v e ss e ls of diffe re nt typ e s t h e
latte r b e ing probably afte rwards m e lt e d up f o r othe r us e s
w h e re
A N C IEN T
E G YP T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
With re g ar d to t h e sourc e s of silve r w e have not so

I t is we ll kno w n that in t h e e arli e st
much e vide nc e
p e riods silve r was much more valuable than gold and
that e l e ctrum an alloy of gold and S ilve r of inde nit e
proportion s was always much priz e d t hr oughout t h e
days of an tiquity S ilve r must the re fore have b e e n at
rst a r are me tal
T h e lat e P r ofe ssor G owland con
side re d that t h e r st silv e r in Egypt was obtain e d by
but the re is no re cor d as
re ni ng t h e gold fr om N ubia
to t h e p e riod in which t h e Egyptians rst le arnt to purify
the ir gold o r to s e parat e t h e s ilve r though it is fair ly
c e rtain that late r in hi story the y did s e parat e it a s chlo ride
by t h e action of common salt
I t s e e ms mo re pr obable that silv e r was r st obtaine d
from S yria than that it was s e parate d from impure gold
as t h e latt e r would imply that t h e p re se nc e of t h e silv e r
in t h e gold was known at t h e tim e and that t h e Egyptian
m e tal worke rs we re po ss e s s e d o f some che mical kn o w
l e dg e o f which the re is no e vide n c e
T h e ir me di cal
pre sc ription s show a lame ntable state of ignor anc e in
this dire ction
B e fore re j e cting t h e abov e th e o ry on t h e sco re that
silv e r w a s not e ve n in u se in S yria at t h e e arlie s t p e ri o d
to which silv e r obj e cts found in Egypt hav e b e e n a t t ri
but e d t h e sy ste ms of c hr onology of the se t w o part s
of t h e ancie nt world mu st b e tho roughly ve ri e d and
c o o rdinat e d
With re sp e ct to C opp e r w e are on su re r ground f o r
the re are still in e xiste nc e trac e s of old workings such as
he aps of slag b roke n c rucibl e s b e side s de ni te writt e n
accounts of t h e mine s and the ir organi sation
With
some b re aks during re v o lutio nary p e riods whe n any
me tal r e quire d by t h e authoritie s would probably b e
take n from t h e statue s and othe r works of the ir p re
,
S
t he
de c e sso rs ,
O U R CES
OF
E TA L S
min e s we re worke d during
t he
whole
dynastic p e ri o d
T h e cuprif e r ous o re s of Egypt we re of a re adily re d u c
ible nature b e ing s o f ar as w e can t e ll to day chie y
blu e and gre e n carbonate s and silicate whil st f e rru
gimou s and silic e ou s sands f o r u se as ux e s durin g t h e
s m e lting of t h e o re s w e re abundant
A s in t h e cas e of gold and s ilve r sp o ils of w ar and
tribute from diffe re nt parts of t h e e mpir e we re re spon sible
f o r imports o f larg e quan titie s of c o pp e r
C o n side r able
amounts we re als o no doubt re c e ive d in t h e ordinary
cour s e of tr ade with ne ighbouring p e ople such as t h e
P h oe n icians at le a st fr om t h e tim e of t h e VI t h Dynasty
I t is g e ne r ally agre e d among st e xp e rts that t h e r st
pr oduction of me talli c copp e r whe re v e r it took plac e in
t h e anci e nt w o rld w a s an accide ntal o n e and that it
o ccu rr e d r o und t h e camp re s wh e r e pi e c e s of o re w e re
us e d as st o ne s to e nclo s e t h e re and we re thus re duc e d
by t h e fue l and t h e h eat T h e rst kn o wle dge of o th e r
me tal s may als o have b e e n b r ought about similarly
T h e lump of m e tal p roduc e d fo rtuitously in t hi s way
would quickly attract att e ntion by its p rop e rtie s of
toughn e ss malle ability and lu stre
I r on copp e r t in
l e ad and silve r might have b e e n p ro duc e d in thi s
manne r but afte r t h e r st di scove ry which app e ars to
have b e e n that of copp e r othe r surfac e min e rals mu st
almo st c e rtainly have b e e n me thodically e xp e rime nt e d
upon
C o pp e r and gold we re t h e rs t m e tal s to b e u se d in
Egypt as in m o st o the r ancie nt c o untrie s but the y we re
obtaine d by t w o diffe re nt m e thod s so that t h e di scove ry
of o n e could hardly have le d di re ctly to that of t h e o th e r
and s e e ing that at l e ast with re sp e ct to Egypt native
g o ld is f ar mo re like ly to hav e e xis te d in t h e fo rm of
.
A N C I EN T EG YP
T IA N M
E TA LL U R G Y
ugge ts of u se ful siz e thus n e e ding no sm e lting f o r s mall

a rticl e s t h e e mploym e nt of gold no d o ubt p re c e de d that
o f copp e r although c o pp e r pins ar e claim e d to hav e b e e n
fo und in gr av e s o f e arlie r p re historic dat e s than sp e cime ns
o f gold
T h e re is no doubt that in thos e e arly tim e s surfac e
although to day
o re s o f diff e re nt m e tals w e re pl e ntiful
Egypt cannot b e re gar de d as a country rich in mine rals
I t s g o ld de po sits are almost e xhaust e d which is not
s e e ing that th e y hav e b e e n worke d f o r about
s u rp ri si n g
ye ars S inai P e nin sula re mains t h e o nly district
like ly to prov e w e althy in mine rals the re are conside r
a bl e d e posits o f mangane s e
copp e r and ir on ore s b e side s
pre cious stone s such a s tur quois e and probably only
r ailway faciliti e s a re n e e de d to mak e th e m w o rth t h e
g e tting
T h e n e xt impo rtant me tal to c o nside r is tin
T he
sourc e o f this m e tal to t h e Egyptians is still wr apt in
and much h a s b e e n writt e n by arch ae o logist
o b s cu rity
a n d o th e rs o ri this s ubj e ct
I t is c e r tain that it was
import e d e ithe r in t h e fo rm of o re o r m e tal and t h e various
plac e s that have b e e n sugge st e d are C e ntral Europ e
P e r sia S pain B ritain C ypru s and e v e n C hina
No
u se ful purpos e would b e se rv e d by re capi tulating o r
c ompar ativ e ly di s cus s ing th e s e sugg e sti o ns h e r e
but t h e
re ad e r may tak e h is choic e and re st cont e nt that it is
j u st as like ly t o b e co rre ct a s any of t h e othe r s
T h e p ro bable dat e of t h e r st u se of tin f o r making
b ronz e is anothe r in t e re sting and much discus se d que stion
A s w e hav e m e ntione d pre viou sly o n e o r two a rticl e s of
b ro nz e have b e e n di sc o v e re d b e longin g to ve ry e arly
d ate s s uch a s f o r in stanc e a s mall r o d a ssigne d to t h e
1 1 1 r d D y n asty
but the s e were e ithe r accide ntal p ro
d u c t io n s o r are p e rhap s i n t ru sive an d b e long to lat e r
n
O U R CES
OF
E TA L S
p e riods than t h e accompanying obj e cts with which the y

we re found A t t h e s ame time it is not w is e to re ga rd
t h e abs e nc e of sp e cim e n s o f any s p e cic class of a rticl e
during any p e ri o d o f antiquity as conclusive e vide nc e
of it s non pr o ducti o n by t h e p e o ple of t h e p e ri o d in
question
M e ntion has be e n made of t h e m e tal statue ( F ig 1
p 8 ) of t h e Vi th Dynasty Kin g P iu p i I st and if this is
re ally mad e of b r onz e
it is unlik e ly to have b e e n an
accide ntal pr oducti o n o f that all o y on account of its
s iz e
and the re fo re t h e rst u se of tin may dat e back
b e fore that p e riod On t h e othe r han d it is n o t until
t h e XVI I I t h Dyna s ty that undoubt e d b ronz e obj e ct s hav e
b e e n found in suff icie nt quantitie s to re ally j u stify an
a sse rtion that tin was in c o mmon u se a s an addition to
copp e r
A ng e r ring of tin attribut e d t o t h e XVI I I t h Dyna sty
is de scrib e d by P ro fe s sor F linde r s P e trie I t is unique
and in spit e o f it s e xt e nde d life time t h e me tal still
p o s se sse s its c ry
N othin g is r e c o r de d to in di cat e whe th e r it s har de ning
pro p e rtie s o r t h e colour mo di cations it introduc e d
inue nc e d t h e r st u se of tin with copp e r I t sho uld not
b e ove rlooke d howe ve r that n o d o ubt t h e r st con
sig n m e n t s of tin r e c e iv e d in t h e count ry w e re spo r a di c
and con se qu e n tly t h e m e tal would f o r some time b e
procurabl e o nl y in c e rtain localitie s o r e stabli shme nt s
T h e anci e nt Egyptians obtaine d re markabl e re s ults in
all kinds of stone working l o ng b e fore the y r e c e ive d
tin
T h e lat e P r ofe s s o r G owland we nt to conside rabl e
tr o uble to sho w that t h e rst u se of b ronz e in antiquity
was probably n o t an int e ntional alloying of t h e t w o
m e tal s but rathe r a simultane ou s re duction of t h e two
,
A N C I EN T EG Y P T IA N
3O
E TA LL U R G Y
o re s and h e has pr ove d his cont e ntion that a sound

alloy can b e made in this manne r With re sp e ct to E gypt
howe ve r it is hardl y n e c e ssary to p rov e this as w e know
that t h e copp e r o re from S inai w a s re duc e d on t h e spot
and b r ought t o Egypt as me tal and that m e tallic copp e r
was re c e ive d in tons from oth e r sourc e s
A ntiqu e ar ticl e s of l e ad di s cove re d in Egypt are ve ry
f e w but e v e n pre histo ric sp e cim e ns hav e b e e n found
T h e m e tal app e ars to hav e b e e n fairly common in t h e
XVI I I t h Dyna sty and it was us e d occasionall
f
o r ca s ting
y
gure s of t h e gods T he re is a re cor d that in t h e XVI I I t h
Dynasty C yprus paid tribut e in copp e r and l e ad whilst
b ro nz e we ights we re b r ought up to t h e s tandar d w ith
le ad llings about that p e riod
I n S aitic tim e s l e ad app e ar s as an int e ntional con
s t it u e n t of b r onz e u se d f o r s tatu e tt e s and simila r a rticl e s
T h e anci e nt Egyptians
of a pure ly non us e ful nature
appe ar to hav e re alis e d that an addition of thi s me tal
made t h e alloy more fusible and more uid thus e nsuring
much sounde r ca stings e sp e cially in pie c e s of a thin
nature T h e y must al s o hav e found that e ngraving and
tooling of all kinds on t h e l e ady alloy was much simplie d
Whe th e r l e ad was put in f o r the s e re asons o r f o r e con o my
o r fr aud at l e a s t up to t h e R oman tim e s it is impossibl e
to say b e caus e it is not known wh e the r it was a che ap e r
m e tal than c o pp e r o r tin it must howe v e r have b e e n
comparative ly scarc e
F ig 4 s hows som e of t h e b e st e xample s of e arly Egyptian
le ad work in e xist e nc e
T h e photograph illustr at e s
e xampl e s
of re movable he ad de c o rations of v arious
kinds made f o r placing on statue tt e s at will and date
from P t o le maic time s S om e parts of the s e he ad de cora
tions we re cast dire ct to t h e ni she d form whil st othe r
parts we re b e at e n to shape A s t h e ph o tograph had to
,
S O UR
CE S
OF
E TA L S
31
take n of t h e glass cas e c o mple te in which the y are

ke pt at t h e C airo M us e um t h e illu stration is s ome what
ma rre d b y re e c t io n s and s hadows
L e ad c of ns also w e re u s e d in t h e time s of t h e P t o le
maios
be
Fig
L e ad
H dd
ea
re ss e s
ourc e s of le ad we re probably mainl y local T he re

is a hill ne ar t h e e ast e rn c o ast of Egypt known to day
as G e b e l R usas
which is A rabic f o r L e ad M ountain
whe re ancie nt l e ad workings s till e xist and t h e de posits
of galena and c e r ussit e are b e ing e xploit e d at t h e pre s e nt
T he
A N CIEN T E G Y P T IA N
2
3
time
n e ar
Old
t he R
l e ad workings also
ed
Sea
E TA LL U R G Y
xist at
t he %
asus
Valle y
only othe r me tal known to t h e e arly Egyptians

was antimony but it is impr obable that the y re gar de d
it as a m e tal A pre paration of it was us e d f o r colouring
t h e fac e r ound t h e e ye s fr om t h e e arli e st tim e s and it is
said t hat b e ads of it dating fr om about B C 8 00 have
b e e n une arthe d but it has n e ve r b e e n found in any shap e
o r fo rm in which its m e talli c attribut e s w e re r e quire d
B ra s s was unknown until R oman time s I T h e articl e s
of t hi s alloy found in Egypt b e lon ging to that p e riod
may p robably hav e b e e n intr oduc e d in t h e manu facture d
state T he re are appare ntly no zinc o re de posits of e con
although calamine occur s at
o m ic valu e in t h e count ry
G e b e l R usas in combination with gale na and c e r ussit e
I n Vi e w of t h e con side r able quantiti e s of man gane s e
ore s that e xist in S inai and also s e e ing that the y we re
us e d in t h e e arly day s in t h e pre paration of glaz e s e t c
no do ubt t h e Egyptian me tallurgi st s att e mpt e d t h e
di f cult task of re ducin g the m s o as to g e t t h e m e tal
N 0 analy se s of Egyptian b r o nz e o r copp e r that hav e
b e e n publishe d show mangane s e as an ingre die nt o r
impurity
N otwithstanding the ir di ff e re nt de g re e s of p e r man e nc e
w e po s s e ss to day sp e cim e ns of all t h e m e tals and alloys
known to t h e ancie nt Egyptians T h e me tall urgist in
handling the s e re lics is s e iz e d with a de sire to op e n the m
up to p ry into the ir int e rnal constituti o n and c o mposi
tion and to g e t what inf ormation h e may fr om a m e ans
is unfortunate ly
o f inv e stigation w hi ch whil s t e ducativ e
de structive t h e arch ae ol o gist on t h e othe r hand touche s
e ach fr agme nt almo s t with re v e re nc e ; his thoughts go
back to some b e autiful que e n with whom h e has acqu ire d
a thorough post morte m acquaintanc e and Visualis e s
T he
OF
O U R CE S
E TA L S
33
placing t h e orname nt round h e r royal ne ck ; o r to

some pagan t e mple e ve ry ni che of which h e knows and
pic tur e s its ponde r ous woode n doors swinging on t h e
massive hinge s of b ronz e which now lie b e fore him
H owe v e r mo st of t h e antiquitie s me talli c o r o th e r
wis e that have b e e n pre se rve d to u s by t h e s andy s oil
of Egypt we re conne cte d e ithe r dire ctly o r indire ctly
with t h e burial of t h e de ad an d it is c hi e y b e cau se t h e
ancie n t s we r e s o thoughtful o f the ir liv e s b e y o nd t h e
grave that w e are e n able d to le arn s om e thin g of t h e
b e gin ning s of t h e rst industrie s and art s
he r
34
C HA P T E R
I N D U S T R Y OF
B R ON Z E
II
A N C I EN T
E G YP T
b e ginning of t h e dynastic p e riod co p e r founding

p
and manipulation we re w e ll unde rstood T h e article s
made we re small and chie y of a u se ful rathe r than an
o rnam e ntal nature T hu s chi se ls knive s dagge rs and
simila r impl e m e nts gu re amo n g s t n ds b e l o ng ing to t h e
I st Dynasty
S o m e writ e r s have stat e d that op e n moulds must hav e
b e e n e mploy e d f o r making the s e e arly tool s as copp e r
I t is
cannot b e satisfacto rily cast in cl o s e d moulds
ve ry impr obable howe v e r that t h e copp e r of th e s e
primitive day s was sufcie ntly pure t o pos se ss this
char act e ri stic b e caus e sp e cime n s analy se d have in
variably containe d arse nic and appre ciable amount s of
othe r impuritie s such as iron nicke l cuprous oxide e t c
T h e fo llowi n g is a typical analysis b e ing that of a copp e r
dagge r of thi s dynasty
A T t he
A rse ni c
I r on
0 3 9 per
-
L e ad ,
B ismuth ,
tr ac e
nil
nil
N icke l ,
n il
T in ,
C up r o u s
A nothe r
c e nt
xide
authe ntic
not de te rmine d
p e cime n of
t he
1 st
Dynasty
ex
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
A NCIEN T
0F
a m in e d
EGY P T
35
by t h e author w a s a copp e r chi se l t h e m e tal of

which contain e d much cuprou s oxide n o t d u e to c o r
r o sio n but intr oduc e d dur i n g m e lting
F r om t h e mic ro s copical e xamination of th e s e a rticl e s
and othe rs the ir mode of manuf acture is quit e cle ar and
t h e proc e ss app e ars to hav e c o ntinu e d in vogu e f o r t h e
making of copp e r and b ronz e tools and we apons of a
plain nat ur e f o r many c e nturie s
T h e articl e was rst ca st appr oximat e ly to it s ni sh e d
s hap e
t h e cuttin g e dg e s b e ing hamm e re d o u t aft e rwar ds
whe n t h e m e tal w a s cold T hi s conr ms t h e o pinion of
P r ofe sso r G owland and oth e r s that t h e hardne ss of t h e
cutting e dge s of antique copp e r an d b ronz e imple me n ts
w a s d u e sol e ly to hamm e ring
S ome grin di ng may hav e
b e e n done to t h e e dge s but as this would re move t h e
har d s kins which had b e e n int e nti o nally produc e d by
hamme rin g it is like ly to hav e b e e n applie d to wood
working tool s o nl y
T h e writ e r b e li e v e s that du ring t h e 1 1 n d Dy n a sty
B
n
3
0
00
co
r
e
d
copp
e
r
ca
s
ting
s
w
e
re
b
e
i
g
mad
e
but
C
(
)
t h e o nl y s p e cim e n that has pas se d th r ough h is hands is
a copp e r sp o ut b ro ke n o ff an a briq o r wat e r ve s s e l
authoritative ly a ssigne d by t h e Egyptian A ntiquitie s
D e partme nt to th at Dynasty
T hi s ar ticl e had u n
d o ubte dly b e e n ca st o n a core and almo st c e rtain ly by
t h e wax pr oc e ss which s ub se qu e ntly c am e to b e u se d
so e xt e n siv e ly in this count ry
A b r o nz e o bj e ct b e lo n ging to t h e I I I r d Dynasty
which w as found at M e dum is allude d t o by diffe re nt
authors as a r o d and a r ing I t is g e ne rally re garde d as
a pure ly fo rtuitous production of b ro nz e chie y b e cau se
if t h e P iu p i statu e pre viously allude d t o e ve ntuall y tur ns
o u t t o b e copp e r
no othe r b r onz e o bj e ct prio r to t h e
XVI I I t h Dyna sty has b e e n discov e r e d
of
T h e re are
,
A NCI
6
3
E TA LL U R G Y
cours e appre ciable numb e rs of c o pp e r article s such a s

tools e t c b e longing to inte rve ning p e riods
T h e n e xt dynasty of which important sp e cime ns of
me tal work have surv ive d is t h e sixth T h e lif e siz e
statu e of P iu p i in t h e C airo M us e um b e longs to this
dynasty and with it the re is al s o o n e of hi s so n
A s t h e autho ritie s de cide d n o t to cle an t h e s tatu e
t h e su rfac e re mains c r ust e d with a thick coating of oxy
chloride and carbonat e of copp e r but its inlaid e ye s of
black and white inlay of e name l still give it a v e ry
striking app e aranc e F r om t h e photogr aph which app e ar s
in F ig 1 on p 8 t h e re ade r will b e able to form s ome
ide a of t h e attr active app e aranc e it must have p o s s e s se d
whe n in its original me talli c stat e pr obably b e aring some
de licate and ple asing patina Unf o rtun at e ly t h e work
was not di scov e re d intact and a kilt supp o se d to have
b e e n made of e le ctrum is mis sin g S e v e ral write rs hav e
said that t h e h e ad and e xtre mitie s w e re cast and that
t h e body and limbs w e re hamm e r e d to shap e t h e di ff e re nt
part s b e ing subs e qu e ntly j oine d up by we lding T his is
quit e impro bable
T h e qu e stion of alle g e d w e l di ng of
copp e r an d its all o ys by t h e ancie nt Egyptian s will b e
di scus se d late r but from h is e xp e ri e nc e of othe r e arly
me tal w o rk and a ge ne ral study of t h e wh o le s ubj e ct
t h e autho r conside r s it much mo re lik e ly that all t h e
variou s part s we re ca st and riv e tt e d tog e the r ; in fact
riv e t h o l e s can b e se e n in plac e s
B u t thi s opinion is
ne c e ss arily giv e n with s om e re s e rve as t h e sp e cime n is
ke pt in a se ale d glass ca se and t h e author h a s had no
oppo rtun ity o f e xamin in g it clos e ly T h e thickn e s s of
t h e m e tal o f t h e body and limb s ( re gardl e s s of t h e amount
of o xidatio n which now t e nds t o mask it ) conrms t h e
author in hi s opinio n a s it would b e impo ssible to rai se
me tal to such p e rfe ct e xte rnal shap e by an y me an s
,
IND U S T R Y
B R ONZE
OF
A NCIEN T EG Y P T
37
available to t h e ancie nt Egyptians o r inde e d e ve n at

t h e p re s e nt tim e by hand unl e ss t h e m e tal w e re v e ry
thin whe n nishe d
T his statu e app e ars th e n t o hav e b e e n wholly made
by t h e cire p e rdu o r wa ste wax proc e ss a me thod that
was not introduc e d into G re e c e t h e country to which
w e o w e t h e m o s t p e rfe ct antique e xampl e s of it until
about 6 00 B C
that is to say some two thousand ye ars
late r
Al though t h e cire p e r du pr oc e ss of casting has b e e n
many time s de sc rib e d a short outline of it will not b e
out o f plac e h e re
W e hav e s e en that t h e pro c e ss is of gre at antiquity
and that in all pro bability t h e Egyptians o riginat e d
it to day it re mains in u se in t h e j e we lle ry and m e tal
work trade s with v e ry f e w alt e r ations o r improve m e nts
I n it s simpl e st fo rm it may b e e mploy e d f o r making s olid
castin gs t h e mode l b e in g fa shione d in wax accurat e in
s hap e a n d d e tail
coat e d with t h e moul di ng sub s tan c e
a n d aft e r wa r d s e mb e dde d in sand loam o r oth e r s imila r
mate rial t o suppo rt t h e mould T h e whole is the n h e at e d
and t h e wax mode l is e ithe r wholly bur nt away o r poure d
o ff thr ough hol e s l e ft f o r t h e
purpos e o r through t h e
r
gat e
t
h
e
h
l
e
p
e
pa
r
e
d
f
o
r
a
ssion
o
molt
n
f
d
m
i
t
h
e
e
o
(
T h e mould is th e n re ady f o r r e c e iving t h e
m e tal )
molte n m e tal
A cc o r din g to o l d r e cor d s b e side s b e in g u se d a s food
h o ne y was available f or e mbalming purpo se s and so
t h e r e was no do ubt a pl e ntiful supply of b e e swax always
to b e had f o r mode lling purpo se s
T h e statu e of P iu p i is o u r e arli e st e xampl e o f a b r onz e
o r copp e r s tatu e mad e by t h e cir e p e r du p r oc e s s
T hi s
like man y o the r small e r statu e s and statue tt e s that have
b e e n pre s e rve d to us is a core d casting and t h e
,
A NC I
38
E TA LL U R G Y
production of this kind of ca sting is much more compli

c at e d than t h e s1 m p le p r oc e ss d e sc rib e d abov e
Wh e the r it w as f o r re asons of e c onomy with re gar d to
m e tal o r lightne ss in we ight of t h e ni sh e d article s o r
b e caus e of dif cultie s in pr ocuring large amounts of wax
that h o llow cas t ing was intr oduc e d w e d o not know but
t h e g e nius who rst inv e nt e d t h e p r oc e ss of core d ca sting
de s e rve s to b e re me mb e re d amongst t h e pione e rs of t h e
founde rs c r aft W e do nd howe v e r that t h e proc e s s
was labori o usly applie d to ve ry small article s which
r ath e r in di cat e s that saving of m e tal r ath e r than w e ight
was o n e of t h e main obj e cts
T h e mo di cations intr oduc e d by t h e ancie nt Egyptians
wh e n doing co re d work by t h e wast e wax proc e ss we re
as follows
T h e sand o r loam core was fo rm e d r oughly to t h e shap e
of t h e article to b e made and aft e rwards it w a s give n a
thin coating of wax T his coating re c e iv e d t h e shaping
and moul di ng at t h e hand s of t h e s culpt o r T h e m o uld
its e lf was applie d ov e r t h e wax in t h e s ame way a s f o r
solid castings but some m e ans w as re quire d f o r p re
v e nting any move m e nt o f t h e c o re afte r t h e wax was
ru n o ff
P r ofe s s or F linde r s P e trie in his wo rk on t h e
A rt s and C r aft s of A ncie nt Egypt s ays that t h e m e thod
by which t h e Egyptian s accomplishe d this is a doubtful
matt e r and h e go e s on t o s ay that out of s ome hundre ds
o f un n i s h e d b r onz e s that h e h as e xamin e d h e h a s n e v e r
found any conne ction above t h e ba se b e twe e n t h e c o re
and t h e me tal T h e re is howe ve r no n e e d to conne
such e xamin ation s to unnishe d article s as in nishe d
o n e s t h e core mate rial is o fte n fo und intact e xc e pt of
cour se that de structive e xaminati o n cannot g e n e rally
as th e y are v e ry
b e applie d to s o un d sp e cim e n s
valuable
.
B R ONZE I
OF
ND US T R Y
A NCIEN T EGY P T
39
late r time s it is kn own that i ron c r oss suppo rts

passing from t h e core through t h e wax to t h e mould
we re u se d and this me th o d continue s in u se at t h e p re se nt
time
S om e writ e rs as se rt that t h e e arlie r E gyptians
u se d supp o rts o f b ronz e T his is unlike ly b e caus e b e in g
re lativ e ly s ma l l t h e molt e n m e tal w o u ld m e lt th e m wh e n
pour e d in
T h e qu e stion as to h o w t h e c o re s we re s e cure d is
howe ve r not such a di f cult o n e a s it app e ars T h e
write r fortunate ly obtain e d an e arly Egyptian b ronz e
article t h e u se of which is not appare nt H e s ubmitt e d
it to s e v e ral archae ologist s but none could stat e t h e
In
Fig
B ro n z e F o o t
probable u se o f t h e obj e ct on e ach s ide it w a s e ngrave d

with a lotus owe r an d t h e A n kle o r symb o l of life
A s will b e se e n fr om F ig 5 it is so m e thing like t h e
shap e of a human f o ot and whe n re c e iv e d containe d a
sand co re wholly e n clo se d by t h e me tal I t w a s the re
fo re c e rtain that the re must hav e b e e n so me me ans o f
h o lding t h e for me r during casting a n d a minute inve sti
a t io n s how e d that a n ir on wir e st r ut had b e e n e mploy e d
g
T h e s trut w a s still in plac e but b e in g c o mpl e t e ly o xidis e d
in t h e black c o re m at e rial an d t o s ome e xt e nt di ffu se d
amongst it it was onl y de t e ct e d with dif culty
T h e s trut s in smal l a rticl e s b e i n g so thin ( in t h e cas e
.
40
E TA LL U R G Y
casting above de s c rib e d t h e s e cti o n only me asure d

1
e
a
r
inch
th
y
and
e compl e t e ly oxidi s e d
inch
by
?
)
,;
only with di fculty Can t h e swo lle n and di sinte grate d mass
T he
of oxide b e re cognis e d am o ngst t h e sandy co re
di f cultie s d u e to t h e oxidation of ir on wi re s as de sc rib e d
abov e pr obably e xplain why P r ofe sso r F linde r s P e trie
has ne ve r found a re taining strut in an antique casting
of Egyptian origin
A photograph of a s e ction of t h e casting re fe rre d to
will b e found in F ig 6 T h e position of t h e iron wire
is shown whil st t h e po rtion of t h e core mat e rial p e r
of
t he
Fig
S e c t io n
of
ro n
Fo o t
Fi g
B ro n
z Ch
e
ar m
B ox
me at e d with fe rric oxide has b e e n l e ft in plac e and is

j ust di sc e rn ible in t h e illu str ation
A n o th e r sp e cim e n of a casti n g with a wh o lly e ncl o se d
core and which c o n tain e d t h e re mains of an ir on strut
is that s hown in F ig 7 I t w a s in te nde d as a charm
p e rhaps a
an d p r obably o rigi n ally c o n tai n e d s ome pa r t
tooth of a c roc o di le o r lizard T he re is a mode l of t h e
animal on t h e top Whe n t h e autho r g o t it o n e side
had alre ady b e e n b roke n Op e n a n d t h e cont e n t s re mo v e d
so it is not kn o wn what s ubstanc e t h e e nclos e d re lic
T h e phot o g r aph sh o w s o n e of t h e side s
w as e mb e dd e d in
,
IND US T R Y
B R ONZE
OF
A N CIEN T
EGY P T
41
afte r ling and t h e position of t h e iron s trut ( wh o lly

oxi di se d ) which was the re by e xpos e d is marke d
T h e sun and snake e mbl e m o riginally x e d to t h e
h e ad of a statue tt e and t h e statue tte he ad shown in
F igs 8 and 9 we re both hollow ca sting s and e ach had
an iro n strut I n t h e fo rm e r t h e strut we nt through t h e
c e ntre and in t h e latte r it pas se d straight through t h e
he ad j u st above t h e e ars I n both t h e diame te r of t h e
wire was not more than o n e sixt e e nth inch and was
comple te ly rust e d
,
Fig
It
S un
an d
S n k E m bl e m
a
Fi g
H d
ea
of
S t tu tt
a
e.
hould not b e ove rlooke d that mo st o f t h e core d

article s found to day are small in siz e and n e arly all
hav e at le ast o n e hole some whe re as part of the ir de sign
through which a v e ry substantial support of s ome kind
could hav e pass e d from t h e c o re to t h e m o uld and the se
small article s would not g e ne rally ne e d more than o n e
suppo rt Eve n t h e various parts of t h e P iu p i statue
could have b e e n cast wi th no othe r suppo rt s than th o s e
which could hav e b e e n pass e d thr ough t h e Op e n e n d of
e ach pi e c e
s
A NCI E
2
4
N T E G YP
TI
AN
E TA L L U R G Y
A s t he
cire p e r du pr oc e ss of casting gav e a p e rfe c t

re p r oduction of t h e
ne st de tails of t h e mode l lit tle
It
work was le ft f o r t h e e ngr ave r to do afte rwards
was a difcult syste m to work b e cause t h e wax coating
had to b e ve ry unifor m in thickne ss in or de r to pre ve nt
aws in t h e solid m e tal owing to une qual contraction at
plac e s of varying thickne ss and als o conside r able di f
c u lt ie s in e nsuring ow of t h e m e tal to all pa rts had to
,
be m e t
On e
of the s e dif cultie s is e x e mplie d in
Fig
10
S t atu e tt e
of
G o dd e ss
Ii
s s
the
po rtion of
a s tatu e tt e of t h e G o dde ss I sis b e aring H oru s on h e r

kne e ( F ig
T h e body w a s co re d whil st t h e arm s
and t h e child had n e c e ssarily to b e s o lid A t t h e part
whe re t h e right fo re arm an d han d of t h e
h e r b o dy t h e m e tal w a s thick a s compar
of t h e body its e lf an d so t h e u n e
soli di fying m e tal cau se d a aw T his aw p e rmitt e d t h e
corro sive e le m e nt s t o p e ne trat e and so in time p roduc e d
,
B R ONZE
IND U S T R Y
EG YP T
A NCIEN T
OF
43
hole s e e n in F ig 1 1 t h e photograph of t h e body of

t h e g o dde ss havi n g b e e n take n aft e r t h e arm had b e e n
re mov e d
T his di f culty mu st have b e e n a con side r able
o n e in t h e e ar ly wo rk ing of t h e cire p e r du p roc e ss by t h e
ancie nt Egyptians and it h as not b e e n without inue nc e
upon t h e de cay of t h e pr oducts
A noth e r e xample of e arly b r onz e f o unding t roubl e s
occurs in t h e p e culiar b ronz e ca sting F ig _5 allude d
to p re viously Wh e n it cam e into t h e autho r s hands
o n e side was bulg e d outwa rd s and c r ack e d
as shown in
t he
Fig
11
B o dy
of
Ii
A rm
s s
re m o
ve d
photograph A mic r oscopic e xamination o f a s e ction

o f thi s s ide p r ov e d that t h e bulg e occu rre d during s olidi
c at io n of t h e m e tal and mu st th e re fo r e hav e b e e n d u e
to t h e gas e s e s caping fr om t h e c o re T h e f o unde r e v i
d e n t ly had n o t tak e n t h e pr e cautio n o f tho r oughly drying
and ve ntin g t h e core s b e fore ca stin g
T h e e xc e lle nt r e p r o ducti o n of de tail and de cor ation
in t h e castin g s o f t h e anci e nt Egyptian s w as partly d u e
to t h e moulding mat e rial u se d which was o f a smooth
t he
A N C IEN T
44
EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
non lumpy nature b e ing no dou bt plast e r of P aris with

a suitable admixture of n e sand o r gr ound b rick
I t has b e e n stat e d that plast e r could not have b e e n
us e d as it c rumble s to powde r at 2 6 0 C and b ron z e
moulds mu st b e h e at e d to a much high e r t e mpe rature
A s a matt e r of fact plaste r of P aris wi th an admixture of
such as b rick dust
s om e oth e r mo re re f racto ry mat e rial
is in common u se to day f o r b r onz e casting
M any of t h e artistic p r oductions of t h e e arly Egyptian
copp e r and bronz e founde r s could not h aVe b e e n p ro
S om e are so s mall that
d u c e d by any othe r p r oc e ss
f o r t h e unde r cut parts n o me thods of co ring o r s e ctional
-
Fi g
12
ro n
z S k
e
na
Cro wn
mouldi ng would do T h e solid ca stings we re ge ne r ally

submitte d to much e ngr aving f o r t h e n e de tails but in
most of t h e hollow wo rk t h e thinne ss of t h e m e tal p re
ve nte d this and so t h e arti st nishe d t h e wax mode l
p e rfe ctly le aving v e ry little orname ntation to b e applie d
by t h e e ngrave r T his syste m of c o urse p re s e nte d no
gre at di f cultie s b e cau se t h e cire p e r du p r oc e ss of
ca stin g is t h e o n e ab o ve all o the rs s uitable f o r t h e pe rfe ct
re pr oducti o n of int ricat e de tail and t h in s e c t io n s
T h e b r onz e multipl e snake c r own of which a photo
g raph app e ars in F ig 1 2 shows de tails of t h e mode lling
T h e mann e r of xing t h e wax snake s r o u nd t h e fram e
.
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T EGY P T
is appare nt from the ir ove rlapping in plac e s at

F ig 1 3
45
t he
is al so of int e re s t b e caus e it shows some de tails

of t h e foundry practic e s of t h e e arly days T h e sp e cime n
is an unni she d casting of t h e le g s of a bir d Whe th e r
a body was forme rly attache d to the m cannot now b e
asc e rtaine d T h e s ide Vi e w shows o n e runne r fr om t he
pour
to t h e b o ttom plate o r stand and anothe r
j oining t h e two le gs F rom t h e shape and fo rm of t h e
.
Fig l 3 U n ni h
.
ed
Ca st in g
h wi g G t
n
a es
unne rs it is po s sible to picture t h e little rolls of wax

as t h e mode ll e r x e d the m aft e r comple ting t h e mode l
T h e Egyptian wo rke rs had alr e ady found t h e n e c e ssity
of having se ve ral run ne rs e v e n in s mall work
T his sp e cim e n w a s a solid casting s o mo st of t h e
de tail and ni shing was l e ft f o r t h e e ngrave r to do
I n t h e fr o nt Vi e w F ig 1 4 t h e chis e l marks l e ft by t h e
e ngr av e r aft e r h e had comm e nc e d to s mooth t h e su r fac e
a re cl e arly V isible
I t is howe ve r r ath e r curious that
h e di d not re move t h e run n e r s b e f o re h e b e gan this
wo rk
T h e core s found in hollow b r onz e castings o f ancie nt
Egypt hav e b e e n variously de s c rib e d as blacke ne d sand
r
46
A N C I EN T E G Y P
T IA N M
E T ALL U R G Y
with a little organi c matte r and as a mixture of sand

,
and charcoal
T h e y are g e n e r ally black o r of a dark slat e colour
b e ing no doubt sand fr om de posits on t h e N il e bank
The
si m ilar to that us e d f o r foun di ng in Egypt to day
author has only come ac ros s o n e e xample with a co re
re dde n e d by h e at and app r oximating mo re to t h e loam
u se d in Engli s h foundrie s
T h e o rganic matt e r is chi e y carbon and wh e n o rigin
all y adde d would no doubt have b e e n e ithe r bone dust o r
sawdust put in w ith t h e o bj e ct of producin g t h e ne c e ssary
.
Fig
14
Ch is e l M arks
on
Un n ish e d Cast in g
por osity wh e n burnt out during t h e llin g of t h e

m o uld
On e of t h e b e st and larg e st sp e cim e ns of co re d wo rk
that h a s b e e n di s cov e re d is t h e b ro n z e lion that is d e
piot e d in F ig 1 5 whi ch b e l o n g s to t h e S aitic p e riod
and is s uppo se d to have form e d part o f a do o r fa ste ni ng
of some ki nd T h e artistic m e rit of t h e pr oduction do e s
not call f o r comme nt h e re ; it was t h e e ff o rt of t h e
sculptor w h o m o de lle d t h e wax and th e re w a s the re fo re
no patt e rn make r to b e comme nde d T h e actual casting
.
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T E G Y P T
47
article would pre se nt no difcultie s but it may

b e obs e rve d that t h e links we re ca st and th e ir p r oduction
as a chain would undoubte dl y b e a pre tty little p roble m
f or t h e founde r
T h e m e asur e m e nts of t h e sp e cime n
a re 1 0
2
a n d it is hollow e d
5
inch
s
hi
gh
by
inch
e
s
n
e
l
o
%
g
from t h e e n d at t h e tail of t h e ani mal
A noth e r good e xample is that of t h e po rtrait statu e tt e
of
t he
Fig
15
B ro n z e
F ast e n in g
o or
of R am e s e s I V ( x x t h Dynasty ) t h e front Vie w of which

is shown in F ig 2 ( C hapte r
and t h e back Vie w in
I n t hi s cas e
F ig 1 6 o f which t h e limbs are mis sing
a g ood de al of toolin g was l e ft to b e done aft e r t h e castin g
was made and so t h e me tal w a s made fairly t hi ck T h e
both o n t h e back and
e ngr aving w a s v e ry n e atly d o ne
t h e ch e st and e v e n to d ay t h e statu e tt e p re s e rve s a ve ry
,
8
4
E TA LL U R G Y
striking like ne s s T h e limbs we re cast s e parat e ly and

j oine d to t h e body in a mann e r whi ch w ill b e de s c rib e d
lat e r P ortrait statue s of P haroahs in b ronz e are r are
and valuable
P r obably t h e b e st e xampl e of e arly hollow casting is
.
Fi g
1 6 S t atu e tt e
.
of
B ck Vi w
a
m e se s
IV
Fig
17
S t atu e
of
H u
or
a statue of H o rus n o w in t h e L ouvre Of which a photo

graph app e ars in F ig 1 7 T hi s sp e cim e n is o n e of t h e
large st in e xi st e nc e b e in g about half life siz e and is state d
to b e lo n g to t h e XVI I I t h Dynasty
,
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
A N C I EN T E G Y P T
OF
49
core d work of R oman time s in Egypt t h e b ron z e

I t is Of
Vas e ( F ig 1 8 ) may b e give n a s an e xampl e
not a sp e cime n of t h e b e st wo rk o f t h e R oman
c our s e
pe riod but it is of in te re st a s S howing t h e re markabl e
Of
Fig
18
ro n
Va s e
gularity of thi ckne ss of t h e me tal T h e photograph

of t h e half s e ction ( F ig 1 9 ) shows t h is cle arly : t h e
wax mode lling must have b e e n p e rfe ct
re
5O
A
E TA LL U R G Y
g ood e xample of a solid casting is give n in
F ig
20
is a statu e tte of t h e G o d T hoth I t w as cast in

H a d t h e atte mpt b e e n
s e ctions and cle v e rly j o ine d
made to cast t h e gur e in o n e pie c e it is probable that
T hi s
Fig
19
S e c t io n
of
ro n
Va s e
xt e nde d ar m s of t h e wax m o de l would have t e nde d

T h e m o de lling
t o dr oop and thu s have s poilt t h e w o rk
w a s w e ll d o ne t h e gu re b e ing p e r f e ctly p r op o rtione d
T h e attainm e nt of anat o mical corre ctn e s s ( in s o f ar as
t he
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A N CIEN T E
G YP T
51
follows t h e human form ) in a mode l made up of se parat e

parts j oine d toge th e r must hav e b e e n a matte r of s o m e
T h e re are howe ve r many Egyptian statu e tt e s
di f culty
of e v e n gre ate r me rit than thi s e xample
M any of t h e s tatu e tt e s e sp e cially thos e of whi ch t h e
it
Fig
20
S t
tu tt
e
e of
G od
T h th
o
bo di e s we re core d w e re cast in s e ctions and t h e limbs
cle ve rly tt e d to t h e bodi e s by m e chani cal j oint s that

is to s ay without any bin di ng me dium such as solde r o r
sp e lt e r
,
A N CIEN
52
EG Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
T he s e
j oints we re no doubt hidde n to some e xte nt

by hamme ring t h e Vi sible dividing line s o r in some
instanc e s by e ngr aving a de corative arm band M any
statu e tt e s are now found minus t h e limb s t h e latt e r
having falle n out of the ir socke t s a s corr osion advanc e d
T h e typ e s of j oint s us e d by t h e anci e nt Egyptians
we re chie y variations of t h e or dinary m o rtis e j oint
I n t h e simple st typ e t h e two surfac e s w e re gro und quit e
at and we re he ld t o g e the r by a c e ntral b r onz e pin
T his typ e of j oint ge n e r ally occur s midway b e twe e n
,
Fig
21
S e ct io n
th ugh A
ro
rm
j o in t
houlde r and t h e e lb o w it w a s al so some time s us e d

f o r af xing t h e f e e t
T h e m o st int ricat e typ e of j oint that t h e author has
s e e n is that on t h e statue tte o f R ame se s I V s hown in
t he
F ig
16
a ph o tograph of an arm j o m t cut through

T h e j o in tin g w a s v e ry we ll
t h e mor ti se and t e no n
d o ne and may b e take n a s an e xample on a small
T he
scale of tt e r s work of e arly Egyptian time s
tongue which pr o j e ct e d fr o m t h e shoulde r o f t h e sp e cime n
is r e adily di stin gui sh e d fr om t h e two side s of t h e s o cke t
F ig
2 1 is
B R ON
ZE
OF
ND US T R Y
AN CIEN T E G Y P T
53
b e caus e it was made of poore r me tal which corrode d

mo re re adily than that of t h e arm its e lf
A nothe r patt e r n of j oint which must have re quire d
skill on t h e part of t h e e arly worke rs in orde r to s e cure
a rigid t is that f o und on t h e statu e tt e of H o rus in
I n thi s t h e t e non is not
t h e L ouv re sho wn in F ig 1 7
part of t h e me tal of t h e body but is se parat e and is
tt e d to t h e latt e r in a we dge shap e d s e ating as de pict e d
in t h e dr awing in F ig 2 2 T h e t e non is simply a trap e
z o id al p r oj e ction which was tt e d int o a s uitabl e hol e
,
I
I
Fig
22
Jo in t o f
H u
or
through t h e arm and t h e t e non would no doubt b e

r iv e tt e d ov e r aft e rwards
P o rtions of h e ad dr e sse s b e ards and de cor ativ e pie c e s
we re also some time s cle ve rly mortis e d into t h e bodie s
of statue s and statu e tt e s
T h e bulk of e arly artistic casting having b e e n don e
by t h e wax pr oc e s s t h e c raft of t h e old moulde r s w as le ss
important and le s s scie ntic than it is t o day but still
much skill was re quire d in t h e se le ction of mate rials f o r
core s and in arranging t h e moulds so that t h e molte n
m e tal would ru n to t h e thi n ne st part s T he y c e rtainl y
sp e cialis e d in thin castings S o f ar as w e know the re
.
54
A NC I
EN T EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
was no mouldi ng in loam o r s and by m e ans of asks o r

similar contrivanc e s and the re fore no woode n patt e rns
o r co re box e s w e re r e quire d
I t may b e re marke d that t h e ancie nt E gyptian s we re
ve ry s u cc e ssful in casting me tals and alloys whi ch w e
shou ld re gard as b e ing ve ry impure and of unsatisfactory
,
I]
ff
1
5
Fig
23
M o u ld f o r
Orn a m e n
t lH d
a
ea
of
Pd tl
e
es a
composition I t is almost c e rtain that the y always he ate d

the ir moulds prior to pouring ; in fact most of t h e
ne st work c o uld not have b e e n p ro d u c e d othe rwis e
P lain article s s uch a s chis e ls e t c
we re no doub t
some tim e s cast in op e n moulds ; inde e d s o me of t h e
.
BR
ONZE IND U S T R Y
0F
A N CIEN T E G Y P T
55
latte r are s aid to have b e e n f o und but clos e d s tone

moulds in t w o halve s we re c e rtainly in u se and e ve n
br onz e moulds may have b e e n u se d but p robably not
e xt e n s iv e ly
T h e re is in t h e C air o M us e um half of a stone mould
of an orname ntal he ad f o r a pole o r p e de stal A dr awing
of it is give n in F ig 2 3 I t has t w o re placing hole s and
it was cle arly us e d f o r making she ll ca stings in t h e manne r
in which ch e ap statu e tt e s are p roduc e d to day by l l ing
t h e mould and wh e n a skin has solidie d p o uring o ff
H ollow b ro nz e casting s
t h e r e maining liquid m e tal
ide ntical in typ e with this mould have b e e n found and
may b e s e e n in C air o M u se um
S O f ar a s t h e auth o r is aware th e re are n o oth e r antiqu e
Egyptian moulds f o r b r onz e in e xist e nc e but two of
A s syr ian o rigin may b e quot e d a s with t h e conside r abl e
inte rcours e that took plac e b e twe e n t h e two countrie s
du ring dynastic time s it is almo st c e rtain that th e y
we re ge ne r al typ e s intro duc e d int o S yria from Egypt
o r conv e r se ly that th e y must hav e b e e n i n t r oduc e d into
Egypt durin g that time although a s ye t no sp e cime ns
have b e e n une arth e d in t h e latt e r countr y
T h e rst is a m o uld made o f b r o nz e f o r mak ing a rr ow
tips found ne ar M o s sul ; dr awin g s of it are giv e n in
F ig 2 4 tak e n fr om a c o mmuni cation by E A B udg e
to t h e S ocie ty of B iblical Ar ch ae o logy P ro c 1 8 8 4 Vi
1 09
T h e followin g is t h e de s c r iption giv e n
T hi s b ro nz e m ould f o r arr ow h e ad s is a p e r fe ct sp e cim e n
it is 2 % in che s in h e ight an d 1 % inche s in width T h e
movable die s wh e n tt e d in the ir plac e s a re 2 % inch e s
ac ross and t h e ba se 3 % inch e s T h e m o uld c o n si st s of
an e lliptical ba se hollowe d to a de pth of
six pi e c e s :
of an inch containing thre e tap e rin g b ronz e point s
a
r
hi
r
ro
e
r
e
w
ch
fo
m
d
co
of
a
ws
s
ituat
d
at
gul
e
t
h
e
r
e
s
t
h
e
r
)
(
,
6
5
A N C IEN T E G Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R GY
inte rvals of half an in ch fr om e ach othe r t h e mi ddl e

and t h e othe r two 3 in ch A t
o ne b e ing 1 inch hi gh
e ach e n d of t hi s po rtion ( outside ) th e re is a p r oj e ction
-
Fig
24
M o ul d f o r Arro w T i ps
woul d almost l e ad o n e to suppos e that

xe d in wood o r stone F our pie c e s of b ronz e
.
it
,
w as
A, B
B R ONZE I
OF
ND U S T R Y
A N CIEN T
E G YP T
57
C D , b e ing t h e movabl e di e s m e ntione d abov e t into

t h e bas e accur at e ly and tog e th e r with it fo r m t h e actual
mould o f t h e arr ow h e ads T h e whol e is h e ld tog e th e r
,
by a movable ring of b ronz e tting clo se ly ov e r t h e top

of t h e mould T hr e e arr ow h e ad s co ul d b e cast in t hi s
mould at o n e time : two thre e blade d and o n e o n e
blade d T h e sin gl e blade d arr ow he ad sh o wing a barb
cast on t h e shaft is also sho w n in F ig 2 4 ; t h e othe r
two castings fr om t h e sam e mo ul d are of t h e sam e form
with t h e e xc e ption that the y are t hr e e e dg e d some what
D r awin gs ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) are s om e
r e s e mblin g a bayon e t
what similar one s found at B abylon T h e inn e r s u rfac e s
of t h e di e s are care fu ll y smoothe d and t h e divi din g lin e s
slightly e ngr ave d in o r de r to e nsure pre cision in cuttin g
t h e mould still re main
I t is now in t h e B abylo nian and A ssyrian room o f t h e
T h e styl e of arr ow tip made by t hi s
B ritish M us e um
mould is ide ntical with many that are fo un d on old
sit e s in Egypt and thi s fact in di cate s that t hi s typ e of
mo ul d may hav e b e e n in u se in both countri e s T h e
lif e of a b r on z e moul d us e d f o r making castings of t h e
but it wo ul d
s am e alloy cann ot hav e b e e n a long o n e
pr obably b e much long e r than t h e layman might e xp e ct
b e cau se r apid cooling w as e n su re d by t h e mass of m e tal
comprisin g t h e moul d b e ing many time s gre at e r than
that of t h e molt e n m e tal it w as to hold
I n t h e L ouvre the re are s e v e ral unnish e d soli d H ittit e
statue tt e s in b r onz e w ith t h e n s still re mainin g at t h e
side s thus showing that th e y we re cast in double m o ul ds
T h e re is also from p re hi sto ric C r e t e a doubl e j e we lle ry
mo ul d of grani t e with re placing hole s
I t would se e m that in Egypt t h e b e s t wo rk w a s alway s
done by t h e wax pr oc e s s but that f o r statue tte s o f t h e
gods f or t h e poor who cou ld not a ff or d to pay a s culptor
.
A NC I
8
5
E TA LL U R G Y
p e tition castings from stone moulds we re pr obably

made
I t is some what re markable that aft e r taking gre at
pains with t h e mode lling and nishing of b ronz e s tatue s
and statue tt e s t h e Egyptians cove re d many of the m
with plast e r j u st as th e y did s ome of the ir ne st sculp
ture s in stone of all k inds T h e e xplanation give n f o r
t h e latt e r p robably al s o appli e s in t h e ca se of t h e fo r m e r
T h e plast e r w a s put on s o that t h e work could b e colou re d
the y S howe d gre at fondne s s and much (aptitude f o r
painting F igs 2 5 and 2 6 show front and back Vi e ws of
a b r onz e statue tt e o f t h e G o d Osir is which has pittings
chis e lle d o ve r t h e body to make t h e plast e r adhe re
M any b r onz e statu e tt e s we re gilde d in t h e lat e r p e riods
A f e atur e of t h e b r onz e wo rk of t h e S aitic p e riod was
t h e b ringing out of de tail o f dr e ss and o rnam e ntation
by inlay
I n many statue tt e s t h e e ye s we re inlaid with gold
but occasi o nally t h e whole o f t h e dr e ss and j e we lle ry
is found t o have b e e n sple ndidly e x e cute d l n gold o r
silve r inlay similar t o s ome Orie ntal work o f to day and
carrie d out in t h e same way groove s havin g b e e n cut
and t h e inlay m e tal hamme re d into th e m in t h e f o rm o f
wire
On e of t h e ch o ic e st e xampl es of this work is t h e
statu e tt e of Que e n K o ram am a XX I I n d Dynasty ( j ust
I
in
has
an
r e S aitic )
t
h
e L ouvr e
t
e xqui s it e ly t r ac e d
p
ne cklac e in gold and silve r inlay A nothe r n e sp e cime n
is in t h e A the ns M us e um whilst t h e B ritish M us e um
contain s s e ve r al e xample s th o ugh o f l e ss e labo rat e
de sign R e ade rs able to do so are stron gly advis e d to
vi sit t h e T hir d Egyptian R oom of t h e B ritish M us e um
A nothe r b r an ch of Egyptian b r o n z e foun di ng w a s
that of makin g we apon s particularly lanc e and arro w
re
IN D U S T R Y
B R ONZ E
A NCIEN T EG Y P T
OF
59
points Ve ry f e w swo rds of Egyptian make have b e e n

found and it would se e m that this we apon w as not much
us e d until at le ast t h e G rae c o R oman time s
B attle ax e s and dagge r s we re howe ve r made of copp e r
and b ronz e from an e arly date
S p e cim e n s of th e s e
.
Fi g
25
o f Os r
P itt i g
i is
s on
S t tu tt
a
F ro n t Vie w
Fig
26
P itt in gs
Osi ris
on
S t tu tt
a
B c k Vi w
a
e of
we apons b e aring chasing and inl ay de coration have

,
v e n b e e n found among st t h e p e rs o nal equipme nt in

t h e tombs of que e ns and p rinc e s s e s although w e mu st
e
A N C IEN T EG Y P T I A N
6O
E TA LL U R G Y
suppos e the s e la di e s carri e d the m f o r c e re mo ni al purpos e s

only
A t r st t h e arr ow and lanc e tip s we re simply hamme re d
from cast r ods of copp e r to a at point e d s e ction with
two cutting e dge s but late r the y w e re cast in a varie ty
of Shap e s C opp e r and b r on z e arrow tip s w e re in g e ne r al
that is to say during

u se in Egypt until A rab t im e s
h
e
whol
of
h
co
oman
tim
s
whe n i ron w as
e
t
e
r
R
t
G ac
e
commonly e mploye d f o r oth e r purpos e s both in t h is
c ount ry and e l se wh e re
T h e e arlie st for ms
b e ing simply re pr oductions in
b r on z e of t h e typ e s pre viously u se d in int had a tang
.
Fig
27
A rro w T i p
hown in F ig 2 7 which was ins e rte d in t h e e n d of

Othe r for ms we re cast
t h e arr ow and s e c ur e d by tying
wit h a socke t into which t h e arr ow was tte d no doubt
this patt e rn came in as an improve m e nt upon t h e tange d
type
S ome oth e r kind s of article s f o r which b r onz e was
e mploy e d wi ll b e f o und in t h e illustr ations
T h e copp e r
nail ( F ig 2 8 ) is authoritative ly attribute d t o t h e XVI I I t h
I t was hamm e re d to shap e fr om
Dynasty ( B C
copp e r ro d and is ve ry similar to copp e r nails made
to day f o r c e rtain purpos e s I nde e d but f o r t h e fact
as
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T EGY P T
61
that t h e sp e cime n had a cuprous oxide coating o ne

thirty se cond of an inch thick it might have pass e d f o r a
mode rn productio n
-
Fi g
28
C o pp e r N ail
XVI I I t h
T h e G rae c o R
Dyn ty
as
oman razor ( F ig 2 9 ) was made of impur e

copp e r cast r oughly to shap e
and afte rwards nishe d
by hamme ring R e ade r s may po n de r ov e r t h e e ffort s
of a man att e mpting to shave with a copp e r blade but
it may b e re marke d that a highly ground ste e l r azor
is not e sse n tial f o r native s of s e ve r al parts of t h e world
-
Fig
29
Co pp e r R a z o r
still e ff e ctive ly carry out this op e ration with pie c e s of

b roke n gla ss o r tin plate
B e side s tools and we apon s t h e Egyptians made many
-
62
E TA LL U R G Y
dome stic ute n sils of coppe r and b ronz e marke d ve ry oft e n

by con side r able b e auty of for m
W e have se e n that t h e formi ng o f me tal o bj ect s by
casting is o f gre at a g e an d pr obably an e qual antiquity
r ai sing
may b e claim e d f o r anothe r pr oc e ss
; that
of making v e sse ls by hamm e ring she e ts of m e tal to t h e
T h e author s e xp e ri e nc e l e ads h im to
r e quir e d s hap e
think howe v e r that r aising was much l e s s in v o gue in
Egypt e ve n up to t h e R oman occupation than h as b e e n
T h e pr oc e s s o f b e ating t h e m e tal
s uppos e d hith e rto
to shap e w a s with t h e e xc e ption of g o ld work up to t h e
comme n c e m e nt o f t h e G rae c o R om an tim e s at le ast
c o n ne d to article s of simp le form and e v e n o f the s e
mo st we re rst r o ughly cast to shap e
S o ld e ring and
b r azin g b e in g unkn o wn ve s se ls re quire d w ith handle s
spout s an d similar pr oj e ction s e ith e r had to b e cast
in o n e pie c e o r the y had to b e made up of r aise d or
s e mi r ai se d bodie s an d ca st p roj e cti o n s t h e latt e r b e ing
x e d b yrive t s T h e f o r me r m e th o d w as more g e n e rally
u se d simply b e cau se o f t h e di f culty o f makin g wate r
tight j oin t s by t h e oth e r p r oc e ss
T h e re are s e v e r al allusion s in catal o gue s of diffe re nt
mu se um s and oth e r re le vant works to b ro nz e an d c o pp e r
v e sse ls which are stat e d t o have rai se d b o die s and ca st
han dl e s spout s e t c we lde d o n and a similar m e thod
o f c o n s tr ucti o n has b e e n att ribut e d to t h e P iu p i s tatu e
me ntione d on p 3 6 but t h e auth o r f e e ls c e rtain that
the se state me n t s are wr ong We lding of c o pp e r o r b ronz e
has ne ve r ye t b e e n s ati sfactorily accompli she d and e ve n
in mode r n tim e s t h e j oints made by t h e o xyhydro ge n o r
oxyac e tyle n e pr o c e s s of autoge nou s we ldin g a s applie d
t o th e se two m e tals cannot b e said t o b e wholly p e rf e ct
S o m e j oints may have b e e n made in e arly day s by p o uring
molt e n m e tal o v e r and aro und t h e two pi e c e s to b e j oine d
,
B R ONZE
IND U S T R Y
OF
A N CIEN T
EG Y P T
63
t h e pr o c e s s kno w n as r unni n g o u but thi s cannot b e

r e gar de d as w e l di ng in t h e p r op e r s e n se o f t h e t e r m
A n e xample of a lat e Egyptian m e tal v e s s e l ( R o man
o r B yzan tin e p e r i o d ) with a s pout an d a han dl e is giv e n
T h e e n tire v e s s e l w a s ca s t in o n e pie c e and
in F ig 3 0
t h e de cor ation aft e r t h e s tyl e of a li on s h e ad s e e n o n
T he
t h e spout w a s don e by chi se l w o rk s ub se qu e ntly
I f this pot f o r m e d
e vid e nc e f o r thi s is giv e n in C hapt e r V
part of a mu se um c o ll e ction it w o uld ve ry pr o bably b e
de sc ri be d as having a body shap e d by hamme ring and
-
Fi g
Egypt ian Ve sse l ( R o m an
30
or
B y z n t in
a
ca st proj e cti o n s j o ine d t o ge th e r by we ldin g but it is

not so alth o ugh it is a v e ry lat e e xample
A s a fur th e r i n di cati o n that r ai sing w a s n o t in g e n e r al
u s e e v e n s o lat e as R o man tim e s
t h e R oman ladl e of
which a phot o gr aph app e ars in F ig 3 1 may b e take n
T hi s article which c o uld hav e b e e n made with facility
by hamme ring fr om a su itably shap e d di sc o f c o pp e r o r
b r o n z e w as ca s t in o n e pie c e
T h e catalogue s o f s o m e mu se um s give account s of
va se s bowls an d o th e r ve sse l s s upp o se d to have b e e n
made by r ai sing but a mic r o s copical e xamin ation o f t h e
,
64
E TA LL U R G Y
obj e cts would p robably S ho w that many of the m we re

cast
I t is e ss e ntial to not e t h e di ffe re nc e b e twe e n r aisingZ
that is t h e gr adual shaping of a v e ss e l by hamme ring
stage by stage from a di s c of m e tal and t h e forming
of such a ve sse l by casting it r oughly to shape and putting
on t h e nishing touche s with t h e hamme r T h e latt e r
pr oc e s s app e ars to have b e e n ve ry m uch us e d by t h e
.
Fig
31
R o m an L adl e
Fig
32
ro n
Va se ?XVI I I t h
Dy
nas
ty
ancie nt Egyptians but it is quit e diffe re nt fr om o u r

p re s e nt me th o d of r aising
T h e e xt e nde d u se of r ai sing would imply a kn o wle dg e
of anne aling and of t h e latte r w e h ave little o r no e v i
de nc e S o me of t h e ve s se ls s aid t o have b e e n wr ought
fro m b r onz e a n d copp e r by raising could not have b e e n
made with o ut se ve r al anne aling s during t h e course of
the ir manufacture a s f o r instanc e a b r onz e vas e of t h e
,
B R ONZE I
N D US T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T E G Y P T
65
Dynasty of t h e s hape shown in F ig 3 2 which

was us e d f o r wa shing t h e sandals of t h e p rie sts T h e
ne ck is said to h aV
e an int e rnal di am e t e r of
inche s
t h e thickne ss o f t h e m e tal 1 % inch and t h e v e ss e l would
not b e e asy to make by r aising fr om b ronz e e ve n to day
T h e autho r fully b e li e ve s that a mic r o s copical e xamination
of t h e m e tal would s how that it was cast
I t may also b e re marke d that t h e tin cont e nt of some
of t h e b ronz e s and t h e de le t e riou s impuritie s of much
copp e r work absolut e ly pre clude t h e po s sibility of th e ir
having b e e n wrought to shap e e ithe r hot o r cold
T h e re is s ome dif culty in ge tting f o r e xamination
sp e cime ns of antique obj e cts of t h e e arly dynastie s
which could pos sibly have b e e n made by r aising as
ve ss e ls produc e d by this m e ans mu st ne c e ssarily have
b e e n thin and thin s e ctions of copp e r and b ronz e are
ofte n found to b e e ntire ly co rrode d b e ing the re fo re
us e le ss f o r purpos e s of me tall ographic in v e st ig at iOn
T h e que s tion of t h e time and plac e of t h e r st m e thod
ical u se of an anne aling pr oc e s s is an int e re s ting though
a some what di f cult o n e
M any of t h e e arli e s t m e tal
obj e cts now foun d would ne e d no an ne alin g in t h e cours e
of the ir manuf acture T h e cutting e dge s of tools we re
hamm e re d cold in o r de r to p roduc e a harde ne d surfac e
and the re fore anne aling would have b e e n harmful and
unne c e s s ary
On e article that has come into t h e author s hands
give s u s so me inf ormation o n this que stion I t is a pie c e
of copp e r strip o f t h e X I I t h Dyna sty 4 inch wide by 1 3
inch thick L e ngth s of this c o pp e r strip we re us e d by
t h e Egyptians f o r tyin g tog e th e r pi e c e s of woodwo rk
b e fore t h e days of nails
I t w o uld b e e ss e ntial that
strip s f o r purpos e s of thi s nature s hould b e as s o ft as
possible and the re fore it is not unre asonable to suppos e
XVI I I t h
'
E G YP
A N C IEN T
66
TI
AN
E TA LL U R G Y
that had the ir me tallurgist s b e e n aware that a thorough

anne aling conf e rre d t h e maximum softne ss and had
the y l e arnt to apply it as a de ni t e proc e ss the y
would c e rtainly hav e subj e cte d the s e strips to t h e
tre atme nt
T h e sampl e was v e ry rich in ar s e nic containi ng about
4 p e r c e nt
and Vi e we d unde r t h e mic ro s cop e it w a s
cle ar that it had n e v er b e e n ann e ale d
T h e re we re
howe ve r indi cations that t h e strip had b e e n hamme re d
to shap e in t h e hot stat e from a thin copp er r o d and b y
thi s m e ans t h e make r probably obtaine d t h e de gre e of
softne ss that suit e d his r e quire me nts but n e ve r thought
of anne aling as a di stinct Op e r ation
I t is almost c e r tain that t h e hot wo rking of me tals
pre c e de d t h e u se o f ann e ali ng pr o c e sse s and t h e latt er
would not b e come e s s e ntial until r ai sing w a s e mpl o ye d
f o r making othe r than plain article s in copp e r and
b ronz e I t is e xtre me ly improbable also that t h e anci e nt
Egyptians w e re able to fashion e laborat e articl e s in
bronz e and copp e r in t h e hot state e sp e cially if w e are
to acc e pt t h e stat e me nt that han dl e d hamme rs we re
unknown F o r although w e know that the ir iron was
and in s o me parts of t h e world iron is s till fo rge d to
shap e with handle le ss stone hamm e rs simply h e ld in t h e
palm of t h e hand such a me thod would not admit of
t h e care ful and almost de licat e pre ci sion both as to t h e
we ight of t h e blow and t h e point to b e struck that is
e ss e ntial in fo r ming a v e s s e l of int ricat e s hap e fr om a
she e t of c o pp e r o r b ronz e
T h e copp e r strip pre viou sly all ude d to was obtain e d
from t h e woode n sarc o phagus shown in F ig 3 3 now in
A ll t h e woode n j oints of this co f n
t h e C air o M u s e um
are
fu rth e r s e cure d by strips of this kin d pa s sing in
bunch e s through hol e s made f o r t h e pur pos e and t h e e nds
,
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T
EGY P T
67
twiste d to g e the r T he y can b e s e e n in plac e s in t h e

photograph
Whe n t h e sp e cim e n was re c e ive d t h e copp e r was in
an unusually good stat e of pre se rvation with practically
no corr o sion havin g b e e n we ll prot e ct e d by t h e wood
work in which it w as e mb e dde d and was p robably onl y
slightly le s s tough than a similar pie c e of copp e r of t h e
.
Fig
33
oo
d e n S arc o ph agus
same composition that might b e made at t h e pre se nt

I t withst o od t e n b e n di ng s backwar d s and f o r
time
wards t h rough 4 5 b e fore fr acture thu s di splaying a
stat e of e xc e lle nc e s e ldom found in old m e tal p ro
.
d u c t io n s
T he
following is
t he
analysis
68
A NC I
nsoluble matt e r
L e ad
B ismuth
E TA L L U R G Y
~
12
29
03
T in ,
trac e
I ron ,
29
C obalt
06
icke l
A rs e ni c
C oppe r by diff
4 17
-
T he
author has come ac ross no antiqu e Egyptian

me tal article of p e riods prior to G rae c o
R om
an time s
e
i
r
to
which
ann
aling
d
ng
manufactu
would
hav
u
r
e
e
(
b e e n b e ne cial o r ne c e ssary ) w hich shows indi sputable
e vide nc e of ann e aling
T h e re is l ittle doubt that ann e aling
was a fairly late inve ntion
Whe n de aling wi th th e s e antiqu e sp e cime ns fr om t h e
anne aling point of Vie w it is ne c e ssary to b e ar in mind
t h e t w o di ffe re nt ways in which ann e aling e ffe cts in t h e
mic r ostructure may have b e e n produc e d F irs tly the re
is inte ntional ann e aling carrie d out with de ni t e obj e ct s
in Vie w and se condl y accide ntal o r fortuitous he ating
T h e latt e r may b e sub di vide d into ann e aling du e t o
ag e ing on t h e o n e hand and that du e to uni nte ntional
he ating such a s re s in buil di ngs citie s e t c as we ll a s
he ating during u se s uch as cooking ve s se ls would b e
subj e ct e d to on t h e othe r hand
A g e in g e ff e cts will b e di scu ss e d in a lat e r chapte r ;
th e y are triing in e xt e nt T h e same cannot howe ve r
b e said w ith r e sp e ct to accide ntal h e ating durin g t h e
life time of t h e nishe d article I n such cas e s w e have
oft e n e xte r nal app e aranc e s to guide u s although in a
sp e cime n some thousands of ye ar s old which may h av e
unde rgone se ve ral change s of situation both b e fo re an d
.
B R ONZE
IND US T R Y
OF
A N CIEN T EGY P
69
aft e r t h e tim e at whi ch it was lost o r de posit e d the s e

indi cations may have b e e n oblit e r at e d T h e writ e r has
there fore always re j e cte d sp e cime ns showing in di cations
of ove r he ating such as a coars e gr anular mi c ro s tructure
and s o on T he s e sp e cime ns we re f e w in numb e r and
in s e v e r al of th e m t h e e xt e rnal app e ar anc e l e ft no doubt
that the y had b e e n in a re aft e r manufactur e
I n spit e of what has b e e n wr itt e n on t h e subj e ct
the r e is no positive e vide nc e of we l ding o r b razing o f
copp e r and b r onz e o r of soft solde ring b e fore lat e
R oman tim e s
We l di ng of copp e r o r b ron z e is as stat e d
pre viously out of t h e que stion though some re pair s
we re undoubt e dl y e ffe ct e d by a pr oc e ss of pouring liqui d
m e tal into t h e hole o r around t h e fract ur e a s t h e cas e
r e quir e d
but this cannot b e calle d e ithe r we lding o r
b ra z ing
A s e vide nc e of t h e g e ne r al igno r anc e of b r a z ing o r
an
simila
r
p
oc
s
of
j
o
i
n
i
ng
m
e
tals
h
e
R
oman
va
s
r
e
s
t
e
y
F
i
1
8
may
again
quot
e
d
his
V
e
ss
l
tog
th
T
b
e
e
e
e
r
)
( g
with anothe r v e ry similar in de sign obtain e d by t h e
author was pr oduc e d by casting but t h e bottom was
cast s e parat e ly wh e n it might e asil y hav e b e e n ca st in
o n e with t h e body
I t was not b r az e d in but was simply
hamme re d into a coni cal se ating T his is re adily se e n
from t h e photograph of t h e se cti o n ( F ig
and it will
be notic e d that it w a s not pr op e rly hamm e re d home all
r o und
A phot o g raph of t h e s e cti o n of t h e lowe r por tion
of t h e se cond vase is als o give n ( F ig
fr om which t h e
m e thod of xing t h e b ottom is ve ry cle ar ; t h e latt e r
re main s b e nt as t h e hamm e r ing l e ft it wh e n put in
N o s olde ring b r azing o r w e l di ng can b e de t e ct e d in
t h e j o in t s of s tatue tt e s that w e re built up o f s e ctions
and cl e v e rly j oine d toge the r and sure ly if any of the s e
m e thods had b e e n in common u se at t h e tim e it would
,
7O
E TA LL U R G Y
have b e e n us e d f o r e ff e cting any ne c e ssary re pairs and

f o r xing t h e bottoms of the s e R oman vas e s
A silv e r bowl attr ibut e d to t h e x x t h Dynasty h as b e e n
state d by o n e writ e r to hav e b e e n probably pr oduc e d
by spinni ng I n spit e of t h e fact that t h e forming of
circular shap e d ve ss e ls by spinning t h e m e tal is m e re ly
a de v e lop m e nt of t h e pr oc e ss of pott e ry mak ing on a
pott e r s wh e e l it may safe ly b e said that m e tal spinni ng
was quit e unknown in primitive time s and of cours e
was not indi sp e nsable f o r t h e makin g of t h e bowl in
.
Fig
34
B o tt o m
of
ro n
Va s e
que stion as it could re a di ly have b e e n p roduc e d e ithe r

by casting and aft e rwar ds grinding and poli shin g o r
by r ai sing by hand T he re is absolut e ly n o e vide nc e
that t h e ancie nt Egyptian s pos se sse d a k no wle dge of
me tal spinnin g o r that the y e v e r had tool s that could
have b e e n u se d f o r such a purpos e
Wire drawing als o was unkno wn T h e n e gold wire
u se d in o rnam e n tal wo rk w a s made by cutting strips
of t h e m e tal from she e t s and we lding the m toge the r
,
B R ONZE
IND U S T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T EG Y P T
71
With re gard to t h e me thods us e d f o r ni s hi ng me tal

A t r st no doubt the y
obj e cts w e know ve ry little
applie d to me tals t h e pro c e ss e s the y had us e d with such
conspicuous succ e ss upon stone as f o r instanc e cutting
carving grinding and poli shing
F r om t h e b e ginning of Egyptian history grin di ng and
polishing we re done on har d stone s wi th e xquisit e re sults
in some cas e s a awl e ss gla s s like surfac e b e ing o btaine d
.
Fi g
35
B ro n z e M irro r
and it is known that the y had e me ry whilst of cour s e

B u t s om e thing mo re
n e sand e xi st e d in abu n danc e
than the s e mat e rials was ne c e ssary f o r t h e pr oduction
of such p e rfe ct re s ults and it w o uld b e inte re sting to
know how and of what s ub stanc e the y made t h e
p o wde r s th e y us e d f o r obtaining t h e nish e d surfac e in
both sto n e and m e tal
T h e mi rr o r shown in F ig 3 5 was polishe d on both
,
A N C I EN T EG Y P T I A N
72
E TA LL U R G Y
side s an d strange to say it is dishe d on both side s to

a de pth of ab out T inch at t h e c e ntre T his may sugge st
that s om e kind of m e chanical polishing with a re volving
bob was us e d
R e pou ss de cor ation see m s to hav e b e e n appli e d
only to gold articl e s at rst and inde e d t h e author do e s
not know of any pure ly Egyptian work o i this kind
,
Fig
36
C o ll a p s ibl e
S t n d ( Cl
a
o se
d)
on b r onz e o r c o pp e r C hasing and e ngr avin g we r e e x

almost
t e n siv e l y and cl e v e rly u se d o n b o th th e s e m e tals
e v e r y s tatu e tt e b e a r s s om e e n gr avi n g
I n o u r o w n tim e t h e m e thod s o f working m e t als by
han d that is t o s a y th o se p r oc e ss e s re quiring no

machine ry fall unde r t h e he ading s of f o undin g r ai sing ,
.
B R ONZE
IND U S T R Y
OF
A N C I EN T EGY P T
73
ngr aving chasing e ngr aving inlaying and re pou s s

work
Al l the s e pr oc e s se s w e re known to t h e e arly
Egyptians and we re us e d by th e m with gre at ability
b e fore t h e comm e nc e m e nt of t h e C hristian e ra
A s an e xample of t h e advanc e made in m e chanical
Fig
37
C o ll a ps ibl e S t an d ( Op e n )
const uctions during G rae c o R oman tim e s t h e stand

shown in F igs 3 6 and 3 7 may b e take n T hi s int e re s ting
pie c e of work whi ch may possibly have b e e n made ab road
and import e d into Eg ypt during e ith e r t h e P tole maic
r
A N CIEN T E G Y P T I A N
74
R
E TA L L U R G Y
oman p e riod is a collapsible fr ame made of b e nt

copp e r strips and is still in working or de r notwithstan din g
t h e som e what co rr ode d stat e of t h e m e tal
T h e photo
graphs S how t h e stand both clos e d and Op e n H e re w e
have t h e o rigin of t h e collapsible fr am e furni ture whi c h
is so e xt e nsive ly us e d at t h e pre se nt time f o r camp u se
T h e bo wl shown was simply plac e d on t h e stand f o r
photographing and is not an adjun ct to t h e stand
Why it should hav e b e e n conside re d ne c e s s ary to make
suc h a small stand ( siz e about 4 by 6 inche s ) collapsible
is not obvious but mo st l ike ly it was o nl y a mode l
int e nde d f o r t h e e quipme nt of a grave the re are much
larg e r stands of this typ e in t h e R oman room of t h e
B ritish M us e um
A s t h e e arlie st Egyptian s e v e n up to R oman time s
di d n o t unde r stand b r azing o r sold e ring the ir me thods
of re pairing m e tal article s we re ne c e s s arily simple T h e
vas e shown in F ig 1 8 had a aw whe n cast which le ft
a s mall h o le in t h e side T hi s was plugge d with a little
r o d of b r onz e hamm e re d at on t h e
outside but le ft
p e n e trating inside t h e v e s se l a s sh o wn in F ig 1 9 as it
w a s not acc e ssibl e f o r hamm e rin g
T o m e e t sugg e sti o ns which may b e pr offe re d that
this ro d was o n e of t h e struts us e d f o r holding t h e core
during casting by t h e wax pro c e ss it may b e s aid rstly
that struts we re quit e u n ne c e s s ary a s t h e vas e was Op e n
t o p and bottom thu s all o wing ampl e m e ans f o r se curi n g
in c h l o n g
t h e c o re
se con dl y; that t h e r o d was o nl y
and was tap e re d o n t h e inside obviously in o rde r that it
s hould s e c ur e ly
t t h e hole and make a wate r tight
s e ating f o r its e lf ; and t hir dl y and chie y that t h e
m e tal of t h e vas e imme diat e ly r ound t h e plug was burre d
ov e r into t h e inte rior j ust a s t h e tap e re d ro d had l e ft it
whe n forc e d int o p o sition
or
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A NC I
EN T E G Y P T
75
bottom of t h e Vas e as we ll as that of a s e cond

similar ve ss e l of t h e same p e riod was x e d in plac e
by simil ar me ans it may b e take n as b e ing o n e of t h e
me thods of construction and re pair in v o gue at t h e
time
A noth e r m e thod of re pair ing aws which has p re
allude d to w a s appli e d t o t h e b ro n z e
v i o u sly b e e n
R oman pot in F ig 3 8
T his v e s s e l had thre e re pair s
e ach con si stin g of aws
that we re clos e d by
runni ng molt e n m e tal
into the m T hat th e y
we re aw s in manu
facture is shown by
t h e fact that t h e alloy
A S t he
Fig
38
R o m an
P ot
Fi g
39
R e pa irs in
o m an
P ot
us e d f o r t h e re pair is t h e same as that of t h e body W e

may p e rhap s as sum e that this me thod of re pair w a s us e d
b e cause t h e fault occurre d in t h e foundr y an d not
sub se qu e ntly during u se of t h e article
A photogr aph of two of t h e re pairs as s e e n from t h e
inside of t h e pot app e ars in F ig 3 9
.
A N C IEN T
6
7
E G YP T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
b e cam e a g e ne r al pr actic e with t h e e arly E gyptians

to make an addi tion of l e ad to t h e b ron z e us e d f o r casting
o rname ntal and de votional obj e cts Whe the r this was
done to e con o mis e copp e r and tin o r to produc e a ple asing
patina is not known but the y s e e m to have le arnt that
a pr oportion of l e ad ( in s ome e xampl e s it re ache s 3 3 p e r
c e nt ) simplie d casting made t h e m e tal soft e r f o r chasing
a n d e ng r aving
and that f o r ornam e ntal obj e cts it was
not obj e ctionable
On t h e oth e r hand in antique
Egyptian imple me nt s w e do not nd l e a d l e x c e p t as an
accide ntal impurity in triing amounts
I t should b e bo rne in mind that t h e statue tt e s of
which numb e rs e xist in o u r mus e ums are chie y tho se of
gods and sac re d animals us e d as votive offe ring s T he y
w e re plac e d in t e mple s and in hous e s to e nsure t h e p ro
T hi s b e in g s o th e y may b e re garde d
t e c t io n of t h e gods
and it Would
a s obj e cts of a pure ly o rnam e ntal natu re
not b e e sse ntial that t h e m e tal S hould b e pure o r p o ss e s se d
of any gre at stre ngth W e nd that the y we re ge ne rally
made of ve ry poor me tal and in som e cas e s obviou sly
c ast f r om s c r ap m e tal
T h e b r onz e us e d f o r p o rtrait statu e s and statue tt e s
o f ki n g s and high ofcials s e e ms fr om it s e xt e rn al app e ar
anc e to b e of much b e tt e r quality ( as als o is t h e work
man ship ) than that of t h e re ligious statue tt e s
T he
m e tal is harde r and more ye llow thus indicating a highe r
proportion of tin and l e s s l e ad but analyse s have r are ly
b e e n made and sp e cim e ns n e v e r fall int o t h e hands of
t h e inve s tigato r b e cau se o f th e ir valu e as re lics
I t may b e m e ntione d that t h e guide s and oth e r publi
c a t i o ns issu e d by mus e um autho ritie s a re
not always
uit
ca
ful
in
distinguishing
b
e
tw
e
e
n
c
o
pp
r
and
e
r
e
e
q
b r onz e
th e re are se ve ral instanc e s in which o bj e cts
a re
de sc rib e d as coppe r in o n e w o rk and b ronz e in
It
B R ONZE I
ND US T R Y
OF
A N C IEN T E G YP T
77
anothe r T h e e rr o rs are du e probably to t h e fact that

t h e stat e m e nt s are not always bas e d on ch e mical analys e s
T his point is occasionally of s ome importanc e
A s an instanc e w e may take a w e ll known sp e cime n
b e longing to t h e x t h Dynasty ge ne rally all ude d to as
I n t he
t h e B razie r of K h e t y and now in t h e L ouvre
catalogue of t h e B ritish M use um it is spoke n of a s a
b r on z e b o wl whilst P rofe ssor F P e trie in h is H is to ry
e r op e n wor k of a b ra z ie r o r som e
calls
it
copp
t
of E gy
p
r ound obj e ct
I t has oft e n b e e n ass e rt e d that t h e ancie nt Egyptians
us e d f o r the ir b r onz e an ide ntical p e rc e ntage of tin to
that u se d at t h e pre se nt day but t hi s state me nt though
ne ar t h e truth in some re sp e ct s ne e ds some qua lication
I t may b e take n f o r g r ant e d that th e y found an addi tion
of tin ove r a c e rtain p e rc e ntag e produc e d a b rittle
unworkable all oy which w o uld b e quite u se le s s to the m
f o r mo st purpo se s
A t t h e p re se n t t i m e b ro nz e s f o r di ffe re nt pu rpo se s a re
made of varying propo rtion s of t h e t w o constitue nt
me tals and also addi tio n s of othe r me tal s are made in
small amounts t o re nde r t h e working of the me tal e asie r
T h e b r onz e
and to pr oduc e oth e r de sirable re s ults
alloy s in u se to day f o r me chani cal purpos e s do n o t
contain m o re than 1 2 p e r c e nt of tin and this propo rtion
w e do n o t nd e xc e e de d in t h e old Egyptian b r onz e
obj e cts int e nde d f o r similar u se s
I t s e e m s v e ry p r obable that b r onz e w a s rst u se d
f o r o rname ntal wo rk b e cau se t h e e arly Egyp t ian s found
its colour more ple asing than that of c opp e r appr oac hi ng
I t is a lm o st c e rtain
as it do e s t h e colo ur of gold
that tin was much more e xp e nsive than copp e r to the m
and n o adde d har dne s s would b e re qu ire d in such obj e ct s
F o r many ye ar s it w as suppos e d that t h e ancie nt
.
8
7
E TA LL U R G Y
Egyptian s had s ome s e c re t m e ans of har de ni ng copp e r

and b ronz e which has sinc e b e e n lo st b e caus e as onl y
tools of the s e me tals had b e e n di s cov e re d on ancie nt
site s no othe r m e ans re maine d of e xplaini ng how t h e
magnic e nt w o rks in har d stone we re p roduc ed during
t h e e arli e r dynasti e s
I n C hapt e r V will b e found t h e mic r oscopical e vid e nc e
which prov e s that no se c re t o r othe r harde ning proc e ss e s
could hav e b e e n us e d but w e may conside r h e re some
of t h e facto rs which may have co nfe rre d addi tional
hardn e ss upon t h e coppe r and b ronz e made in t h e old
Egyptian foundrie s
I t is obvious that f o r t h e wo rking of wood and t h e
soft e r stone s no sp e cial har de ning of t h e m e tal tools
would b e call e d f o r T h e inc re a se of hardne s s conf e rre d
by hamm e ring t h e cuttin g e dg e of t h e tool in t h e cold
but f o r such har d stone s a s to day
s tat e would suf c e
b e st st e e l t o ols f o r the ir man ipulation it
re qu ire t h e
cann o t b e agre e d that hamme re d b r on z e o r copp er
would do ; in fact e xp e rime nts made by t h e author
hav e conclusiv e ly prove d o the rwi se
A m e thod o f inc re a sing t h e hardn e s s of copp e r is to
make an a ddi tion of anothe r m e tal s uch as iron arse ni c
nicke l e t c but although the se are found in old sp e cime ns
of t o ol s in small amount s e ithe r as impuritie s o r ing re di
the y cannot have con
e nts ( mo re p r o bably t h e fo r m e r )
fe rre d s uf cie nt hardn e ss f o r t h e sp e cial purpo se above
m e ntione d and it may b e adde d that t h e harde ning
e ff e ct s of th e s e m e tal s mu s t hav e b e e n much modie d
by t h e pre se nc e of othe r impuritie s such a s bismuth
l e ad and cuprous oxide whi ch are invariably found
s e parate ly o r coll e ctiv e ly in old sp e cim e ns of tools
B ismuth than which the re is no mo re harmful impurity
in copp e r occurs in many of t h e analys e s which have
,
B R ONZE
OF
IND U S T R Y
A N C IEN T
EGY P T
79
b e e n care fully made of copp e r tools and it is impos sible

that chis e ls of such impur e m e tal with its in he re nt
b rittle ne s s could hav e b e e n of t h e slighte s t u se in t h e
chis e lling of har d stone I t is c e rtain that e ve n supposing
a cutting e dge could b e pre pare d on s uch c hi se ls su fc i
it would not e v e n s tand
e ntly har d f o r u se on har d stone
t h e shock of t h e blows in carvin g
A n int e re sting tr a di tion that was m e ntione d to t h e
author by t h e lat e S ir G aston M a sp e ro t h e famous
dir e ctor of Egyptian antiqui tie s re lat e s that antique
copp e r was har de ne d by he atin g t h e m e tal and the n
que n ching in t h e blood of ox e n W e know of c o urs e
that such tre atme nt wo ul d b e much more like ly to
soft e n t h e me tal than to har de n it I t would se e m
a m e thod much more lik e ly to have b e e n applie d to
st e e l
T h e ide a of s e c re t har de ning pr oc e s s e s f o r copp e r and
b ronz e f o rme rly e nt e rtain e d by arch ae ologists is h o w
e v e r now h e ld by o nl y a f e w
but is s up e rs e de d by othe r
th e orie s of a more ple b e ian but not more f e asible nature
T h e s e are de alt with in a lat e r chapt e r and w e may
and n all y that t h e ancie n t Egyptian
s ay d e nit e ly
m e tallur gi sts kne w nothi ng about th e se two m e tals that
w e do not know to day
T h e lat e st re se arch e s show that t h e har d n e s s o f c e rtain
b ronz e s may b e modi e d by care fully applie d h e at tre at
me nt but t h e r ang e in variation is not gre at and as
mode rn apparatus f o r gov e rni ng t h e t e mp e r atur e s is
absolut e ly ne c e ssary t h e me thod woul d not b e available
to t h e ancie nts
T h e re is howe ve r little ne e d to sp e nd tim e e nde avouring
to nd o u t har de ning pr oc e ss e s that might have b e e n
applie d to b ronz e b e caus e works in har d stone we re
carv e d during t h e e xte nsiv e laps e of time prior to t h e
,
80
E TA LL U R G Y
intr oduction of tin into Egypt an d the re fore t h e

que stion is limi te d to t h e harde ni ng of coppe r
With re g ar d to t h e pre s e nc e of ars e ni c in anti q ue
E gyptian copp e r arch ae ologists hav e stat e d that t h e
ars e nic was no doubt int e ntionally adde d as a harde ne r
T his stat e me nt is impossible to p r ov e and th e re are
many argum e nts in favour of t h e Vie w that its pre s e nc e
is more like ly to have b e e n accide ntal F irstly it may
b e said that t h e har de ni ng pr op e rtie s of ars e nic are of a
low orde r and are much b e low thos e o f I othe r me tals
almost invariably pre s e nt as im p u rit l e s I n the s e old
sp e cim e ns as f o r instanc e ir on tin and ni cke l
F rom t h e f e rruginous ux us e d in sm e lting t h e copp e r
would take up suf cie nt iron to conf e r f ar more har dne ss
than arse ni c was capable of pr oducing S e con dl y the re
is no re gularity in t h e amounts of arse nic found in
di ff e re nt sp e cime ns ( varying fr om 02 to 4 p e r
and ar s e nic is fo un d in article s f o r which t h e e ss e ntial
p rop e rty would b e s oftne ss and not har dne ss T hirdl y
ars e ni c is such a common impurity of copp e r that no
furthe r e xplanation s e e ms n e c e ssary to account f or its
pre s e nc e in old sp e cime n s
T h e argum e nt put forwar d to support t h e int e ntional
addition of ars e ni c the ory is me re ly that arse ni c has not
b e e n found in t h e f e w sp e cime ns o f local cuprife rous
o re s th at hav e b e e n analys e d n o r in t h e f e rru g in o u
sands us e d as ux e s F rom t h e m e re fact that so m e o f
t h e copp e r articl e s contain ars e ni c and oth e r s do not
it has b e e n de duc e d that t h e Egyptians kne w how to
mo di fy t h e hardn e ss of the ir m e tal T o suppo rt this
t h e arse ni c cont e nt would ne e d to b e fairly re gular and
would not b e found in article s f o r which maximum
softne ss would b e e ss e ntial I t s e e ms j ust as po ssible
that c o pp e r fr om s o me localitie s contains ars e nic obtaine d
,
B R ONZE I
ND U S T R Y
OF
A NCIEN T EG Y P T
81
ithe r from t h e o re t h e ux o r othe rwis e in t h e sme lting

wh ilst copp e r from othe r localitie s w as not s o contami
nat e d I n any cas e the re is always t h e po s sibility that
c e rtain ore s o r ux e s have b e e n worke d out and that t h e
sample s analys e d have not b e e n p rop e rly re pre s e ntative
Unfortun ate ly the re are n o cont e mpor ary re cords
such as tomb paintings and s o on sh o wing t h e m e thod
of makin g and working b ronz e in e arly Egypt and so
w e are comp e ll e d to re ly upon t h e e vide nc e of t h e ni s h e d
art icle s that are re tri e ve d from t h e e arth and upon t h e
inf ormation that t h e lat e st de ve lopme nts of m e tallurgical
scie nc e e nable s us to de duc e from the m
I n t h e C air o M u se um th e re is a lime s ton e re lie f s h o wing
j e we ll e r s me lting gold and w e assume that similar
me thods we re e mploye d f o r b ronz e
A n old Egyptian c r ucible w a s found at S e rab it in S inai
and w as similar in shap e to t h e bowl of a tobacco pip e
with a hole in t h e side f o r pouring ; of what mat e rial
it was made is not re corde d
A n old copp e r s me lting fur nac e was also foun d in t h e
I t compris e d
S inai P e ni nsula by M r C T C urre lly M A
a hole in t h e ground about 3 0 inche s de e p round which
a cir cular wal l w a s built having two hole s f o r tuye re s
o n e 1 5 inch e s hi gh e r than t h e oth e r
T h e fue l us e d f o r
all foundr y purpos e s in ancie nt Egypt must have b e e n
char c o al
T h e pr oduction of copp e r o re at t h e min e s its re duction
to m e tal and t h e manuf actur e and work in g of b r on z e
mu st hav e b e e n an industry of conside rable magnitude
but whe re a s w e have of t h e co e val c raft of st o ne w orking
a fair s how of statue s te mple s and othe r large p ro
d u c t io n s f o r all t h e quarrying that w a s done in Various
parts of t h e country w e have p ractically not hin g of
imp o rtanc e to S how to day f o r all t h e me tal that was
e
82
E TA L L U R G Y
mine d won by conqu e st and re c e iv e d in trading Op e r a

tions On e life siz e statue se v e r al parts of what we re
pre sumably comple te life siz e pie c e s originally s e ve ral

about half life siz e and a f e w po rtrait statu e tte s are all
t h e c re ditabl e p r oduction s that care ful and continuous
e xcavation s hav e b rought to light ; and if w e add to
the m t h e hun dr e ds of little statu e tte s and mino r article s
chie y of insigni cant workman ship t h e total must still
b e ar an innit e simal re latio n to t h e actual original output
T h e e xplanati o n lie s mo re in t h e s e conda ry valu e of
t h e ar ticl e s a s m e tal and in t h e numb e r of re volutions
and change s o f rule r s that t h e country e xp e rie nc e d than
in t h e p e rishable nature of t h e m e tal o r actual lo s s e s
th ro ugh t h e march o f age s
E v e n duri ng t h e G re e k an d R oman p e riods th e re
mu st have b e e n man y large b ronz e statue s in Egypt
P lutar ch
f o r the y attr act e d t h e notic e of G re e k Visitor s
in h is T h e os o phical e ss ay s de s c rib e s som e o f th e m and
is at gre at pains to e n de avou r to account f o r t h e pl e a sing
blue col o u r which the y are said to have po sse sse d Whilst
thi s patin a mu st n e c e s sarily hav e b e e n in a gre at me as u re
d u e t o t h e compo siti o n of t h e b ro nz e it se lf not im
probably containing g o ld t h e e ff e ct w a s furthe r e nhanc e d
by a coating of oil which w a s applie d to t h e s urfac e
I t is most unfo rtunate that t h e maj o rity of b r onz e
article s that have b e e n found cann o t b e assigne d to any
p e ri o d with c e rtainty Ve ry f e w b e ar ins c riptions and
t h e numb e r found on o l d sit e s along with antiquiti e s of
o th e r kind s that can b e dat e d
is small M ost of t h e
sp e cim e n s s e e m t o b e di s cov e r e d by nativ e s who assidu
o u sly tu rn o v e r t h e s and in like ly plac e s f o r such small
article s an d a s the se p e rs on s are o fte n n o t de s irou s of
le tting t h e authoritie s into t h e ir se c re t s e v e n t h e l o cality
from which a spe cim e n come s is not di sclos e d
,
'
B R ONZE
IND U S T R Y
OF
A N CIEN T EGY P T
83
arch ae ologist s it is t h e practic e to assign to

any non fe rr ous me tal obj e ct not found unde r k nown
and convincing cir cumstanc e s o r not b e arin g mark s by
which the y may b e dat e d o r n o t o st e nsibly pre hi storic
G re e k o r R oman in de sign to t h e S aitic p e riod g e ne rally
t h e XXVI t h Dynasty
T h e numb e r of b r onz e s that are found in Egypt is
howe ve r di mini shing I n fo rme r time s the y we re not
uncommon and t h e dr aini n g of t h e L ake o f Karnak at
L uxor pr o vide d almo s t a glut of c e rtain vari e tie s but
the y are b e coming scarc e and c o ns e que ntly ve ry e xp e nsive
tools and othe r s mall obj e cts of
T h e statu e tt e s
which w e pos se s s s uch numb e r s are v e ry u se ful f o r
a s w e ll a s f o r e nabli n g u s to
s ci e n tic inv e s tigatio n s
f o rm s o me ide a of t h e de cor ativ e side of Egyptian m e t al
w o rk and of its application but the y do n o t of c o urs e
n o r t h e re n e me nts
e nabl e u s to e s timat e t h e mag ni tude
a s would la rg e s p e cim e n s that c o uld
o f e arly foundi ng
b e re gar de d as ch ef s d oe u vre s of t h e c raft
I t is c e rtain
that unl ike t h e huge and wonde rful stone monume nts
which had little o r no intrin sic value to subs e que nt
copp e r and b ronz e wo rk we nt wh o lly
rul e r s and r ac e s
into t h e m e lting pot dur ing o r foll owing re volutions
wars and time s of national ne e d
Whe n w e re e ct that from a state of ignoranc e t h e
ancie nt Egyptian m e tall ur gists e volv e d t h e foun dations
of an industry whi ch was to hav e astoun din g inue nc e
upo n t h e world s civilisation w e can appre ciat e t h e
patie nc e s k ill and de t e rminati o n with which the y must
have carri e d out e xp e rim e ntal and e v e n r e s e arch work
Did w e but know the m w e mi ght with j ustic e
re m e mb e r t h e nam e s of t h e r st inv e nto rs amongst thos e
primitive pe ople of double moulds of t h e wast e wax
castin g proc e s s of core d ca stings and of glazing and
A mongst
-
A N CI
84
EN T EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
name lling along with thos e of the ir succ e sso rs in t h e

c raft of me tal workin g of mode rn time s who di scove re d
aluminium e le ctrolytic re duction of me tals and othe r
similar advanc e me nts in me tallurgical scie nc e and handi
c raft T o u s t h e r st quote d inv e ntions may se e m now
some what trivial one s as compare d with t h e othe rs but
w e sho uld b e ar in mind that wh e re as mode rn impr ov e
me nts are t h e outcome o f progre ssive advanc e me nt in
practic e and the ory ov e r a cours e of fty c e nturie s
t h e r st Egyptian wo rke r s had no suc h ladde r of l e arni ng
to assist the m but start e d from a ba sis of absolut e
ignoranc e
T h e fondn e ss that t h e ancie nt E gyptians ac quire d
f o r copp e r ut e nsils in t h e re mot e days of antiquity still
survive s in E gypt to day T h e poore st native pre fe r s
his st e w pot to b e of this m e tal in pre fe re nc e to t h e more
e conomical cast ir on now in g e n e r al u se e ls e wh e re
f or
h e knows copp e r ve s s e l s always hav e an intrinsic valu e
and to him the y act as a sort of bank j ust as some of
hi s mo re ourishing coun trym e n load the ir wom e n with
gold j e we lle ry buying and s e lling it as chan ge s in c in
c u m st an c e s dictat e
M e ntion should b e made of a s e co ndary u se that was
made of me tals in t h e form of the ir oxide s f o r producing
glaz e s e name ls colo ur e d glass and paints B lue glaz e s
we re applie d to potte ry e v e n in pre historic days and
sub se qu e ntly gre e n Vi o le t black re d and whit e one s
from t h e oxide s of copp e r cobalt mangane s e iron
and t in
W e also nd that m e tals and th e 1r oxi de s we re include d
in m e dical pre sc riptions as f o r instanc e a re me dy f o r
inammati o n of t h e e ye which w as made up of myrrh
whit e oil antimony and oxide o f copp e r toge the r with
othe r it e ms of m o re o r le ss me dicinal o r toxic value
e
CH AP TE R I I I
THE
I R ON
AG E
E G YP T
IN
is no doubt what e v e r that iron in it s me talli c

for m was known in Egypt at le ast as f ar back a s t h e
it would b e s ome what difcult
I v t h Dynasty ; inde e d
of e xplanation had it b e e n o the rwis e s e e ing that at
that time ano the r me tal f ar m o re di f cult to o btain
fr om its o re s ( copp e r ) was b e ing e xte nsive ly produc e d
a n d that ir on its e lf
in t h e form of h ae matite occurre d
in much gre ate r quantity than copp e r
article s
S urfac e o re s no doubt e xi st e d in abundanc e
b e ads and statu e tte s carve d from
s uch as h e ad re s ts
h ae matite whi ch have b e e n found on old sit e s te nd to
pr ove this
T h e re a re to day conside r abl e de posits of h ae matite
in t h e so uthe rn and south e ast e rn portions of S inai
P e nin sular and in c e rtain parts of Egypt such a s t h e
north e a st e rn and south e as te rn de s e rts b e side s re d and
R e ade r s
b rown ochre s and fe rrugino us sandstone s
inte re ste d in t h e actual site s of pre se nt iron o re in Egypt
a re re f e rre d to an auth e nti c pap e r
e ntitl e d
T h e Dis
t rib u t io n of I ron Ore s in Egypt

by D r W F H ume
Dir e ctor of t h e Egyptian G e o l o gical S u rve y
Ol d iron workin gs occur at Wadi A b u % e rida in t h e
nor th e ast e rn de se rt but the s e are thought to b e R oman
I t may we ll hav e b e e n howe ve r that t h e R omans we re
m e re ly t h e last p e ople to work the m
T h e dat e of t h e comme nc e me nt of t h e iron ag e in
TH
E RE
86
A N C IEN T
E G YP T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
Egypt is pe re nnially di scu s s e d and unfo rtunat e ly but

little fre sh e vide nc e come s along as tim e progre ss e s
A n apol o gy is n e e de d f o r intr oducing matt e r s of a
some what pole mical nature into a pr actical wo rk as this
is int e nde d mainl y to b e but pole mics are almost in
s e parable fro m arch ae ol o gy and a s t h e subj e ct is inti
mat e ly as s ociat e d with t h e b e ginning s of t h e me tal
w o rk e r s c raft a plain stat e me nt of t h e two side s of t h e
argum e nt from a m e tallurgical standpoint is not out
as t h e prac t ical man will
side t h e scop e of t h e book
the re by b e e nable d to giv e his Opini on on an inte re sting
pr o ble m whi ch has not hithe rto b e e n so fully p re s e nt e d
to him
R e ade rs s hould b e ar in mind howe v e r that som e of
t h e arch ae ological e vide nc e is of ne c e s sity e xc e e di ngly
sle nde r e sp e cially much that is bas e d upon t h e wo rks
of such acade mic writ e rs as P liny H om e r and P lutarch
F u rthe r on almost e ve ry impo rtant que stion arc h ae o l o
gists of re put e hold opposit e Vie ws and whilst t h e
maj ority app e ar t o favour t h e date of 1 000 B C f o r t h e
rst application of iron in Egypt se ve ral in cludin g D r
B udg e of t h e B riti s h M us e um are inclin e d to b e lie ve
that t h e m e tal was u se d much e arlie r
A s iro n is f ar l e s s wo rkable than copp e r and mo s t
oth e r me tals di fcultie s in wo rking may have limit e d
its application whe n it was rst introduc e d A l s o s e e ing
that it mu st b e worke d hot and handle d hamme rs we re
unknown at t h e time it is quite w ithin t h e bounds of
po ssibility that t h e m e n skille d in it s mani pulation we re
f o r a conside r abl e p e riod f e w in numb e r
S o m e writ e r s have s ugg e st e d that t h e paucity of
antiqu e iro n obj e ct s in Egypt may b e d u e to t h e fact
that iron e xi st e d in a n ative stat e in p o cke ts an d that
the s e b e ing discove re d o nly o cca sionally only a small
,
TH E
I R ON
A GE
EGY P T
IN
87
B u t th e re is littl e
numb e r o f article s could b e made
n e e d of this e xplanation as t h e oxide s of iron a re so
r e adily re duc e d
T his scar city of iron obj e cts e v e n in t h e lat e r p e riod s
has ne v e r b e e n s atisfactorily e xplaine d by arch ae ologi sts
the y c o nt e nt th e ms e lve s with a de nit e stat e me nt
argue d larg e ly from t h e hi sto ry of othe r ancie nt countr ie s
that ir on w a s not in common u se until about 1 000 B C
and the y o ff e r no s ati sfacto ry e xplanation c o n c e rni ng
t h e s e v e r al ir on ar ticle s o f auth e ntic o rigin that have
come to light from p e riods ant e rio r to that date by
c e nturi e s
W e know that thr oughout t h e hi sto rical p e riod of
ancie nt Egypt magni c e nt s culptur e s and othe r wo rks
in t h e har de st of stone s such as diorite basalt and
gr ani t e we re e x e cut e d with consummat e ski ll I n t h e
I v t h Dynasty
many statue s in di orit e t h e
e s p e cially
mo st intractable of ston e s w e re carve d and e ve n b ronz e
tool s we re not the n available b e caus e tin had n o t b e e n
introduc e d into Egypt by that time
A photograph of o n e of t h e ne st e xample s in di o rit e
of t h e I v t h Dyna sty is giv e n in F ig 4 0 F o r pur pos e s
of compari so n an ill ustr ati o n is als o giv e n in F ig 4 1
of a sple n didl y chise ll e d statue in gre y grani t e b e lo n gin g
to t h e XVI I I t h Dynasty ( B C 1 5 8 0
which w a s
the re fo re made about 4 00 ye ars afte r t h e dat e so me time s
a s c rib e d t o t h e comme nc e m e nt of t h e comm o n u se of
ir o n in Egypt N o gre at diffe re n c e in t h e e x e cution of
t h e t w o work s st r ik e s t h e e ye a n d ye t w e are in v it e d
t o b e lie v e that two v e ry di ffe re nt m e thods of cutti n g
and carving we re us e d upon the m
I t is impo rtant to r e m e mb e r that t h e fa s hio n ing of
a statue o r othe r arti stic p r oduction in sto n e e ntails
s e ve ral di ffe re n t Op e r ation s F irst th e re is t h e cutting
.
A N C I E N T E G YP T I A N
88
E TA LL U R G Y
of t h e block from t h e rock in t h e quarry wh ich may b e

done by any me thod of sawing o r c r ac k ing by re o r
by b re aking by me ans of we dge s s e con dl y the re is t h e
,
Fi g
40
S p c im
e
S t tu
t h Dyn ty
D i it
W k
f E li t H d S t
en o
in
ar
or
es
ar
Iv
as
on e
or
Fi g 4 1 S t atu e in G re y
Granit e XVI I I t h Dyn asty
.
I R ON
TH E
IN
A GE
EG Y P T
89
o u ghing out done by b re aking off large lumps of t h e

T hir dl y and this is t h e o nl y p r oc e ss
s tone by hamme r s
which ne e d conc e rn us in conside ring t h e ne c e ssity f o r
i ron tools the re is t h e nal care ful shaping and t h e cutting
of de tail followe d by polishing
T h e following is a list of some of t h e iron obj e cts b e
longing to p e riods prior to 1 000 B C that hav e b e e n found
in Egypt
r
t l f m t h G t Py m id f
Khu fu t Giz h
F gm t f i
pi ck f om t h B l ck
Py m id t A b i
M
u t f m Abyd
f i
I
p h d f m N u bi
I
i ck l f m b
th S ph i x f
H mh b
K k
ro n
oo
ro
en s o
ra
ra
ro n s
ro n
ea
o re
ro
os ,
a,
ro
ene a
ro
arn a
n e ar
I vt h
Dy
n as
ty
2 900
B C
.
2 7 00
B C
2 500
B C
1 7 50
B C
.
1 4 50
B C
u s r,
ro n r
e ar
ra
ro n
ass o
re a
Dy ty
t h Dy
ty
X
t h Dy
ty
v th
VI
n as
n as
I II
n as
XVI I I t h
Dyn ty
as
ad di tion to the s e the re are b e ads of iro nb e longing

to pre historic tim e s of which G owland r e po rte d that
the y consist e d of hy dr ate d fe rric oxide of t h e following
composition
7 8 7 p e r c e nt
F e rric Oxide
C ombine d wat e r with tr ac e s
of C C 2 and e arthy matt e r
In
1 00 0 p e r
T he s e
c e nt
b e ads consist e d of ir on rust none of t h e o riginal

T h e y did not con sist
iron having e scap e d o xidation
of ir on o re but of hydrate d fe rric oxide t h e re s ult of
t h e r usting of w r ought ir on of whi ch th e y we re o riginally
made T he s e b e ads we re made fr om thin b e nt plat e s
I t should b e state d that on some of t h e nds in t h e
a bov e list doubt is cast by c e rtain ar ch ae ologists as to
t h e auth e nticity of t h e sit e upon whi ch th e y we re di s
c o v e re d
but he re again w e hav e o n e e xp e rt against
,
0
9
A N CIEN T E G Y P T IA N
E TALL U R G Y
anothe r and it w o uld re ally app e ar that s ome of th e s e

and
e xp e rts are p re pare d to swe ar to t h e p r o v e nanc e of
to acc e pt without de mur o nly thos e obj e ct s that the y
have p e rs onally un e arth e d
but the y
T h e di scov e rie s are inde e d fragm e ntary
c e rtainly s e e m t o show that t h e wo rki n g of ir o n w a s w e ll
unde rstood almo st fr o m t h e b e ginn i ng of hi sto ric ti m e s
With re gar d to t h e e arly s p e cime n s m e nti o ne d above
G owlan d con side re d that t h e rst sp e cim e n found du ring
bla s ting op e r ation s within t h e G re at P yr amid of Khufu
at G iz e h in 1 8 3 7 was not a natur al t e rr e st rial product
and sugg e st e d that it w a s
not altog e the r i mpos sible
that it came fr om t h e S inaitic P e ni nsular and was o h
tame d the r e by t h e accide ntal tre atme nt by t h e copp e r
sm e lt e r s o f t h e r ich iron o re which outc r op s ne ar t h e
v e in o f c o pp e r o re
T h e fr agme nt s of iron pick s fr om t h e B lack P yr amid
at A b u sir we re found by M a sp e ro in 1 8 8 2
appare ntly
T h e mas s o f ir o n r ust fr om A bydos
fr om a w e dge of ir o n w a s found by P e trie himse lf stuck
toge th e r with coppe r adz e s of t h e VI t h Dyna sty typ e
at t h e le ve l of oors of that ag e in t h e e arly t e mple o f
A bydos
T h e sp e cim e ns e nume r at e d are wr ought ir on an d th e y
in di cat e that t h e pro ducti o n of t hi s me tal and its m ani p u
lation must have b e e n we ll un de r sto o d N e gle ctin g t h e
s mall p r e histo r ic b e ad s and c o nside r ing t h e n e xt e ar lie st
sp e cim e n th at of t h e plat e from t h e G re at P yr amid
it may b e s aid that it s siz e and it s stat e of ni sh show
indi sputably that it w a s n o t amon g st t h e rs t e ffo rts
and
o f t h e Egyptia n s in t h e p roducti o n of ir o n a rticl e s
the re f o re t h e r st w o rking of ir o n mu st s ure ly have
take n plac e s om e tim e pre vi o u s t o t h e I v t h Dyn a sty
T h e se facts di spo se al s o of an o th e r a rgum e nt that has
,
I R ON
TH E
A GE IN E G Y P T
91
b e e n put forward to t h e e e c t that t h e ancie nts prio r

to B C 1 2 00 kne w only of ir on a s a curiosity I t is u n
t hi nkable that the y would b e conte nt to le t iron re main
to th e m a curio sity whe n the y we re e xp e rts at ge tting
and working at le ast thr e e othe r m e tals On t h e o th e r
hand it is qui te like ly that ir on article s w e re s carc e and
and that o nl y compar ative ly f e w p e rs ons
e xp e n siv e
we re skil le d in making the m I t is not impos sible that
in its e arly days iro n w a s only us e d f o r thos e p u r po s e s
which no othe r sub stanc e could b e made to se rv e A n d
if w e look at it in this light w e may conclude that almo st
in primitive time s which n o othe r
t h e s ol e pur pos e
mate rial would full s ati sfacto ril y would b e t h e c hi s e lli ng
of har d st o ne s
as many ar ch ae o logist s ass e rt conde ntly i ron
If
tools we re not available in Egypt prio r to B C 1 2 00
no othe r imple me nts but tho se of copp e r could have b e e n
us e d f or t h e sup e rb works of t h e I v t h Dynasty and
b ronze one s p robably afte r t h e VI t h
T h e ide a that
s e c re t proc e ss e s f o r harde ning t h e two latt e r me tals
we re known to t h e ancie nts h as alre ady b e e n dismiss e d
and fur the r conclusive e vide nc e will b e found in t h e
chapt e r on t h e M e tallography of A ntique M e tals but
w e may n o w b ri e y re vi e w s om e of t h e lat e r th e o ri e s
that hav e b e e n put fo rwar d to e xplain how t h e ancie nts
we re able to turn out such n e e xample s of t h e sc ul pto r s
c raft w ith tools of copp e r o r b ron z e
I t is o bvi o u s t o t h e m e tall ur gi st that t h e sculptu ring
of gr ani t e and similar mat e rial s c o uld n o t have b e e n
do ne with c o pp e r chis e ls an d although b ro nz e on e s
might give slightly more s a ti sfact o ry r e sults w e are
sav e d t h e ne c e ssity o f con side ring th e ir po s sibilitie s a s
th e re is a p e ri o d during which hard stone w a s s culpture d
of at l e ast
ye ars b e fore b ronz e was known
,
2
9
E TA LL U R G Y
copp e r tools that have b e e n f o und would of cours e

b e quite us e ful against lim e stone and oth e r soft ston e s
which w e re much us e d f o r sculpture and buil di ng durin g
a ll p e riod
P r of e sso r F linde r s P e tri e has stat e d that sawing
and some forms of sculpturing in har d stone
c utting
we re done by copp e r saws and chis e ls in which e me ry
points we re e mb e dde d I n fact h e e v e n found part of
but as h e found it in G re e c e and not in
s uch a saw
Egypt and as it was e mb e dde d in li m e sto n e not di orite
T h e re is appare ntly
t h e di sc o v e r v is not v e ry convincing
n o positiv e e vide nc e that saw s of this kind we re us e d
f o r di orit e and granit e
A n oth e r solution has b e e n put forwar d in re c e nt ye ars
A cco rdi ng to this t h e stone is suppos e d to hav e b e e n
r oughly shap e d by suitabl e tapp ing with a stone hamm e r
and aft e rwar ds t h e surfac e was g round to s hap e wit h
T his m e thod could not possibly have b e e n appli e d
e m e ry
to t h e cutting of sunk re lie fs o r f o r instanc e t o t h e
s cooping out of a sar cophagu s in s uch a ston e as r e d
gr anit e T he s e stone cofns we re made fr om o n e pie c e
of grani t e o r di orite and m e a sur e d appr oximate ly 1 yar d
high b y 1 yard wide and 2 yar ds long and we re hollo we d
out le av ing wall s ab o ut 6 inche s thick p e rfe ctly straight
we ll dr e s se d and square
A ccor di ng to P r ofe sso r F linde rs P e tri e a som e what
fantastic me thod w a s us e d f o r t h e carving of large
hie roglyphs T h e cutting h e says was done by c o ppe r
blade s f e d with e me ry and sawn along t h e outli ne by
hand ; t h e block b e twe e n t h e cuts was b ro ke n out by
hamme ring and t h e oor of t h e S ign was hamme r dre ss e d
r
l
r
o
n
ston
hamm
s
and
nal
y
g
ound
d
w
by
m
y
e
e
e
r
A
e
(
)
photograph ( F ig 4 2 ) sho w s t h e varie d for ms which the s e
hi e roglyphics as sume and t h e re ade r will no doub t
T he
TH E
I R ON A G E
IN E G Y P T
93
agre e with t h e author in wonde ring how t h e me thod

d es c rib e d could b e applie d to t h e carving of a small
sunk cir cle o r to some gure with irre gularly curve d
side s T h e gur e is a photograph of t h e w riting on t h e
ap e x ston e of black grani t e from a X I I t h Dynasty pyr amid
at D ash o r
T h e wo rkmanship is e xqui sit e
and t h e
p e rfe ction of t h e cutting is dif c ult to re p roduc e phot o
graphicall y but t h e ill ustr ation shows t h e variation s of
for m that we re us e d in t h e old writings and how cle arly
the ir line s and angle s are chis e lle d in t h e hard black
granite
.
42
I f t he
Pyram id
H i gl yph ic
e ro
in
Bl c k G
a
r an
it e
XI I t h
-
Dy
n as
ty
m y f e d copp e r blade m e thod w a s us e d f o r

cutting out hie roglyphs it would m e an that t h e statu e
o r oth e r obj e ct would n e e d to b e r oll e d ov e r and tu rn e d
about so that e ach surfac e to b e Carve d could b e laid
horizontal during t h e cutting to e n sure that t h e e m e ry
w o uld r e main in t h e gro ove
W e can har dly c o n c e ive
that aft e r a pie c e o f s culpture had b e e n nishe d by t h e
artist in its e re ct o r natur al po sition h e would re li s h
t h e ri sk of damag e to h is ma st e rpie c e that w o uld b e
incurr e d by thi s me th o d
I f any sp e cial m e th o d s of tapping o r g rindin g such as
e
er
94
E TA LL U R G Y
the s e had e v e r b e e n in g e ne ral u se it is not unlike ly that

som e s urvival would b e found in t h e e xi sting custom s and
I n oth e r t rade s
c r afts of t h e count ry but th e r e is non e
to day w e nd imple me nts of typ e s w hich can b e tr ac e d
back to t h e e arlie st time s t h e primitive plough t h e bow
drill t h e carpe nte r s adz e t h e ne e dle all the se may

b e se e n in daily u se in E gypt di ffe ring in no e s s e ntial
as
re sp e ct fr om thos e us e d by t h e a n ci e nt Egyptians
shown in t h e mural de co rations and e x e mplie d in t h e
sp e cime n s in o u r mu se ums
Eve n now di amonds are s om e time s sawn by an ir on
wire he ld in a frame and f e d with diam o nd dust and
othe r instanc e s might b e quot e d whe re a compar ative ly
soft mate rial is u se d to cut through a har de r o n e with
F o r in s tanc e t h e mild
t h e aid of an ab r a siv e ag e nt
ste e l chamb e r of a ri e barre l is oft e n worn away by t h e
c o n stant r ubbing of t h e c o r d us e d in cle aning t h e bo re
but t h e actual cutting must b e attribut e d to particle s
of grit which are he ld by t h e more o r le ss gre a sy cor d
Each of the s e two proc e ss e s has its own particular points
T h e y are both e xt re m e ly slow in action and are much
mo re e r osive to t h e soft e r mat e rial us e d f o r c o nve ying
t h e p r e s su re ( t h e i ron wi re o r t h e c o r d as t h e ca se may
b e ) than the y are to t h e di amond and t h e st e e l barre l
A conside r ation of th e s e p roc e ss e s would s e e m to giv e
suppo rt to t h e ide a that a c o pp e r e m e ry p ro c e ss of
cutting might hav e b e e n u se d by t h e rst Egyptians
but t h e autho r has prove d by e xp e rime nt t h e im p o ssi
b ilit y of cutting gr anit e o r dio rit e by any m e an s similar
to thi s B y t h e u se o f e me ry powde r an o inte d with o il
o r turp e ntin e
no m e asurable pr ogre s s could b e made
on t h e s tone whilst t h e e dge of t h e copp e r blade was
r api dl y wo rn aw ay and r e nd e re d u se l e s s
t h e bottom
and side s o f t h e groove b e ing coate d with particle s of
,
I R ON
TH E
A GE
EGY P T
IN
95
copp e r
F o r some of the s e e xp e rim e nts a start was
made by s awing a small gr o ove with a ste e l s aw whilst
f o r o th e r s an att e mpt de void of satisfacto ry re s ults
was made to star t a way f o r t h e copp e r blade by sc r atching
with a int point a s it w as thought that t h e latt e r might
hav e b e e n a me thod e mploye d by t h e ancie nts and it
was quite impos sible t o s tart a passage way with t h e
copp e r tool its e lf
T h e auth o r s tr ongly b e gs a ll th o s e who think t h e
Egyptians u se d s uch a proc e s s of cuttin g to t ry it
Eve n w ith o u r m o de r n copp e r and we ll pre pare d e m e ry
of uni form gr ain siz e t h e re sults are to say t h e le ast
di sh e art e ni ng
I t is w o rthy of re mark that a p roc e s s of this kind
woul d c e rtainly l e ave much C opp e r on t h e side s and in
t h e g r o ov e s in which it had b e e n u s e d and that th e re
fo re trac e s of gre e n dis colo ratio n d u e to v e r digris
might conc e ivably b e de t e cte d in re c e s se s whe re t h e
polishing of t h e stone had n o t p e ne trat e d but non e o f
t h e ni sh e d o r un ni sh e d s culpture s in o u r l e ading
mu se um s sh o ws any such signs
T h e re ade r is invit e d to ponde r ov e r t h e di f cultie s
of a p e r s on e nde avour ing to carve in diorit e a rock of
almo st st e e ly h ardn e s s by me ans of a copp e r blade h e ld
in t h e hand and tr ac e d round t h e outlin e along with
e m e r y g r ains
a cle anl y cut gure of t h e patt e rn shown
I n F ig 4 2 with t h e side s and bottom pe rfe ctly at and
corne r s sharp
I t h a s ne v e r b e e n stat e d by suppo rt e r s o f this me thod
that th e y do not b e lie ve it continue d in u se aft e r t h e
u se
of
ir on b e came ge ne r al : pre sumably th e re fore
the y con side r it did b e caus e the re would b e no re ason
t o s up e rs e de a pr oc e ss that had pr ove d capable of tu rnin g
out t h e admirable re sults displaye d by t h e e arlie r works
.
A N CI
6
9
E TA LL U R G Y
T h e re
is no such survival of any of th e se fre ak p ro

c e s s e s f o r t h e sculpturing of har d stone
On t h e con
udule nt granit e statu e s who live
t rary t h e mak e r s of fra
in S o uth e rn Egypt and e x e cut e fair ly c re ditable copie s
f o r t h e unwary and afflu e nt tourist and who may o r may
not b e able to trac e back the ir de sc e nt from the ir worthy
pre de c e ssor s whose maste rpie c e s th e y imitate do the ir
sculpturing by m e ans of ir on c hi s e ls of poor quality
T h e s e s hady busine s se s pass fr om fath e r to so n : th e re
is a c e rtain amount of art and skil l inhe rit e d b e s ide s no
doubt a fair admixture of cunnin g and th ey w ould b e
j ust t h e dire ctions in wh ich to s e arch f o r s ur viv als of
old and particularly s e rvic e able stone w o rkin g m e thods
M an y of t h e antiqu e Egyptian s tatu e s are p e rfe ct
e xampl e s of t h e sculpto r s a r t
t h e har de s t s ton e s we re
carve d and shap e d with unfailing a ccuracy faultle s s
symm e t r y and de niti o n :
s har p c o rn e rs with p e r f e ct
angle s and kn if e like e dge s gr ac e fully curve d and plumb
straight line s gro ove s an d s e rr ation s de e p and s hallow
de pre s sions and re lie f s with de licat e undulating contours
o r rigi dl y plan e su r fac e s
T o ob s e rv e all th e s e toge th e r
with t h e e xquisite tooling of t h e hie ro glyphs is to b e
convinc e d that the re is o n e and o n ly o n e way of obtaining
such re sults and that by t h e u se of a chi se l A ny rubbing
proc e s s would sure ly hav e r o bb e d t h e angle s and corne rs
of all sharpne ss
S ton e mas o n s wood e n malle t s e xactly sim ila r t o t h e
kind u se d at t h e p re s e n t time hav e b e e n found in quit e im
portant numb e r s and t h e w e ight of t h e e vide nc e t e nds to
indicat e that st o ne carvin g w a s do n e j u st as w e do it to day
I t is not e a sy t o unde rs tan d t h e g e ne r al re luctanc e
on t h e part of ar chae ologi sts t o ackn owle dge t h e e vide nc e
affor de d by t h e ir o n article s di s c o ve re d in Egypt and
attribut e d to t h e e arlie r dyn a stie s e sp e cially se e ing that
.
TH E
I R ON A G E
IN
EGY P T
97
some of the m we re b rought to light by p e r sons of e m i

n e n c e in ar ch ae ological r e s e arch unde r conditions which
admit of no doubt as to the ir auth e nticity W e hav e up
to ab o ut 1 4 00 B C a list of v e article s going back t o
t h e I v t h Dyna sty p r e ci se ly t h e dyna sty wh e n dio rit e
I t is tr ue that the se nds are f e w in
w a s much us e d
numb e r but is it a n y more unr e asonable to argue that
i ron tools we re in u se on t h e e vide nc e of se ve ral di s cov e rie s
than it is to say that s culpturing w a s do n e by e m e ry
point e d blade s b e cau se o n e tool appare ntly of t hi s nature
h a s b e e n foun d 3
T h e paucity of i ron obj e cts may b e d u e t o th e ir having
A n e mine nt arch ae ol o gi st h a s p re vi o usly
p e ri s h e d
characte ris e d thi s stat e me nt as ab surd adding at t h e
same time that nothing is mo re p e rmane nt and notic e
able than ir on r u st A s to p e rmane ncy w e mu st all b e
quit e in acco rd but with re gar d to disc e rnability it may
b e s aid that in a s oil p e r me at e d with chloride s like that
of Egypt iro n will ru st rapidl y and t h e re sulting r u st is
li ke ly to b e e xtre m e ly friable and re adily disint e gr at e d
b e caus e of t h e compar ative ly large p e rc e ntag e of s oluble
s alts that are fo r m e d
T h e notic e ability of ir on r u s t will
always de p e nd up o n its surr o undings an d thi s point
l e ads to t h e sugge stion that t h e iron plat e of t h e I v t h
Dyna sty _b e in g foun d in t h e pyr amid di sprove s any
stat e m e nt that e arly iron to o ls if the re we re any will
by thi s dat e have p e ri she d I s it n o t pr obable howe ve r
that this particular pie c e of i ron w a s o nly pre se rve d
b e cau se it w a s in t h e e xc e ptio n al p o sitio n de s c rib e d
and s e c o n dl y w o uld it have b e e n so notic e able had it
b e e n burie d in s and o r e arth ? T his sp e cime n was b e
twe e n t w o s tone s inside t h e P yr amid and w a s th e re
fore in a ve ry favourable plac e not o nl y f o r p re s e rvation
but f o r r e cognitio n also
,
'
8
9
A NCI
E TA LL U R G Y
may b e assume d that inste ad of b e ing bur ie d in

chlori di c s oil it w as in some thing of a dry air chamb e r
T h e s e conditions must b e re garde d as e xc e ptional one s
t e n di ng towar ds pre s e rvation
T h e untowar d p r op e rty of r usting that ir on po ss e ss e s
is known to all and t h e m e r e st tyr o is aware that t h e
T h e re fo re
r at e of r ustin g d e p e nds upon t h e situation
argume nts which are p e rfe ctly sound with re sp e ct to
Eur op e may not apply to Egypt A ntiquitie s e sp e cially
thos e o f ir on hav e s e ldom o r ne v e r b e e n e xpos e d to t h e
atmosphe r e during th e ir e xi st e nc e but are r e cove re d
fr om t h e gro und wh e re the y have b e e n buri e d in positi o ns
mo re o r l e s s satur ate d with moisture and w it h c o rro siv e
salts f o r hundre ds of c e nturie s and in Egypt it is only
article s of a ve ry he avy nature that c o uld surviv e such
t re atm e nt
T h e autho r h a s e xamine d s e v e r al ir on obj e ct s f o und
in this c o untry T w o smal l b ro nz e b e lls of t h e G rae c O
R oman p e riod e ach o f which h ad an ir on s tr ike r s h o we d
in a cle ar mann e r t h e marke d di ff e re nc e in t h e r at e of
oxidation of t h e t w o diffe re nt me tals Whilst t h e b ro nz e
w a s in good condi tion m e tallic and only s lightly coat e d
with a gre e n c r u st thus proving that t h e b e lls had not
b e e n lying in an abnormally bad po sition from t h e point
of Vie w o f p re se rvati o n t h e ir on strike rs which w e re
m ade of wi re about 5 i n ch di am e t e r we re comple t e ly
a nd w e r e lying inside t h e b e lls in t h e
r ust e d to oxide
form of a string of powde r which fe ll away at t h e slighte st
touch H ad the s e pie c e s o f iron b e e n outside in ste ad
of in the ir prote ct e d p o sitions inside t h e b e lls the y
would have di sapp e are d ag e s ago and the re would hav e
b e e n no signs to day that t h e b e lls e ve r had iron strike rs
I n sp e cime n s of core d b ro nz e castings b e longing to
time s olde r than t h e R oman p e riod having iron struts
It
'
I R ON A G E
TH E
E G YP T
IN
99
author has always found t h e iron comple t e ly oxidis e d

e v e n wh e re it pass e d thr ough t h e b r onz e which its e lf was
we ll pre s e rv e d whilst in t h e mat e rial of t h e core t h e
swolle n and diffus e d mass of rust could onl y b e de t e cte d
wit h much di fculty
A s triking ins tanc e of t h e di ffe re nc e in t h e r at e of rusti n g
of ir on came t o t h e author s notic e at A le xandr ia A lo n g
t h e Egyptian no rth e r n coast a re c e rtain larg e ir on gun s
whi ch have lain unus e d now f o r about 4 0 ye ars A t o n e
fo rt facin g t h e se a whe re the y are e xp o s e d to t h e se a
b re e z e s and n o do ubt o n occasi o n t o spr ay t h e guns
hav e now a c o ating of oxide from 4 inch to 5 inch in
thi ckne ss which is gr adually falling off I n t h e pr o gre s s
of time the se guns if untouche d will c e as e to e xi st
a n d nothing e xc e pt a richn e ss in i r on of t h e s u rr oun di ng
s and ( de t e ctabl e by ch e mical analy s is al o n e ) wil l r e main
to S how that an y ir on article e ve r e xiste d in t h e Vicinity
I n contr adi s tincti o n t o thi s the re is anothe r for t only
half a mile away but o v e rlo o king o n e of t h e b ranc he s
of t h e N ile de lta whe re t h e guns are still in a re markably
good stat e of pre s e rvation and t h e coating of ru st on
the m afte r 4 0 ye ars is unme as ur able
I t is highly improbabl e that t h e auth e ntic iron sp e cim e n
n
r
e
e
e
re
e
e
now
ust
of
Dyna
ty
would
hav
b
p
s
v
d
t
h
e
h
s
r
V
I
t
(
)
had it not b e e n wr app e d in fab ric with s ome othe r article s
T his s p e cim e n can b e s e e n in t h e B riti sh M us e um and
whil st it is like ly that it was originall y an imple me nt
of som e sort s e e ing that it w a s wr app e d with othe rs of
copp e r o r b ronz e it now e xi st s me re ly a s an unshap e ly
ma ss of r ust
Excavators are too apt to e xp e ct antique iron obj e cts
in Egypt to re se mble in app e ar anc e thos e b e longing to
t h e e arly ir on ag e of Eur op e and th e y pr obably ove rlook
t h e fact that in Egypt if w e only go as f ar back as t h e
t he
1 00
A N CIEN T E G Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
p e riod of t h e rst authe ntic sp e cime n

t he I v t h
Dyna sty w e are de aling with p e riods ant e rior to that

by about two thou s and ye ars which m e ans that
ag e
t h e obj e cts would b e ne arly twic e a s old as t h e e arli e st
sp e cim e ns found e ls e whe re I t do e s not se e m e xtr avagant
the re fore to assume that t h e e arlie st iron obj e cts of Egypt
have p e rishe d
I t should not b e fo rgott e n whe n sp e aking of t h e
scarc e ne ss of iron antiquitie s that ancie nt copp e r and
b ronz e article s e sp e cially tool s are also scarc e in re latio n
to t h e vast numb e rs that must h ave b e e n ma de and
u se d in ancie nt Egypt
A nothe r point e mphasis e d by tho se hol di ng Vi e w s
against t h e e arly u se of iron in E gypt is t h e fac t that
t h e i ro n ag e in Eur op e g e n e r ally did not b e gin b e fo re
1 000 B C
F o r in stan c e M r H B Walt e rs in his g e ne r al
and iron age s containe d in t h e
re v ie w of t h e b r o nz e
C atalogu e of B r onz e s o f t h e B riti sh M u se um s ays that
t h e dat e of int roduction of ir on w o rking vari e s in diffe re nt
parts of t h e world but nowhe re can e vide nc e f o r it s
app e aranc e b e got e arlie r than 1 000 B C
S upp o rt e rs
of the s e Vie ws th e n g o on to de duc e that had iron b e e n
in common u se in Egypt pre vious to that date it would
sure ly have b e e n in troduc e d into ne ighbouring countrie s
I n an sw e r t o thi s argum e nt it may b e stat e d that su p
porte rs of an e arlie r date f o r t h e ir on ag e in Egypt do
not claim that t h e m e tal was use d e xte n sive ly but
me re ly that it w a s compar ative ly rare an d us e d o n ly
and to this it may b e adde d
f o r a f e w sp e cial purpo se s
t h at in Egypt e ve n afte r t h e dat e of t h e b e ginn in g o f
t h e ir on ag e in E u r op e as f o r in stanc e during t h e e x
t e n sive u se of t h e me tal in S yria ( to which country many
asc rib e t h e rst u se of t h e me tal ) Egyptian iro n an ti
e ar
u it ie s a re still e xt re m e ly sca rc e
and
thi
s
would
app
q
,
I R ON
TH E
A GE IN EGY P T
101
to in di cate e ithe r that iron was not importe d into Egypt

in gre at quantitie s o r suppo sing it we re that t h e r apid
de t e rioration o f t h e m e tal in Egyptian soil is a sufcie nt e x
planation of t h e r arity of t h e discove ri e s on its ancie nt site s
T h e o n ly argum e nt that
M r Walte rs fu rth e r says
c an b e u rg e d on t h e side that iron was known and us e d
by t h e e arlie st p e ople s is that it is more p e rishable than
h e continu e s
b ronz e
I n answe r to this
it is onl y
n e c e s s ary to point out that in t he late r tombs it h a s
b e e n found sufcie ntly ofte n and in s ufcie nt quantitie s
to re fute such a hypothe sis

T his may b e t ru e of G re e c e but with re gard to Egypt
it cann ot b e agre e d that ir on has b e e n found in late r
grave s in quantitie s s ufcie nt to show that its r at e of
de te rior ation cann ot account f o r its paucity and it must
b e re m e mb e re d that th e re are no G re e k wo rks of s culp
ture in har d stone of a date so re mot e as that of t h e
I v t h Egyptian Dyna s ty
S o f ar as t h e autho r is aware
the re is no othe r part of t h e world of which t h e history
and t h e e arly culture de mand an iron ag e prior to 1 000
B C
T h e re are n o work s in har d stone and no co re d
cas tings ( re quiring iron strut s ) from Europ e an an d
Easte rn A siatic countrie s of p e riods co e val with t h e
rst four dyna stie s o f Egypt T h e ab se nc e of ir o n im
l
m
n
and
w
e
apon
on
e
a
r
ly
it
e
s
in
Eu
r
op
th
re
fo
re
s
e
e
t
s
s
e
e
p
do e s n o t a ff e ct t h e que stion with re sp e ct to Egypt
M o re ov e r it is n o t str ange that s upposing t h e Egyptians
di d u se ir on a long tim e prio r t o B C 1 000 o th e r countrie s
with whom the y a ss ociat e d di d not take it up b e caus e
t h e stat e of civili s ation of t h e latt e r was n o t s ufci e ntly
advanc e d to re quire and work it
A n oth e r facto r a ffe cting t h e numb e r of ir on sp e cim e ns
would pr obably b e t h e re ligiou s obj e ctions of t h e E g yp
tians to t h e me tal T h e maj o rity of antique obj e cts found
,
A NCI
1 02
E N T EG YP
TIAN M
E TA L L U R G Y
gypt are re cove re d from tombs and as th e re ligion

t h e tim e was again s t ir on no article s made of it woul d
b e plac e d in the m and thus t h e s o urc e s that yi e ld t h e
b u lk of o u r article s in copp e r b r onz e wood and othe r
mat e rials do not giv e u s iron one s
With t h e e xc e ption of t h e p re hi sto ric b e ads pre vi o usly
de s c rib e d no ir on forms part of any j e we lle ry no doubt
its p ro p e rt y o f rustin g qui ckly tur n e d t h e anci e nts against
t h e u se of it f o r such pur pos e s and thi s qui t e pr obably
form e d t h e foundations of t h e re ligious pr o s c ription
W e nd the se obj e ctions carri e d on into B iblical time s
T h e iron tools rs t made would b e e xtre me ly valuable
to sculptors and no doubt the y would b e re sharp e ne d
time afte r time until the y we re too small f o r fur the r
aft e r which th e y would b e incorpo rat e d with othe r
u se
fre s h me tal by we l ding and u se d again
T h e abs e nc e o f ir on tting s such as doo r hin g e s and
similar article s s e e m s to b e sufcie ntly e xplaine d by t h e
difcultie s t h e rst worke r s would e xp e rie nc e in making
anything e xc e pt article s of a ve ry plain form Esp e cially
would thi s b e t h e cas e if han dl e d h amme r s we re not
u se d a s archae ologist s afr m C opp e r and b ronz e we re
alway s avail able in abundanc e f o r such purpos e s and
in addition we re re adil y cast o r worke d to any re qu ir e d
shap e A rticle s of this n atur e could not b e made from
iro n u n til t h e iron worke r s c r aft was we ll advanc e d
A dvocat e s o f t h e lat e r dat e f o r ir on wo rk i n g in Egypt
take a s a fu rthe r support t h e fact that o n t h e o l d tomb
wall s mo n ume nts e t c the re are no sc e ne s de picting
t h e maki ng of i r o n but in re ply t o that it is o n ly n e c e ss ary
to m e ntion that the re are al s o n o n e o f t h e making o f
b r on z e and no n e of t h e manufacture of c o pp e r article s
T h e se o mi ssio n s are c e rtainl y s tr ang e s e e ing that almost
e v e ry c r aft e xc e pt thos e of foun di ng and m e tal wo rk ing
in
of
'
I R ON A G E
TH E
E G YP T
IN
1 03
is de sc rib e d o r illustrate d by re lie fs o r mode ls plac e d in

t h e tombs
T he re are c e rtainly two re lie fs in t h e M us e um at
F lo re nc e which a re said to show e arly iron working
T h e o rigin of th e s e re lie f s is h o we v e r v e r y qu e stionable
the y b e ar only a s light re s e mblanc e to Egyptian re lie fs
and the y are ab s olute ly undat e d I f the y di d pr ove to
b e E gyptian t he y would c e rtainly b e of a c o mpar ative ly
l ate p e riod
F urth e r it is we ll known that t h e Egyptians had a
wor d in the ir languag e f o r Iron f o r it was suppos e d to b e
t h e c e l e stial m e tal of which t h e sky w a s made so call e d
po ssibly b e cau se of t h e fact that me te orite s fe ll from
.
t he
sk
y
.
I ro n
and st e e l article s have b e e n ide ntie d in c e rtain

Egyptian carving s by the ir b e in g coloure d blu e I t has
b e e n said that copp e r was always painte d re d gold
y e ll o w and silve r whit e and that ir on was th e re f o re
m e ant whe n we apon s and othe r similar article s we re
painte d blue
P r io r to t h e I v t h Dynasty t h e sp e cime ns of har d ston e
carvin g are r athe r s car c e but there are some we ll e x e cut e d
wo rk s in re d grani t e a s f o r instanc e a column of t h e
I I I r d Dyna s ty
T h e ni sh of th e s e e xample s d o e s not
howe v e r c o mpare with that of t h e work turne d out in
t h e I v t h Dynasty and lat e r
A b o ut t h e tim e of t h e I st Dy n a s ty t h e sculpture s 1 n
granit e th o ugh we ll pro p o rtione d lack de tail whilst
t h e ni sh of t h e p re hi storic sp e cim e n s is c r ude
T h e gr adual impr ov e me nt in t h e w o rking o u t of t h e
de tail and in t h e nishing of har d ston e mu st have b e e n
d u e t o t h e advanc e s in t o ol making
T h e a rchaic
s p e cime ns
which are chie y re lie f s s ho w trac e s of
b ruising an d sc ratching a s a r e sult of t h e cutting away
.
1 04
E TA LL U R G Y
and hav e little o r n o n e de tail that might have b e e n

carve d with chis e ls I t is quit e like ly that t h e b ruising
was done with stone hamm e r s and t h e sc ratching by
in t s but t h e latt e r mat e rial would b e us e le s s as chis e ls
b e cau se of t h e e as e with which it fr agme nts whe n struck
T h e magnic e nt wo rk s of t h e I v t h Dynasty and many
of thos e of t h e I I I rd do not e xhibit th e se p e c u liarit ie s a n d
the re fo re t h e whole que stion o f t ools o r to b e p re cis e
chi se ls c e nt re s on the se
T o t h e p ractical man th e re re ally se e fn to b e f e w
a p ri ori re a s on s f o r r e fu sing t o c re d it t h e Egyptians with
T h e y we re rst in many
t h e rst u se o f i ron tools
me tallurgical improve me nts
A s an instanc e w e may
quote core d b ronz e casting T his did not come into
vogue in G re e c e until about B C 6 00 whe r e a s 1 n Egypt
it w a s fully unde rstood at le ast a s f ar back as B C 3 000
and probably e arlie r T h e statue of P iu p i is an e xample
but the re are much e arlie r one s in t h e fo r m of ve ss e ls
with sp o uts
I t is worthy of notic e that copp e r and b r onz e we re
us e d in Egypt f o r arrow tips up to A rab time s T his is
n o t e a sy to unde r stand unl e s s it was b e caus e i ron was
and all supplie s w e re ne e de d f o r c e rtain sp e cial
s car c e
purpo se s f o r which no othe r me tal would s e rve as the s e
tip s could so e a sily hav e b e e n ha mme re d into shap e
from wro ught iron
T h e autho r fully b e li e v e s that i ron c h is e ls w e re in u se
by t h e I v t h Dynasty A rch ae ologi st s point out that non e
has b e e n found but that coppe r and b ronz e o ne s have
I t may b e e mphasis e d that t h e latt e r would b e qu it e
u se ful f o r soft stone s such a s lime stone o f which e no r
m o u s quantitie s f ar in e xc e ss of t h e quantiti e s o f diorite
granite and similar mate rials we re wo rke d during t h e
whol e h i sto ry of t h e c o u nt rv
.
'
I R ON A G E
TH E
IN
E G YP T
1 05
s e e m s hi ghly imp robab le that th e re w e re in vogu e

at t h e same time two diff e re nt me thods o f ston e w o rking
o n e ( that of c hi s e lling ) f o r lim e st o n e and s imilar e asily
wo rke d s tone s and anothe r t h e sugg e ste d o n e of b rui sing
grinding o r sawing with coppe r blade s f o r ve ry har d
M ore ov e r b e yond some diffe re nc e s d u e to t h e
st o ne s
t e xtu re of t h e stone s th e ms e lve s th e re are no di ffe re nc e s
in t h e mode of ni sh of t h e sculpture in the s e two clas se s
of stone such as might hav e b e e n e xpe ct e d had two
diffe re nt me thods of working the m b e e n us e d S ome of
t h e har de r and coars e r ston s show a slight lack of sharp
e
ne s s in some of t h e n e r de tails but the re is no diffe re nc e
in t h e g e ne ral typ e and tre atme nt H ie roglyphs we re
cut with t h e same c a se in e ach : t h e statue s follow t h e
sam e po sture s : t h e s am e truth to life and anatomical
corre ctn e ss app e ar in e ach
A chis e l f o r ston e should p o sse ss a n e dg e that is har d
without b e ing b rittle
T h e hamm e ring of copp e r in
c re a se s t h e har dne ss but it also re nde r s t h e m e tal more
b rittle and t h e harde r me tal can o nl y b e of u se if it
In a
e xi sts as a s kin suppo rt e d by unalt e r e d m e tal
n e cutting e dg e this combination cannot b e ac h ie v e d
I t has b e e n s aid that by hamm e ring copp e r can b e
made as hard as mild st e e l but this can onl y b e don e
at t h e e xpe nse of it s toughne ss S uch a har d e dge o r
point would b e too b rittle f o r u se against har d stone
and it could o n ly b e produc e d on go o d copp e r Eve n
with o u r own harde n e d st e e l t o ols t h e cutting e dge s
re quire f r e qu e nt sharp e ni ng e sp e cially wh e n us e d again s t
har d mat e rial s and in t h e carving of intricat e work that
might b e c o mpare d with the s e statu e s of e arly Egypt
many chis e l s of di ff e re nt shap e s are n e c e s s ary
T w o mino r us e s f o r which ir on would s e e m to have
b e e n of paramount ne c e s sity to t h e E gyp t ian s long b e fore
It
A NC I
1 06
E TA L L U R G Y
me ntione d F ir stly as struts f o r holdin g

I n t h e pre c e di ng
t h e core s wh e n pour ing b r onz e casting s
chapte r w e have s e e n that suc h struts we re actually us e d
althoug h from t h e S p e cime ns e xami ne d it is impossible
to say e xactly how f ar back t h e u se of ir on struts date s
S e con dl y as tools f o r e ngr av ing t h e de tail on b r on z e s
S ome of t h e inl aying and oth e r orname ntal wo rk on hard
br on z e s ( statu e tt e s and statu e s ) could not hav e b e e n done
without t h e aid of a me tal tool ve ry much h arde r than
t h e b r on z e its e lf
C e rtain gr av e rs w ith ir o npoints that
may hav e b e e n us e d f o r thi s work hav e b e e n di scove re d
unfortunat e ly the re is no re c o r d a s to what
B ut
p e riod the y b e long
T h e fact that t h e blade s are
tt e d into b ron z e han dl e s may in di cat e that iron was
scarc e
I t is st rang e that whi lst in S yria iron was u s e d f o r
t h e w e ak par ts of b ronz e casting s

that is to say t h e
r
e
r
a
r
b onz was cast a ound n iron s uppo t about B C
1 000 ( wh e n i ron was in g e ne r al u se in that count ry ) w e
do not nd ir on us e d sim ilarly in E gypt T his may b e
take n as a furthe r pro of if o n e we re ne e de d in support
of t h e scarcity of iron in Egypt though it ne e d not b e
re gar de d a s showing that t h e m e tal was not ma de such
u se of as t h e quantity of wo rke d i r on availabl e admitt e d
I t also in di cat e s what h as b e e n p re vi o us ly sugg e st e d that
in spit e of t h e communication b e twe e n Egypt and S yria
the re was but little inte rchange of ide as and e xample s
in iro n wo rkin g
Ve ry primitive me thods of re duci ng ir on ore s are stil l
in u se to day in some parts of t h e world and the y give
u s a go o d i d e a of t h e s impl e m e ans which may hav e b e e n
u se d by t h e ancie nt Egyptians
M r G r ab h a m t h e
g e ologist t o t h e S udan G o ve rnme nt kindly gave t h e
author t h e follo wi ng p articular s of a proc e ss which h e
B C
.
1 000 may b e
TH E
I R ON A G E
IN E G Y P T
107
c e ntly found in u se by native s of t h e S outhe rn S udan

T h e sme lting and smith Wo rk are carrie d on by t h e
same man but as more o r le s s s e par at e industrie s Whe n
a native of t h e distric t de sire s a malot h e do e s not
purcha se it di re ct in o n e transaction fr om t h e ironmonge r
but go e s out int o t h e bush colle cts some iron o re which
and b rin gs it t o t h e
e xists in abundanc e in many plac e s
sme lt e r T h e sme lte r provide s t h e charcoal as part of
his work but t h e buye r has to stand by and he lp with
T hi s wo rk is don e
t h e b e llow s whil e t h e ir on is sm e lting
in a cone shap e d hut with t h e e ave s re aching t h e gr ound
and without any prop e r door I nside th e re is a he arth
made of puddle d mud with a hollow in t h e c e ntre with
po sitions f o r blowe rs but no r ais e d s tructure
On o n e
side of t h e he arth is a small basin in which some charc oal
and o re are plac e d as an offe ring to t h e guardi an spirit
T h e bo t tom of t h e pit is line d with grass and on thi s is
plac e d t h e twye r and above t h e mouth of t h e pip e
is pil e d a mixtur e of charcoal and iron o re to a de pth
of ab o ut a foot H aving arr ange d t h e h e arth and charge d
it b o th t h e sme lte r and t h e buye r se t to work and blo w
t h e b e llows
T h e slag r uns down amo n g t h e grass
b e low T h e s talks are not burnt but me re ly charre d
and re main di stinc t in t h e slag which is discar de d T h e
m e tallic ir on is le ft as a spongy ma s s in fro nt o f t h e
twye r and hande d o ve r at t h e e n d of t h e op e r ation
e ith e r a s it i s o r b e at e n in to a s olid ma ss
T h e sm e lt e r
w h o als o do e s t h e s mithy w o rk u se s t h e s ame blowe r s
f o r both o p e r ati o n s but t h e two j obs a re carrie d o u t in
s e parate plac e s
I t is e sse ntial f o r t h e s mithy to b e ne ar a go o d ro ck
that can b e u se d a s an anvil I n thi s w o rk h e h a s a couple
of a ssi stant s w h o are e xp e rt s in striking wi th t h e hamme r
T h e buy e r having p re viously a rrange d f o r t h e
stone
re
'
E G YP
A N CIEN T
1 08
IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
provision of charcoal come s provide d with some gre e n

sticks that are to se rve a s tongs in t h e manipulation
of t h e ir on H e take s a large s hare in blowing t h e re
at whi ch all native s se e m to b e e xp e rts and t h e smith
looks afte r t h e h e ating of t h e iron On e of t h e gre e n sticks
has b e e n split and s e rv e s as a pair of tongs to re move t h e
iron to t h e ro c k a n v il T h e b e ating is done with a large
which is rais e d ab o v e t h e he ad and b r o u ght down
s ton e
T h e smith
wi th full for c e in both hands on to t h e m e tal
'
squat s b e side t h e me tal hol d s it in t h e tong s and s hows
with t h e aid of a point e r whe re t h e ne xt blow is to b e
struck
T h e mos t impo rtant u se of t h e m e tal is no doubt f o r
sp e ars and malots but e xc e l le nt ax e s and adz e s are made
and t h e iron is har d e nough to take quit e a good e dge

T h e pr oc e ss de sc rib e d is v e r y similar to m e thods us e d
in % apan and s e ve ral othe r parts of t h e world until com
a
i
e
a
r
r
l
e
c
e
nt
tim
s
which
hav
b
n
fully
d
e
sc
ib
d
t
v
e
r
e
e
e
e
p
y
by P r ofe sso r G owland in hi s se v e r al works on t h e subj e ct
T h e e as e with which m e tallic iron can b e p roduc e d
fr o m it s o re s ne e ds no comme nt he re
Egyptologists and othe r s hav e giv e n up t h e ide a the y
he ld f o r many ye ars that t h e r e duction of iron o re s
ne e de d e xtre me ly high t e mp e r ature s b e side s e laborat e
fur nac e s and the re fore could not possibly hav e b e e n
in u se in t h e e arlie st tim e s I t is only t h e iron s me ltin g
giving molt e n me tal as a pr oduct which calls f o r mode rn
furnac e s but this proc e s s was ne ve r known in t h e day s
of antiquity e ithe r in Egypt o r e ls e whe re
Eve n in late r time s it would se e m f rom t h e sp e cime ns
that have b e e n pre s e rve d that iron w as re s e rve d f o r
we apons and tools f o r har d wo rk s uch as s culpto rs and
ma s ons chise l s and adz e s
I n t h e R oman p e riod in
Egypt m e tal ar ticle s of an intricat e o r fancy nature
,
A GE IN E G Y P
I R ON
TH E
1 09
we re ne c e s sarily made of b r onz e o r b rass no doubt

partly owing to t h e fact that t h e wor king of iron was
n ot th e n compl e t e ly mast e r e d and also po s sibly to t h e
compar ativ e scarcity of this me tal though of cour s e
t h e b e tt e r app e aranc e of b r onz e would alone re comm e nd
it f o r som e purpos e s
I n stone wo rk of o u r o wn time s th e re is a c e rtain
amount of r oughi ng out done by b re aking off pi e c e s of
t h e block by hamm e ring and t apping but f o r t h e nal
shapin g and t h e dre ssin g c hi s e ls are a s in e qu a n on and
th e s e are e mploye d in a gre at varie ty of shap e s and
siz e s I t is with sp e cial co n side r ation of t h e latt e r po rtion
of t h e sculptor s work that t h e c riticism s of sugge ste d
me thod s de sc rib e d in the s e page s are made T h e c r itici s ms
r e f e r not to t h e sawin g of larg e blocks o r to t h e r o ughi ng
out which may e asily have b e e n done with stone hamme rs
alone but to t h e care ful and e xact cutting out of re c e ss e s
such f o r instanc e a s t h e e ye s o r t h e mouth of a statue o r
to t h e pre cis e tooling of hie r oglyphs carve d out of t h e stone
with curve s as fre e side s as smooth and s quare corne r s as
sharp and corre ct a s many an artist mi ght shap e in clay
M any un ni she d Egyptian s tatu e s and parts of ni sh e d
one s n ot int e nde d by t h e sculpto r f o r public Vi e w in all
kin ds of stone grani t e diorite lime stone and othe r s
S how in di sputably t h e marks o r groove s le ft by t h e
chi s e l A phot o graph of s o me of the s e marks take n from
a statue in t h e C airo M us e um is s hown in F ig 4 3
T h e probable pr actical re asons why iron obj e cts of
e ar ly dynastic tim e s hav e not b e e n di scov e re d may b e
r e capitul at e d as follows
1 I r on was a r are m e tal suppli e s not b e ing abundant
2 It
was not us e d f o r de corative re ligious o r
symboli cal purpos e s it was not the re fo re plac e d in o r
us e d f o r makin g tombs
,
I I O
E TA LL U R G Y
ss e ntially a us e ful m e tal and tools inst e ad

of b e ing thr own away w h e n wo rn we re r e made
4 I r on r usts and di sint e g r at e s much fast e r than any
othe r common me tal
S uch is t h e e vide nc e f o r and against t h e u se of i ron
chi se ls in Egypt p rior to B C 1 000 T ho se ar ch ae ologi sts
3
I t w as
Fig
43
Chi l M k
se
ar
s on
H d St
ar
one
S t tu
a
who e mphatically pronounc e against it will pr obably

ne v e r chang e the ir ide a s unle ss s ome fre sh indications
come t o light T h e y are obs e ss e d with t h e importanc e
n e gative in
o f t h e ar ch ae ological e vid e nc e on th e ir s id e
char act e r as it mainly is and the y do not h e sitat e to
c re dit e arly worke rs with skill and with a knowle dg e of
.
I R ON A G E
TH E
IN EGY P T
III
practic e s that w e with t h e progre s s of v e thousand

ye ars b e hind us cannot pr oduc e o r apply to d ay T h e
practical man can o nl y t e rm t h e alt e r nativ e stone cutting
m e thods put forwar d by the se e xp e r ts as impossibl e one s
A s to t h e cont e ntions e xpre ss e d in this book that t h e
har d stone works of all t h e p e ri o ds of Egypt with t h e
e xc e ption p e r haps of som e c r ud e ly e x e cut e d on e s of p re
hi sto ric and archaic time s we re carv e d by m e ans of chi se ls
and that t h e chis e ls could not possibly hav e b e e n b ronz e
one s t h e author b e lie ve s that no furthe r
o r copp e r
e vide nc e is n e c e ssary and that t h e s ton e wo rk e r and t h e
m e tal work e r of t o day will s upp o rt his Vi e ws
T h e qu e stion of e arly i ron may b e take n a st e p fur th e r
and w e may ask supp o sing t h e Egyptians did u se t h e
m e tal as h as b e e n s ugge st e d how f ar we re the y con
v e rsant with st e e l 2
T h e advanc e fro m wr ought iron to s t e e l is n o t such a
gre at o n e n o r is t h e c o nv e rsion of t h e forme r into t h e
latte r a difcult op e ration re quiring othe r than simple
me ans A t t h e pre se nt time much st e e l un de r t h e name
of c e me nt e d o r blist e r st e e l is made by h e ating ir on in
contact with charcoal and t hi s m e tal is us e d f o r cutl e ry
tools e t c whi lst t h e cas e har de ni ng of ir on an analogo u s
p roc e ss in many re sp e cts is also in comm o n u se
I t may e v e n b e s aid that chis e ls of s impl e wr ought
ir on wo ul d o nl y b e of li ttle more u se to t h e E gyptians
than b ro nz e one s against di orit e and similar mate rials
I s it not quit e pos sibl e that t h e Egyptian me tallur gists
di scov e re d that by furthe r h e ating t h e iron with char coal
t h e fue l th e y u se d f o r primarily re ducing t h e h ae matit e
the y could tr ansfor m it into a much harde r mo di cation
ap ab l e of takin g a k e e n e dg e
A ccordi ng to P r ofe sso r G owland t h e ir on plat e from
t h e G re at P yr amid on analysis w a s found to contain
,
1 12
EN T E G Y P T IA N
A NCI
E TA LL U R G Y
combine d carbon which t e nds to show that it was of a

ste e ly nature T w o othe r sp e cime n s of e arly iron that
t h e autho r e xamin e d also p r ove d to b e st e e ly o n e of
the m b e ing mild st e e l of qui t e good quality T h e latte r
was a small cub e di scove re d amongst a co lle ctio n of
obj e cts plac e d in t h e foundation of s ome old buildi ng
and e v e ry me tallurgist will agre e that t h e mic rogr aph
of a s e ction give n in F ig 4 4 pr ove s without doubt that
it was mild ste e l T h e oth e r artic le w a s a wood c hi s e l
E v e n P r ofe sso r F linde r s P e t ri e admits t hat t h e cas e
,
Fig
44
Ph o t o m
i c ro gra ph
of
Cu be
of
M ild S t l
ee
harde ning of ir on was known in Egypt b e fo re B C 6 6 6 f o r

h e says that t h e e dg e s of c e rtain tools attribut e d a pp r o x i
mat e ly to that dat e and found at T he b e s w e re of ste e l
T h e author hop e s that s oone r o r lat e r t h e olde st sp e ci
me n s of iron now lying in various mus e ums will b e s u b
m it t e d to mic roscopic e xamination s o that t h e lat e s t
de ve lopme nts of m e tallurgical s cie nc e may b e applie d
to th e m P ro vide d a m e tallic core of any siz e re main s
in a s ample it shoul d b e e a sy to say whe th e r it is iron
o r st e e l without in any way damagin g t h e sp e cim e n
.
1 1
C HA P T E R
IV
E G YP T I A N
AN C IE N T
T O OL S
thi s chapte r mu st b e chie y conc e rne d w ith

me tal to o ls and tool s f o r me tal working it is not p ropos e d
to e xclude all re fe re nc e to imple me nts of othe r kinds
T h e o ut standing f e atur e of man y of t h e rst tool s
is t h e p e rsist e nc e of typ e I n the se ca se s notwithstanding
t h e advanc e of civilisation du ring v e to s e v e n th o usan d
ye ars man has b e e n unable to impr ove upon t h e patt e rn s
intro duc e d by t h e E gyptians who de signe d the m and
to day w e nd tool s and othe r imple me nt s ide ntical in
fo rm and in t h e manne r of the i r applicati o n with tho se
of t h e e arly Egyptians
T h e numb e r of tools that hav e b e e n p re se rv e d fro m t h e
e a rli e r p e ri o d s is not la rg e
e sp e cially wh e n w e r e e ct
that a varie ty of arti s ans mu st have n e e de d and us e d
the m T h e n umb e r b e ar s a low r ati o t o t h e quantity o f
works whi ch mu st hav e b e e n pro duc e d b V me ans o f suc h
tool s and have c o me down to u s T h e carp e nt e r me t al
worke r j e we lle r builde r and sculpto r are all arti s an s who
ouri she d fro m t h e e arlie st time s of which w e have re c o rds
and who would ne e d sub stantial tool s o f me tal
T h e re are s om e c raft s of which w e hav e n o s pe cime n s
of t h e tool s us e d but mode ls s ome time s of wo rkshop s
a n d at o th e r s
of t h e to ols the m se lve s hav e b e e n found
in tomb s whilst in o the r in dus trie s t h e f o rm s s h o wn in
t h e mu r al de co ration s o f th e se st r uctu re s a re t h e o n l v
guide w e have as to t h e kinds of tools e mploye d
A L T H OU
GH
1 1
A N C IEN T
Fig
Fig
T IA N M
M d l
45
46
EG Y P
N at iv e
of
C ar
ui g
s n
p t
E TA LL U R G Y
en er s
Sh p
m o d e rn B o w
D ill
r
A NCIEN T EG YP T I A N
T O OL S
1 1
photograph of a mode l of a carp e nte r s shop is giv e n

in F ig 4 5 I n this th e re is a double handle d copp e r
without te e th but this omissio n was p e rhaps o nly
s aw
made b e caus e t h e sp e cime n was m e re ly a mode l Othe r
saws that are in e xist e nc e have se rr ate d e dge sin a similar
way to o ur own T h e man in t h e c e ntre is dr illing with
a bow dr ill made of a point of copp e r o r b ron z e in a woode n
han dl e which is r otate d by a bow : t h e string of t h e
latt e r has p e rishe d H e re again t h e pe r siste nc e of typ e
app e ars : bow dr ills of this k in d are us e d e xt e nsiv e ly
in Egypt to day an d a re c e nt phot o graph o f a nativ e
using o n e is give n in F ig 4 6
A n o the r tool of t h e c arp e nt e r that h a s continu e d in
u se during t h e whol e of Egyptian hi sto ry is t h e ad z e
T his mo st us e ful tool which s e rv e s as a chi se l a x e and
hamme r is o n e of t h e mode rn Egyptian wood wo rke r s
favo u rite tools
A photog r aph showing it in u se to day is giv e n in
A
F ig 4 7
.
rst t h e adz e was made of copp e r o r b ronz e but

aft e rwards of iron S p e cime ns in both kinds of me tal
have b e e n di scove re d
T h e r st m e tal blade s f o r adz e s w e re in s hap e m e re ly
copie s of t h e c o e xistin g i nt one s but as t h e kn o wl e dge
of me tal advanc e d t h e shap e b e came m o re adapt e d t o
t h e wo rki ng pr op e rti e s of t h e m e tal and it is s aid to b e
pos sible to form an ide a o f t h e p e ri o d to which an e arly
Egyptian i a dz e b e l o ng s by t h e shap e and style of t h e
blade j ust as a c e lt of pr e hi sto ric Eur op e may b e
r o ug h l y dat e d by it s fo r m
T h e ax e is an instrum e nt that app e ar s t o hav e b e e n
o n e of t h e rs t made o f m e tal and it was us e d f o r w ar like
as we ll as in dustrial purpo se s I n pre historic tim e s t h e
Egyptians made the m of int and natur ally t h e rst
At
1 1
A NC I
M E TA L L
UR G Y
sp e cime ns the y made in me tal followe d t h e int type

by
I t was m e re ly a blade with two p roj e ctions ( F ig
me ans of whi ch it was tie d by le athe r thongs into a split
stick
T his imple me nt wh e n us e d f o r splitting and
cutting was not us e d as w e u se an ax e to d ay but t h e
.
Fig
47
N a tiv e
ui g
s n
m o d e rn
Ad z e
han dle was m e re ly a m e an s o f h o ldin g it in po siti o n

whil st t h e back o f t h e blade w a s str uck with a st o n e
T h l s 1 8 cle arly borne o u t both by t h e
o r oth e r articl e
form of t h e a x e an d by t h e fact that many of t h e blade s
.
T O OL S
1 1
badly burre d ove r at t h e back whe re the y had b e e n

str uck with some in strume nt
I t may b e re marke d that all b ronz e and copp e r tools
( not mode ls ) are much burre d at t h e hamm e re d e nds
but v e ry f e w at t h e cutting e nds T his t e nds to show
that the y must hav e b e e n us e d against s o fte r mat e rials
than that of t h e tool s the ms e lve s b e caus e it is impro bable
that almost all o u r sp e cime ns of antique tool s would
hav e b e e n abandone d o r lost
by t h e ancie nts in a fre shly
ground state
T h e author has
s e e n v e ry f e w tools of copp e r
or
b ronz e with e dge s s h o wing
sign s of we ar sufcie nt in
e xt e nt to show that th e y we re
us e d again st hard stone
A g r adual d e v e lopm e nt of t h e
shap e o f t h e a x e h e ad took plac e
as t h e art of m e tal working
advan c e d and nally blade s
with a so cke t f o r t h e han dl e
came in as s hown in F ig 4 9
I t has usually b e e n said that
t h e anci e nt Egyptians did not
u se han dl e d hamm e r s p rio r to
Fig
G re e k time s
I t is some what
a mazing
that t h e s culpto rs goldsmiths and me tal
wo rke r s contriv e d to e x e cut e t h e b e st e xample s
of
the ir c r aft s manship with no othe r hamme rs than
har d ston e s he ld in t h e palm of t h e hand T h e wo rkin g
of a pie c e of re d hot iron f o r in stanc e in such a ma nn e r
w o uld se e m to u s to b e at onc e a ve ry di fcult and u n
c omfo rtabl e op e r ation
T h e e vide nc e is almost pure ly n e gativ e
th e re are no
a re
1 1
A N C IEN T E G Y P T I A N M
E TA LL U R G Y
cont e mporary illustrations of han dl e d hamme r s in u se

On t h e othe r hand
n o r hav e sp e cim e ns b e e n found
the re are o n e o r two re li e fs showing workme n smiting
similar obj e ct h e ld in the ir
an obj e ct with a ston e o r
hands
T o t h e non arch ae ological min d it is also e xt rao rdi na ry
t hat t h e fact that han dl e s we re us e d on battle ax e s from
t h e most primitive t ime s did not l e ad to th e i r application
to hamme rs
,
Fi g
49
S o cke t e d
Axe
H d
ea
stone masons mall e ts we re us e d of pre ci se ly t h e

sam e typ e as thos e of t h e pre se nt day and sp e cime n s
of t h e XVI I I t h and XI x t h D yn astie s hav e b e e n re cove re d
T h e u se of handle s to the s e w ould b e thought to hav e
foun d its n e c e s sary and obvi o us appli cation to hamme r s
of ston e and me tal
T h e re is no doubt that in t chi se l s we re in u se alo n g
with copp e r and b r onz e on e s thro ugh o ut t h e dyna sti c
p e riod T h e similarity in typ e b e tw e e n some of the se
A gain ,
A NC I EN T EGY P T IA N
T O OL S
1 1
old stone cutting chis e ls and thos e of t h e p re s e nt day is

re ma rkabl e
T he y
C hi se ls we re re quire d f o r s e ve ral pu rpos e s
we re ne e de d f o r wood cutting f o r stone working and f o r
me tal wo rking t h e r st two b e ing t h e chi e f us e s
A
chi se l f o r wo od re qui re s a blade with a long e r tap e r to
its cutting e dge and as a cons e que nc e t h e latte r is
sharp e r Ou r wood chi se ls u s ually have woode n han dl e s
as like wis e have many of t h e ancie nt Egyptian one s
T h e latte r must have b e e n us e d mo re in t h e s e n se of wood
carving b e caus e the ir form is such that blows with a
hamme r wo uld me re ly have caus e d t h e blade to split
Al so none of t h e sp e cime ns of such c hi se ls
t h e han dl e
in o ur muse ums shows any trac e of having b e e n hamme re d
A c hi s e l f or stone cutting must not have too thin a
blade but s hould tape r off from t h e ste m f o r a S hort
distanc e only and in this way t h e cutting e dge is amply
supporte d by t h e body of me tal b e hi nd against t h e har d
blows ne c e ss ary
chi se lling t h e stone
C hi s e lling was large ly supple me nt e d by knife w o rk
C uttin g out knive s de v e lop e d from a simple fo rm in
pre hi storic time s to that s hown in F ig 5 0 about t h e dat e
of t h e XVI I I t h Dyna sty and Late r T w o cutting e dg e s
a re
cle arly se e n
T h e s e we re doubtle ss u s e d f o r t h e
cutting out of wood le athe r and similar mat e rial s
A mongst t h e rs t m e ans u se d by t h e anci e nt Egyptian s
f o r se curin g t h e di ffe re nt parts of the ir s tructu re s in
wo od work a re t h e copp e r tie s de s c rib e d in C hapte r I I
T h e s e copp e r strips we re no doubt a d e v e lo pm e nt o f
le athe r tie s which we re u se d f o r s o many s imilar p u rp o se s
in t h e rst stag e s of Egy
ptian civilis ation
A n o the r
for m is that o f t h e clamp whi ch w a s e mploye d f o r faste n in g
t h e plank s of a r oof to t h e r aft e r o r f o r similarly j o w i ng
up t h e parts of a sarcophagu s lid
-
'
1 20
E TA LL U R G Y
ails of copp e r and b r on z e se e m to hav e follo we d lat e r

probably b e ing de rive d fr om t h e riv e ts use d f o r me tal
j oint s fr om t h e most primitive time s and sp e cime ns of
all siz e s have b e e n found I ron nails came in e ve ntually
and e xampl e s are said to have b e e n di scove re d b e longin g
to t h e x t h Dyn asty
I t w as not
until G rae co R oman time s how
e v e r that th e y b e gan to b e us e d
at all e xt e nsive ly
T h e stude nt will b e impre ss e d
by t h e antiquat e d origin of many
of o u r own tools and imple me nts
in e v e ry day u se
F o r in stanc e
t h e ladde r was us e d in t h e XVI I I t h
Dyn a sty
W e nd it illu strat e d
on a h a s re li e f s ho wing its u se in
conn e ction with t h e si e ge of an
ancie nt city
We ig hing scale s
app e ar to hav e b e e n conc e iv e d
during t h e e arly part of t h e
dynastic p e riod soon aft e r t h e
workin g of me tals was unde r
stood T h e re are many illustr a
tions of th e m in t h e de cor ations
of tombs som e of the m it may
b e said not showing too clos e an
acquaintanc e by t h e artist w ith
t h e p rinciple s of t h e fulc rum and
t he
Fi g 50
Cutt in g t Kn if
le v e r
Othe r ar ticle s in
di sp e n s able to us to day f o r the ir
individual purpo se s which w e re j ust as we ll known to t h e
Egyptian art ic e rs are t h e plumb line b e llows bl o wpip e
and sci ss ors t h e latt e r pr obably of comparative ly late
p e riods and a de ve l o pme nt of t h e cutting out knife
N
ou
A NCI
T he
T O OL S
12 1
we ll form e d riv e t h e ads in t h e photograp h ( F ig

5 1 ) might almost pa s s as mode rn pr oductions
T he y
occur on a b ron z e door hinge and show that o u r p re s e nt
typ e of he ade d rive ts is ve ry ancie nt
R ive ting of copp e r and b r onz e articl e s was ne c e ssarily
a favourit e me ans of j ointing with t h e e arli e st E gyptians
b e caus e we lding and b razing of the s e me tals we re
-
Fig
51
R ive t
H d
ea
s on
ro n
z D
e
oor
Hi g
n
unknown to the m Eve n fr om pre historic time s w e nd

t h e thin gold cov e rings faste ne d as han dl e s to int
knive s by me ans of gold riv e ts but t h e ide a of ni shing
off t h e e nds in a p rop e rly shap e d h e ad do e s not se e m to
have come in until t h e inu e nc e of t h e G re e ks made its e lf
fe l t
.
'
1 22
C HA P T E R
M E T A L L O G R A P HY OF
THE
A N T I QU E
M E T AL S
application of a sp e cial b ranch of me tall ur gical

scie nc e that of me tallogr aphy to antiqu e m e tals is of
re c e nt dat e ; but it p r ovide s much u se ful info r mation
on t h e stability of di ff e re nt p hysical form s of me tals
and alloys and upon t h e corr o sion o f the s e sub stanc e s
M uch that follows in t hi s chapt e r mu s t ne c e s s arily
chie y int e re st t h e me tallurg i s t but an atte mpt will
b e made to t re at t h e subj e ct in a plain manne r so that
o
stude nts of b th me tal w o rk ing and arch ae ology may
follow it re a di ly an d t h e e xp e r t will b e at lib e rty to pass
ove r t h e e xplanatory paragraphs and if h e do e s not
agre e with all t h e author s de ductions will doubtle s s
dr aw h is o w n conclu sions fro m t h e data and t h e mic r o
sc o p ic al e vide nc e which will b e se t fo r th
M e tall o gr aphy is t h e s ci e nc e that tre ats of t h e int e rnal
st ructu re of m e tals and o n e of t h e chi e f m e an s o f inv e s ti
i
n
a
o
e
mpl
o
y
e
d
i
s
mic
r o s copical
e
xa
nation
B
t
m
i
g
y
Vie win g a pre pare d se ction of a m e tal o r alloy th rough
a mic r o scop e much u se ful information may b e obtain e d
as t o it s phy s ical s tat e
and e ve n s ome time s a s to it s
ch e mical c o mp o siti o n
A n tiqu e me tal s b e i n g g e ne r ally ve ry fr agile car e and
patie n c e a re ne c e ssary wh e n cutting s awing and ling
the m in o r de r t o obtain pie c e s f o r e xaminatio n T h e
TH E
I AE TA L L OG R A P H Y OF
A N T IQ UE M
E TA L S
I 2
hack saw b lade s should b e ve ry thi n one s wi th n e

t e e th and ple nty of time should b e give n to t h e cutting
T h e sp e cime n f o r e xa mi nation is p re pare d by ling
a p e rfe ctly at s e ction the n r ubbin g t h e surfac e on t w o
comme ncing w ith t h e
o r thre e grade s of e me ry pap e r
coars e st and sub se que ntly polis hi ng on a cloth we tt e d
with wat e r carryi ng an impalpable poli shing powde r in
susp e nsion stre tche d upon a boar d I t is e s se ntial that
t h e e m e ry pap e r b e laid o n a p e rfe ctly at su rfac e and
f o r this not hi ng s uit s b e tt e r than a pie c e of plat e glass
A ft e r was hi ng t h e p re pare d s urfac e is e tch e d by a re
age nt which will g e ntly attack t h e me talli c surfac e and
b ring into Vie w by se le ctive co rr osion t h e di ffe re nt
phas e s of whi ch t h e mic r ostructur e is c o mpos e d T h e
sp e cime n is aft e rwards n ally wa she d and drie d and is
th e n re ady f o r e xami natio n
M e tal s e ction s cannot b e Vie we d by tr ansmitt e d li ght
as are s ubstanc e s usually sub mi tt e d to mi c ro sc Op ic
the re fo re some me ans of illu m in ating t h e
e xa mi nation
surfac e whe n mode rat e o r high powe rs are us e d has
to b e de vis e d T hi s is ge ne r ally do ne by xin g to t h e
tub e of t h e mi c r oscope b e fo re putting o n t h e obj e ctive
a tting carryi n g a pris m and having a r a di al hole thr ough
which a strong b e am of light conc e ntrat e d b ya bull s
conde n se r is passe d at right an gle s to t h e tub e
e ye
T h e illumi nant is e ith e r an e le ctric light o r a g a s or
p e tr ol mantle lamp but an o r di nary mic ro scop e oil
lamp will b e f o und t o s e rv e quite we ll f o r Visual though
n o t f o r ph o tographic wo r k
A s hor t de s c ripti o n of t h e int e rn al c ry s tallin e a rr ang e
m e nt of me tals is ne c e ssary
T h e mi c r o st r ucture of
e g
cast s ilve r if pure o r almo st pure is made up like
that of all othe r me tal s of c rystal grain s which may
b e calle d
p rimitive
o r p rimar y
b e caus e th e y are
,
'
A NC I
1 24
E TA LL U R G Y
o riginal one s forme d in solidifying fr om t h e molte n

T h e c rystal grams hav e no re gular e xt e rnal
s tat e
g e ome t ric fo rm although the y are built up of ul tr a
mic r osc o pic c rystals that do poss e ss such fo rm
The
age nt m e re ly tints t h e surfac e in a uniform
e tching
manne r and b rings into Vie w t h e c rystal boundarie s
F ig 5 2 shows t h e app e aranc e of t h e c rystal gr ains on
a se ction of mode rn cast silve r E ach c rystal grain is a
s e par at e e ntity and is made up by g r adual g r owth alon g
t he
Fig
52
M i c ro stru c tu r e
of
C as t S ilve r
multitudinous b ranche s ( calle d c ry stallit e s ) from a c e ntre

all spac e s b e twe e n t h e r st b r anche s b e ing l le d up by
ne w b r anch e s which continu e to shoot out in all di re ctions
until t h e whole gr ain is so lid T h e shap e of e ach grain
is de t ermine d by t h e inte rfe re nc e that t h e main o r primary
from thos e of n e ighb o uring grains
c rystalli t e s re c e iv e
F ig 5 3 s hows t h e b ranche d fo rm that c ry s talli t e s follo w
I t is t h e str ucture of a silve r copp e r alloy
C opp e r
with which me tal w e a re chie y conc e rne d in thi s work
,
IM E
TA L L OG R A P H Y OF
A N T IQ UE
E TA L S
12
also shows irre gular c rystal grains whe n t h e polishe d

surfac e is e tche d
F r om t h e point of Vi e w o f t h e m e tallographe r it is
fortunat e that t h e coppe r of t h e ancie nt Egyptians was
impure
A naly s e s S how that t h e principal impu riti e s
a re
ar s e ni c ir on le ad and bi smuth
T h e fact that
it g e ne r all y contains appre ciable am o unts of iron and
ars e ni c s e parat e ly o r toge the r is of much u se m m
.
v e st ig a t io n s
In
an alloy of copp e r and ars e nic
Fig
53
Mi c
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
S ilv
e r-
t he
latte r m e tal
Co pp e r Allo y
is h e ld in a
up to a c e rtain limit ( about 4 p e r
p e rfe ct state o f s o luti o n e ve n aft e r s oli di cati o n is com
e
r at e ly re cognis e d m i cr o
l
e
t
e
b
e
caus
e
it
can
n
ot
b
e
s
pa
p
s c Op ic al ly n o r can it b e s e par at e d by m e chani cal m e ans
from t h e copp e r S uch a mixture o f two m e tals is calle d
a s olid s olution a n d in soli difying fr om t h e m o lt e n stat e
t h e rst p o rtio n s o f e ach c rystal gr ain to c ry s talli s e
that is to say t h e nucle i o f t h e primary b r anche s o r
c rystallit e s are riche r in t h e me tal with t h e hi ghe r
,
12
E TA LL U R G Y
me lting point ( in t hi s cas e copp e r ) than t h e succ e e di ng

laye rs and t hi s gr adual proc e ss go e s on until t h e liquid
m e tal of e ach portion s olidif ying la st of all is rich in t h e
m e tal with t h e lowe r m e lting point v ia ar se nic T his

proc e ss is so gradual that th e re is no line of de marcation
b e twe e n t h e laye rs of diff e re nt grade s th e y shade off
into o ne anothe r
I n t h e cas e of a mixture of copp e r and nick e l t h e rst
parts of t h e c rystall it e s to soli di fy will b e ni cke l rich
l
m e tal pos se s sing t h e high e r me lting point T h e e xplana
tion of t h e in e quality of di stribution of t h e s e cond
m e tal in such cas e s is d u e to t h e fact that di ff usion is an
e xtre m e ly slow p r oc e s s
as compare d with c ryst allis a
tion
I n spe cime ns of such alloys inst e ad of t h e s u rfac e s
of t h e gr ains app e aring unifor m in tint unde r t h e micro
scop e e ach o ne has dark fe athe ry markings du e to t h e
fact that t h e int e nsity of action of t h e e tc hi ng m e di um
varie s with t h e proportion of t h e adde d m e tal at e ach
spot T he s e markings are t e chni cally known as core s

and t h e re ade r should note t hat t hi s is a ve ry di ffe re nt
application of t h e t e rm from that p re viously u se d in
conne ction w ith mak ing hollow castings in me tal
A s may b e e xp e ct e d t h e s hade d
core
marking s
usually follow t h e forms of t h e c rystallit e s an d the y
gr adually shade o ff towar ds t h e e dge o f t h e c rys tal
gr ain A ll m e tals that are to some e xte n t s o luble in
copp e r wh e n s olid pr oduc e such marki ng s whe n a
poli she d surfac e of t h e alloy is e tche d T h e impo rtant
m e tals po ss e ssin g the s e pro p e rtie s ( n o t all t o t h e sam e
e xt e nt ) a re
ir on arse nic nick e l tin and zinc A ph o t o
mic rograph of a mode rn copp e r zinc all o y showing t h e
shade d markings and al s o t h e b o undari e s o f t h e ca st
or
primitiv e
c ry stal grains is give n in F ig 5 4 A t
,
E TA LLO G R A P H Y
Fig
54
M i c
OF
A NT I
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
Q UE
C a s t B ra s s
E TA L S
12
a highe r mag ni cation ( F ig 5 5 ) t h e graduat e d natu re

of t h e shade d markings is cle are r
A s t h e s ha di n gs are cau se d by t h e e tching re ag e nt
.
55
AF ig
.
M i c ro st ructu re
of
C as t B rass
12
A NC
IEN T E G Y P T I A N
E TA L L U R G Y
it will obviously de pe nd up o n which of t h e two me tals

in t h e alloy is more r apidly attacke d by t h e re age nt
us e d whe the r t h e markings S hade from light to dark
o r v ice v ersa
ome cas e s howe ve r t h e core markin g s inste ad

of graduating from light to dark o r v ic e v ersa in plain
b r o wn o r black assume colours of diffe re nt tints T his
is e spe cially t h e case whe n ammoni a is u se d f o r e tching
A n alloy in t h e phy s ical stat e pre v iously de sc rib e d
cannot b e calle d homog e ne ous A s w e have s e e n some
parts hold more z inc o r ars e nic as t h e cas e may b e
than othe rs I t is howe ve r possible to make it homo
i
n
e
e
o
u
that
s
p
r
ovid
e
d
t
h
e
alloy
is
mad
of
such
a
s
e
g
mixture of t h e two me tals that comple t e solid s olubility
occurs S ome m e tal s are not s oluble in copp e r in all
pr oportions wh e n solid
H omoge ne ity can b e b r ought about in t h e alloy by
he ating it ( wi thout m e lting ) f Or a le ngth of time which
varie s accordi ng to t h e t e mpe r ature appli e d
T he
arse nic zinc o r oth e r of t h e s o luble me tals m e nti o ne d
is the re by cau se d to diff us e into t h e copp e r until t h e
of t h e wh o le is unifor m and homoge n e o u s
s ubstanc e
t h e e tch e d s e ction aft e rwar ds s howi n g only a uni f o rm
tint fr o m grain to grain S uch a s olid s olution is con
sid e re d to b e in a stat e
of
T he
p e rfe ct e quilib rium
fore g o ing h e lps us t o un de r stand t h e t e rm s o lid s oluti o n

b e cau se t h e arse nic e t c di ffu se s whil st t h e alloy is in
a s olid state and afte rwards r e mains u ni formly di st ri
but e d thro ugh o ut t h e ma s s in di stingui shable mic r o
sc o p ic ally fr om t h e copp e r
I t will b e obvi o us that if t h e cooling of t h e all o y
wh e n rst ca st we re made sufcie ntly slow it would
hav e t h e same e ff e ct on t h e in te rnal structure ( by e n
ablin g di ffu sio n t o pro c e e d comple te ly ) as t he subs e que nt
In
E TA LLOG R A P H Y
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
12
he ating of t h e s olid alloy but this is impossible b e cau se

it is imp racticable to maintain a suf cie ntly slow r ate
of cooling
T h e us e ful all oy s of gold w ith copp e r and thos e of
g old with silve r b e lo ng to t h e s ame cate gory as both
copp e r and silve r for m solid s oluti o ns with gold showing
shade d markin gs o n e tche d sp e cime ns pr o duc e d by
casting whi ch di sapp e ar on thorough ann e aling
core
markin gs
T h e siz e and f o rm o f t h e s hadowy
in all t h e alloy s de sc rib e d vary with t h e r at e of cooling
fr om t h e liqui d stat e I f t h e coo lin g b e slow t h e c rystal
gr ains will assum e large proportions and t h e co re d
markings will b e more spre ad out and much mo re shadowy
in the ir gr aduation from dark to light upon t h e e tche d
s u rfac e I f coo ling is r apid t h e gr ain w ill b e small and
t h e shade d marking s will b e mo re di stinct than in a
sp e cim e n of t h e sam e constitution coole d mo re slowly
a n d havin g larg e r c rystal gr ain s
T h e c rystal gr ains
in any m e tal o r alloy may b e so small that the y re quire
a hi gh magni cation to b ring the m into Vi e w o r the y
may b e larg e e nough to b e mac r oscopic I t will b e obviou s
that unde r work in g con di tion s cooling will always b e
more r apid in a s mall ma ss of me tal than in a large o n e
t h e m e thods u s e d b e ing similar and w e may th e re f o re
s ay that
in ge ne r al c rystal gr ains are large r in larg e
castings than in s mall one s
T h e re ade r will now un de r stand that a poli s h e d s e ction
of cast copp e r containi ng as an impurity ars e ni c iro n
o r s imilar e l e me nt
s oluble to som e e xt e nt in t h e solid
coppe r will whe n e tche d con sist o f c rystal grain s with
shadowy markings and wh e n th o ro ughly anne ale d and
re p o li sh e d and e tch e d
t h e shadowy mar king s will b e
f o und to have di sapp e are d t h e nal s tructure b e ing
similar to that of a pure me tal
homog e ne ous
,
A NC I
3O
E TA LL U R G Y
nothing but line s de notin g c rystal boundarie s b e ing

V isible on t h e surfac e of t h e micr ose ction
T h e me tallogr aphy of b r onz e is r ath e r more com
plicate d b e cau se tin is only soluble in copp e r up to 1 6 p e r
and if t h e tin is in e xc e ss of that
c e nt in t h e solid stat e
a s e cond constitu e nt re mains e ve n aft e r prolonge d
ann e ali ng
A s a re sult of o r di nary ca sting b r on z e s
containing more than 8 p e r c e nt of tin show t h e pre s e nc e
of t h e s e c o nd constitue nt and b e twe e n 8 and 1 6 p e r c e nt
it is only as a re sult of anne aling that homog e ne ous
solid solutions can b e obtaine d Up to a tin cont e nt
of about 8 p e r c e nt t h e pre vious re marks conc e rni ng
ar s e ni c copp e r all o ys apply fully to br onz e s and sample s
of t h e latt e r containi ng more than that p e rc e ntage of
t in are not of importa nc e to u s in this work as t h e alloys
a re only found in antiqu e b r onz e statu e tt e s and oth e r
article s not int e nde d f o r u se ful purpos e s
C o pp e r and silv e r alloys are complicat e d in a r ath e r
d iff e re nt manne r con se qu e nt upon t h e fact that copp e r
and silv e r are not mutually s oluble in t h e solid stat e in
all proportion s On t h e o n e hand c o pp e r can onl y re tain
a s mall p e rc e n tage ( about 6 p e r c e nt ) of silve r in sol id
s o lution and silve r can only re tain 5 p e r c e nt of coppe r
in solid s oluti o n
A n y mixtu re of the s e two me tals b e tw e e n t h e limits
of the s e two s olid s o lutions con sists the re fore of primary
c ry stallit e s o f e ithe r t h e coppe r rich solid solution if
copp e r is in e xc e ss o r o f silve r rich c ry stallit e s if silve r
is in e xc e s s I n e ach cas e t h e c ry stallit e s are e mb e dde d
in a matrix which has t h e sam e const itution I t is known
as an e ute ctic and is compos e d of a m e chanical mixt u re
of t h e two s olid s oluti o n s app e aring on t h e e tche d s e ction
as n e alte rnating laye rs
T h e matrix is the re fore
he te roge ne ous
its composition is constant and t h e
.
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
1
3
t e mpe r ature at which it soli di e s which is lowe r than

that of t h e c rystallit e s is also constant T he re fore as
this matrix solidie s r ound t h e primary c rystallit e s
throughout t h e mass the re a re no c ry stal boundarie s
to b e se e n in an e tche d s e ction b ut t h e c rystal boundarie s
may b e di stinguishe d by t h e di ffe re nt ori e ntations of
T h e alt e rnating laye r s of t h e matrix o r
t h e e ut e ctics
can re adily b e di stingui she d on t h e p re pare d
e ut e ctic
s ur fac e by u s ing mode rat e ly high magnications
,
Fig
56
Mi c t uctu
ro s r
re o f
S ilve C pp Allo y sh o win g Eut cti c

r
x 90
er
ach of t h e t w o cas e s t h e quantity of matrix will

composition b e caus e t h e mutual solu
v ary w ith t h e
T h e copp e r silve r mat rix ( e ut e ctic )
b ilit ie s are con stant
may b e s e e n in F ig 5 6 at t h e side adj ac e nt to t h e dark
T h e two phas e s comprising t h e
c opp e ry c ry s tallit e s
matrix are cle arly Vi sible T his photomic rograph is of
a G re e k coin
and is take n at a mag ni cation of 9 0
di am e t e r s
S ilv e r containi ng a small amount of copp e r
In
A NC I E
2
3
N T E G YP T I A N
E TA L L U R G Y
silv e r
that is to
copp e r containi ng a little

say l e s s
than t h e limit of solubility of t h e adde d me tal in e ac h
cas e will show c rystal grain s on t h e polishe d surfac e
b e caus e of t h e abs e nc e of e ut e ctic T he re m ayb e core s
in such an alloy but a s t h e qu antity of t h e m e tal in
solution is small the y may not b e v e ry distinct
T h e parts of t h e structur e of C opp e r sil v e r alloys that
more de e ply attacke d by t h e
are rich in copp e r are
e tching re ag e nt than t h e silv e r ri ch parts
assumi ng a
dark re d b rown o r black colour whil st lt h e silve r rich
parts re main ye llow whit e T h e copp e r rich c rystall it e s
wil l ne v e r app e ar with silve r rich c rystallit e s on t h e same
S p e cime n and if e ithe r me tal is pre se nt in amount
abov e that soluble in t h e othe r it will b e found associate d
with e ut e ctic
L e ad and bismuth for m alloys wi th C opp e r of a di ffe re nt
class
T he y are pr acticall y insolubl e in both C opp e r
and b ron z e in t h e soli d stat e and the re fore during
solidication th e y are re j e cte d by t h e s oli di fying m e tal
and are thr o w n out to t h e boundarie s whe re the y re main
liquid until t h e t e mp e r atur e cools down to t h e fre e zing
point of le ad o r bismuth ; as t h e cas e may b e whe n the y
c rystallis e in t h e fo rm of isolat e d globule s if t h e quantity
is v e ry small o r as a more o r le ss continuous ne two rk
e nv e loping t h e c ry s tal grain s of copp e r ( o r b r onz e
if
)
the y ( t h e le ad o r bismuth ) are pre s e nt in s ufcie nt
quantity L e ad in copp e r o r b ro nz e is de t e cte d mic r o
sc o p ic all y on t h e une tch e d su rfac e as black gl o bule s o r
stre aks but if t h e s p e cime n is a much c o rr ode d o n e
the y may b e gre y in plac e s owing to corr o sion P atche s
of cuprous oxide ( d u e to corr osion ) which are a light
blue colour may at rst b e mistake n f o r le ad globule s
C opp e r ancie nt and mode rn ge ne rally contain s anoth e r
impurity cuprous oxide which has to b e take n int o
or
E TA LL OG R A P H Y
0F
A N T IQ UE M
E TA L S
33
conside ration I t occur s in pr actically all copp e r to s ome

and forms with t h e latt e r a s e rie s of true alloys
e xt e nt
of t h e e u t e c t if e ro u s varie ty T h e oxide is in soluble in
t h e solid copp e r and fo rms with it a re cogni se d e ut e ctic
mixtur e of constant composition containin g
e
r
c
e
nt
p
of cuprous oxide s olidifyin g at a t e mp e r ature
C
l owe r than that of e ithe r of t h e two constitue nts j ust a s
happ en s in t h e ca se of m ixture s of copp e r and s ilv e r
A piec e of copp e r contai ni ng a pe rc e ntag e of cupr ous
oxide l e ss than t h e e ut e ctic pr oportion ( which is n e c e s
a s much
sar il y t h e cas e in copp e r f o r us e ful purpos e s
oxide r e n de r s t h e m e tal unworkable ) con si sts of gr ains
of copp e r with patche s of e ut e ctic T hi s e ut e ctic has a
charact e ristic str ucture and is r e adily obs e rv e d in a
polishe d s e ction without e tching
I n t h e pre viou s pag e s w e hav e de alt o nl y with m e tals
and alloys in a fre shly cast con di ti o n W e may now
pr oc e e d to c onside r what happ e n s to t h e inte rnal arr ange
me nt s of such me tals and all oy s whe n the y are submitt e d
to de formati o n by hamm e r ing o r othe r work o f a similar
nature applie d to the m in t h e cold stat e in o r de r to f o rm
the m into s ome kind of a v e s s e l o r tool
W e can re adil y imagin e what would take plac e insid e
an orange if it we re c rush e d
T h e di ff e re nt s e cti o n s
wo uld b e quit e unre cogni sable and t h e bounding sur
fac e s would b e c rushe d into and through o n e an othe r
H amm e r ing a m e tal h a s a Simil ar e ffe ct upon t h e c rystal
n
o ns at
e
ains
t
ng
to
longat
th
m
in
di
cti
e
di
e
e
t
h
e
r
r
e
g
right angl e s to t h e appli e d f o r c e :
the ir boundarie s are
and any gl o bule s of le ad o r oth e r
re nde r e d in di stinct
insoluble impurity such as cuprou s oxide are att e ne d
and le ngth e ne d out I n unanne ale d s olid s oluti o ns t h e
shade d core
markin g s are al so atte ne d and le ngth
e ne d
I n a sp e cim e n s e v e re ly hamm e re d the s e core
.
A NCI E
34
NT
E G YP T I A N M
E TA L L UR G Y
markings and e ve n t h e granular boundarie s will b e so

atte ne d e xte nde d and conf use d as to b e unre solvable
by t h e mic r oscop e
T h e e tc hi ng of such a sp e cime n
and t h e de t e ction o f t h e nature of it s mic rostructure
if its history is unk nown is a matt e r of some difcul ty
F ig 5 7 show s t h e s tructure o f worke d mode r n b r ass
A cold hamm e re d me tal u s ually also s hows many
,
Fig
57
M i c ro structu re
M d
of
e rn
W o rk e d B rass
line s known as slip bands trav e r sing t h e c rystal grains

s e n sibly paralle l in form : th e y are pro duc e d by t h e
slipping of t h e di ffe re nt parts of t h e grain ove r o n e
anothe r and may proc e e d ac r oss t h e s urfac e of a grain
in m o re than o n e dir e ction
T h e y are re ve ale d by
e tching ( F i
A
hamm
d
a
loy
having
co
s
do
e
r
e
e
l
r
e
s
g
not as a rule s how slip bands ve ry distinctly b e cause
-
OF
A NT I
Q UE
t he
E TA L S
35
shade d marki ngs t e nd to mask the m and in an alloy

con si sting of two constitue nts o n e harde r than t h e
othe r the y may not occ u r at all T h e y are s e e n b e st
in sp e cime ns of worke d b ronz e o r b rass that have b e e n
thoroughly ann e ale d b e fore t h e work Wh e n sufcie ntly
cold worke d to caus e a co nf us e d structure the n no
slip bands will b e Visible
,
Fig
58
M i c ro structu re
of
T wis t e d B
ra s s s
h wi g S lip b d
o
an
It
has b e e n me nti o ne d in a p re vious chapt e r that

t h e working of most m e tals and all oys in t h e cold stat e
har de n s the m to such an e xt e nt as to re nde r f u rthe r
mani pulati o n impossible wi th o ut c racking I t is the re
fore ne c e ssary to ann e al the m in or de r to b ring t h e me tal
back to its o riginal stat e of softne s s A nn e aling is t h e
proc e s s of h e ating a me tal o r alloy f o r a c e rtain le ngth
.
36
E TA LL UR G Y
of time to a t e mp e r ature b e l o w it s m e lting point in o rde r

to softe n it o r to re nde r it p e rfe ctly homoge ne ous I f
t h e t e mp e r ature is a high o n e appr oaching t h e m e lting
point t h e time ne e d only b e short but t h e time b e come s
longe r as t h e t e mp e r ature is lowe re d T h e r at e of cooling
aft e r anne aling is not mat e rial
I n t h e fo rmin g o r
r aising
of a v e sse l fr om a she e t
of me tal se v e r al ann e alings are re quire d ; in fact t h e
numb e r of anne ali ng s de p e nds upon t h e amount of w o r k
to b e done
1
W e have notic e d that anne alin g o f all oys cau se s
e quilib rium to b e attain e d by di ffusion o f so lubl e m e tal s
but in wo rke d sp e cim e n s of m e tals o r alloy s in t h e f o rin
of solid so lutions it als o b rings ab o ut a nothe r chan ge
A re c ry stalli s ation o ccurs in s pit e of t h e fact that fu sion
has not tak e n plac e T h e whole mas s re arran ge s it se lf
inte rnally and a c ry stallin e syste m quit e di ffe re n t fro m
T h e boundari e s of t h e
t h e o rigi n al ca st o n e is for m e d
latt e r are v e ry irre gular an d j agg e d and t h e grains
e xhibit much int e r p e n e tr atio n b e sid e s an obviou s e l o nga
tion in t h e dire ction at right angle s to t h e co o ling s urfac e s
co re s would also b e p re se nt T h e
I n a s olid solution
boun d ari e s of t h e n e w o r s e condary grain s that are
induc e d by t h e work and t h e subs e qu e nt anne aling
on t h e contrary much more re gular in shap e t h e
are
boundari e s take t h e form of s traight lin e s and t h e
g rain s the ms e lv e s are much more re gular and are v e ry
an gular
A phot o mic r og r aph of hamm e r e d an n e ale d
b r a ss ( copp e r 7 0 p e r c e nt zinc 3 0 p e r c e nt ) is give n in
F ig 5 9
T he re is al s o anoth e r p e culiarity w h ich dis
t ing u ish e s se condary g r ain s ; it is k n own as twinni n g
W e ne e d not e nt e r into a full e xplanati o n o f this char
a c t e rist ic
but it w ill sufc e to say that it is primarily
d u e to t h e o riginal inte rp e n e tr ation of t h e cast o r primi
,
E TALL OG R A P H Y
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
37
tive grains and to pie c e s of o ne grain b e ing s e parat e d
T h e s e b rok e n
work
a n d e mb e dde d in anoth e r by t h e
fr agme n ts are comp e ll e d to c rystalli se with t h e grain in
whi ch the y are e mb e dde d in an arrang e me nt diffe re nt
from the ir own and th e y take t h e form o n t h e e tche d
surfac e of paralle l bands e xte n di n g wh o lly o r partly
ac ro s s t h e s urfac e of t h e grains
T h e s e par all e l twin
.
Fi g
59
W o rk e d
l d
rass ann e a e
at
6 00 f o r
h lf
a
an
h u
o
marking s may o ccur in cast me tals b e ing du e to int e rnal

str e ss e s b r ought about by un e qual contr acti o n du ring
solidicati o n but in s uch ca se s th e y are pr e s e n t in ve ry
small n umb e rs
T h e s e c o n dary typ e of c rystal g rain s with twin mark ings
hav e b e e n found to occur in c o pp e r produc e d by e le ctr o
lytic pro c e s s e s and t h e autho r has also found it in
,
A NC I
8
3
EN T E G YP T I A N
E TA L L U R G Y
fragme nts of p re cipitat e d copp e r from t h e surfac e of a

b ron z e mirr or an int e re sting su bj e ct whi c h will b e de alt
with late r but the s e occurre nc e s are of minor importanc e
and do not a ff e ct t h e qu e stion w e are no w about to con
side r Vi z t h e us e s of mic roscopic inve stigations o f

structure f o r t h e de t e ction of me thods of manufacture
of antique me tal obj e cts
T h e se condary g r ains poss e ss a p r op e rty p e culiar to
th e ms e lve s With continu e d he ating o r a r aising of t h e
t e mp e r ature the y gr ow in si z e the re b e ing no li m it
to t h e di m
e xc e pt that of t h e mass it se lf
e ns ions that a
grain may attain but t h e y p re s e rv e th e ir straight bound
arie s and angular forms T h e p rimitive grains in a cast
me tal o r alloy d o not poss e ss this characte ristic e xc e pt
in a Ve ry small de gre e caus e d n o doubt by stre ss e s
e xisting within t h e ma s s owing to diffe re nc es in t h e r at e
of cooling of di ff e re nt parts A p o m t of some in t e re st
is that this p r op e rty of gro wth which t h e c rystal gr ains
of a worke d m e tal p o ss e ss is p e rmane nt : it do e s not
laps e T h e author has p rov e d by e xp e rime nt that t h e
grains in such a sample will continu e th e ir g rowth if
anne ale d in s pit e of t h e fact that t h e growth w a s r st
initiate d p e rhaps v e o r s e v e n thousand ye ars ag o A
worke d m e tal is in a straine d con di tion : th e se strains
and t h e re sult is
are r e lie v e d by t h e application of h e at
I t would
t h e n e w structure of s e c o ndary c rys tal grains
not b e unre a so n able to suppo se that age ing alone might
but from sp e cime n s e xamine d it is
r e li e v e th e se st r ains
pos sible t o say that aft e r more than
y e ars t h e
inte rnal strains still e xist as is de monstrat e d by t h e fact
that re c rystallisatio n and c rystal growth e nsue s wh en
t h e antique m e tal is anne al e d
A ph o tomic r ogr aph of t h e same sample of b rass as
that of F ig 5 9 is giv e n in F ig 6 0 which was take n afte r
,
M E TA L L OG R A P H Y OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
39
furthe r anne ali ng at a t e mp e r ature approachin g t h e

m e ltin g poin t
G lob ul e s of le ad o r cupr ous oxide contain e d in alloys
att e ne d by hamme ring are caus e d to re sume a globular
form by ann e alin g if t h e t e mp e ratur e is sufficie ntly
.
xplaine d in t h e cas e of cast all oys all core

mark ings di sapp e ar durin g t h e ann e aling b e caus e t h e
A S w as
Fig
60
.
M ic
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
800
Ann e al e d B ra ss aft e r furth e r ann e alin g

f o r ha lf a n h o u r
to
me tal s pre se nt as impuritie s o r constitu e nt s ( to whi ch

a re
t he
co re s
d u e ) di fq e uni formly th rough t h e
mass
I f such an all o y is h e ate d and hamm e re d wh ile hot
t h e re c rystalli s ation pr oc e e ds simultan e ously and t h e
e ff e ct s are
si mil a r
though t h e
core
markings will
,
A NC I
40
E TA L L U R G Y
not as a rule , b e e ntire ly e liminat e d unl e ss t h e he ating

is sufcie ntly pr olonge d
With alloys having a mic r ostructure compri sing c rystal
lit e s in a matrix of some kind as f o r instanc e those of
copp e r and silv e r t h e cas e is s ome what diffe re nt H am
me ring o r oth e r cold working caus e s a b r e aking up
att e ning and di stortion of t h e di ffe re nt structur al
phas e s a s e xplaine d with re sp e ct to pure me tals and
but t h e s ubs e qu e nt anne aling although
s olid s o lutions
t h e p r oc e s s of c ry stallin e re adj u s tm e nt t hat e nsue s mu s t
b e analagou s do e s not b ring ab o ut similar Vi sible e ff e cts
A ft e r t h e anne aling t h e c rystal
in t h e mic r o str uctu re
lit e s do n o t re app e ar on t h e e tch e d surfac e in th e ir o riginal
b ranche d fo rm but as r ounde d i s olat e d ma sse s surr ounde d
by t h e e ut e ctic matrix t h e two compon e nt s of which
a re much mo re r ounde d and in di stinct than th e y we re
in t h e o riginal ca st stat e provide d of course that t h e
te mp e rature of ann e aling is not highe r than t h e m e lting
point of t h e e ut e ctic which would p roduc e incipie nt
fu sion
C ry stallit e s are e sse ntial ly indications of s olidication
fr om t h e liquid s tat e ; if onc e distorte d o r b r o ke n up
by
w o rk
the y can ne v e r b e made to re app e ar by
ann e aling F usi o n alone would pro duc e fre sh o ne s
T h e re ade r will hav e gath e re d fr om what p re c e de s
that it is g e ne r ally p o s sible t o asc e r tain from t h e mic r o
s t r uc t u r e
of sp e cime n s of alloy s h e re de alt with t h e
o riginal m e th o d of manufactu re S o m e may have b e e n
cast ; othe r s may hav e b e e n hamm e re d fr om a disc of
m e tal I n any antique obj e ct of m e tal o r allo y made
by S imple ca sting th e re will usually b e c ry stallite s in t h e
mic r o str ucture ann e aling cannot de stro y the m although
by cau sin g diff u si o n it may re m o ve t h e e vide nc e f o r
the ir pre se nc e by t h e di s app e ar anc e o f t h e c o re markin g s
,
IWE
TA L L OG R A P H Y OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
41
cast m e tal compos e d of grains not having

co re
markings w ill show irre gu lar grain s pos se ssing j agge d
and int e rp e ne trating boundarie s and t h e train e d e ye
s e condary
re adily distinguish e s th e m fr om gr ains of t h e
typ e
A ca s t sp e cime n afte rwar ds hamm e re d to shap e wh e n
cold w ithout any anne aling w ill show a conf use d st ru c
t ur e att e ne d and di st o rt e d any co re s pre s e nt b e ing
c rushe d and le ngthe n e d A similar sp e cime n ann e ale d
subs e que ntly to t h e working wi ll po ss e s s quite a diffe re nt
type of structure as pre viou sly e xplaine d
s e condary
T h e re now r e main s to b e conside re d t h e mic r o s tructure
of a me tal o r s olid solution say a b ronz e containi ng
5 p e r c e nt of tin which has b e e n work e d and ann e ale d
s e ve ral time s but le ft nally in t h e state pr o d uc e d by
hamm e ring t h e anne ale d structu re T h e re gular angula r
c rystal grain s p roduc e d by anne aling whe n hamme re d
as are ca st grain s : the y
are att e n e d and di sto rt e d
also show ow line s t rave rs ing e ach grain that h as suffe re d
distortion ( se e F ig
T h e work of t h e autho r has s ho wn that all t h e st ru c
tur al charact e ristics of cast wo rke d o r anne ale d sp e ci
m e ns p re viously worke d o r not as alre ady de sc rib e d
e
r
p
r
man
e
nt
on
s
a e
e
t hat is to s ay th e y are j ust a s
Visible to day in antique spe cime ns as th e y we re whe n
fre shly pre pare d thou s ands of ye ars ago
T h e usual me thod Of e tchin g sp e cime n s f o r mic r o
scopic analysis is by imme rsion in a re age nt havin g a
slightly co rro sive action on t h e sur f ac e such as dilute
acid di lute amm o ni a e t c Etching of mode rn sp e cime ns
is not di fcult re quiring only a c e rtain am o unt o f p r actic e
in judging whe n t h e attack has gone f ar e nough and
pr omptly stopping fur the r action by wa shing I f t h e
e tchin g b e
carrie d too f ar the re is no alte rnative to
A
1 42
A NC I
E TA LL U R G Y
polishi ng and e t chi ng again

A ntiqu
e
me tals con
taining copp e r howe ve r are oft e n r ath e r m o re difcult
to e tch and re quir e much clos e r watching durin g t h e
imme rsion T his is chie y du e to t h e fact that the y
invariably contain oxi de s and salts of t h e me tal e ithe r
o n th e ir outwar d uncl e an e d surfac e s o f p e n e trating into
T h e s e oxide s and salts a re much more
t h e m e tal its e lf
the y qu ickly
r e adil y act e d upon by t h e e tching m e di um
go into s olution and as a cons e que nc e t h e polishe d
m e tallic sur fac e may r e pre cipitate t h e c opp e r from t h e
solution so that it forms a skin on t h e surfac e T h e s e
di f cultie s are b e st ov e r com e by re moving a s much as
possible of t h e oxi di s e d c rust from t h e s urfac e s of t h e
s p e cim e n not r e q uire d to b e e tch e d o r by cov e rin g th e m
Af t e r that t h e e tc hi ng s hould b e
w ith a lay e r of wax
c are fully watch e d and t h e su rfac e con s tantly e xamine d :
t h e tim e re quire d is oft e n not long e r than o n e minut e
A s a rul e t h e re ag e nts should b e mo re di lut e d than t h o se
us e d f o r ordinary u se with mode rn alloy s
I t is a s w e ll duri ng e tching o c c a sio n all v to mov e t h e
s p e cim e n about in t h e liquid to r e mov e a n y bubble s o f
thu
s hinde r ing
a s that may hav e fo r m e d on t h e su rfac e
g
Af t e r t h e nal washing drying should b e
t h e attack
T his is more n e c e s
c a rri e d out as qu ic kl v as p ossibl e
sary with antique m e tals than mode r n one s a s t h e
c re vic e s in t h e forme r are like ly to hol d s alts which may
n g e d action of moistu re
b e b ro ught to t h e s ur fac e by pro lO
I n m o st ca se s a soft napl e s s rag may b e lightly wip e d
o r t h e sp e cim e n may b e rins e d
o v e r t h e p o li s h e d fac e
in e the r
core s in solid s olutions is to
A g o od way of Vie wing
throw t h e mic roscop e o bj e ctiv e s lightly out of focus
wh e n t h e parts of t h e structur e standing in re lie f are
e mpha s i s e d b e caus e in som e instanc e s t h e e tching m e dium
re
OF
E TA L L O G R A P H Y
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
43
may not pr oduc e

core
markin gs sufcie ntly dark in
tint to b e cle arly Visible e xc e pt to t h e e xp e rt
An oth e r m e thod of de ve loping t h e st ructure on mic r o
T hi s consists of
s e ctions is t he he at tinting p roc e ss
graduall y he atin g t h e sp e cime n in air until slig ht oxida
tion l ms form on t h e surfac e but with antique me tals
it give s v e ry poor re sults
T h e b e ginne r is adv i s e d to make a point of re p e ating
t h e poli shing, e tching and e xamin ation of a sp e cim e n
b e caus e occasionally fre ak markings occur on t h e s urfac e
d u e to une qu al action of t h e e tching re ag e nt t o t h e
c rystalli s ation of salts ( imp e rfe ctly re move d by t h e
washin g ) o r to t h e de position of lms of me talli c copp e r
upon t h e b right sur fac e
T h e pre pare d sur fac e should b e p e rfe ctly cle an and fre e
from gre as e I t is us e ful to rins e in b e n z e ne o r e th e r
b e fore subme rging in t h e e tching uid
T h e following re ag e nts are most suitable f o r t h e
di e re nt kinds of antiqu e m e tal s and all o v s
.
C opp e r
and
B ronz e
A mmo ni a
A mmo ni um
p e rsulphat e
Dilut e ni tric acid
A qua re g ia
N itric acid
P ic ric acid
Dilut e ni tric acid
G old
S ilv e r
I r on
and Ele ctr um
Af t e r
a little practic e t h e pre par ation o f a me tal s e ction

f o r mi c ro sc Op ic e xamination b e come s an e asy matt e r
T h e c hi e f points are
1 T h e polish e d s ur fac e must b e q ui t e at e sp e cially
if hi gh powe rs are to b e us e d
2 S c r atch e s made by t h e l e must b e re mov e d by
e m e ry pap e r e ach gr ade of whi ch is appli e d in a dire ction
.
A N CIEN T
44
EG Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
at right angle s to t h e pre viou s o n e so that it is e asy t o

se e that mar ks made by t h e p re vious pap e r a re re mov e d
3 Washing t o re mov e all g rit b e tw e e n e ach stag e of
t h e grinding and poli shing
4 C are ful watching during e tching to pre v e nt it going
too f ar Dire ctly t h e surfac e shows sig ns of losing its
me tallic b rightne s s
it s hould b e re move d and
e xami n e d
F o r furthe r de tail s of pre parat ion of sp e cime ns t h e
to
t h e mic r o
r e ade r s hould r e f e r t o t h e books de vot e
d
F o r poli s hing t h e auth o r has
sc o p ic a l study o f m e tals
us e d a S wiss nail powde r known unde r t h e name of
T his is not
Diamantine
with satisfacto ry re sults
t h e e xp e n siv e whit e powde r of t h e s am e nam e u s ually
by me tallographe rs : T h e ne st j e we lle r s
e mpl o y e d
A ll ne e m e ry pap e r s and
roug e al s o giv e s go o d r e s ults
p o lishing cloth s should b e quite fre e from gritty particle s
A micr o
S e lv yt cloth s uit s admir ably f o r poli shing
scopic e xaminati o n of t h e polishe d surfac e should always
b e mad e b e fore it is e tche d as much us e ful infor mation
can oft e n b e obtaine d in thi s way V ariation s in har dne ss
of t h e diffe re nt pha se s comprising t h e micr o str ucture
caus e some t o b e more worn away by t h e polishing than
othe rs that are har de r and thu s t h e latte r stand out
on t h e poli she d surfac e in slight re lie f A gain c e rtain
str uctural characte ri stics can b e st b e ob se rve d b e fo re
f o r in stanc e as l e ad in copp e r o r b r o nz e
e tching
s uch
app e aring dark again st t h e body of t h e s almon c o lo ure d
surrounding m e tal ; and cupr o u s oxi de in
o r y e llow
c o pp e r t h e f o r me r app e ari ng blue against t h e s almon
coloure d c o pp e r I n so me cas e s t h e boundarie s o f t h e
c rystal grains and in othe rs ow line s du e to hamm e rin g
m o re e sp e cially in anti que sp e cime ns may b e cle arly
ob se rv e d F urthe r it may b e s aid that e tching wo uld
,
'
E TA LLOG R A P H Y
OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
45
in s ome instanc e s t e nd to mask the s e e ff e cts by t h e

production of othe rs of more notic e able characte r
A s t h e c o pp e r ar ticle s of th e e a rli e st Egyptian p e riods
contain impuritie s the y mu st b e re garde d as all o ys
F o r instanc e in t h e analysis of t h e copp e r strip ( p 6 8 )
w e nd that t h e chi e f impur ity is ar s e ni c and th e re fo re
w e may re gar d t h e m e tal a s an alloy of copp e r and
ars e nic
T h e othe r impuritie s which are pr e se nt in
much smalle r amount s do not di sturb t h e g e ne ral arr ang e
me nt of t h e mi c r ostructur e T h e follo w ing is a list of
t h e antiqu e alloys with w hi ch w e hav e to de al
.
C opp e r
with a little ars e nic as main impurity

ge ne r all y also with ir on
C opp e r with tin le s s than 8 p e r c e nt ( b r onz e )
C opp e r with tin b e tw e e n 8 and 1 6 p e r c e nt ( b r on z e )
C opp e r with zinc le ss than 3 0 p e r c e nt ( b ra ss )
G old with silv e r
G old with c o pp e r
A ll t h e
fo re going alloys in t h e mixtur e s that are of

practical imp o rtanc e and of which an tiqu e sp e cime ns
e xi s t fo r m s olid s oluti o ns
C o pp e r and s ilv e r t o g e th e r fo r m s oli d so lutions but th e y
also for m an e ute ctic mixture L e ad fo rm s no solid s olu
tions with m e tals that come unde r o u r con side r ati o n
I t h a s alr e ady b e e n s tat e d that t h e s tructural and
physical e ffe cts of a l o ng ann e alin g at a l o w t e mp e ratur e
are si mi lar to tho se p roduc e d by a hi gh e r t e mp e r atu re
applie d f o r a sh o rte r tim e this rule h a s b e e n con side re d
s o t r u e by many m e tall urgi s t s that it has b e e n c o nside re d
that anne alin g e ffe ct s could b e b ro ught about in a me tal
e v e n at atm o s ph e ric t e mp e r ature s p r ovide d a sufcie ntly
lon g pe rio d of time we re allowe d T h e author s inve s ti
i
o
n
a
t
s
upon
antiqu
Egyptian
m
e
tal
s
hav
s
hown
e
e
g
,
10
46
E TA LL U R G Y
howe v e r that if such a pr oc e s s do e s take plac e it is

innit e ly slo w and is quite impe r c e ptible aft e r about
y e ars F o r all pr actical purp o se s it may b e said
that a m o re o r le ss e le vat e d t e mpe rature is re quire d to
pr oduc e t h e str uctural alt e r ations du e to anne aling
Viz di ffu sion in a h e t e r oge ne ous s olid solution and

r e c rystalli s ation and c ry stal gr owth in a wo rk e d m e tal
o r alloy
A n antiqu e s p e cim e n de mon s tr ating t h e truth of this
is a copp e r dagg e r whi c h is ove r
ye ar s old having
b e e n made during t h e I st Dynasty I t has b e e n au t h o ri
t at iv e ly a s signe d t o thi s p e riod by t h e Egyptian ar c h ae o l o
i
a l autho r iti e s and is con sid e re d by t h e autho r to hav e
c
g
b e e n o rigin ally c o ntaine d in a sh e ath o f t h e same m e tal
but t h e latt e r b e ing v e ry thin had e n tire ly oxidi se d
b e fore it w a s dis cov e re d
T h e f o llowin g is t h e analy si s o f t h e m e tal o mitting
o xyg e n
,
A r se n ic ,
L e ad ,
39 per
c e nt
trac e
I ro n ,
B i s muth t in ,
nicke l
f
e
e
r
e
by
di
f
nc
)
(
an d
C o pp e r
08
n il
comparativ e pu rity of t h e m e tal is w o rthy of

particularly in j ur ious impuritie s such a s l e ad
re ma rk
and bi s muth b e ing e n tire ly ab se nt A simil ar ab se nc e
of the se impuritie s h as b e e n ob se rv e d by t h e auth o r in
most othe r antique c o ppe r impl e m e nt s inte nde d f o r
m e chanical purpo se s
T h e dagge r had appare ntly b e e n made by rst ca sting
t h e m e tal r oughly to shap e and th e n nishi n g by ham
me ring wh e n cold but as some part s of t h e se ction ne ar
p e rhap s a slight
t h e e dg e s show e d a little twinning
T he
OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
47
mount of hot work had also b e e n done on t h e obj e ct

T hat it had ne ve r b e e n syste matically anne ale d and
that no appre ciable di ffusion had occurre d during it s
life time w as abundantly cle ar On e tching t h e se ction
t h e o riginal co re mark ings cam e out with di s tinctne ss as
s hown in F ig 6 1
C los e e xamination of t h e e tch e d s e ct i on show e d that
r e c rystallisation had take n plac e in a som e what p e culia r
manne r ; the re we re indication s that t h e actual re
c rystallisati o n had only affe ct e d o n e part of t h e structure
t h e arse nic rich are as which had take n t h e for m of
att e nuat e d c rystal grains
following t h e me ande rs
of this particular phas e
thu s le aving t h e othe r
part s ( copp e r rich ) in t h e

f o r m of islands o f vary
i n g siz e s
T hi s can b e
s e e n at a high e r m ag n i
62
c ati o n in F ig
I t may b e point e d out
that t h e me tal of t h e
its original
d agg e r in
Fig 6 1 M i c t u c tu f C pp
c a st
stat e
would not
D gg h win g C
show the s e cl e ar c rystal
boundarie s
T h e re is a possibility how e v e r that th e y
we re induc e d by t h e v e ry slight amount of hot
work which app e ars to hav e b e e n do n e on t h e dagge r
T h e author howe ve r re j e cts t hi s ide a b e caus e n e ar
t h e e dge s of t h e sp e cim e n as s tate d t h e c rystal gr ains
b e ar no re s e mblanc e to t h e typ e pr oduc e d on such alloys
by hot work o r by ann e aling cold worke d s ample s but
a re mo re like t h e p rimitiv e
cast typ e o f grain M ore
o ve r
hot w o rk o r anne aling would hav e produc e d
a
ro s r
er s
o re s
er
re o
A NC I
48
E TA LL U R G Y
c rystalli sation in t h e copp e r rich islands H e pre fe r s

not to ve nture any opini on as to whe the r t h e re c ryst al
lisat io n was b r ought about in re lie f of t h e int e rnal stre ss e s
se t up by t h e cold hamm e ring o r wh e th e r it was induc e d
e ith e r by t h e highly c rystalline p r op e rti e s of ar se ni c o r
by t h e pre s e nc e of t h e cuprou s oxide globule s
A nne aling t h e m e tal p r oduc e d t h e re sults t hat would
b e e xp e ct e d in a mode r n samp le of work e d copp e r of
T h e gr ains
t h e sam e composition as shown in F ig 6 3
as sume d a re gular form t h e oxide m
i grat e d to t h e
granular boundarie s and t h e
core s
di sapp e are d
re
CC
3)
Fig
M ic
62
t uctu
h wi g C
re o f
ro s r
er s
Co ppe r
o re s
Fig
C pp
D gg ft
D gg
li g
T his mic r ograph was pr oduc e d by e tching with chromic
.
63
er
ann e a
er a
er
acid and afte rwards slightly polishin g ; but of course

b e fore t h e latte r w as done it was we ll obs e rve d that
core s
we re ab se nt
T h e poli shing has oblit e rat e d
t h e boundari e s h e re and th e re
A noth e r old s ample which cle a rly de monstrat e s t h e
p e r sist e nc e of t h e ca st core d s tructure in c o pp e r is
t h e strip of t h e XI I t h Dynasty de sc rib e d in C hapt e r I I
p
(
,
T his
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
1 49
t ip was hamme re d to shap e from a cast r o d

whil st hot which was t h e ancie nt E gyptian s me th o d
of pre ve nting c rackin g whilst w orkin g t h e me tal and
at t h e s ame time e nsuring softne ss T h e h e ating was not
howe ve r prolong e d and cannot b e conside re d as
anne aling T hi s is appare nt from t h e photo mi c rograp h
F
i
which
cl
e
a
r
ly
s
hows
t
e
la
g
e
co
r
e
s
u
e
to
h
r
d
( g
ar se nic; att e ne d out as th e y we re by t h e hamme ring
T hat t h e me tal was worke d hot is sho wn by t h e slight
amount of n e re c rystallisation which may b e de t e cte d
s r
Fi g
64
S tri p
XI I t h
Dy
of
n as
C o pp e r
ty
Fig
65
Co pp e r S t ri p ( Fi g
l d
a nn e a e
X 90
diam
64 )
in t h e light parts of t h e structure I n orde r to show how

anne aling would hav e re move d the s e core s t h e au thor
he ate d a sample and F ig 6 5 shows t h e subs e qu e nt
structure
T h e re c ry s tallisation is now appare nt ove r
and t h e
dark
core s hav e b e e n
t h e whol e sur fac e
dissipat e d T h e long stre aks trave rsing t h e photograph
are strings of cupr ous oxide
I n t h e cas e of t h e copp e r r a z o r ( F ig
it is
.
A NCI
0
5
E TA LL UR G Y
inte re sting to not e that probably some hot work was done
on t h e m e tal b e caus e the re is some s e condary c rystal
F ig 6 6 shows t h e o rigin al st ructure
lisat io n in plac e s
and F ig 6 7 t h e str ucture aft e r anne aling by t h e author
,
Fig
66
M i c ro s t ructu re
R z
a or
( Fig
of
C o pp e r
Fig
R z
.
67
a or
Mi c ro s t ructu re
Fi
g
s
(
The
29
an d
66)
C o pp e r
a nn e al e d
of
copp e r knif e illustrat e d in F ig 6 8 al s o showe d

p ronounc e d core markin g ( F ig
and wh e n a pie c e of
t h e m e tal was anne al e d t h e co re s di s app e a re d and c ryst al
g rowth se t in ( F ig
.
Fig
68
C pp
o
er
Kn ife
T he
ne xt thre e photomic rographs are from an a dz e

o r a x e blade
de sc rib e d in t h e pre v ious chapte r ( F ig
F ig 7 1 shows t h e o riginal co re d structure
F ig 7 2 shows
,
M E TA LLO G R A P H Y
Fi g
6 9 M i c ro s t ructu re
K if
.
Fi g
71
A xe
X 75
of
di am
C o pp e r
h d ( Fi g
ea
A NT I
Fig
Q UE
of
Fig
C o pp e r
70
ann e a
Mi c ro s t ru c tu re
OF
72
lin g
ea
K if ( Fi g
n
X 7 5 ( 11 3
M i c
h d
E TA L S
69 )
1 11
re o
ft er
t uctu f A
Cutt i g E d g
ro s r
n e ar
1
5
xe
A N CIEN T
52
E G YP
T I A N M E TA LL U R G Y
how t h e core s we re atte ne d out n e ar t h e cuttin g e dge

which had b e e n hamm e re d out cold whil st F ig 7 3 show s
t h e homog e n e ous s e condary mi c r ost ructure which w a s
produc e d by ann e aling in t h e author s laboratory
A s a sp e cime n of co re s in an antique b ron z e t h e
photog raph give n in F ig 7 4 is include d T his is take n
f rom a s e ction of metal fr om t h e R oman o r B yz antin e
pot shown in F ig 3 0 and de sc rib e d in C hapte r I I T h e
photograph shows core s and s pots of l e ad and t h e shape
of the s e prove that no work has b e e n done on t h e me tal
,
'
Fig
73
me
as
Fig
lin g
72 ,
a nn e a
ft e r
Fig
Mi c o s t u c tu e s h o win g Co res
L e ad S p o ts in B ron z e P o t ( Fig
74
C o re s in t h e me tal of a gold ring are shown in F ig 7 5

T h e author s e xp e rie nc e is that in almost e ve ry sampl e
.
of antique coppe r and many b ronz e s co re s are pre s e nt

and this b e side s sh o win g that syste matic ann e aling had
not b e e n applie d also de monstr at e s t h e pe r mane nc e of
t h e cast
co re d typ e of mic ro structure I f any di ff usion
has take n plac e during t he l o ng p e riod of time that has
e laps e d sinc e t h e a r ticl e s w e re made it is not appare nt
,
an d
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
53
Doubt may b e e xpre ss e d in some quarte r s that t h e dark

striations in some of t h e photomic rograph s are re ally
core
markings
T hat th e y are is amply indicat e d
by t h e fact that th e y invariably di s app e ar afte r anne aling
that the y are always atte n e d in a dire ction paralle l to
t h e hamm e re d side s and that th e y follow mo re o r l e ss
t h e undulations of t h e surfac e
I t is possibl e to s ay that many of t h e ar ticl e s we re
spe cially cast roughly to shap e and not made by shaping
.
Fig
75
Mi c
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
G o ld R in g s h o win g Co re S t ructure
pie c e of me tal cut fr om a large ma s s T his is de duc e d

fr om t h e fact that t h e core s are pr opor tionat e in siz e
t o t h e s e ction of t h e ar ticl e that is to s ay sp e aking
r ally
e
n
e
in
a
la
r
g
e
mas
s
of
m
e
tal
co
s
wo
ld
t
h
e
r
e
e
b
u
g
large in are a and thus if a small pie c e we re cut off to
m ake a c e rtain obj e ct it could b e de t e cte d by t h e core s
b e ing out of proportion to t h e mass of t h e obj e ct its e lf
T h e r ule cannot b e con s ide re d an ab s olut e o n e but
s e e ing that t h e m e thods of manufacture would b e g e n e r al
A NC I
54
E TA L L U R G Y
one s it is us e ful as a guide whe n e nde avouring to as oe r

tain by inv e stigation of t h e mi c rostructure how any
particular article was made
I t may b e adde d that t h e
core s in an e tche d sp e ci
m e n o f unann e ale d hamm e re d alloy b e com e mo re con
as a rule than the y we re
sp ic u o u s and m ore d e n e d
wh e n t h e m e tal was in its pre vious cast s tat e be cau se
by att e ni ng and compre ssing the m the y are re nde re d
de n se r and t h e sha di ng off towards t h e e dg e s is thu s
made l e ss gradual
T h e p e r man e nc e of t h e c r ushin g e ffe cts of cold wo rk
don e up o n a me tal o r me tallic s olid solution poss e s sing
t h e re c rys talli s e d mic r ostructu re induc e d by a n anne aling
aft e r pre vious work has also b e e n pr ove d
A s mall r o d of b r ass ( R oman ) which had b e e n twi s t e d
on it s own ax i s whe n c o ld sh o we d this fe ature v e ry
we ll I n this cas e t h e disto rtion of t h e c rystal grain s
was caus e d by twisting inst e ad of hamm e ring but t h e
e f f e cts upon t h e mic r ost r uctu r e caus e d by t h e two p r o
c e ss e s w e re S imilar
F ig 7 6 is a ph o tomic r ogr aph of a s e ction of thi s ro d
take n ne ar t h e e dge at a magni cation o f 9 0 diame te rs
M any of t h e g r ain s will b e s e e n t o b e marke d wi th paralle l
o w line s caus e d by t h e slipping of diff e re n t part s o f
a grain o ve r othe rs in o rde r that t h e grain might
accommodate it se lf to t h e n e w for m impo se d upon it
by t h e w o rk T h e dark e r patche s are d u e to c o rr o sion
T h e sp e cim e n is about
ye ars old and the re fore
t h e str aine d typ e of mic r o str uctu re appe ar s t o b e quit e
p e r mane nt A pie c e of gilt copp e r strip of e arlie r dat e
also de monstr at e s this as shown in t h e phot o mic rograph
giv e n in F ig 7 7 take n at a magnication of 1 00 diame te rs
L am e ll ae d u e to hamme rin g aft e r ann e aling are cle arly
se e n
,
E TA LL OG R A P H Y
B e caus e
0F
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
55
ann e aling as a proc e ss of manufacture was

not applie d so f ar as inve stigations te ach us prio r t o
R oman time s the re are no sp e cime ns that would de mon
s t r at e t h e p e r mane ncy of t h e disto r t e d
o r to bo rr ow a
c at a c l st ic
mine r alogical t e rm t h e
st
uctu
of
r
r
e
y
g re ate r ag e than about
ye ars but the re is no doubt
that if such sp e cime ns of me tals rst ann e ale d and the n
worke d cold d o come to hand th e y wil l s how that this
typ e o f mic r ostructure is a s p e r man e nt at atmo sph e ric t e m
e
a
r
t
u
r
e
s
t
h
e
o
re d
s tr ucture p re viou s ly d e alt with
as
c
p
,
Fig
76
M i c ro s tru
rass
ctu
re o f
X 90
Fig 7 7 M ic ro st ructu re o f Gilt

C o pp e r S t rip X 1 00 diam
T wis t d
diam
t ucture s of so me of t h e e arly sp e cime n s of

copp e r and b r onz e article s ( as f o r instanc e t h e copp e r
the re is found a s light amount
F igs 2 9 and
r az o r
of re c rystall is ation du e to a little hot wo rk having b e e n
appli e d and this e nable s us to ass e rt that this e ffe ct
of
anne aling upon t h e mic rostructure of m e tals and
alloys has not b e e n cause d at atmo sph e ric t e mp e rature s
I n all t h e sp e cime ns e xamin e d t h e n e w o r s e condary
I n t he
s r
A NCI
6
5
E TA LL U R G Y
c ry stal grains we re of a n e orde r b e ing only Visibl e

I t h as b e e n
unde r a mode r at e ly high magnication
stat e d alre ady that pr op e r ann e aling of a wo rk e d m e tal
and
o r alloys caus e s g r owth of t h e n e w c rystal gr ains
that such growth is pr oportionate to t h e t e mp e r atu re
us e d and t lie p e riod f o r which it is applie d I f the re
fore t h e structural change s of anne aling took plac e at
atmosphe ric te mp e r ature s it would b e re asonable to
s u ppos e that t h e e nor mous ag e of some of t h e antiqu e
e xampl e s w ould hav e b e e n sufci e nt to p r omot e c rystal
,
Fig 7 8 R iv e t s h o win g Fin e

Cryst als
Fi g
X 90
diam
79
~
B d
ea
X 90
of
di am
S ilv
er
growth until it b e came coars e I f any such growth do e s

take plac e at normal t e mpe rature s it s r at e must b e
innite ly slow b e cau se t h e s e condary c rystal grain s of
a coppe r riv e t thou sands of ye ar s old are still so small
to day as to re quire a magnication of 9 0 di ame te rs to
re solv e th e m as shown in F ig 7 8
A s an e xampl e of a diffe re nt kind of alloy s ilv e r copp e r
may b e take n T h e e xamination of silv e r b e ads made
.
OF
E TA LLOG R A P H Y
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
57
by t h e shaping o f half sphe re s ove r a suitable core

and the n j oining the se halve s toge the r by a pr oc e ss
similar t o w iping shows that t h e structu re is t h e same

as it must have b e e n at t h e time of its manufactu re
T h e structu re of such a b e ad at a magni cation of 9 0
diame te r s is s hown in F ig 7 9 T h e s mall light coloure d
i slands of e ute ctic matrix are still e longate d and atte ne d
in a par alle l formation in t h e dire ction at right angle s
t o that in which t h e hamm e ring w as done
W e can t e ll
that anne aling w a s n o t appli e d b e cause it woul d hav e
caus e d t h e copp e r rich parts to ball up and t h e matrix
to app e ar on t h e mi c r o se ction a s more o r le ss circular
lms aro und t h e dark ma s s e s T h e p e riod t o which thi s
b e ad c an b e assigne d is doubtful but it is probably of
R oman o rigin
T h e author h a s always found t h e o riginal cast c rystal
lit e s in antique sp e cime ns of cast silv e r copp e r alloys
in s itu su rr ounde d by t h e w e ll kn o wn matrix j ust as
the y we re whe n fo rme d during solidication no structural
change s having tran spire d during t h e laps e of time a s
f o r in s tanc e in t h e cas e of t h e h e ad of a statu e tt e of t h e
god Osiris made of silve r c o pp e r alloy ( se e F ig
T h e v e r y da rk p o r tion s in thi s photograph are d u e to
corro sion and will b e de alt with late r
Whate ve r change s in mic ro s tructure take plac e as
a re sult of age ing it is cle ar that in t h e ca se s of t h e
alloy s de alt with the se e ffe ct s mu st b e e xtre me ly small
I t h a s b e e n shown that di ffusion in solid s o lutions re
c rystallis ation and c rystal growth d o n o t tak e plac e at
atmosphe ric t e mp e r ature s ov e r p e riods re aching to v e
thou s and y e ars at le ast not to s uch an e xt e nt as t o b e
n o tic e able unde r t h e micro scop e
I t h as alre ady b e e n e xplaine d that it is ge ne r ally
pos sible t o s a y whe the r an article w as p roduc e d by
-
'
58
E TA LL U R G Y
aising o r by simpl e casting and it has b e e n sho wn that

of copp e r and br onz e b e ing de p e nde nt upon
r ai sing
anne aling was o f comparativ e ly late intr oduction
pr obably R oman T h e b r onz e la dl e de sc rib e d in C hapte r
I I ( F ig 3 1 ) may b e tak e n as a suppo rt of this cont e ntion
T h e m e tall o gr aphi cal e vide nc e that this v e ss e l was made
by casting is giv e n in F i g 8 1 which is a p h o t o mi c ro
gr aph at a magni cation of 1 00 diame te rs showin g that
original c rystallite s for me d during soli di cation
t he
whe n cast are still pre se nt
Fi g
80
M i c ro stru c tu re Of S il v e r
Fig 8 1
Mi c ro structure o f B ro n z e
Ladl e ( Fig
X 1 00 di am
'
Co pp e r S t atu e tt e
two R o man vas e s de sc rib e d on pp 4 9 and 6 9

although of an e xt e rnal form that could hav e b e e n
A noth e r
produc e d by r aising we re actually cast
sp e cime n showing t h e same fe ature is t h e R oman or
B yzantin e p Ot s hown in F ig 3 0 with spout and h an dl e
F ig 7 4 shows t h e
which also was cast in o n e pie c e
ca st core d structure take n at t h e point whe re t h e handle
j o ins t h e body F urth e r not e s on this v e ss e l will b e
T he
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
59
T h e ornam e ntation of t h e s pout

f o und on p 1 7 3
following t h e for m of a lion s he ad was howe ve r not
done in t h e mo u l di ng but was carv e d by a chis e l o r
T his is in di cat e d by t h e
similar tool aft er casting
phot o mic rogr aph ( F ig
which was take n from a
T r ac e s of
l o ngitu di nal se ction of t h e spout
co re s
may b e s e e n in t h e ne ighbouring cast c rystal grains
whilst ne ar t h e e dg e which is that of th e o ut e r surfac e
of t h e spout ow line s caus e d by t h e chis e lling are cle arly
.
Fig
82
Mi
Po
c t uctu
t h wi g F l
re o f
ro s r
Orn a m e n
o w l in e s
td
Fig
83
R o m an B r o n z e
ar
s e e n T h e e dge s of t h e inne r s u rfac e sho w

e d no such
ow marki ngs b e caus e no work had b e e n done on
that s urfac e
M ic r o s copic e xamination s have p r ov e d that e v e n such
simple article s as b ronz e mirr or s kni ve s arr ow tips chis e ls
and plain ring b rac e le ts we re until t h e p e riod of t h e
R oman occupation of Egypt made by casting in moulds
.
60
A NC I
T he R
E TA LL U R G Y
oman ve ss e l ( F ig 8 3 ) bore strong trac e s in its

mic rostructure of having b e e n made by raising E tching
b r ought out se condary c rystallisation of a n e typ e and
t h e form o f t h e v e ss e l its e lf r ath e r t e nde d to in di cat e
as t h e me thod of manufacture T h e pre se nc e
r aising
of ow line s in t h e c rystal gr ains ne ar t h e e dge showe d
that at le ast a nal anne aling was not applie d but a
v e ry care ful re e tching produc e d

core s
T h e latt e r
could not possibly hav e b e e n in e xi ste nc e t o day had
t h e v e ss e l b e e n hamme re d fr om a disc of m e tal b e cau se
t h e se v e ral a nn e alin g s which would hav e b e e n absolut e ly
ne c e ssary to pre ve nt c r acking during manufac t ure would
I t would s e e m
hav e made t h e me tal homoge ne ous
th e re fore that t h e pot w a s at l e ast ca st roughly to shap e
and ni she d off by hamme ring T h e ow line s in t h e
grains may b e a re sult of thi s o r the y may pos sibly b e
d u e to grinding and polishing o f t h e su rfac e
contrary to
T h e mic r oscop e h a s al s o shown that
stat e me nts in variou s mu se um catalogue s t h e rst
Egyptian s kne w n o thi ng of b razing o r we lding copp e r
H a d s uch pro c e s se s b e e n known th e y wo ul d
o r b r onz e
c e rtainly hav e be e n in uni ve rsal u se by t h e date of t h e
R oman inva sion
T h e g e ne ral e vide nc e in suppo rt of
thi s conte ntion has b e e n discu sse d in a pre vious chapte r
in this o n e w e are only c o nc e rne d with that give n by
mic roscopic e xamination
i
F
T h e R oman pot m e ntion e d in C hapt e r I I
( g 38)
had b e e n re paire d during manufacture two large hole s
having b e e n lle d up in t h e side T h e me thod u se d has
b e e n de s c rib e d but t h e photomic rograph ( F ig 8 4 ) shows
a s e ction thro ugh t h e re pair
T h e pre s e nc e of t h e c rystallit e s indicat e s that t h e adde d
me tal w a s molte n ; t h e c rystallite s are pe rf e ct in fo rm
showing that n o wo rk was done on t h e me tal afte r
.
OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
61
casting I t was not the re fore a pie c e of sh e e t me tal

put in as a patch
F ig 8 5 give s a photomic r ograph of t h e j oint b e twe e n
I t sh o ws
t h e pot it se lf and t h e n e w m e tal une tch e d
thos e on o n e side that of t h e o riginal
t h e l e ad globule s
ve s s e l are much larg e r than on t h e othe r side which is
T h e latt e r
t h e b e gi nn i ng of m e tal put in f o r t h e re pai r
would s oli di fy at a more rapid rat e than t h e large ma ss
compri sing t h e pot di d b e fore it thu s pre v e nting t h e
le ad runni ng up int o larg e r balls F rom t h e structur al
,
Fig
84
P ti
or
M i c ro s t ructu re
on of
o m an
P ot
Rp i d
( Fig
of
Fig
a re
85
c t uctu
ro s r
R p i dP
e
Mi
a re
ot
re o f
J in t in
o
Un e t c h e d
similaritie s of t h e two me tals it is probable that t h e

T h e re
re pair w a s d o n e
at t h e time of manufacture
was no trac e whate v e r of b razin g
I f t h e re pair had b e e n made by afxing a b r o nz e plat e
and b r azing it into p o sition a s it w o uld hav e b e e n if
b razing had b e e n i n g e ne ral u se it would re a di ly hav e
b e e n de t e ct e d
,
1l
A N C IEN T
62
E G YP T I A N
E TA LL U R GY
mic r oscopic e xami nation indicat e s som e

thin g of sp e cial int e r e st in t h e m e tal us e d f o r a particular
antiqu e o bj e ct F o r instanc e a b r onz e statue tt e was
found to hav e b e e n ca st fr om sc rap me tal T h e photo
mic r ograph (F ig 8 6 ) shows t w o small isolate d fragme nts
e mb e dde d in t h e b r onz e
T h e s e a re pie c e s of c o pp e r
b e ing e asily di stingui sh e d a s such by t h e app e ar anc e and
c o lour on t h e e tch e d surfac e T h e twin marking s which
can b e s e e n running ac r o ss o n e gr ain in di cat e that the y
Occasionally
Fig
86
M i c ro s tructu re
of
z h
Sc p
ro n
e s
ra
win g
I c lu i
n
s o ns o f
Unfuse d
o riginally forme d part of a pie c e of pre viously worke d

copp e r p e rhaps an old tool b e fore b e ing us e d in t h e
b ronz e T he y we re not fu se d whe n t h e b r onz e was me lte d
T h e corrosion of m e tals and alloy s is a subj e ct to
which me tallu rgist s of to day are giving much atte ntion
I n mode rn e xp e rim e nts on corr osion t h e pr oc e ss is
fre que ntly haste ne d by e le ctr olytic o r oth e r me ans in
o rde r to obtain re sults within a re asonable time
We
may le arn some thing of it s e ffe cts and pr ogre ss from a
,
A NT I
OF
E TA LLOG R A P H Y
Q UE
E TA L S
63
study of antique sp e cime n s many of which n o t w it h

stan di ng the ir gre at ag e hav e withstood c o rr osion in a
r e markable manne r
S om e of t h e e arly b r onz e s in t h e stat e in which th e y
are found
cov e re d with a c ru ste d ma s s of carbonat e s
and o x yc h lo rid e s lo o k most unpromi sing and it is o fte n
a cau se of s urpri se how afte r care ful cle aning an antique
obj e ct is f o und to b e almost intact with all its o riginal
markings and insc riptions almo s t as plain to t h e e ye
to day as the y we re wh e n rst put o n
I t is ge ne r ally con side re d that all co rr osion is e le ctr o
che mical in characte r e le ctro couple s b e ing se t up
b e twe e n t h e me tal and its impuritie s o r b e twe e n t h e
T h e p re s e nc e
di ffe re nt c o nstitue nts fo rming an alloy
of a li quid ( ofte n onl y moisture ) is ne ce ssary to act as
an e le ctrolyt e T his e xplain s s ome thing of t h e s e le ctive
nature of corro sion in m e tallic s ub stanc e s but b e yond
asking t h e re ade r to b e ar t h e fact in min d it will not b e
n e c e ssary to atte mpt any furthe r e xplanation from this
s tandpoint
M e talli c corr osion is s e le ctiv e and int e rgr anular in
its action t h e se cond characte ri stic b e in g re ally an
e ffe ct of t h e r st
I t is g e ne r ally known that all me tals
a re not attacke d to t h e sam e e xt e nt by t h e sam e c o r
ro siv e
e l e m e nts
I n an alloy t h e re lative solubilitie s
a re to a g re at e xt e nt re tain e d by t h e in di vidual con
s t it ue n t
me tals providin g the y do not fo rm che mical
compounds with e ach othe r T hus in a cast copp e r
ni ck e l alloy t h e copp e r
r ich parts of t h e str uctu re are
a ttack e d mo re r e adily by an acid than t h e pa rts rich
in nicke l o r to quote a ca se whe re comple t e mutual
s olid solubili ty do e s not occur
i n copp e r silv e r all oys
t h e c o pp e r rich parts of t h e structur e are attack e d mo re
r e adily than thos e parts that are rich in silv e r
,
A NCI
64
T he re fo re
EN T EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
in a me tal containing little impurity

which is he ld in t h e int e rgr anular boundari e s and which
may b e in t h e form of e le me nt inte rme tallic compound
oxide co rrosion pr oc e e ds more r api dl y at th e s e
or
boundarie s T hi s is o ne of t h e re asons why t h e e tching
of t h e surfac e of a pie c e of me tal re ve als t h e boundarie s
of t h e grains and is a cons e que nc e of t h e e le ctro che mical
nature of corrosion
T h e copp e r dagg e r of t h e I st Dynasty ( pre viously
de sc rib e d on p 1 4 6 ) shows us some thing of t h e s e le ctive
nature of corrosion Ow ing to t h e e ntire oxidation o f
t h e sh e ath in which t h e dagge r was o riginally c o ntain e d
the re was a c rust of gre e n copp e r carbonat e e t c about
inch thi ck surr ounding t h e me tal core of t h e dagge r
it se lf which was in a surp risingly good stat e of pre s e rva
tion I n t h e spac e b e twe e n t h e dagge r and it s she ath
on e ach side t h e c o rrosion had b e e n able to p roc e e d in
a more uni for m and un di sturb e d mann e r than g e ne rally
happ e ne d with th e s e o l d me tal article s and it was
possible afte r re moving t h e c ru st to distingui sh on t h e
surfac e of t h e dag ge r t h e f o rms o f c rystallit e s in su n k
re li e f d u e to th e i r having co rr od e d mo re r apidly than
the ir ars e ni c rich boundarie s T h e s pe cime n w a s the re
fore at onc e re cogni s e d as b e ing still in its o riginal
cast core d
and t h e inte re sting fe ature w a s
s tat e
photographe d F ig 8 7 is a mic r ograph of t h e e xte rnal
surfac e t h e light markings t h e s hape s of which th o ugh
some what irre gular are re adily ide nti e d with c rystallite
formation are t h e de pre ssions le ft by t h e corrode d
coppe r rich c rys tallite s but the y we re allowe d t o
lle d up with g re e n cupric carb o nat e in
re main
o rde r to a ff o rd some contrast f o r photographi c
purpos e s
T h e fo rms of t h e c rystallit e s could also b e s e e n in re lie f
,
OF
E TA LLOG R A P H Y
A N T I Q UE
M E TA L S
65
upon t h e pie c e s of coppe r carbonat e c ru st re mov e d from

t h e sp e cime n
T hi s s e l e ctive oxidation was al s o de t e ct e d in t h e in
t e rio r of t h e m e tal
N e ar t h e e dg e s o f t h e se ction mic ro
scopic e xamin ati o n showe d that t h e c ry stallit e s had
e n ti re ly c o rr od e d
though the ir cont o ur s we re not so
we ll de ne d a s t h e e xt e rnal one s F ig 8 8 is a se cti o n
t h e dark part s o f which a re t h e co rr ode d c ry s tallit e s
I n thi s ca se t h e c hi e f impur ity h e ld in a stat e of s olid
solution was ar se nic and t h e parts of t h e mic ro structu re
.
F ig
87
D gg
.
f S u rf c e f C o pp
h o win g S l ct iv C
Vie w
er
e e
S e ct io n
h wi g I t l
S l ct i v C
i
Su f c
D kp t
c d d c pp
i ch c y t llit
S lightl y tch d
10 p
c t mm i p l
ph t M g i d 50 di m t
88
ar s a re
er
a e
n e rn a
o rro s o n n e ar
ar
e e
or
Light p art s are d e p res

s i o n s l e f t b y c o rro d e d c ry s t a lli t e s
lle d with cupri c c arbo n at e
M agn i e d 3 0 diam e t e rs
ro s io n
Fig
s a
es
en
o rro
on a
a
e rsu
e rs
ich in thi s e le me nt we re l e s s re adily attacke d by t h e

corro sive e l e me nt s than t h e copp e r rich parts
I nt e rnal corr o sion o f c r y stallit e s is al s o s hown in t h e
t h e da rk
ph o to m ic r ogr aph o f a copp e r gr ave r ( F ig
part s b e in g t h e corro de d c ry stallit e s
S e l e ctiv e c o rr osion is v e ry w e ll s hown by antiqu e
c o pp e r silv e r alloy s T h e o ut e r surfac e s of copp e r rich
er
r a
66
A N CI
EN T EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
anti qu e obj e cts made of alloys of the s e two me tals , t h e

natural colour of whi ch is pale ye llow g e ne rall y app e ar
as whit e as silve r wh e n cle ane d and t h e true ye llow
colour is onl y re ve ale d by ling T hi s is d u e to t h e
re moval of all t h e copp e r ne ar t h e su rfac e by co rr osion
F ig 8 0 shows how this tak e s plac e
it is a p h o t o mi c ro
graph take n from t h e h e ad of a statue tt e re p re se nting
t h e g od Osir is made of an all oy of silve r and copp e r
containi ng gold T h e s e ction was not e tche d but t h e
corrode d C opp e r rich p rimary c rystallit e s appe ar black
,
Fi g
89
M i c ro st ru c tu re
of
C o pp e r G rav e r s h o win g C o rro s io n
to t h e re moval of t h e copp e r by solution and di ffusion

during corr osion
I ncide ntally t hi s gure s hows anoth e r fe atu re that
h a s b e e n de alt with in a pre vious pag e in conne ction
In
with t h e poli shi ng of sp e cime ns f o r e xaminatio n
t h e po rtion of t h e photogr aph wh e re t h e corro sion h a s
not p e n e trate d t h e pink tinte d copp e r rich crystalli te s
app e ar but thi s is not du e s o much to t h e fact that the y
diff e r in colour fr om t h e mo re ye llow matrix but b e cau s e
du e
OF
A N T IQ UE
E TA L S
67
latte r b e ing silve r rich is much t h e s oft e r of t h e

two phas e s and is th e re fo re mo re worn away by t h e
polishing le aving t h e c rystallite s in slight re lie f
A n o the r sp e cime n of a simila r alloy s h o wing s e le ctive
oxidation is that o f a pie c e o f C o ptic silve r o f p o o r quality
T h e mic r ostr ucture une tch e d is give n in F ig 9 0 t h e
corr ode d copp e r rich c rystallite s n e ar t h e s urfac e a p
pe aring black as in t h e pre vious sp e cime n
I n or de r to show how a similar action occur s i n alloys
t he
Fig
9 0 M ic ro st ru c t u re
e
h wi g C
.
o rr o s o n
X 80
diam
of
C o pt i c S il v e r
( Un e t c h e d
Fig
91
Mic
S ilv
e r- r
t uctu
i ch A ll y
ro s r
re o f
containing much silve r and only a little copp e r in which

a s e xplaine d b e fo re
t h e prima ry c ry stallit e s are s ilve r
a photomic rograph ( F ig 9 1 ) is give n of a se ctio n
rich
une tche d of a s mall statue tte of a g o d t h e Vie w b e ing
take n ne ar t h e e dge I n this ca se t h e primary c ry stallit e s
and mo s t of t h e
are a s o li d s olution of silv e r with g o ld
coppe r is h e ld in t h e e ute ctic matrix T hu s w e nd t h e
,
68
E TA L L U R G Y
oxidation h as take n plac e in t h e latte r phase of t h e mic ro

structure
T h e dark mottle d patch e s in t h e photo
mic rograph are t h e parts from which t h e cop p e r has b e e n
r e mov e d by co rr osion n e a r t h e s urfac e of t h e S p e cim e n
T h e co rr osion of t h e coppe r rich po rtion s of t h e mic ro
structure may proc e e d towards t h e inte rior of a sp e cime n
t o a con side r able di stanc e ; it h as b e en found in som e
silve r copp e r alloys to have re ache d a de pth of a quart e r
of an inch le aving t h e surrounding silve r rich parts quite
Fig 92 M i c ro st ructu re
.
of
C o pp e r N ail sh o win g Co rro sio n
intact and p e rfe ctly m e tallic Wh e n a s e ction is p o lishe d

this fe ature cau se s t h e out e r e dge r oun d t h e une tch e d
s e cti o n whe n Vie we d by t h e e ye to displaya dull gre yish
app e aranc e whil st t h e inne r uncorr ode d me tal of t h e
core is b right an d m e tallic Etching howe ve r r athe r
t e n d s to re ve rs e t h e Visible e ffe ct s t h e inne r po rtio n
b e i n g s till coppe ry b e c o me s dark thro ugh attack by t h e
r e ag e n t
whilst t h e o ut e r c o rr ode d rin g which c o ntains
v e ry little c o ppe r is not attacke d ; an d 8 0 appe ars b right
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
69
and me tallic in contr ast with t h e e tche d inte rio r T his

may le ad a b e ginne r to think that co rro sion had take n
plac e int e rnally but t h e mic ro s c o p e quickly re ve als
t h e solid nature of t h e inn e r m e tal and t h e por ous stat e
of t h e o ut e r ring o r she ll
I n t h e ca se of an antique copp e r o r b r onz e sp e cim e n
whi ch was h e ate d soon aft e r manufacture and thus
poss e ss e d a hom o g e ne ous structure of c rystal grains
without core s of any kind corrosio n h a s proc e e de d not
.
Fig
93
M i c
t u c tu
ro s r
re
Axe
H d h wi g C
ea
o rro s o n
as a gradual e ating away o f t h e surfac e laye r by lay e r

but b y tr ave rsing t h e inte rgranular boundarie s thu s
attacking t h e gr ains fr o m all side s F ig 9 2 shows this
I t is a photomic r o gr aph o f t h e s tr uctu re of an XVI I I t h
Dynasty copp e r nail T h e c ry stal grain s which are of
a large orde r are surr ounde d by dark bands whe re
c o rro si o n h a s pr oc e e de d b e twe e n the m thu s showing
up t h e limits of t h e gr anular boundari e s without e tching
F ig 9 3 al s o show s int e rg ranular co rr o sion that occurre d
in a copp e r a x e h e ad t h e s urfac e was n o t e tch e d
,
A NCI
0
7
E TA LL U R G Y
T hi s
int e rgranular pr ogre s sion als o occurs whe n an

ann e ale d copp e r o r b r onz e alloy h as b e e n afte rwar ds
work e d and le ft in t h e Straine d stat e but in the s e sp e ci
me ns it also tr ave rs e s t h e n e w surfac e s of parts of grains
that hav e b e e n made to slip ov e r oth e r parts of t h e gr ains
of which the y pre viously for me d part that is to say it
trave l s along t h e di vi di ng plane s b e twe e n t h e portions
of a grain that h as b e e n di stort e d o r b r oke n up by t h e
T h e Visibl e e ff e cts of
wo rk
work upon t h e mic r o
structure of an anne ale d m e t al are t h e ow line s which
,
Fi g
94
M i c
t u c tu
ro s r
re o f
o m an
ro n
ar
Un e tch e d ( Fig
c ross t h e grain s and t h e g e ne rally c rushe d s tate of t h e

c rystal boundarie s all of whi ch are b rought into Vi e w
by e tching t h e surfac e T h e Visibility of the s e o w line s
and c rystal boundarie s in an antique me tal without
e tchi ng shows that co rro sion h a s take n plac e along t h e
slip plane s a s we ll a s t h e boundari e s T h e s e ction of a
T he
R oman j ar ( F ig 8 3 ) show s t h e e ffe ct v e ry we ll
photomic ro graph ( F ig 9 4 ) was take n without e tc hi ng
,
E TA L LO G R A P H Y
OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
1
7
surfac e and t h e many o w line s b rought into Vie w

by corrosion alone are unmistakable
T h e re are many variable facto r s a ff e cting t h e am o unt
of corro sion but t h e pr oportion of impuritie s p re se nt
in t h e me tal and t h e composition of t h e latt e r if an
alloy are two of t h e mo st impo rtant A s an instanc e
t h e ancie nt Egyptian hinge ( F ig 9 5 ) may b e qu o t e d
T his was o riginally tt e d to a woode n door by two riv e t s
which we re found in s itn in the ir o riginal position T h e
body of t h e hin ge was made of poo r me tal it was cast
t he
Fig
95
Egypt ian
Hi g ( B
n e
ro n
to shape and containe d a good de al o f l e ad but it was

not inte nde d t o b e ar t h e same me chanical tre atme nt as
t h e riv e ts
T h e ancie nt m e tal wo rke rs th e re fo re made
T he y had to b e
t h e latter of much b e tt e r mat e rial
hamme re d to shap e and aft e rwards rive t e d ove r at
t h e e nds
I t is not imp robable that th e y we re for c e d
through t h e wood by simply b e ing made ve ry hot the y
contain pr actically no le ad
T h e body of t h e hing e was found to b e e xtre me ly
b rittle : it b roke re a di ly with a hamme r but afte r
,
A N CI
2
7
E TA LL U R G Y
thousands of y e ars t h e riv e ts are still ve ry tough T h e

two photomic rographs ( F ig s 7 8 and 9 6 ) show t h e di ffe r
e n c e s in t h e mic r o s tr uctu re
T h e riv e t poss e s se s a v e ry
ne h e althy c rystalline structu re but t h e m e tal of t h e
body is tr av e rse d by rive r s of co rrosion du e no doubt
rstly to impuritie s and s e condly to t h e fact that t h e
me tal was le ft in a cast unanne ale d condition and
th e re fo re in a stat e l e ss homog e ne ous than it might have
b e e n T h e quantity of le ad pre s e nt would its e lf t e nd to
mak e t h e me tal b rittle
,
Fi g
96
I m pu iti
r
e s an d
of
Co rro sio n
H i g S h wi g
n
e,
x 90
diam
Fig
97
Mi c ro st ru c tu re
A rro w T i p
X 90
of
di am
ro n
photomic ro graph of a b ro nz e arrow tip ( F ig 9 7

al so sh ows t h e s e le ctiv e action o i co rro sion t h e black
patche s b e in g c ry stallit e s e ntire ly oxi di se d l e aving t h e
matrix in b right me tallic fo rm I n thi s ca se t h e oxidis e d
part of t h e structure is in e xc e ss of t h e unoxidis e d part
a
n
mat
ix
th
fo
latt
although
con
r
e
re
r
e
h
e
e
r
d
t
h
e
t
(
)
t in u o u s w a s too fr agil e t o p re se rv e t h e e xt e rnal contou r
of t h e obj e ct S uch ca se s are n o t o f c o mmo n occurre nc e
T he
'
M E TA LLOG R A P H Y OF A N T IQ UE M E TA L S
73
pre s e rvation of t h e de tail and n e wo rk upon

old b ronz e s is d u e in a gre at me a sure to t h e se le ctive and
in t e rgranular nature of corro sion A s t h e me tal s urfac e
is not attack e d laye r by laye r as might have b e e n
suppos e d t h e o riginal form of t h e obj e ct re mains large ly
intact b e ing pre s e rve d by t h e me tal unact e d upon
though of c o urse t h e latte r is ve ry b rittle o w ing to t h e
porosity thu s p roduc e d by t h e s e le ctiv e nature of t h e
corro sion
T h e p re s e rvati o n o f t h e e xt e rnal shap e is w e ll shown
T he
Fig
P ot
98
M i c ro st ru c tu re
(B
ro n
X 1 00
of
diam
o m an
Fig
M i c o s tructu re o f B
A rro w T ip X 1 00 di m
99
ro n
.
by two photomic ro graph s re p roduc e d above

F ig 9 8
is t h e s e ction ( une tch e d ) of a R oman b ronz e pot tak e n at
right angl e s to t h e s ur fac e n e ar t h e e dg e
wi th it s g re e n
oxidise d laye r
I t shows t h e cle ar de mar cation b e twe e n t h e gre e n
oxi di se d c rust and t h e me tal ( t h e light e r part )
T he
straightne ss of t h e me talli c e dge aft e r some th o usands
of y e ars of co rrosion is worthy of notic e A s was e x
plaine d with re fe re nc e to a pre v ious photomic rogr aph
.
A NC I
74
i
F
( g
E TA LL U R G Y
of this ve ss e l t h e me tal it se lf shows ow li ne s
working whi ch are b rought into Vie w by t h e

du e t o
corr osion that has proc e e de d b e twe e n t h e slip plane s of
which the se line s are t h e in di cation
I n F ig 9 9 t h e di vision b e twe e n t h e oxi di s e d c rust
and t h e m e tal is e ve n straighte r and b e tt e r de ne d
This is t h e photomic rogr aph of a s e cti o n of a b ron z e
arro w tip S e l e ctive co rrosion has take n plac e in t h e
me tal its e lf ( t h e light half of t h e ph o togr aph ) but t hi s
has not int e rfe re d with t h e g e ne r al pre s e rvation of
as in di cate d by t h e
t h e at fo rm of t h e s urfac e
e dg e
T h e vagarie s of co rr osion are
howe ve r v e ry p e r
x in
e
re
ring its cou rs e
and
th
is
no
doubt
that
du
l
e
g
p
alte rnating p roc e ss e s of oxidation and re duction e nsue
T h e m e tal still re maini ng as such will p re cipitat e m e tal
from s o lutions of c e rtain s o luble salts that may b e forme d
and othe r salts w ill in t h e course of time
ar ound it
u nde rgo a chang e into oxide s by a p r oc e ss whi ch may
p e rhaps b e looke d upon as a natural re ve rsion to t h e
mo st stable fo rm
S om e anti que copp e r and b r onz e articl e s hav e a kind
of warty app e aranc e
T h e corr o sion s e e ms to have
occurre d c hi e y in patche s and wh e n t h e s cabs of patina
cle ani ng hole s are le ft
are re mov e d by
T h e gr ave r
shown in F ig 1 00 is an e xample
I n t h e photograph
s e ve r al hole s can b e s e e n on t h e su rfac e T h e caus e of
corr o sion occurring in isolat e d patche s in thi s way must
li e in t h e nature of t h e surr oun di ng mat e rial r ath e r than
in t h e sub stanc e of t h e m e tal its e lf
F ig 8 9 is a photomic rogr aph of a s e ction of t h e me tal
thr ough o n e of t h e hol e s une tche d I t shows how t h e
corrode d we ll into t h e mass of t h e
c ry stallit e s we re
me tal F o r comparison a photomic r ograph of a Vi e w
.
82 )
'
OF
A N T I Q UE
E TA L S
7S
take n towards t h e int e rio r o f t h e m e tal is give n ( F ig

I n thi s t h e structure w a s de v e lop e d by e tching
T h e nature of t h e s ur rounding mate rial in which an
.
Fig
1 00
Egyptian Grav e
article lie s in t h e e arth will hav e a pre ponde rating e ffe ct

upon t h e natur e of t h e s alts that are forme d : in som e
cas e s it will b e chie y carbonate in othe rs chlo ride o r
,
Fi g
1 01
M i c
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
G rav e r
oxychloride whil st in othe rs cuprous oxide but ne v e r

c u pric oxide ( e xc e pt in case s whe re obj e cts hav e b e e n
,
A N CI E
6
7
N T E G Y P T IA N
E TA LL U R G Y
burnt in a re ) w ill p re do minate Unde r t h e gre e n c ar

bonat e c rust ge ne r ally found on old b ronz e s and which
may b e any thickne ss fr om a t h in skin to a quarte r of an
inch o r more the re is ofte n found a ve ry re gular laye r
of cupr ous o xide in which t h e n e de tail s of t h e obj e ct
app e ar to b e pre se rve d and cons e que ntly t h e re moval
of this laye r me ans t h e l o s s of t h e de tail but t h e laye r
may s ome time s b e re mov e d without damage t o t h e
work
A particular ly int e re sting cas e is t h e b r onz e mirr o r
of which a photograph is give n in C h apt e r I I p 7 1
On t h e out side of t h e sp e cim e n th e re was a r athe r warty
c ru st of gre e n salts unde r this a ve ry thin s k in of cup rous
oxide and unde r t h e latt e r an une ve nl y distribut e d lay e r
of gre y copp e r and tin o x yc h lo ride s
A r e markabl e f e ature was that t h e thin lm of cupr ous
oxide had pre s e rv e d a go o d de al of t h e po li sh that had
o riginally b e e n applie d t o t h e me tal surfac e o f t h e mirr o r
I n t h e illu str ation an att e mpt h a s b e e n
whe n made
made t o re produc e this poli sh as it re e ct e d t h e s un s
T hi s caus e s t h e polish e d parts to app e ar whit e
r ays
in t h e photograph T h e darke r patch is a portion of t h e
out e r gre e n c rust which had not b e e n re move d I t is
str ange that t h e polish originally po ss e ss e d by t h e b ronz e
su rfac e should b e pre se rv e d in spit e of t h e fact that t h e
latt e r has unde rgone a gradual conv e rsion to oxide
b right and
F r agm e nts of pure pre cipitat e d C opp e r
tough we re found among st t h e gre e n c ru st on this
mi rro r and a de sc r iption o f th e ir mic r ostr ucture w il l
p ro bably b e of int e re st to me tall urgi st s T h e fr agm e nts
we re ve ry s mall and fr agile
t h e larg e s t pi e c e w as l e s s
than 4 inch s quare A photograph of a fragme nt is give n
in F ig 1 02 I t will b e unde r stood that to pre pare a
poli she d surfac e to e tch it and to mount a spe cime n
.
E TA L L OG R A P H Y
OF
A NT I
Q UE
E TA L S
77
of this si z e was not an e asy matte r but a me thod that

t h e a utho r had pre viously u se d with ve ry small frag me nts
of gold was fo und to suit admirably A cartridge cas e
was lle d with a fusible alloy me lting in boiling wate r
and whilst this was still molt e n t h e copp e r fr agme nt
was laid care fully on t h e surfac e and he ld whilst t h e all o y
soli di e d r ound t h e e dg e s T his he ld t h e copp e r su f
which had to b e cu rtaile d
c ie n t ly tight f o r polishing
Fig 1 02 ;F rag m e n t o f C o p pe r
fro m C o rros io n Pro d uct
.
Fi g
1 03
Mi c
of
t uctu
ro s r
C o p p e r ( F ig
re o f
F rag m e n t
'
some what as such a thin sp e cime n would soon b e wholly

ground away
Whe n polishing was comple t e d a ste e l point was in
se rt e d unde r t h e e dge of t h e sp e cime n
and t h e latte r
was lif t e d away t h e e mb e ddi ng alloy not having a
suff icie ntly te nacious hold to pre ve nt thi s Af te rward s
t h e e tching and washing we re carri e d out in t h e usual
,
12
8
7
E TA LL U R G Y
way and t h e sp e cime n mounte d by m e an s of plasticine

up o n a gla ss sli p
A photogr aph of t h e mic r ostr uctur e is giv e n in F ig 1 03
T h e autho r was som e what surpri s e d to nd twinning
and t h e s e condary typ e of gr anular structur e with grains
of a large or de r
S e nsibly par alle l line s will b e s e e n
r unning ac r o s s t h e g rains and th e s e t h e autho r p resume s
t o re p re s e nt t h e boundari e s of di ffe re nt laye rs de posit e d
upon t h e grai n from time to time T he y may possibly
b e sli p bands b r ought about by st r aining during p re
a
a
i
o
n
h
e
e
of
sp
cim
n
r
t
t
e
p
It
A nalysis pr ov e d t h e s p e cim e n to b e pu re copp e r
would s e e m that this copp e r was pre cipitate d du ring
corr osion from t h e conc e ntrat e d s alt s of t h e me tal by
t h e m e tallic unchange d b r onz e and n o d o ubt t h e s am e
obscure cau se s that pro duc e twin n ing in t h e structure
o f e l e ct rolytic copp e r w e re op e r ati n g in thi s ca s e also
I t has b e e n e xplaine d that s mall quantiti e s of me tal s
pre s e nt in copp e r o r br onz e that are insoluble in the s e
me tal s whe n solid will by e xisting in t h e fre e state as
globule s o r laye rs t e nd t o se t up e le ctro couple s with
t h e s urr ounding copp e r rich m e t al a n d thus t h e alloy s
will b e liable to r apid c o rrosion and disint e gration but
the ir e ffe ct may b e to dr aw away t h e corro sive e ffe cts
fr om t h e c o pp e r to th e ms e lv e s
T h e arr ow tip of which a photomic r ogr aph is giv e n
in F ig 1 04 containe d a conside rable amount of le ad
an
d this of cours e occurre d in t h e mic rostructure of
t h e b r onz e as isolat e d globule s but in o n e half of t h e
phot o graph the y are black whilst in t h e othe r the y
appe ar in half tone
T h e e xplanatio n of this is that
t h e black globule s are th o se in t h e int e rio r of t h e ma s s
s till m e tallic and intact but t h e g r
e y o n e s are tho se n e a r
t h e su rfac e that w e re oxidis e d and appe a r pal e blu e in
.
M E TA L L OG R A P H Y OF C A N T I QU E M E TA L S
79
colour on t h e mi c r ose ction whilst t h e b r onz e by whi c h

the y are s urr ounded is still b right and me tallic T h e
photograph is include d in or der to S how how in such
c as e s t h e Co rr o sion s e l e ctiv e ly attacks t h e l e ad globul e s
in pre fe re nc e to t h e bronz e that surrounds the m
I t should b e re me mb e re d that antique E g yptian
copp e rs and br onz e s g e ne rally contain varying amounts
of ir on
core d stat e of
I n sp e cime n s l e ft in a cast
mi c r ostruct ur e t h e ir on b e ing in some parts c o n c e n
t rat e d t h e r at e of co rr osion must b e mo re r apid than in
,
Fi g
1 04
M i c
t uctu
ro s r
re o f
ro n
A rro w T i p
othe rs that we re tho r oughly anne ale d and the re fo re

hold the ir ir o n di ff use d e v e nly t hr ough t h e mass
F o r t h e info rmation of arch ae ologi st s and c o lle ctor s
w e may m e ntion that t h e int e rnal st ructu r al co rr osion
of me tals is an unfailing guide as to t h e authe nticity
of doubtful antique copp e r b ronz e and silve r obj e ct s
I mitations of antiqu itie s of all kinds have b e e n b r ought
to a high pitch by unsc rupulous p e r s o ns but although
no
e xt e rnal co rr o sion patinas may b e skilfully copie d
,
A NC I
80
E TA LL U R G Y
practical proc e ss can b e applie d to me tal obj e cts t h at

will re p roduc e t h e e xte nsive in te rnal corrosion found in
I t is also not im
e xampl e s of ge nuine antiqu e o rig in
probabl e that whe n t h e subj e ct h as b e e n furthe r stu di e d
it will b e possible to stat e within re a s onable limits from
t h e e xt e nt of t h e in t e rn al corr osion t h e actual ag e of
a giv e n article and thi s may b e of conside rable u se in
cas e s whe re it is de sir able to approximat e ly x t h e
p e riod to which t h e article b e l ong s whe n t h e same is in
doubt
some of the m
A ll antiqu e b r onz e obj e cts are b rittle
can b e pounde d w ith a hamme r I n some cas e s this
b rittle ne ss is partly du e to impur itie s such as le ad and
bismuth b ut as a rule it is t h e re s ult of t h e s e le ctive
and int e rgranular progre s sion of co rr osion
C opp e r
article s usually re tain much more of th e ir original tough
ne ss than b r onz e one s ; the y do not as a rul e contain
m e tallic impur itie s that wo ul d m c re a se the ir fragility
whe n n e w
A ntiqu e silv e r article s containi ng copp e r
are also b r ittle
owing to caus e s pre viou sly e xplain e d
but s ilve r that is almost pure o r which onl y contains
gold is we ll pre s e rv e d e x c e pt that some times in t h e
cas e of thin article s found in Egyptian soil an almost
comple te conv e rs i on to arge ntic chloride has take n pl ac e
G old obj e cts re tain the ir original toughn e s s a s t h e
me tal is not subj e ct to corrosion I f howe ve r it contains
much silv e r s e le ctive attack take s plac e and a c rus t of
silve r chloride is fo und upon t h e surfac e
%
81
VI
C HA P T E R
N OT E S
F OR
C OL L E C T O R S
M E T AL
i
n
1
C
l
e
n
a
g
( )
OF
OB % E C T S
an d
A N T I QUE
P r e s e r v at io n
colle ctor s and othe r s inte re ste d in anti quitie s

ofte n nd the ms e lve s in ne e d of some note s upon cle aning
and pre s e rvation of obj e cts A valuable b ron z e o r othe r
me tal c u rio is like ly to b e irre trie vably ruine d by in
j udicious e xp e rime nts on cle aning o r t h e application
of an unsu itable proc e s s I n t h e pre vious chapt e r w e
hav e de alt with t h e more scie ntic a sp e ct s of t h e caus e s
and e ffe cts of de cay and thi s o n e wi ll b e de vote d to hints
on t h e me ans of inve stigation t h e me thods of pre ve ntion
of de cay and on t h e proc e sse s of re pair available to t h e
colle ctor who h as not an e xte nsiv e laboratory at h is
di sposal
A lmost t h e r st di fculty m e t with by t h e colle cto r
is t h e cle ani n g of b r onz e s
U nl e ss the y have pre viously
b e e n c le ane d by a de ale r the se b r onz e s invariably have
a gre e n o r blue oxi di se d c rust of a t hi ckne ss that varie s
with t h e ag e and plac e of inhumation of t h e obj e ct
T hi s c rust usuall y allude d to as a patina is not as is
s om e tim e s suppos e d pu re v e r di gris ( car bonat e of copp e r )
but is of varying composition
On E gyptian b ronz e s
it consists large ly of o x yc h lo ride s of coppe r du e to t h e
fact that E gyptian soil is rich in s alt ( so di um chloride )
Unde r t h e gre e n patina the re is usually found a thinne r
A MA T E U R
A NC I
82
EN T EG Y P T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
coating of re d oxide of copp e r which is in contact with

I n badl y oxidi se d obj e cts all t h e m e tal
t h e b r on z e its e lf
is found to have unde rgone t h e change to cuprous oxide
and t h e gre e n patina
T h e m e ans f o r t h e re mo v al of t h e patina that com e s
naturall y to t h e mind of a p e rson still re me mb e ring t h e
che mi stry of hi s school days is t h e u se of an acid but
it is ne c e ssary to e x e rcis e much caution in applying suc h
proc e ss e s to me tals of gre at ag e Unl ike mode rn me tals
and alloys all old me tals are more o r le ss porous owing
to t h e corrosion ; this b e side s re nde ring the m fragil e als o
make s the m f ar more s usc e ptible to attack and dis
inte grati o n by corr osiv e s ub stanc e s
I n som e mus e um s e sp e cially G e r man one s b r o nz e s
have b e e n cle ane d e le ctr olyticall y
T h e obj e ct is
imm e r s e d in an e le ctrolyte con sistin g of a w e ak s oluti o n
of potassium cyanide a f e e bl e e le ct ric curr e nt passe d
fr om a batt e ry which b re aks down t h e chlorine com
pounds forming t h e patina
T h e m e thod is appli e d with suitable modications to
t h e cl e aning of obj e cts of oth e r me tals but it is much
too e laborate f o r t h e ordinary colle ctor s u se and inde e d
t h e oth e r simpl e r m e thods ov e r w hi ch it has no s alie nt
advantage s w ill b e found e qually s atisfactory
I n some cas e s wh e re t h e patina is v e ry thin and of
agre e able appe aranc e not masking t h e ne de tail of t h e
pie c e no cle ani ng is ne c e s sary but it is e sse ntial that
and inde e d all me tal obj e ct s b e ke pt
suc h sp e cim e ns
i n a s dr y a p osition as po s sible ne ve r b e ing allowe d in
a r oom wh e re acid f u m e s a re lib e r at e d and not touch e d
with t h e nge rs an y more than is ab s olut e ly ne c e ssary
I n o r de r t o p re v e n t as f ar as possible furth e r co rr osive
action by t h e atmosphe re all me tal article s are usually
impre gnate d by imm e rsi on in molt e n parafn wax, t h e
,
NO T E S
F OR C OLLE C T O R S
u rp lu s
83
wax be ing wipe d o ff

T h e l e adin g G e rman
R at h g e n
authority D r F
howe v e r re comme nd s
inst e ad of impre gnation with wax t h e painting of t h e
out side with a pre paration calle d Zap o n a s olution of
T hi s giv e s a tho r oughly
n it rat e d c e ll u l o se in amyl ac e tat e
wate rpr oof coating to t h e b ronz e which is not t o o glo s sy
in app e ar anc e if thinl y app lie d but it is ne c e s sary t o
give a warning against a t o o ge ne ral u se of thi s p re
a
i
n
I
n
addition
to
h
e
d
e
f
e
ct
of
e
xt
re
m
i
n
a
r
o
;
e
a
t
t
m
p
m ab ilit y t h e ge latinous ni t r at e d cotton ( gunc o tt o n )
is liable in t h e cour s e of tim e to de compo se spo n tan e ou sly
and to lib e rat e fre e acid T hi s must b e inju rious to
antiqu e m e tals but t h e pro c e s s of de c o mpo siti o n is s l o w
and t h e Zap o n m e thod may n o t ye t h ave b e e n in u se
sufcie n tly long f o r t h e de fe ct to hav e b e c o me appare nt
A n ide al s ubsta n c e f o r t h e imp re gnati o n of m e tal O bj e ct s
s hould obviou sly b e di s tinctly and p e r man e ntly n e utr al
that is n e ith e r acid n o r lkaline
T h e wax m e thod o f
a
impre gnati o n is h o we v e r in mo re g e ne r al u se and s o
long as care is take n to ke e p t h e wax fre e from acid
it will b e found to s atisfy all re quire me nt s I t is advi s able
to t e st t h e molte n wax with litmus pap e r b e fo re u se
I t is pos sible t o re m o ve t h e gre e n c ru st fr om many
b ronz e s by me chani cal me an s and this is obvi o usly
t h e m e thod p ar e xc e lle nc e b e cau se th e re is no imm e rs ion
in acid o r othe r liquid but it re quire s gre at care and
T h e pa t ina
patie nc e t o av o id damage to t h e de tail
ie s off in small chip s un de r sui tabl e sharp tap s fr om a
li ttle hamm e r t h e fac e of which is chis e l shap e d but
has a fairly blun t e dge A little pr actic e s oon shows t h e
most suitable angle f o r t h e blow
T hi s m e th o d is a favourit e o n e among st curio d e ale r s
w h o are always anxiou s to cle an th e ir obj e cts without
t h e risk to t h e subs e qu e nt pre s e rvation that im me rs ion
.
A N CI
84
EN T
E G YP T I
AN
E TA L L U R G Y
in any liquid e ntails M e chani cal re moval of t h e patina

le av e s t h e obj e ct with t h e ple asing dull b rown re d colour
of cuprous oxide whi ch se e ms as if it must b e p e rmane nt
I t must b e re me mb e re d howe v e r that cup rous oxide
is much mo re re adi ly attacke d by co rr osiv e substanc e s
than me tallic copp e r its e lf and the re fore article s cle ane d
in this way are not immune from furth e r corrosion which
may b e b r ought about by t h e carbonic acid in t h e air
thus producing v e rdi gris o r initiat e d by chloride s that
may b e pre s e nt in c r acks e t c in t h e me tal t h us p ro
d u c ing o x yc h lo ride s on t h e surfac e but it may b e stat e d
howe v e r that t h e possib ili ty of subs e que nt corr osion o r
de cay taking plac e is much re duc e d whe n b ron z e s are
cle ane d by me chani cal me ans pro vide d care is take n
not to handle the m with t h e nake d nge rs dur ing mani
and
if
th
e y ar e
imp
re g nat e d wit h wax im
at io n
u
l
p
me di ate ly aft e r re moval of t h e c rust
B r on z e s f o r m e chani cal cle aning must b e fairly solid
and must have a good foundation of me tal T he re fo re
t h e sp e cim e n should b e w e ll e xa mi n e d to make su re
that t h e whole of t h e m e tal has not b e e n oxi di s e d
S om e b r onz e s cannot b e cl e an e d me chani cally and f o r
the s e ch e mical o r e le ctro che mical me ans must b e us e d
G re at care h as howe ve r to b e e x e rcis e d in applying
th e m A n y of t h e common acids mi ght b e us e d as a
solve nt f o r t h e patina but hydrochloric acid is much
t h e b e st b e cau se it has t h e l e ast action upon m e talli c
coppe r ; in fact t h e m e tal is g e ne r ally re gar de d as
insoluble in this acid I t is not as a rule advisable to
u se it str ong e r than a 5 p e r c e nt
aqu e ous solution and
dur ing t h e imme rsion of t h e b ronz e t h e latte r should
b e fre que ntly e xamine d and b rushe d with a har d b ristle
b rush T hi s re mov e s bubble s of hy dr oge n whi ch cling
to t h e surfac e and also cle ars away any insoluble salts
.
N OT E S
F OR C O L LEC T OR S
85
arthy matte r e t c that may b e impe di ng t h e furthe r

action of t h e acid
I t is impo rtant that t h e whole
article b e imme rse d at o n e time
I n some cas e s the re are patche s of patina which re sist
t h e action of t h e acid and the se should b e re mo v e d
me chanically with a knife o r s mall hamme r afte r drying
T h e s p e cime n must b e take n out of t h e acid bath as
soon as the re app e ar s to b e no furthe r action on t h e
patina I t is us e l e ss and inde e d ve ry de trime ntal to
ke e p t h e b ron z e imme rs e d in acid f o r a longe r pe riod
in t h e hop e of re moving obstinat e patche s wh ich may
b e quit e insoluble
I t is much b e tt e r to plac e t h e obj e ct in 5 p e r c e nt o r
e ve n
stronge r acid with fre que nt e xaminations and
b rushings than to le av e it ove rnig ht o r f o r days in a
much we ake r solution without e xamination
Af t e r re moval from t h e acid bath t h e b ron z e has
ge ne rally a whi t e coating of coppe r o x yc h lo ride s which
howe ve r di sapp e ars in t h e furthe r stage s of t h e cle aning
tre atme nt M u ch of it is re move d by a nal b rushing
afte r re moval from t h e acid bath
I f t h e obj e ct we re simply dr ie d it would sp e e di ly
turn gre e n again and active corrosion would sp e e di ly
re comm e nc e
I t is the re fo re ne c e ssary to re move all
trac e s of acid as f ar a s possible and this is b e st done
by rst rin sing thoroughly in wat e r and the n boiling f o r
r
half an hou r in wate r containi ng
e
c
e
nt
of
soda
p
T hi s turns t h e colou r of t h e surfac e to a r ath e r b rig h t
re d
which is unple asant and should b e re move d by
b ru shi ng T h e obj e ct should ne xt b e wa she d in runni ng
w ate r f o r an hour o r longe r and afte rwards dr ie d by
he ating it f o r an hour at about 1 6 0 F to e xp e l all
moistur e and the n should b e impre gnate d with parafn
wax by imme rsion in a bath of this mate rial he ate d until
A N C IEN T
86
E G YP T I A N
E TA LL U R G Y
whi t e fume s b e gin to rise t h e supe ruous wax b e ing

afte rwar ds allowe d to dr ain off
F o r article s of a thin nature as f o r instanc e many
hollow statue tte s which we re cas t on a co re in which
t h e m e tal e xi s ts now mainly as cupr ous oxide no m e thod
of cle ani ng will b e of s e rvic e imm e rsion in acid s would
disinte grate the m and the y would not as a rule with
stand me chanical re moval of t h e patina I n s ome cas e s
acid tre atment would giv e a t e mporary impr ove me nt
to t h e out e r app e aranc e but t h e acid by p e rme ating
t h e po rous co re c o uld not b e compl e t e ly re move d aft e r
war ds and furthe r corr osi o n would b e c e rtain to e n sue
I n o n e s p e cime n e xa mi ne d t h e m e tal w as e xt re me ly
thin and much oxidis e d and w o uld c e rtainly not hav e
surviv e d until t o d ay had it n o t b e e n sup port e d by t h e
co re which it would now b e a mistake to re move F o r
such b ronz e s t h e onl y possible t re atme nt is t o re move
s u ch patche s of patina and e arth as can b e e a sily move d
w ith a knife and impre gnate with par af n wax
C are should b e take n not t o han dl e with ba re ng e rs
during cle ani ng and inde e d at any time
s p e cim e n s
pre viou s o r subs e que nt to impre gnation with wax I t
is advisable to we ar glove s and the se also have t h e
de sirable prope rty of p re v e nting t h e gree n tint e d nge r
nail s which are t h e de spair of amate ur colle cto rs who
do much of this work
I mme r s i on i n ammo nia aft e r t h e acid pr oc e ss is not
re comm e nde d
I t di s solv e s t h e cuprous oxide v e ry
thus oft e n re moving much o f t h e ne r de tail
re a di ly
and le av e s t h e s urfac e with a b right me tallic app e aranc e
which is not ple a s ing
I n s ome cas e s it s app licati o n
would quickly rui n t h e sp e cime n
F ig 1 05 s hows an uncle ane d statue tt e ( G r ae c o R oman
p e riod ) with its thick gre e n inc rustation whilst F ig 1 06
,
NO T ES
F OR
COLLEC T O R S
is a photograph of anothe r similar

by t h e hydr ochlo ric acid proc e ss
Fig
1 05
Un cl an e d S t
as f o u n d
e
tu tt
e
G re e k
87
sta tue tte cle ane d

Egyptian b ron z e
T he
Fig
1 06
Cl e an e d S t atu e tt e
mummy e ye was also cle ane d in this way ( F igs

1 08 )
Fi g
1 07
Un c l e an e d M um m y
Fig
1 08
am e a s
Cle an in g
1 07 ,
1 07
ft e r
and
88
A N CI
E TA LL U R G Y
part of t h e bron z e mirror ( F ig 3 5 ) w as cle ane d by

chipping with a small hamme r t h e little chips of patina
ying away re a di ly unde r S harp glancing blows le aving a
thin oxi de lm with a glossy surfac e
I t is a gre at mistake to atte mpt to apply articial
patinas to cle ane d antiqu e bron z e s
T h e e xt e nsiv e
co rrosion pre v e nt s t h e satisfacto ry application of any
of t h e proc e ss e s u se d f o r colouring mode rn alloys
A c e tic acid in t h e fo r m of Vin e gar may b e us e d f or
b ron z e cle ani ng with t h e addi tion of a f e w fragme nts
of zinc and in this me thod t h e action is an e le ctro che mi cal
a voltaic c e ll b e ing forme d by t h e Zl n C and copp e r in
o ne
contact but it has no advantage ov e r t h e hydr ochloric
acid proc e ss de sc rib e d
N e utralisation in we ak soda
solution and thor ough w ashing are e qually as n e c e ssary
I nst e ad of Vin e gar a we ak solution of causti c soda
is some time s us e d and the re is th e re fo re in this ca se
no fre e acid in t h e bath but othe r compounds are forme d
which are j ust a s de trime ntal and must b e thor oughly
re mov e d by washing
T h e z inc and copp e r too must
b e in actual me tallic contact which is not always e a sy
to arrange
I f t h e colle cto r would give a b ronz e t h e b e st chanc e
o f future p re s e rvation , h e must e nde avou r r st to cle an
it by me chanical me an s unde r t h e pre cautions laid down
pre viously as to handling and if this do e s not prove
h e should apply t h e hydrochloric acid
s atisfacto ry
m e thod taking care aft e rwar ds to re move all trac e s of
a cid and to imp re gnat e it imm e diat e ly t h e cl e aning and
drying is nishe d
A wo r d of warning is n e c e ssary with re sp e ct to t h e
cle aning of b ron z e article s having iron attachme nts
F o r instanc e som e littl e b e lls have ir on wire hamme r s
T h e latte r howe v e r are e ntire ly oxidis e d and e xist a s
A
F OR C OL L EC T OR S
N OT E S
89
a bare ly cohe re nt s tring of oxide C le ani ng t h e spe cime ns

by any imme rsion p ro c e ss would b e c e rtain to ruin the m
and if it is found ne c e ssary to cle an t h e b ronz e t h e iron
might b e p rote ct e d by painting parafn wax upon it b e fore
imme r sing e ve n the n howe ve r it should b e conside re d
wh e the r t h e re moval of t h e b ronz e patina would not
loo se n t h e iron ttings Unl e ss the re is some important
re a s o n f o r att e mpti n g cl e ani ng
it would b e b e tte r to
le ave such compound obj e cts in the ir uncle ane d con
dition and simply impre gnat e the m
B r onz e statu e tte s a re oft e n h e avily inlaid with g o ld
and silve r I n cle aning the se obj e ct s t he re is a gre at
dange r of di sturbing t h e inl ay o wing to t h e attack of
t h e cl e ani ng m e di um b e n e ath t h e gold o r silve r wi re
T h e autho r has s e e n some sup e rb e xample s of this clas s
of wo rk cle ane d by hy dr ochlo ric acid but wh e n de aling
with s uch article s v e ry fre que nt e xaminati o n is n e c e s sary
during imme rsio n and t h e obj e ct mu st no t b e le ft in
t h e liquid a m o m e nt long e r than is n e c e s s ary
I t is un fo rtunat e ly some tim e s f o und with b ro nz e s
that have b e e n care fully cle ane d and e v e n s ome having
only a slight patina and the re fore not cle ane d that
s o me time afte r b e ing plac e d in t h e co ll e ction light gre e n
patche s of corr osion of an e fflo re sc e nt nature make the ir
app e ar anc e on t h e surfac e
I t is not n e c e s sary to re
capitulate all t he possible caus e s of this f o r the y are
many b ut it will b e obvious that b r onz e obj e cts that
ke e p we ll in a d ry climate will prob ably not d o s o in a
damp o n e o r in an atmosphe re charge d abno rmally
with carbonic a cid o r with t h e salt se a b re e z e s of a se a
side situation I mpre gnation with wax do e s much to
pre ve nt furthe r co rrosive action of this nature by lling
up hole s and po re s thu s pre ve ntin g acc e s s of moisture
and vapours to t h e int e rio r but it do e s not in any way
.
E TA L L U R G Y
ne utrali se any corr osive e le me nts which may b e pre s e nt

withi n t h e me tal or core havin g p e ne tr ate d durin g t h e
time t h e b ronz e w as burie d though by pre ve nting di ff usion
it may re tar d t h e de cay of t h e me tal in a marke d mann e r
T h e only m e thod of any s e rvi c e is to b r ush off t h e patina
which is o u ry and non cohe re nt with a fairly har d
b rush re move as much of t h e parafn wax as possible
by he ating t h e sp e cime n and soak t h e latte r in wate r
containing 1 0 p e r c e nt of soda f o r two o r thre e days
p e rio di cally e xami ni ng it and afte rwards b rushing and
rinsing it tho r oughly in wat e r
drying ahd impre gnating
again with wax
P ractically not hi ng can b e done with re gar d to cle aning
b ronz e s of which t h e me tal is wholly oxi di s e d
T he s e
g e ne rally thin article s such as bowls and othe r
are
ve ss e ls and hollow statu e tte s e t c cast by t h e cire
B e ne ath t h e gre e n c rust
p e rdu proc e ss upon a co re
the re is a stratum of cuprous oxide with grains of me tallic
b ro n z e o r copp e r e mb e dde d in it and t h e latt e r give an
e rr on e ous imp re s sion of solidarity wh e n t h e
surfac e is
le d A m ic r o sc Op ic e xamination which shows e xte nsive
inte rgranular corro sion ( de sc rib e d in C hapt e r V ) p e ne
t ra t ing f ar towar ds t h e mid dl e is suffi ci e nt e vide nc e that
it is quite us e le ss applying any cle ani ng pr o c e ss as t h e
ma ss which is more o r le ss c e me nt e d toge the r would onl y
c rumble away as t h e more soluble parts we re dissolve d
by t h e acid o r we re b roke n down if an e le ctrolytic p ro
c e ss of cle aning we re applie d Ar ticle s in t hi s state are
ho we ve r ve ry p e rmane nt and imp re gnation will re tard
fur the r co rro sio n but the re is always t h e pos sibili ty of
furthe r change s in t h e cuprous oxide a s it is so re adily
conve rt e d to copp e r carbonat e ( ve rdi gris ) by t h e carbonic
acid in a damp atmo sphe re
I t is c e rtain that many of t h e b r on z e s in o u r colle ctions
,
NO T E S
F OR
C OL L E C T OR S
1 91
in spit e of t h e gre at care which is take n to pre s e rv e th e m

in some in stanc e s will not last to anothe r p e riod of time
e qual to that du ring which th e y w e r e bur ie d in t h e g r ound
and it may not b e out of plac e to me ntion some of t h e
cause s that hav e contribut e d to the ir pre s e rvation up
to t h e pre s e nt time P rimaril y w e must re me mb e r that
subt e rrane an corr osion is v e ry much slowe r than ae rial
corro sion but many of t h e Egyptian b ronz e s which of
course include many of t h e olde st sp e cime ns in e xi ste nc e
whe n made we re coate d with plaste r and coloure d in
S pite of t h e e xc e lle nt workmanship applie d to t h e me tal
F igs 2 5 and 2 6 are e xample s in whi ch t h e pittings in
t h e su rfac e of t h e b ronz e in o r de r that t h e plaste r should
adhe re can b e se e n I t re pre s e nts t h e god Osiris but
t h e fac e w a s not cove re d with plast e r as t h e e ye s w e re
inlaid with gold T h e plaste r coating would probably
act as a pre s e rvative f o r c e ntur ie s A gain othe r obj e cts
we re gilt and gold b e ing so re si stant to corr osion it p re
se rve d t h e br onz e from co rr osion until t h e action was able
to unde r mi ne it by pe ne tr atin g t h e various isolate d c racks
and patche s of ungilt parts that e xist e d o n e ach sp e cime n
of P lutarch ; othe r Egyptian
A cco r ding to t h e t e stimony
b ron z e s we re oil e d in or de r to produc e a ple asing patina
and thi s woul d also have a pr ote ctive action f o r some
time I n di ffe re nt de gre e s the s e various coatings upon
b r onz e obj e cts would act as pre ve ntive s of co rr o sion
but of cours e the ir e ffe ctive ne s s woul d b e de p e nde nt
upo n t h e care with which th e y we re applie d and to t h e
tre atme nt t h e obj e cts re c e ive d dur in g u se P ossibly this
is o ne of t h e re asons that t h e gre ate r part of t h e b ronz e s
pre s e rve d until t h e pre se nt time consist of statue tte s and
othe r de votional and de cor ativ e obj e cts as t h e coatings
wo ul d obviously not b e applie d to coppe r and b ron z e
article s int e nde d f or us e ful purpo se s
.
A NC I E
1 92
N T E G YP T I A N
M E TA L L
UR G Y
do e s not oft e n fall to t h e lot of t h e ave r age coll e ctor

of E gyptian anti qui tie s to have to cle an silve r article s
but occasionally little statue tt e s up to thre e inche s high
and othe r article s such as nge r rings come to hand
T h e y are coat e d wit h a patina of S ilv e r chlo ride which
though normally whit e has turne d black by t h e action
of light T h e y may b e cle ane d by imme r sion in ammonia
th o r ough wa shing and drying and aft e rwards impre g
but if t h e patina i s t hi ckly c ruste d and warty
n at e d
e sp e cially if
t h e obj e ct is thin t h e whol e m e tal has
probably unde rgone conve rsion to chloride and in that
ca se it would b e disastrous t o att e mpt to cle an it I t
should simply b e re lie ve d of any adhe re nc e s of e arth
that can b e re move d with a knife without damage to
t h e for m of t h e obj e ct and th e n impre gnat e d
A s a g e ne r al rule howe v e r mo s t m e tal obj e cts con
taining silve r als o contain copp e r and thus the y carry
a gre e n patina which cau se s the m to b e mistake n f o r
b ro n z e obj e cts and to b e submitt e d to t h e acid cle ani ng
pr oc e ss which of course is t h e most suitable ammo ni a
not b e ing a de sirable cle ani ng age nt f o r old me tals
contain ing much copp e r T h e autho r knows a colle ctor
who obtaine d f o r a shilli ng o r two thre e statue tt e s
unre cogni s able in the ir thick gre e n c ru st which afte r
cle aning pr ov e d to b e rich in silve r of e xc e lle nt wo rk
manship wor th some pounds e ach
Obj e cts of l e ad are s car c e but s om e time s statue tt e s
re m o vabl e h e ad dre s se s
int e nde d f o r tting on b r onz e
gure s e t c are found a s we ll a s a numb e r o f coins o f
T h e y are c o v e re d with a ye llowi s h
G r ae c o R o man time s
coating of carbonate of le ad which howe ve r is thin
and t h e corr o sion do e s not pe ne trate into t h e inte ri o r
of t h e me tal T h e coins e sp e cially are oft e n wonde rfully
we ll pre s e rve d conside ring t h e softn e s s of t h e me tal
It
N OT ES
F OR
COLLEC T O R S
93
obj e cts may b e cle ane d in dilut e sulphu ric acid

5 p e r c e nt
whi ch conve rt s t h e carb o nate into sulphate
and can b e e asily b rushe d o ff o r t h e hy dr ochl o ric
acid proc e ss a s us e d f o r b ro n z e s may b e u se d I n e ithe r
cas e n e utrali sation f o r a f e w minut e s in wate r containi ng
e
r
c
nt
soda
is
n
c
ssa
y
follow
d
by
tho
ough
e
r
e
e
e
r
7% p
washing and impre gnation with wax
A ntiqu e ir on obj e ct s are scarc e in Egypt but it may
b e ne c e ss ary at tim e s to kn ow of a cle anin g pr oc e s s
F ir st of a ll it must b e said that unl e ss t h e coll e cto r is
absolute ly c e rtain that the re is a sub stantial stratum of
me tal b e ne ath t h e oxidis e d c rust h e mu st not att e mpt
to re mov e t h e latte r by cle ani ng I t is unlike ly that any
Egyptian obj e cts dating back pre viou s to 1 000 B C will
b e s ufcie ntly we ll p re s e rv e d to with stand any cl e aning
roc e ss
h
e
loos
e
s
cal
e
s
on
t
h
e
outsid
e
may
b
e
re
m
o
v
d
T
e
p
me chanically and t h e sp e cime n afte rwards tho roughly
boile d in wat e r dr ie d and impre gnat e d with paraf n
wax
I ron obj e cts o f lat e r dat e may pos se s s a me tal co re of a
s ub s tantial siz e
but obviou sly hydr ochlo ric acid cannot
b e u se d as it s o re a di ly attacks me talli c iro n
P r obably
t h e b e s t m e thod of cle aning is that of K re f t in g in which
t h e sp e cime n is imm e r s e d in a 5 p e r c e nt solution of
caustic s o da in contact with zinc T hor ough washi ng I s
aft e rwar ds ne c e ss ary the n t h e s pe cime n should b e dr ie d
and impre gnat e d
T h e cle anin g of gold obj e ct s is not dif cult as the y
are u s ually we ll p re s e rv e d
B rushin g with wat e r is as
a rule s ufcie nt o r in t h e ca se of e le ctrum the re may
b e a de po s it of sil v e r chloride which will ne e d ammonia
f o r it s r e moval
I t is advisable to ke e p me tal obj e cts s e parat e fr om o n e
anothe r in colle ctions in o rde r t o pre ve nt de cay b e ing
T he
13
94
E TA LL U R G Y
communicat e d T his is not always don e in o u r mus e ums

s o me of which are v e ry c r owde d
With re gar d to articial patinas that t h e ancie nt
E gyptian s may hav e s ought to pro duc e up o n th e ir
b ro n z e s it would se e m that in V ie w o f t h e numb e r s of
statu e tte s that we re gilt o r cov e re d with plast e r an d t h e
ab se nc e in t h e alloy s of int e ntionally adde d l e ad in t h e
the y di d
e arli e r dyna sti e s of which e xampl e s n o w e xist
not e nde avour to in u e nc e t h e nature of t h e patina by
m o dicatio n s of compo siti o n T h e y would of c o urse
b e w e ll aware o f t h e diffe r e nc e s o f col ou r pr oduc e d by
adding various amount s of tin to coppe r of silve r t o
g o ld and o f c o pp e r t o silv e r but whe the r the ye v e ntually
add e d l e ad t o b r onz e t o pr oduc e c e rtain typ e s of patina
o r s imply
to che ap e n and e as e t h e workin g of t h e me tal
the re is nothing t o sh o w T h e re is h o we ve r e vide nc e
that gre at pains w e re take n in lat e r time s to pr oduc e
ple asing colour e f fe cts upo n t h e works in b r onz e an d t h e
Egyptian statue s re c e ive d t h e admir ation of t h e G re e ks
I t is n o t without int e re st to quote t h e following passag e
P lutar ch s M o r al s
from
( tran slat e d by M r C W
King
which s h o w s that t h e surfac e of t h e b ro nz e
which
w a s oil e d and l e ft e xpo se d t o t h e atmo sph e re
toge the r gav e a re sult that dr e w admiration from m e n
who w e re acquaint e d with t h e choic e st works of art of
ancie nt G re e c e
T h e sight and arti stic m e rit of t h e statu e s did not
so much attr act t h e notic e of t h e Visito r who had in all
like lih o od s e e n many n e thin g s of t h e s ort e ls e wh e re
but h e admire d t h e colo ur of t h e b ronz e which was not
lik e dirt o r v e rdi gris but shone with a dark blue dye so
as to contribute c o n side r ably to t h e e ffe ct of t h e statue s
of t h e admir als (f o r h e had b e gun his r ound with the m )
standing as the y di d se a like as it we re in colour and
.
NO T ES
COLLEC T O R S
F OR
95
truly m e n of oc e an de e p H ad the re b e e n the n h e aske d

s o m e mod e o f all oying and p re paring t h e b r onz e u se d
by t h e ancie nt art ic e r s like t h e tradi tional t e mp e ring of
swor ds which proc e ss b e ing lo st th e n b ro nz e o btaine d
?
e
r
e
e
s
F o r it is
mploym nt
e x e mption fr om all wa lik
kno w n that t h e C o rinthian m e tal acquire d t h e b e auty
of it s colour not through art but thr ough accide nt
whe n a re consume d a hou se c o ntaining a little gold
but a gre at quantity of b ronz e store d up
a n d silv e r
the re all which b e ing mix e d and me lt e d toge th e r t h e
pre ponde rating part by re a s on of it s large ne s s originat e d
t he nam e of b r onz e
What the n aske d D io g e ni an u s

do you say has
b e e n t h e cau se of t h e p e culiar colour of t h e b ron z e in
I nasmuch as of t h e
this plac e ? and T he on re plie d
gre ate st and m o st natural thin gs that are and shall b e
a
name ly r e wat e r e arth
ir
the re is not o n e t h at
come s ne ar to o r has to do with t h e b r onz e e xc e pt air
it is cle ar that t h e m e tal has b e e n thus e ffe cte d by this
and has acquire d t h e p e culiarity which it
e l e m e nt
poss e sse s by re as on of this b e ing always about it and
pre s sing upon it you know sure ly that this onc e took
plac e in t h e cas e of T h e o g ni s according to t h e c o mic
po e t
B u t what pr op e rty t h e air has and what inu e nc e
it e x e rts in it s contact with t h e b ronz e the s e are two
?
and
t h ings D io g e n ian u s that yo u de sire to l e arn
upon D io g e n ian u s a sse nting :
S o do I my de ar boy
the re fore if you ple a se le t us inve stigate t h e matte r
in conc e rt ; and as a b e ginning f o r what re ason do e s

above all othe r liqui ds coat b r onz e with ve rdi gri s
o il
f o r it do e s not ge ne r ate t h e v e rdi gris simply by b e ing
r ubb e d ov e r t h e m e tal b e cau se it is pure and cl e ar wh e n
re pli e d t h e
B y no me ans
applie d to t h e s ur fac e
b
t
h
e re ason ;
oung
man
do
s
th
s
s
e
e
m
to
m
e
to
e
e
i
y
.
6
9
A N CI
E TA LL U R G Y
but b e cause t h e oil b e in g thin pure and transpare nt

t h e v e rdi gris falling upon it is v e ry p e r c e ptible wh e re a s
in othe r liqui ds it b e come s invisible

We ll done my
de ar boy
said T he on
but e xami ne if you ple a se
I wish to do
t h e re ason that is assigne d by Ar istotl e
he
A ristotle
the re fore ass e rts that
re pli e d
so
if put upon othe r liquids runs through the m
v e r digris
and is di sp e rs e d b e cause the y are por ous and uid
whe re as it is arre st e d by t h e soli di ty and de nsity of t h e
oil and re mains colle cte d in a mass I f the re fore w e
can ours e lve s de vis e some hypothe sis of thi s kind w e
shall not b e e ntire ly at a loss f o r some charm o r cure
against t h e pre s e nt di f c ul ty
said h e
T hus the n
di d w e pr on o unc e and agre e
that t h e air at D e lphi b e ing de nse and compact and
re c e iving t e nsi o n fr om t h e r e p e r cussion and re sistanc e
of t h e surroun di ng mountains is at t h e s am e time biting
and pe ne trating as t h e facts about t h e di g e stion of f o o d
cle arly e v i nc e ; this air the n by re ason of its subtile
quality e nt e rs into and cuts t h e b ronz e and so scr ap e s
off ve r digris in ple nty and that of an e arthy nat u re
which again holds susp e nde d and compre s se s b e caus e
its own de n sity do e s not all ow of its unl imit e d di ffu sion
but on t h e contr ary p e rmi ts it to se ttle down by re a s on
of it s abundanc e and to bloom as it we re and g e t
b rilliancy and poli sh ove r t h e surfac e

and upon Ou r
admitting this t h e Visitor said t h e o n e suppositi o n ( of
t h e de nsity ) was suf ci e nt f o r t h e e xplanation
The
subtile quali ty
said h e
would s e e m to contr adi ct
t h e ass e rt e d de n sity of t h e air
and it is as s ume d without
any ne c e ssity ; f o r t h e b ronz e do e s of its e lf e mit and
discharge t h e v e rdi gris whil st t h e de n sity of t h e air
compre ss e s and thicke ns it and make s it Visible in con
s e que nc e o f its abundanc e

,
NO T E S
F OR
COLLE C T O R S
97
a s oni ng as to t h e pr op e rtie s o f o il and

v e rdi gris may s e e m to us quaint but t h e article make s
it cle ar that patina s we re pr oduc e d not by imme rsing
t h e m e tal in acid o r s p e cial ch e mical s olutions a s w e
do to day but simply by applying an oil ov e r t h e surfac e
and le aving t h e atmosphe re to do t h e re st
S ome
of
t he
re
R
e
i
r
i
n
2
a
p
g
( )
T he
colle c tor occa sionally nds it ne c e ssary to re pair

b ro n z e s A statue tt e may b e b roke n o r incomple te whe n
obtain e d o r a b re akage may occ ur during cle anin g and
although t h e coll e ctor hims e lf will probably not b e in a
po sition to do m e tal working hims e lf it is w e ll that h e
s h o uld k now t h e g e n e r al p rincipl e s upon which it s hould
b e done wh e n de ali ng with antique sp e cim e ns as t h e
j e we lle r o r arti s an to whom h e many e ntrust t h e j ob
may b e
a lthough p e rhaps p e rf e ctly s kille d in h is c r aft
a wh e n t r e ating fr agil e obj e cts of g re at a e
uit
at
e
e
s
q
g
With t h e e xc e ption of so me gold and a little copp e r
work no ancie nt Egyptian m e tals and alloys re tain any
T h e maj o rity of sp e cim e ns
o f th e ir o riginal toughn e s s
a re
ab s olut e ly b rittle and will with stand little o r no
me chani cal tre atme nt
T hi s b rittle ne ss is n o t wholly
d u e to co rr o sion but in some ca se s also to t h e original
composition of t h e me tal such as copp e r an d b ronz e
bismuth
c ontaining bismuth
o r gold containing
T he
le d s urfac e is ofte n ve ry misle a din g givin g a b right
m e tallic app e ar anc e e v e n whe n int e rgr anular c o rr osion
h a s p e rm e at e d t h e ma s s and r e nde re d it e xc e pti o nally
fr agile I n some ca se s t h e f o rm of t h e fr acture give s a
b e tt e r guide as to t h e stat e o f t h e me tal than t h e le d
but snaps
s urfac e : t h e sp e cim e n do e s not b e nd at all
.
'
'
98
A NCI
M E TA LL U R
GY
le aving t h e fr acture d surfac e dull r e d in colour o r some

time s gre y if much le ad is pre se nt
Whe n about t o do r e pairs t h e chie f point t o r e me mb e r
is the re fo re that all old Egyptian m e tal obj e ct s a re
fr agile and sh o uld b e tre at e d with e xtre me care T h e
m e th o ds of r e pair mu st b e ve ry cautiou s one s and it is
always wis e t o a sc e rtain that t h e wo rkman re alis e s t h e
fr agility of t h e m e tal notwithstan di ng its
e xt re m e
appare nt sound app e ar anc e e xte rnally
T h e typ e s of re pai r that mo st fre qu e ntly occur are t h e
j oining of t w o o r m o re b r oke n part s suc h as a damage d
l e g o r arm of a statu e tt e o r t h e casting and ttin g of a
c e o n e b roke n o ff o r lost in orde r that
n e w par t to re pl a
t h e obj e ct s hall hav e s om e thing app r o aching it s original
app e aranc e
F o r making j oint s it would b e o bvi o u s that b ra z ing
is out of t h e que stion b e cau se of t h e high t e mp e rature
whi ch t h e old me tal would not re si st S oft
e mploy e d
solde ring can som e tim e s b e us e d but owing to t h e
oxidi se d stat e of t h e b ronz e o r c o pp e r t h e s olde r oft e n
do e s not hold and the re fore make s a poor j ointing
m e dium f o r t his w o rk A lso t h e s olde r b e ing of a v e ry
di ffe re nt colour fro m t h e b ro nz e it is n o t e asy t o make it
inco n spicu o u s A lmo st any acid paint e d on t h e s olde r
in t h e j oint will make it black but it must b e care fully
applie d and t h e sp e cime n afte rwar ds we ll wa she d drie d
and impre gnat e d with wax
T h e ux e s g e ne r ally u se d f o r s o lde ring b ro nz e and
b r a ss are zinc chloride and b o rax F o r antique obj e ct s
pro bably t h e last name d is t h e le a st obj e ctionable
T h e re pairing of small statu e tt e s unde r about 6 inch e s
high r e quire s m o re skill and care than wo rk on larg e r
sp e cime ns b e caus e an e rr o r in t h e j ointing of e ve n so
little as
inch is sufcie nt to disturb t h e anatomical
,
F OR C OLLEC T OR S
N OT ES
99
c o rre ctne ss of t h e mo de lling and many o f the s e gure s

alth o ugh so small are e xqui sit e ly pr o portio n e d T hu s a
laye r of solde r int e rv e ning t h e fracture d surfac e s of a
limb would b e sufcie nt to make t h e re paire d le g too
long u nl e ss t h e gur e we re a rathe r large o n e On t h e
whole t h e s o lde ring of j oint s is h o we v e r not re c o m
me nde d f or se ve ral re as o ns F ir stly a s e xplaine d p re
s oft
s olde r
adhe re s ve ry imp e rfe ctly to o l d
v io u sly
b ronz e and copp e r ; s e condly so lde ring e ntails t h e u se
of ux e s which are of a chlori di c o r acid natu re and
th e re fore liable to in itiat e furth e r c o rro sion of t h e
are
sp e cime n ; and thirdly solde ring is not at all e asy to do
ne atly and to re nde r invi sible aft e rwar ds
Whe n t h e fracture is a re c e nt o n e t h e two b r oke n
su rfac e s can ge ne rally b e tt e d tog e the r quit e clos e ly
and corre ctly and if a v e ry thin c e me nting me dium b e
us e d t h e j oint is bare ly p e r c e ptible Ve ry thin m e diums
howe ve r have n o t t h e advantage of gre at rigidity and
t h e re paire d sp e cim e n w o uld n o t stand much han dl ing
aft e rwar ds I n many cas e s t h e j ointing of such fractu re s
by a s olution of she llac in me thylat e d sp irit wil l s ufc e
o r with se ccotine although t h e latt e r is not wat e rp r oof
A s a r ule b roke n article s s h o u ld b e th or oughly cl e ane d
b e fore re pairs are take n in hand and to insur e that
fra cture d surfac e s will aft e rwar ds t tog e the r c o rre ctly
the y sh o uld b e prote ct e d from attack by t h e acid and
f o r thi s a little molt e n wax can b e b rushe d ove r t h e
s urfac e s
Whe ne ve r pos sible it is advi s able to give addi ti o nal
s t re ngth to t h e j oint by xin g a c e nt ral pin to c o n n e c t
t h e two part s a hol e b e ing care fully drill e d in e ach pie c e
and t h e p in c e me nte d o r we dge d in
T h e fr agility o f antique b ro n z e s r e nde rs att e mpts at
absolute ly pe rfe ct j ointing unn e c e ss ary F o r instanc e
,
'
2 00
in
A NCI
E TA L L U R G Y
case of a hollow statue tte b roke n into two parts

t h e lli ng up of e ach with pla s t e r ( re moving any co re
pre s e nt ) and a s ubstantial c e ntral m e tal p i n conne cting
t h e t w o would do t h e c re vic e r o u nd t h e j oint b e ing lle d
in afte rwards with a c e me nt of similar colour to t h e
original me tal
A lloys of low m e ltin g point such as thos e that m e lt
in b o iling wate r would se e m to poss e ss advantage s f o r
lling up b ro ke n and damage d b ronz e s but the y S hould
not b e us e d as th e y invariably contain bismuth which
cau se s t h e all o y to e xpand during solidi cation and
this would pro bably c r ack o r b re ak t h e old b ronz e
T h e autho r has s ucc e s sfull y us e d a de n tal amalgam of
me rcury wit h 2 5 p e r c e nt cadmi um f o r such work ;
it m e lts in b o iling wate r is plastic whe n warm and se ts
v e ry har d afte rwards
A b r on z e of sup e rb nish o r much int e re st is oft e n
marre d by a de cie ncy of some part o r limb that h as
b e e n b r o ke n off and lo st ; t h e time and mone y spe nt
in xing anothe r o n e is we ll sp e nt but t h e op e ration is
o n e r e quiring s om e care and skill mo re e sp e cially b e caus e
an intimate acquaintan c e with antique work s of art
is som e time s ne c e s sary in orde r to in s ure that t h e n e w
part shall b e c o rre c t in fo rm I t s hould o f course b e
r e m e mb e re d that with coll e cto r s t h e o bj e ct o f making
such re plac e m e nt s is n o t to de c e ive t h e b e holde r but
m e re ly to re nde r t h e sp e cim e n s as comple te as th e y we re
in the ir Original state and it is the re f o re ne c e ssary that
t h e adde d parts should b e simil ar to t h e o riginals both
in col o ur and in t h e stat e of t h e s u rfac e of t h e n e w me tal
I n such a re pair t h e rst point to de cide is what m e tal
to u se f o r t h e n e w part T h e an swe r is an alloy o f a
comp o sition appro ximating to that of t h e o riginal F o r
in stanc e f o r a copp e r obj e ct u se coppe r and f o r b ronz e
t he
N OT ES
COLLE C T O R S
F OR
2 01
a copp e r tin alloy though f o r t h e latt e r copp e r would

do also and f o r b r ass a c o pp e r zinc a lloy I t is not
de sirable to u se b ra ss f o r an addi tion to a b r onz e obj e ct
a s t h e patina of t h e latt e r ca nn ot b e s o re a dil y imitat e d
up o n b rass as on b ron z e T h e n e w part should b e cast
with a r ough sur fac e s imilar in app e aranc e to that o f t h e
o rigin al
so that wh e n coloure d th e re will not b e a g re at
di ff e re nc e in out e r app e ar anc e s
T his is e asily arr ang e d
f o r in moul di ng
I t wil l ge n e r ally b e n e c e ss ary to l e off t h e b r oke n
surfac e of t h e fr act u re so that t h e j oint will b e a at
o ne
B e fore j ointing t h e n e w part should b e coloure d
to match t h e original a s ne arly as possible and b e low
i s a list o f p r oc e s se s w hi ch a r e availabl e f o r p r oducing
variou s colo u rs on di ffe re nt all oys
-
M ODE R N PA T IN A PR OD UC IN G PR OC E SS E S
CO L O U RI N G B R ASS
Olive gr n
M eth od A
ee
R ed
am m o n
Wat e r
iu m
ul phid
u id
5
1 a
e,
W a rm
I lI et h od B
Gre e n
an d
imm e rs e t h e
bj e ct
oo
ro
er o
as
ar
an
e,
s o
en
o ss
n s ro n
s ro n
ea
ra
E AND
COPP E R
r,
en
e
p ibl i t g it i c c id D i p
t t gly b ut g d u ll y ; ll w t
e r as
a e r,
UR
M e th od
m u c h c pp
D i lv
th
d th
ticl
h
c l l wly
CO L O IN G B R O N
D B w t bl ck
Liv f ul phu
W t
Th l
f im m
gth f t im
t h d pth f t h c l u
e
1 3; o z
3 ozs
1 % oz
on
ss o
g ll
5 oz
Bl ck
on
g ll
Wat e r
S al am m o n iac
Cre a m o f t art ar
S al t
N i t rat e o f C o pp e r
M et h od O
oz s
e rs o n
o o
or
h ti g
ea
02
g ll
a
t he
on
so
lut io n
aff e
ct
E G YP
A N CIEN T
2 02
M e thod E
Bl ck
a
TI
AN
E TA LL U R G Y
th d C f b
N l
M t ls f c l u ing m u t lw y b c l n d d f d f m
g
b y dippi g i
l ut i
f 4
p t iu m c y id i g ll
t
th w h d b f im m i in t h c l u i g b th S p c im
f w t
ch d with t h b g
I f t h t tt m pt i t
mu t
t b t
t i f ct y di p g i
A s me
O a
sa
a e r,
no
s a
or
e a
re ase , e
or
or
o o
en
as
ou
pair
I sis shown
minus fe e t
b roke n o ff
re
n a so
on o
a n
ozs
a re
e rs
ea
an
o o
r n
re e
an
o ass
e rs o n
e o re
rs
n a
ro
on
e ns
s no
Fig
A
rass .
1 09
R p
e
i d S t atu e tt e
a re
of
I sis
was made t o t h e statue tte of t h e godde ss

in F ig 1 09 Whe n re c e ive d t h e gure was
and le gs t h e bottom po rtion having b e e n
fr om t h e kne e s and lost L uc kil y a spare
.
NO T E S
COLLEC T O R S
F OR
2 03
pair of fe e t that had b e longe d to a simil ar statue tt e

we re at hand and it was the re fore o nl y ne c e ssary to
make a casting of t h e re maini ng po rtion of t h e le gs
T his was done in b r onz e aft e rwar d s blacke n e d t o match
T h e j oint w a s
t h e original by t h e u se of M e thod C
,
Fig
1 10
R p i d C t in g
e
a re
as
made with soft solde r and afte rward s blacke ne d by

painting with nitric acid in whi ch much copp e r had
b e e n di ssolve d
F ig 1 1 0 sh o ws t h e re sult of anothe r re pair o n e whi ch
calle d f o r r athe r mo re c are and trouble th an t h e ave r age
.
2 04
A N CIEN T EG Y P
TI
AN
E TA L L U R G Y
In
this cas e part of t h e b e ak of t h e I bis was missing

from t h e part marke d X T h e bronz e was much corr ode d
but t h e gre e n patina was thin and so no cle aning pr oc e ss
was applie d A casting of t h e e n d part of t h e b e ak was
ne c e s sary but it was doubtful whe the r t h e me tal of t h e
o riginal part was suf cie ntly strong to support t h e we ight
.
Fig
111
B ro k e n Lion
H d dG
ea
od
T h e latt e r was
of t h e n e w part if cast s olid in b ronz e
the re fo re c ast with a r o ugh surfac e in alumini um wi th
a Ce ntral p roj e cti o n to p e ne tr at e into t h e h o llow he ad
and aft e rward s a coatin g of copp e r was e le ctrolytically
de posit e d upon it T h e two j o inin g su rfac e s we re le d
.
NO T E S
COLLEC T O R S
F OR
205
at and t h e he ad was lle d with pla st e r o f P ari s to s e cure

Af t e rward s t h e
t h e pr oj e ction attach e d to t h e b e ak
adde d part was paint e d with ammoni a the n lightly
with a mi xture o f m e thylat e d spir it c o pp e r carbonate
and she llac and t h e re sul t was so s ati sfactory that t h e
j oin t w as qui t e hi dde n and t h e n e w part could not b e
di sting ui she d fr om t h e old
A n othe r e xample of a re pair made by t h e autho r is
lion h e ade d god shown in
of
t he
t h e small g ur e
Wh e n re c e iv e d t hi s obj e ct had alre ady b e e n
F ig 1 1 1
cle an e d but had b e e n b roke n o n e
le g b e in g b r ok e n off in two par ts
whi l st t h e othe r l e g had b e e n b roke n
o ff som e tim e b e fo re and imp e rf e ctly
T h e ph o t o gr aph
s olde re d on again
F o r tunat e ly
s hows it in t hi s s tat e
t h e two fr actur e s w e re fre sh on e s
and t h e surfac e s we re pre se rve d thu s
tting toge th e r accur at e ly but t h e
lowe r part ( fo o t ) co ul d not b e us e d
again T h e re fore a n e w foot had to
b e made and thi s w a s don e by lin g
o n e t o s hap e out o f a pi e c e o f antiqu e
Fig 1 1 2 _P p m d F t
n d Pin n e d J i n t
b ronz e and tting to t h e le g pie c e
T h e m e thod of mak ing t h e j oints w as
A hol e w a s dr ill e d in e ach pi e c e and also in

a s follow s
t h e body and an iron pin was tt e d s o as to s uppo rt e ach
j oint c e ntrally T h e le g portion containin g t h e two pin s
T h e c e m e ntin g
an d t h e n e w foot a r e s hown in F ig 1 1 2
m e di um w a s a mixtur e of se ccotin e and c o pp e r carbo n at e
whi ch make s a ve ry u se ful gre e n c e me nt f o r such purpo se s
whe r e t h e gre e n colo ur is sui table I n othe r ca se s whe re
obj e cts are black o r r e d in colour lamp black o r ve ne tian
re d
dry paint may b e sub stitut e d f o r t h e copp e r
,
re
oo
A N C IEN T E GY P T I A N
2 06
E TA LL U R G Y
arbonat e
mixture of s e ccotine with o n e of t he s e dry
sub stanc e s se ts v e ry har d but of c o urs e is not wat e r
proof A s a rule this is not a dr awback but if a wate r
p roof m e di um is re quir e d the n a thin solution of she ll ac
in me thylat e d spirit can b e u se d with o n e of t h e dry
powde rs me ntione d
Whe n t h e n e w foot w a s shap e d it had of cours e its
m e talli c lu stre and it was n e c e s s ary to give it a patina
to re s e mble a s clos e ly as po ssible t h e o riginal b ody
T his w a s done by pain tin g with a 1 0 p e r c e nt solution
o f liv e r of s ulphu r
whi ch produc e d a bl ack patina and
aft e rwards a little copp e r carbonat e was duste d ove r
t h e j oints in o rd e r to hide th e m and t h e surplus wip e d
o ff
T hi s was qui t e in harmony with t h e o rigin al whi ch
was of black app e aranc e re lie ve d with small patche s of
gre e n
T h e pre viou sly e xisting j oint made with solde r was
not int e rfe re d w ith but t h e c re vic e was l le d up wit h
d ark gre e n c e me nt and thus r e nde re d almost invi sible
I t is int e r
T h e re sult of t h e re pair is shown in F ig 1 1 3
although a fre sh foot h as b e e n
e sting to obs e rv e that
a dde d t h e whol e obj e ct is s till antiqu e
A lthough it is de sir able to apply imitation antique
patinas on part s adde d t o b r onz e s this sh o uld not b e
e xt e nd e d to m e tal stands and wi re fr am e s us e d to suppo r t
obj e cts in colle ctions I t is done in t h e L ouvre P aris
but is misle ading b e caus e it caus e s t h e Visitor to think
t h e support is part of t h e o rigin al obj e ct
S ome tim e s a colle ctor de sire s to know whe th e r a me tal
T his can g e ne r ally b e in
o bj e ct is b r onz e o r copp e r
f e rre d from t h e colour and a le d part of t h e obj e ct
e
o
f
u
r
e
s
e
e
e
an
unimpo
tant
position
b
ing
co
s
l
ct
d ) should
r
(
b e compare d with t h e colour of a fre shly le d pie c e of
known coppe r I f howe ve r t h e tin conte nt is not large
c
'
NO T E S
COLL E C T O R S
F OR
29
a
s
e
r
c
e
e
rr
old
m
tal
is
much
co
od
d
this
m
ans
of
e
or t h e
tainin g is not applicable an d in such cas e s a fragme nt
sho ul d b e b roke n from t h e obj e ct t h e o xidi s e d part
e nt
2
r
5
e
d
a
w
ay
and
di
solv
d
in
a
c
solution of
e
s
p
l e
ni tric acid care fully warming if n e c e ssary to comple t e
,
Fig
1 1 3 R p ir d Li
e
on -
H ddG
ea
od
solution I f tin is pre s e nt it will b e le ft as a white ( some

time s gre yish ) in soluble pre cipitat e at t h e bottom of t h e
ve ss e l A s tin and antimony are t h e only two me tals
like ly to le av e thi s pre cipitate and antimony is not
.
A NC I
2 08
E TA LL U R G Y
pre s e nt in Egyptian b ronz e s to any appre ciable e xt e nt

t h e t e st give s a fair guide a s to wh e th e r a sampl e is
b r onz e o r copp e r S ome time s howe ve r t h e pre cipitate
may app e ar gre y if gold is pre s e nt b e caus e nitric acid
le ave s t h e latt e r as a black powde r I t may b e said that
as a r ule with coppe r containi ng more than 2 p e r c e nt
of t in t h e latt e r is pre s e nt as an int e ntional ingre di e nt
and not as an imp u rit y T his proportion of t in le ave s
a ve ry notic eabl e pre cipitate aft e r attack by nitric acid
if a half gramme sample is take n A s a rule howe ve r
always contain mo re than 5 p e r
re al antiqu e b r on z e s
c e nt of tin and anti que copp e r ge ne rall y unde r 1 p e r
c e nt
,
2 09
I N D E X
A B R I G , 35
b d o s , 90
d e , 94 , 1 1 5
e in , 6 8
A hm o s e I , 1 0
l e x an de r, 1 7
l e x and ri a 99
Al l o s ,
e s o f an i q e , 1 4 5
m en o e , 1 1
m o n , rie s s o f , 1 2
A n al v s is o f o
e r d a g e r, 1 4 6
s ri , 6 8
iron be ad s, 8 9
n n e alin , 1 8 , 6 4 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 5 ,
1 4 5 , 1 55
ff e
o f , 1 40, 1 4 8 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 0
.
A y
A z
Ag g
A
A
y T yp
t u
A htp
A
P t
c pp
g
t p
A
g
E ct
An tim y 3 2
ll y 1 4 5
A t i qu
A bi p i d 2 4
A b 1 9 20
A ch ic p i d 24
A w h d m u ld 55
A w p i t 58
ti p B z 1 72 1 7 8
tip 60 1 04
A
i c i c pp 66 80 1 2 5
A i G ld f m 2 5
A yi
15
A t f 20
Ath
Mu u m 5 8
A
1 15 1 1 7 1 1 8
h d 1 69
A
Mi c t ctu f 1 5 1
.
on
an
ra
s,
e a
er o
ra
s,
er o
rr o
s,
rs e n
s a,
ro
e ns
xe -
se
ea
e r,
r an s ,
ro s r u
re o
e,
xe ,
e,
ro n
o n s,
rro
ss
ea
T TL
B A E ax e s 59 1 1 8
B eads 3 2 8 5 89
B eat in g 62
B e swax 3 7
B ello ws 1 20
B ells B ron z 9 8
Bismut h in c o pp er 7 8
Bla ck pyramid 90
Blo wp i p e 1 2 0
Bo w d rill 94
B rass 3 2 1 2 6 1 2 7
B ra z i er of Kh t y 7 7
B ra z ing 62 6 9 7 4 1 2 1 1 60
B ri t is h Mu s eu m 57 58 7 4 7 7
1 00
B ri ttl en e ss of obj ect s 1 9 7
B ron z e 7 2 1 2 9
Age 4
a rr o w t i p 1 72 1 7 8
ax es 5 9
b ells 9 8
c h is els 1 04
C o rr osion of 6 5
D et e ct ion of 2 06
Gold in 82
h an dl e s 1 06
H ard ening of 3 5 7 8
h ing es 1 02 1 2 1
indu st ry 3 4
1 59 1 7 0
j
ladle 1 5 8
Lead in 30 7 6
M etallo g ra p hy of 1 30
mi rro r 7 1 1 7 6
,
a r,
l4
9 9,
IN DEX
2 10
B ron z e Mod ern 7 7

mo uld 55
nails 1 2 0
p t 1 52 1 7 3
p e c im ens D atin g of
s t atu e s 7 6
vas e 4 9 50 64
we i g ht s 30
Weldin g of 62
B udge D r E A 55 8 6
B yz n t in e s t yl e 1 9
,
82 , 8 3
in,
o pp er C o rrosion of 6 5
dagg er 59 1 4 6 1 64
A nal ysis of 3 4 1 4 6
fu rna c e
g raver 1 66
H a rd ening of 3 5 78 1 05
h ing e s 1 02
I m pu ri t i e s
125
I ron in 8 0
knif e 1 50
l ead allo ys 1 3 2
nail 60 1 2 0 1 6 8
ni ck e] allo y 1 2 6
o re s 2 7 2 8
Pre c i p i t at e d 1 7 6
r a z o r 6 1 1 50
rivet 1 5 6
R ivet ing of 3 6
saw 1 1 5
silver alloys 1 30 1 3 1
st ri p 6 5 6 6 1 1 9 1 4 5 1 4 9
A nal ysis of ; 6 8
ut ensils 8 4
Welding of 62
z in c allo y 1 2 6
C o pt i c m et al w o rk 1 9
C o pt s 1 8
C o re ma r k ing s 1 4 7 1 4 8
C o re d c as t in g s 3 5
in Egypt 1 04
in G reec e 1 04
C o re s 3 8 54 1 2 6 1 3 2 1 64
C o rrosion 6 5 1 62
C r a ck in g 1 3 5
C re t e 2 1
C ruc ibl e Eg ypt ian 8 1
C rys t al bo u nda r i e s 1 3 6
g rains 1 2 3 1 2 9 1 5 6
C rys t alli t e s 1 2 4 1 3 1
C up r o u s oxid e 1 3 2
C
ll y M r C T 8 1
C utt in g e d g e Mi c r os t ructu re of
C yp ru s 3 0
R M u s eu m 1 2 1 4 1 5 2 0
3 6 55 8 1 1 09
C alamin e 3 2
C a r in g s in s t o e 1 03
C as t in g 9
C as t in g ru nn er s 4 5
Strut s fo r 3 9 1 06
C as t in g s C o re d 3 5
C eru ssi t e 3 2
C h ar c oal 8 1
C h asin g 7 2 7 3 7 6
C h is el ma r k s on s t on e 1 09 1 1 0
111
C h is els 1 5
C o pp er 3 4
Flint 1 1 8
fo r s ton e 1 1 9
fo r wood 1 1 9
of 1 04 1 1 9
U
Wro ug ht i ron 1 1 1
C h r is t iani ty In t r oduct ion of 1 8
C i re p erd u p r o c e s 3 7 42
C l e ani g 1 8 1
C l e o p at r a 1 7
C ofns L e ad 3 1
C oinag e 1 6 1 8
C olla p sibl e s t and 7 2 7 3
C olo u re d p las t er 5 8
C olo u r in g ba t h s 2 01
C olo u r s u s e d fo r m et als 1 03
C oolin g E t of r at e of 1 2 9
C o pp er 6 1 1 1 8 2 4 2 6 2 7 30
A r s eni c in 80 1 2 5
ax e s 59
Bismuth in 7 8 1 32
c h is els 1 04
C AI
s,
ec
u re
1 5]
se
'
3 1,
DA G G E R
3 4 , 59 , 1 4 6 , 1 64
c o pp er
nalysis of
D a t e s of D ynast i s 2 4
,
3 4, 1 4 6
IN DE X
D a t in g
of bron z e s p ec im ens
of p eriods 2 2
D efo rma t ion b y h amm er in g
D io ri t e 1 04 1 09
s t atu e 8 7 8 8
D rill 1 1 4
D ynast i e s D a t e s of 2 4
1 33
90, 1 08 , 1 1 1
G rab h am , M r , 1 06
-
E G YP T I A N h is t o ry O ut lin e of
E l e ct ro c h emi c al cl e anin g 1 84
E l e ct ru m 2 6 3 6
E m p i re Period 1 0
E nam el 3 6 8 4
E ng r avi n g 7 2 7 3 7 6
E qu ilibri u m in allo ys 1 2 8
Etc h in g 1 4 1
re ag ent s 1 43
Et h io p ian s 1 5
Eut e ct i c 1 3 0
E ye s 3 6 5 8 1 87
,
Gu ns
of
u st in g
99
M
A
I
I TE
ZE
85
H amm er h ard enin g 7 8

H amm erin g Eff e ct of 1 33
H amm ers Ston e 1 1 7
H andl e s 1 1 8
H ard ening 6 5
b y h amm er in g 7 8 1 05
of b ron z e 3 5 7 8
of o pp er 3 5 7 8
H ard st on e c ar ving s 1 03
H at s h e put 1 0
H i ero gl yph i c s 92 9 3
H in ge 1 02 1 2 1 1 7 1
H is t o ry O utlin e of Egypt ian 1
H omo g en e i ty in all oys 1 2 8
H on ey 3 7
H o ru 4 2 4 8 53
H o t wo rk in g of m et als 6 6 1 50
Hu m e D r W F 8 5
H yk sos 1 0
,
F I R S T Int erm edia t e Period

Flaw s Re p ai ring of 7 5
Flint c h isels 1 1 8
Flo ren c e Mu s eu m 1 03
Flo w lin e s 1 54 1 5 9 1 7 0
Fl u x e s fo r sold erin g 1 9 8
F ou ndin g 72
F u el 8 1
Fu rna c e C o pp er 8 1
,
2 1 , 2 4 , 2 5,
1 131 s , 2 04
I mi t a t ions of
In g o t s 2 5
In t erm e dia t e
,
s,
G A E N A 32
Gat e 3 7 4 5
Ge b el Ru sas 3 1 32
Gi z ah 90
Glass 84
Glaz e s 84
Gold 6 7 1 0 1 1 1 8
B e atin g of 6 2
from A sia 2 5
h andl e s 1 2 1
in bron z e 82
,
3 5 , 89 ,
R oman art 1 9
Period 1 8 2 1
Grains C ryst al 1 2 3
Growt h of 1 3 8 1 56
S i z e of 1 2 9
Gr ani t e 7 8 7 8 8 1 04 1 09
s cul ptu re s 1 03
Graver 1 06 1 6 6 1 7 4
Gree c e Iron in 1 01
Greeks 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 0
Grindin g of m et als 7 1
Gro w t h of g rains 1 3 8 1 5 6
G r ae c o
29
Gold inlay f r eye s 58

min e s 2 4
rin g 1 52 1 53
wash in g 2 5
Goldsmi t h s wo rk 6
Go wland Profe sso r 2 6
,
82 , 8 3
2 1 I
ant i qu i t i e s
Periods 2 4
1 79
1 55
IN DEX
212
Inlayin g 7 3 1 06
I ron 9 2 2 2 4
,
A g e , 85
L ybians, 1 5
1 09
nails 1 20
obj e ct s 8 9
o re s 2 8 85
Re duct ion of 1 06 1 08
Reli g iou s obj e ct ions t o 10 1
ru st 9 7 99
Sc a r c i ty of in Egypt 1 06 1 0
s t ri k ers 9 8
st rut s 9 8 1 06
t ools 1 5
U
of 60
in Syri a 1 06
.
se
4 2 , 2 02
AP A N I ron
s,
1 08
1 59 , 1 7 0
.
B ron z e
asu s Valley L ead in
oint s Met al 62
ar,
32
N
Lak e of 83
Kin g M r C W 1 9 4
K niv e s 1 1 9 1 2 0
C o pp er 3 4 1 50
.
Ko ram am a 5 8
,
AD D
24
L E R 1 20
L adl e B ron z e 64 1 5 8
L ak e of K arna k 83
L an c e t i p s 60
L at er Interm ediat e Period
Lead 1 8 2 4 3 2
globu l e s 1 6 1
h e addre ss e s 3 1
in b ron z e 30 7 6
wo rk ing s 32
KA R AK , 1 0
in
%
%
%
%
D O
M A E N I N ru l e 2 0
Ma c edonians 1 7
Mall et s 1 1 8
Man et h o 6
Man g an e s e o re s 2 8
in S inai 3 2
Ma p ero S i r Gast on 2 1 7 9
Me c h ani c al cl eaning 1 84
M edi eval p res c ri pt ion 84
Med m 3 5
Met al b ea tin g 62
g rindin g 7 1
Loss of 82
1
olis
h
in
g
7
p
M et allo gra phy 1 2 2
of bronz e 1 30
M et als C olo u r s u s e d fo r 1 03
S o u r c e s of 2 4
Mi cros c o pe 1 2 3
Mi c rost ructu re f ax e he ad 1 5 1
of bron z e ladl e 1 5 8
of bron z e p o t 1 52 1 59
of c o pp er dagger 1 4 7 1 4 8 1 6 5
of c o pp er k if e 1 5 1
of c o pp er raz o r 1 50
of c o pper rivet 1 5 6
of o pper st ri p 1 4 9 1 55
of cutt in g ed g e 1 52
of g old rin g 1 53
of silver b ead 1 56
of silver c o p p er s tatu ett e 1 5 8
of twist e d br ss 1 55
Middl e K ing dom 2 4
Min e s 9 1 0 2 4
Mi rro r B ron z e 7 1 1 7 6
Mod el of c a rp ent er s s ho p 1 1 4
Mod els 1 03
Mod ern bron z e H ard enin g of 79
Mo rt is e j oint 52
Mo uld B ron z e 55
fo r arro w t i p s 5 6
C
77
c h is els 1 04
in c o pp er 80
in t ombs 1 01
I sis
Lim est on e 1 04 1 09
Lion h ead ed g od 2 04 2 07
Lou vre Mu s eu m 4 8 53 57
Lu xo r 83
IN DEX
Mo uld Op en 54
St on e 55
Mo uld in g mat erial 4 3 46
Mo lds 3 4
Mu mmy y 1 8 7
Mu s eu m Ath ens 58
B ri t ish 5 7 58 74 7 7 99 1 00
C ai ro 1 2 1 4 1 5 2 0 3 1 3 6
5 5 8 1 1 09
Flo ren c e 1 03
Lou vre 53 5 7 7 7
,
e,
Q
QU A
RRIE
10
'
R A IS I N G of m et al 1 8
R am e s es II 1 1 1 2
,
o er
N A IL , C pp ,
20
N
, 1
4
N
, 9
t , 99
N
Nu
, 10
15
Nu
,
24
ails
ee dl e
il e d el a
bia
bians
Po t B ron z e 1 7 3
Preser vat ion
Pri e st s of A mon l 2
Pt ol emai c Period 1 7
Pyramids 90 1 1 1
2 1
60, 1 68
62 , 7 2 , 1 3 6
I V 1 2 , 1 3 , 4 7 , 52
p , 15
R at h g e n , D
, 1 83
z , C pp , 6 1 , 1 50
c y t l t , 1 3 6 , 1 55
uct
, 1 06 , 1 08
g g , 26
p
g , 1 44
, 1 03
H
R as s
r F
o er
.
Ra or
Re r s al isa ion
Red ion of i ron
Re nin old
Reli ef olis h in
Reli efs
Reli g io u s obj e ct ion t o ron
Re pai r of po t 1 6 1
Re p ai ring 7 4 1 9 7
Re p ai rs Me t h ods of 7 5
Re p ou ss wo r k 72
R iv et C o pp er 1 56
h eads 1 2 1
R iv et ing of o pp er 3 6
R iv et s 1 2 0 1 7 1
R oman o ccup at ion 1 8
Period 1 7 2 4
vas e 69
R omans 1 9
R u nn ers 4 5
R u nning n pro c e ss 6 3
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R a t e of 99
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Pat inas Arti c ial 1 94
Pe d e st al Moul d fo r 55
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st atu ette 1 57
S inai 9 2 8 3 0 3 2 8 1 85
Sli p bands 1 3 4
S m elt in g fu rna c e 8 1
S a k e c ro wn 44
S old erin g 62 6 9 7 4 1 9 8
S olid solut ion s 1 2 5 1 30
S o t h i c c ycl e 2 3
Sp innin g 70
St and C olla p sibl e 7 2 7 3
St atu e in dio ri t e 8 7 88
St atu e s 7 6 8 7
St eel 1 1 1 1 1 2
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C utt in g of 9 4
h amm er s 6 6 1 1 7
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s t atu e s 8 7 88
Strains 1 3 8
Strut s fo r c as t in g s 3 9 7 4
Su dan Re duct ion of i ron in 1 07
S yria 1 1
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Invasion of 9
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WA I A % ER I 8 5
Walt ers Mr H B 1 00 1 01
Wash ing of g old 2 5
Wast e wax pro c e ss 3 7 4 2
We a pons 5 8
We ar of t ools 1 1 7
W i g h ing s c al es 1 2 0
Weldin g 62 6 9 1 2 1
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A N C I E N T E G YP T I A N

le ave E gypt o n a c c o unt

( lit any p hot os m

M inn S il ust rat iona 3 ncl uomg

ront isp ie ce ano 1 1 3

not e attach e d to t h e F ro nti spi e c e o f thi s volum e

wo rk of ancie nt p e ople on t h e me tals known to

M t l S t tu e o f Kin g P iu pi I with a sm all e r one of

S ilv C Op p All y h win g Eut ct i c

Wo rk e d B rass ann e al e d at 600 f o r h alf an ho u r

Co pp e r D agg e r aft e r Ann e alin g

G old R in g s h o win g Co re S t ruct u re

thoughtful p e rs on of t h e p re se n t day it must

standar d of e xc e lle nc e sup e rior to that of any othe r

the y are e qually as de se rvin g o f c re di t f o r it as t h e othe r

took up t h e u se of tin whe n it w a s introduc e d from othe r

in Egypt a stage of cul ture which may ye t b e

F linde r s P e t rie , S ir G aston M aspe r o ,

and othe r s should

work with t h e old Egyptian c h ef s d aeu v res

f uture analysis may show that it is only C opp e r in whi ch

of a mi ni ng insp e cto r of t h e XI I t h Dynasty On it h e

app e aranc e of t h e untarnishable cove ring o f the se

was an able admini strator an e mpire

ubstituting his o w n nam e and achie v e me nts I n spite of

ame se s in the ir de sire o nly f o r e a se an d

thi s uns e ttle d p e riod w e have re lics of inte re st

control of all t h e me tal was plac e d in t h e h ands of high

of thi s int e re sting p e rson is give n in F ig 3 I t is a photo

look upon t h e f e ature s of o n e Of the e arlie st o f the ir

owing to t h e lib e r al policy of t h e Egyptian A nti

of t h e x x v t h Dynasty t h e Egyptians had

othe rwis e gloomy p e riod of ancie nt Egyptian histo ry

ye ars howe ve r t h e P e rsians re c o nque re d t h e country

me tal antiquitie s of t h e P t ol o m aic P e riod though

that the y l e arnt se v e r al n e w pr oc e sse s fr om t h e G re e k s

the y we re s ubj e cte d by some of t h e R omans and by all

Egypt by t h e A rab hor de s who conqu e re d t h e country

had nothing to le arn from any o f the ir ne ighbours in

of Kings and t h e casual re ade r will probably nd a

true o r solar ye ar w e can by a simple p ie c e o f arithme tic

which w e have thre e of the s e So calle d S othic D at I n g s

Arch a i c Pe rio d I st t o I I I rd Dyn as ty

mine s from which t h e anci e nt Egyptian s obtain e d

Egypt an d t h e S udan but none in S inai I t is not im

old working s are known to e xist but the s e hav e

With re g ar d to t h e sourc e s of silve r w e have not so

min e s we re worke d during

ugge ts of u se ful siz e thus n e e ding no sm e lting f o r s mall

p e riods than t h e accompanying obj e cts with which the y

o re s and h e has pr ove d his cont e ntion that a sound

take n of t h e glass cas e c o mple te in which the y are

ourc e s of le ad we re probably mainl y local T he re

only othe r me tal known to t h e e arly Egyptians

placing t h e orname nt round h e r royal ne ck ; o r to

b e ginning of t h e dynastic p e riod co p e r founding

by t h e author w a s a copp e r chi se l t h e m e tal of

cours e appre ciable numb e rs of c o pp e r article s such a s

available to t h e ancie nt Egyptians o r inde e d e ve n at

production of this kind of ca sting is much more compli

late r time s it is kn own that i ron c r oss suppo rts

probable u se o f t h e obj e ct on e ach s ide it w a s e ngrave d

casting above de s c rib e d t h e s e cti o n only me asure d