Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
PLANNING GROUP
Annemiek Vermeeren,
Coordinator
Fren Smulders
Jan Ramaekers
Eric Vuurman,
Practical Coordinator
Email <kkuypers@hotmail.com>
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INDEX
Page
Title page.............................................................................................................................. 1
Planning Group.................................................................................................................... 1
Index ................................................................................................................................... 2
Schedule for 2002 ............................................................................................................... 3
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 4
Objectives............................................................................................................................. 5
Design and Procedure.......................................................................................................... 5
Lectures.......................................................................................................................... 5
Tasks............................................................................................................................... 6
Practical.......................................................................................................................... 6
Literature.............................................................................................................................. 7
Books.............................................................................................................................. 7
-General ......................................................................................................................... 7
-Arousal, activation and performance..............................................................................8
-Psychopharmacology..................................................................................................... 8
-Psychophysiology.......................................................................................................... 9
UB electronic information sources (CD-ROM).................................................................9
Journals........................................................................................................................... 9
Reader and Electronic Reader (Ereader)........................................................................10
Suggested reading per task.................................................................................................. 10
Tasks ................................................................................................................................... 15
Task 1 Bien dormir vers Benidorm ................................................................................17
Task 2 Whats new? ...................................................................................................... 18
Task 3 Data and Models that predict them: non- monotonic relations ...........................19
Task 4 Models & Data: from 1D to 3D ...........................................................................20
Task 5 Functional pathways ..........................................................................................21
Task 6 Pay attention! ..................................................................................................... 22
Task 7 Output = f(input) .................................................................................................23
Task 8 MOSA ................................................................................................................ 24
Task 9 Stress forecast ................................................................................................... 26
Task 10 Never enough .................................................................................................. 27
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Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Mo 15/4
Tu 16/4
Lecture 2, Fren Smulders 'Models and data: an introduction' (ad task 3 and 4)
Report Task 2 and brainstorm Task 3 Data and Models that predict them
Th 18/4
Mo 22/4
Tu 23/4
Th 25/4
Lecture 3 Fren Smulders, 'Models and data: the final answers?' (ad task 4)
Report Task 4 and brainstorm Task 5 Functional pathways
Report Task 5 and brainstorm Task 6 Pay attention!
Mo 29/4
Tu 30/4
Th 2/5
Day off
Queens day (Day off)
Report Task 6 and brainstorm Task 7 Output = f(input)
Practical: question time (optional)
Week 5
Mo 6/5
Tu 7/5
Th 9/5
Lecture 4 Jan Ramaekers, 'What the body does to the drug' (ad task 7)
Report Task 7 and brainstorm Task 8 MOSA and Task 9 Stress forecast
Ascension day (Day off)
Week 6
Mo 13/5
Tu 14/5
Th 16/5
Fr 17/5
Lecture 5 Jan Ramaekers, 'What the drug does to the body' (ad task 8 and 9)
Task 8 and brainstorm Task 10 Never enough
Report Task 9 & 10 and course evaluation
Course examination (14:00-16:00, Sports Hall Daalhof)
Tu 21/5
Practical: deadline for handing in the report (Box outside Room 3.013 DRT 10)
We 3/7
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INTRODUCTION
Human performance is subject to considerable change and variation. For example, you may know
from own experience that your ability to concentrate varies over the day. It even varies depending on
your mood. People who are anxious or depressed perform worse on all kinds of cognitive tasks than
healthy controls. Usually your performance can improve by investing more effort. However, when the
task is long and boring your ability to concentrate seems to vanish over time anyway. Yet when
something unexpected happens you pay attention again, at least for a while.
Performance may also change due to the use of psychoactive drugs. You may be familiar with
the effects of caffeine, nicotine and alcohol. Many people drink coffee and cola or smoke and find it
helps them to concentrate. Alcohol is well known for its impairing effects on performance, especially
on car driving. Medicinal drugs penetrating the CNS such as hypnotics, anxiolytics, antidepressants,
antipsychotics, and some antihistamines can also affect cognitive and psychomotor performance.
Many drugs cause drowsiness or sleepiness, yet their mechanism of action can be very different. For
example drugs that inhibit cholinergic, noradrenergic or histaminergic neurotransmission and drugs
that enhance GABA-ergic transmission can all cause drowsiness or sleepiness. This indicates that
several neurochemical systems are involved in the regulation of sleep and waking.
When the mechanism of action of a drug is known it can be used to manipulate
neurotransmission and study the role of the neurotransmitters or receptor subtypes in cognition and
psychomotor performance. For example, stimulant drugs like amphetamine and cocaine are known to
increase speed of responses in a reaction time task, but what cognitive function or information
processing stage do they affect? Do they speed up stimulus encoding, decision making or motor
response? By manipulating task variables it is possible to deduce what stage of information
processing is affected by a drug (or any other factor that may change arousal).
Changes in performance caused by drugs, biological rhythms, emotions or environmental factors
are often explained by changes in arousal. Arousal was originally considered a unitary (or onedimensional) process underlying physiological changes and accompanying variations in alertness.
This course will make clear that this cannot be true in terms of the underlying structures, the
relationship between different physiological indices and the relationship between arousal and
performance.
The literature will refer to a wide range of psychophysiological methods and measures, such as
EEG, cardiovascular parameters, eye movements, pupil size, electrodermal measures,
electromyography and neuroendocrine assays. One of the objectives of this course is to acquire
knowledge of the way in which physiological measures are related to changes in arousal and to
discuss the limitations of the methods.
To summarize, in this course we will examine a) the effects on performance of factors influencing
arousal, such as drugs, sleep deprivation, environmental conditions and psychiatric disorders, b)
theoretical models concerned with the relation between arousal and cognitive performance, and c) the
way in which arousal is regulated in the body
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OBJECTIVES
Acquire knowledge of:
1. Theories explaining the relation between arousal and performance
2. Task characteristics interacting with arousal and activation
3. External and internal factors affecting arousal and activation
4. Central and peripheral structures involved in the regulation of arousal and activation
5. Structure and function of neurotransmitters systems involved in arousal and activation
6. Neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying the effects of drugs on arousal and activation
7. Psychophysiological methods assessing arousal and activation
Lectures
The planning group advises you to attend the lectures, since the literature for this course sometimes
requires additional explanation. Lectures are therefore intended to explain some of the more difficult
subjects, such as the cognitive-energetic model. In addition, they will provide the opportunity to ask
questions. Lecturers and topics addressed in the lectures are:
1.
2.
3.
Fren Smulders, 'Models and data: the final answers?' (ad task 4)
4.
5.
Jan Ramaekers, 'What a drug does to the body' (ad tasks 8 and 9)
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Tasks
The rationale of the contents and order of the tasks is as follows:
Tasks 1 and 2 will introduce you to the concept of arousal in the context of sleep and
anxiety. These states are often seen as opposing ends of a continuum. The term as used in
the beginning meant generalized arousal of cortical activity (EEG), and peripheral autonomic
activity, including cardiovascular, respiratory, electrodermal and electromyographic variation. It
will be shown that the problem with the generalized construct was that the
psychophysiological indicators are usually not highly correlated within individuals and across
stimulus conditions. For these reasons the term arousal is now often used with reference to
cortical, cardiovascular or electrodermal activity.
Tasks 3 and 4 introduce a few influential models of arousal and performance. Effects of
stressors like noise and sleep deprivation on performance in easy and complex tasks will be
examined. The main objective of these tasks is to understand each model's strengths and
weaknesses in explaining existing data.
Task 5 concerns the mechanism of action of antipsychotic and stimulant drugs and their
effects on performance. The task focuses on the dopamine system.
Task 7 introduces the general concepts of pharmacokinetics or what the body does to the
drug. It intends to clarify the dose-effect relation of drugs and the time course of drug actions.
Task 8 concerns changes in activation, arousal and performance depending on the duration
and event characteristics of the task. Performance changes will be discussed in terms of
signal detection theory. In addition it will be shown that drugs from the same therapeutic class
can very different effects on arousal.
Task 9 concerns the fact that antidepressant drugs having different mechanisms of action, all
have a delayed onset of therapeutic effects. The current theory regarding the processes
underlying this delay will be explained, as well as the reasons why the side effects of
antidepressants (e.g. sedation) differ.
Task 10 concerns drug addiction. The long-term effects of addictive drugs on neural structures
and neurotransmitters systems are assumed to be an important part of the mechanism
underlying the lack of impulse control that characterizes addictive behaviors.
Practical
The practical for this course involves the conduct, analysis, and reporting of a psychological
experiment. The experiment will address the question whether cognitive performance is influenced by
noise in the environment. Each student will take a number of computerized tests and collect the data
of his/her performance. The data of all participants will be made available to each students and a
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report about the information collected in the experiment has to be written in the form of a journal
article. Each student is expected to (individually) process the raw data, make a graphic data
presentation, and apply the relevant statistical tests. The results should be discussed within human
performance models introduced in this course. The practical consists of the following components:
1.
Introduction to the Practical (April 8). General information on the background of the research
question and instructions (including a manual) for the practical work will be given here.
2.
3.
Introduction to data processing (graphic presentation, SPSS) and report writing (April 22).
4.
Two interactive question times to assist you with data processing and report writing (May 2
and 13).
Please note that attendance at meetings 1, 2 and 3 is obligatory and will be checked. Question
times are not obligatory. At the start of the course (during meeting 1) a practical manual will be
distributed. Your research report should be submitted within 4 weeks after the start of data-analysis,
i.e. by Tuesday, May 21, 2002 at the latest (in the cardboard box outside Room 3.013 DRT 10).
LITERATURE
In your first year you already learned about the biopsychology of motivation, emotion and stress.
During the first week of this course it will be helpful to refresh your memory on (1) the general layout
of the (peripheral) nervous system (2) the biopsychology of emotion and stress, and (3) brain
mechanisms in sleep, using your textbooks from previous courses such as Gleitman, Kalat and Pinel.
Books
General
Kalat (2000) Biological Psychology (7th Ed). Pacific Grove CA, Brooks/Cole. (SL BF 205)
Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (1995) Essentials of neural science. London, Prentice Hall
(SL WL 102)
Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000) Principles of neuroscience. Part VII. London,
Prentice Hall (SL BF 209)
Pinel PJ (2000) Biopsychology (4th Ed). Boston, Allyn and Bacon. (SL BF 205)
Rosenzweig MR, Leiman AL, Breedlove SM (1996 and 2000) Biological Psychology. Sunderland
MA, Sinauer. (SL BF 205)
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Boff KR, Kaufmann L and Thomas JP (1986) Handbook of perception and human performance.
Volume II: Cognitive processes and performance. Ch 44. New York; Wiley. (SG BF 292)
Lyon, Krasnegor (1996) Attention, memory and executive function. Ch 5. Baltimore, Brooks (SL
BF 321)
Parasuraman R (1998). The attentive brain. Ch 3, 10. Cambridge, MIT press. (SL BF 321)
Proctor RW, Van Zandt T (1994) Human factors in simple and complex systems. Allyn and Bacon
(SG TA 166)
Van Zomeren AH, Brouwer WH (1994) Clinical neuropsychology of attention. Ch 3. New York,
Oxford University Press (SL BF 321)
Wickens CD & Hollands JG (1999) Engineering psychology and human performance (3 rd Ed). Ch
2, 11, 12. Up Saddel River, Prentice Hall. (SL BF 496)
Psychopharmacology
Carvey PM (1998) Drug action in the human nervous system. Ch 2, 6. New York Oxford
University Press. (SL QV 76.5)
Julien RM (1998) A primer of drug action: a concise nontechnical guide to the actions, uses
and side effects of psychoactive drugs (8th Ed). New York, Freeman. (SL QV 77)
Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter JM (1999) Pharmacology (4th Ed). Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone
(SL QV 4)
Stahl SM (1996 and 2000) Essential psychopharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical
applications (1st and 2nd Ed). Cambridge University Press. (SL BF 207)
Psychophysiology
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Stern RM, Ray WJ, Quigley KS (2001) Psychophysiological recording. Oxford university
Press. (SL BF 208)
Journals
electronic* Y/N
T 0026
SV
Y: sciencedirect
Biological Psychology
T 0159
Y: sciencedirect
Br J Psychiatry
T 2720
T 0774
J Affect Disorders
SV
Y: sciencedirect
T 0473
Y: (text only)
J Clin Psychiatry
--
T 3385
Nature
T 0664
Neuropsychologia (1995..)
T 0668
Y: sciencedirect
T 1709
Y: swetsnet
Progress in Neurobiology
--
Y: sciencedirect
Psychopharmacology
T 1704
Y: swetsnet
Schizophrenia Bulletin
T 2752
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Akerstedt T (1995) Work hours, sleepiness and underlying mechanisms. J Sleep Res, 4,
Suppl,15-22. (RE, T 3385)
Borbely (1982) A two process model of sleep regulation. Human Neurobiol, 1, 195-204 (RE)
Perlis ML, Giles DE, Mendelson WB, Bootzin RR, Wyatt, JK (1997) Psychophysiological
insomnia: the behavioural model and a neurocognitive perspective. J Sleep Res, 6, 179-188.
(RE, T 3385)
Carvey PM (1998) Drug action in the Central Nervous System. Oxford University Press.
Chapter 6 Sedative-Hypnotics and Anxiolytics. Pp 123-150. (RE, SL QV 76.5)
Further reading
Horne J & Reyner L (1999) Vehicle accidents related to sleep: a review. Occup Environ Med
56 (5), 289-294. (RE, T 1709)
Lal SKJ & Craig A (2001) A critical review of the psychophysiology of driver fatigue. Biological
Psychology, 55, 173-194. (RE, T 0159)
Video
V3108: Slapeloze nachten - Sleepless Nights. IKON (2000) 25 min. Het andere gezicht Dutch - About the biological clock, shiftwork and accidents
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Pinel PJ (2000) Biopsychology (4th Ed). Boston, Allyn and Bacon. (SL BF 205)
Rosenzweig MR, Leiman AL, Breedlove SM (2000) Biological Psychology Sunderland MA,
Sinauer. (SL BF 205)
Clow A (2001) The physiology of stress. In: Jones F, Bright J (Eds) Stress: myth, theory and
research. Harlow, Prentice Hall, Pp 47-61. (RE)
Stern RM, Ray WJ, Quigley KS (2001) Psychophysiological recording. Oxford University
Press. Ch 2. Autonomic Nervous System, Ch 5 Some basic principles of psychophysiology.
Pp 17-23, 52-69. (SLBF 208)
Further reading
Andreassi JL (2000) Psychophysiology: human behavior and physiological response (4th Ed).
Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum. Ch 18. Concepts in psychophysiology. (RE, SL BF 208)
Andreassi JL (2000) Psychophysiology: human behavior and physiological response (4th Ed).
Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum. Ch 18. Activation Pp 401-405 (RE, SL BF 208)
Sanders AF (1998). Elements of human performance. H9: Energetics, Stress and Sustained
Attention. Pp 394-430. (SL BF 317)
Sanders AF, Wijnen JLC & Arkel van, AE (1982). An additive factor analysis of the effects of
sleep loss on reaction processes. Acta Psychologica, 51, 41-59. (RE)
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Meltzer HY, McGurk SR (1999) The effects of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine on
cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25: 233-255 (RE, T 2752)
Servan-Schreiber D, Bruno RM, Carter CS, Cohen JD (1998) Dopamine and the mechanisms
of cognition: part II. D-amphetamine effects in human subjects performing a selective
attention task. Biol Psychiatry 43: 723-729 (RE)
Clark CR, Geffen GM, Geffen LB (1989) Catecholamines and the covert orientation of
attention in humans. Neuropsychologia 27: 131-9. (RE)
Coull JT (1998) Neural correlates of attention and arousal: Insights from electrophysiology,
functional neuroimaging and psychopharmacology. Progress in Neurobiology 55 (4):343-361.
(RE)
Robbins T, Everitt B (1995) Arousal Systems and Attention. In: Gazzaniga M (ed) The
Cognitive Neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge MA (USA), pp 703-720. (SL QP 411)
Smith A, Nutt D (1996) Noradrenaline and attention lapses. Nature 380: 291. (RE)
Further reading
Robbins TW (1997) Arousal systems and attentional processes. Biol Psychol, 45 (1-3) 57-71
(RE)
Carvey PM (1998) Drug Action in the Central Nervous System. Ch 2. University Press,
Oxford. pp 19-46. (SL QV 76.5)
Further reading
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Nutt D (1999) Alcohol and the Brain. British Journal of Psychiatry 175: 114-119. (RE)
Task 8 MOSA
Kay (2000) Effects of antihistamines on cognition and performance. J Allergy Clin Immunol
105, S622-S627 (RE, T 0473)
Lin JS (1998) The brain histaminergic system and arousal mechanisms (RE)
Wickens CD & Hollands JG (1999) Engineering psychology and human performance (3 rd Ed).
Ch 2. Signal detection, information theory and absolute judgement. Up Saddel River, Prentice
Hall. Pp 18-44 (SL BF 496)
Further reading
Schwartz JC, Arrang JM, Garbarg M, Traiffort, E (1995) Histamine. In: Bloom FE & Kupfer DJ
(Eds) Psychopharmacology the fourth generation of progress. New York, Raven Press. Pp
397-405. (RE, SG QV 77)
Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CB (1999) Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment
of mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry 46 (9): 1219-33. (RE)
Further reading
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Jentsch JD, Taylor JR (1999) Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug
abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology
146: 373-90. (RE)
Koob GF (1998) Drug Reward and Addiction. In: Zigmond MJ, Bloom FE, Landis SC, Roberts
JL, Squire LR (eds) Fundamental Neuroscience. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1261-1277.
(SL WL 100)
Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1999) Drug addiction: bad habits add up. Nature 398: 567-70. (RE)
Video
V2960: Verslaafd aan genot - Addicted to pleasure (1998, 6 Sep) VPRO, 25 min,
Noorderlicht- Dutch- and English with Dutch subtitles. Sequel on addiction, part 1.
V2961: Vrij van verslaving? - Free from addiction? (1998, 13 Sep) VPRO, 25 min.
Noorderlicht - Dutch- and English with Dutch subtitles. Sequel on addiction, part 2
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Tasks
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Jim went over to his parent's house where he ran into his mother. She asked him why he wanted
sleeping pills. After he explained his situation, she warned him not take flurazepam. It always gave her
terrible hangovers. She now uses temazepam and wakes up bright and shining.
Jim's mother has been using sleeping pills for some years now. She started having problems sleeping
when she was little over 45. It did not surprise her. Many of her friends have the same complaints:
lying in bed awake for hours, tossing and turning and worrying about family and work.
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At first her physician did not want to prescribe sleeping pills. He asked her about all her habits in
the evening, what she ate and drank, and what she did in the bedroom! He advised her to improve her
"Sleep Hygiene". However, when that did not seem to help he finally prescribed the sleeping pills she
wanted. She has tried a few times to sleep without them: when she finally falls asleep, she has terrible
dreams.
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In both subjects, at the start of the first task a) heart rate decelerated and b) EEG changed to
high frequency, low voltage activity
Physiological responses were strongest to the first stimulus and rapidly diminished thereafter
On average, skin conductance was increased during both tasks, while heart rate was
decreased during auditory attending and increased during problem solving
The higher the heart rate and blood pressure of the subject at baseline, the smaller the
changes measured during task performance
Many of the responses above are regulated by activity in two functionally different parts of the
autonomous nervous system. All, but one, of the nerves in those systems synapse in a ganglion
before they project on their target organs. Many, but not all, organs are innervated by both systems.
The effects differ depending on the system that is most active. Heart rate is mainly regulated by the
one system, while vascular tone is mainly regulated by the other. Moreover activity in one of the
systems provokes release of a hormone from the adrenal gland, producing effects throughout the
body. Preganglionic neurons of both systems release the same neurotransmitter, while postsynaptic
neurons release different neurotransmitters.
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After a night without sleep, people perform worse than after a night of good sleep.
However, after a night of sleep loss noise has a positive effect on performance.
normal
sleep
Performance
Performance
0,5
sleep
deprivation
normal
sleep
0,5
sleep
deprivation
0
Quiet
Data A
Noisy
Quiet
Environment
Noisy
Environment
Data B
Below are two models of human performance. Which data does each model predict?
Modalities
Capacity to
perform task
Stages of Processing
Encoding Central Responding
Spatial
Auditory
Verbal
Model 1
Res
p
Manual
ons
e
Vocal
Model 2
Visual
Sp a
tial
Ver
Cod
bal
es
Model 3
- 20 23
Portion used to
perform task
- 21 -
Experimental studies employing a selective attention task (Eriksen Task) have shown that
amphetamines improve both motor and cognitive processes.
Antipsychotic drug can reduce positive symptoms in schizophrenic patients but may also
exacerbate negative symptoms
Classical antipsychotic drugs cause EPS whereas atypical antipsychotic drugs do not.
At first glance, above findings seem contradictor but fall into place when considering the functional
and regulatory roles of DA projection systems in the brain.
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...
I
The (side) effects of medicinal drugs on performance are determined by several studies. For example
studies in which:
Subjects are tested at different times after drug intake (e.g. 0.5, 1.0 1,5, 3, 6, 12, 24 hours
after intake)
Subjects are treated for several weeks and tested at weekly intervals.
II
Subject A consumed 3 glasses of beer after fasting for at least 4 hours. Subject B consumed 4
glasses of beer in combination with a plate of chips. Their blood alcohol concentrations (BAC, in
mg/dl) were measured at 10 minute-intervals during 2.5 hours after consumption. Alcohol and food
were consumed within 30 minutes before the start of BAC measurement.
Figure 1. Blood Alcohol Concentrations (BAC, in mg/dl) over time of Subject A (triangles) and Subject B
(squares)
III
Rose: "I turn red after one glass of wine; after two I'm tipsy; after four you can carry me off."
Margaret: "I usually stop at a maximum of five glasses, beyond that I'll quickly get drunk."
Bert: "Every Saturday, I drink more than 10 beers with the people in the brass band. I just get in the
mood."
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TASK 8. MOSA
I
Harry worked via a temporary employment agency at the MOSA factory. Well, worked? He sat in a
comfortable chair the whole day looking at tiles passing by on a conveyor belt. The only thing that he
had to do was push a button when a tile with a "visually perceptible defect" passed by. The machine
then removed the tile from the conveyor belt. Every two hours he had a 15-minute break.
The first day, however, was not easy. His boss had said that quality was very important, so Harry
did not hesitate to reject tiles with the slightest defect. To his surprise his boss was not pleased.
According to his boss, Harry not only removed all the defective tiles but also a large number of tiles
that were just fine. He should be a little bit less critical the next day.
After the second day, Harry was asked to report to his boss again. He was told he had missed a
considerable number of tiles with defects. He seemed to pay attention only for a few minutes in the
beginning of the shift and then started to make mistakes. What was the problem?
II
Sally, a colleague of Harry's, told him she nearly fell asleep during work once. She believed it had
something to do with the medication (Tavegil) she took for hay fever. It made her feel tired.
According to the package insert label, the active ingredient was clemastine. Her doctor had prescribed
it: "It's a good antihistamine, I've prescribed it for years". A yellow sticker on the box read: "This
medication may influence your reactions. Use with caution when driving a car or operating dangerous
machinery." Sally had read it but had not paid much attention to it until she had dosed off at work. She
now uses eye drops and a nose spray and never has problems.
"I have hay fever, too," said Harry, "but I bought something at the drugstore." He had the box in his
coat pocket: "Zyrtec, contains 10 mg cetirizine per tablet" was specified on the package. He did not
see a yellow sticker anywhere and had thrown the package insert label away. He also had not used
the medication during the past week. That evening, he looked up both of the medicines in the
Pharmaceutical Encyclopedia. He found Tavegil "Composition: clemastine Warning/ Caution: Use
can lead to slowed reactions and concentration problems:. One page further, he found Zyrtec. No
such warning.
[NB. Registered drugs always have a trade name and a so-called generic name. Trade
names are indicated by the and differ per country. Generic names refer to the active
ingredient and are therefore always the same. Scientific papers use generic names.]
(continued on next page)
III
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A series of experiments registering the EEGs for animals (kittens, rabbits) across a period of 24 hours
revealed the following:
Intracerebral injection of histamine, in particular in the posterior hypothalamus, led to increased
alertness.
Injection of a specific inhibitor of the enzyme involved in the synthesis of histamine led to
decreased alertness and increased deep sleep.
Administration of a specific H1-agonist led to increased alertness and decreased deep sleep and
REM sleep. A specific H2 -agonist was not found to do this.
Administration of an H1-antagonist led to decreased alertness.
Administration of a specific H3 antagonist led to increased alertness.
The activity of histaminergic neurons displays a circadian rhythm.
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Activation;
Reward, Reinforcement;
Dependence, addiction;
Sensitization;
Tolerance;
Impulsivity;
Withdrawal
Negative affect;
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