*

STUDY

ENGLISH
By

JESSIE

NEW

YORK:.

AMERICAN

OF

WORDS
MACMILLAN

CINCINNATI:

BOOK

ANDERSON

CHICAGO

COMPANY

1897,

Copyright,

by

COMPANY.
AMERICAN

BOOK

STUDY

OF

w.

WORDS

BNQ.

P.

17

TO

Cfte

WHO,

HAS

Ee"erenti

STUDENT

OF

TAUGHT

TO

LOOK

AND

FROM

FOE

BOOK

iWiarsfjall

ANCIENT

ME

OF

THIS

Sameg

MY

THE

OUR

ENGLISH

IS

LOVINGLY

266949

antiergon

MODERN

EARLY

HIDDEN

LANGUAGES,

CHILDHOOD

BEAUTIES

SPEECH

INSCRIBED

PREFACE

of

study

The
find

rightful

its

place, parallel

Trench

Archbishop
works

words,

were

position

as

on

very
of

late

based

they
This

with

is
the

beginning
study

followers,
but

this

of

far

White,

to

lish
Eng-

the

nality
origiof

advantage

deeper

accepted

From
the

claim

their

in

direction.

cannot

we

have

we

the

Grant
in

pioneers

than

their

little

Richard

scholarship,

trustworthy

more

and

leaders,

these
of

records

language

as

literature.

as

our

English

broader

and

traditions

the
and

which

on

statements.

book

believed

is

be

to

first

the

effort

to

bring
the

within

latest

schoolroom

discoveries

After
is

Trench

indebted

to

of
and

Whitney

White

and

and

Columbia

University

the

of

his

table

for

book

is

Although
Grammar

most

lish.
Engauthor

the

and

Professor

kindly

allowed

word-origins

distinguishing

at

46).
the

to

has

form

about

Skeat,

Emerson

of

sight (page

students

language

Jackson
use

schoolbook

and

scope

Rhetoric

and

meant

the

as

History

stepping-stone
of

English

from
Litera-

PREFACE

by

ture,
of

each

by

more

It

an

know

of

more

increasingly

hope
the

toward

the

set

time

their

charm

if

of

Topics

the

at

work

varied

and

classes,

author's

the

elastic

original

advanced

help

shall

feel

chapter,

is

may

of

means

be

may

close

done

desired.

this

that

when

boys

our

English
and

elementary

worth

tongue,
of

their

work

and

girls

and

shall

language

inheritance.
J.

April,

1897.

M.

A.

CONTENTS

OF

TABLE

CHAPTER

I
PAOK

Principles

General

Difference

Organic
"

between
Dead

Language

of

Organism

Languages

Indo-European

Growth

Family

and

of

Consonants;

Grimm's

being

used

Different

Nations

Words

by
of

Danger

Mistaken

Growth

and

How

Jutes

Words

it travels

as

the

Latin

Early English
Modern
Early and
Greek

II

in-

of

English,

Compound

23

Traces

Arrival

Ecclesiastical

French

of

Words

Etymologies.

changes

Language

Element,

in

English

of

Position
Celtic

Vowels,

Change

Growth

is
The

and

Law,
;

Language

Descendants

Consonants

CHAPTER

Origin

and

Classification
upon

Mechanism

Ancestry

Alphabets

of

English

German

the

Tribes,

Scandinavian

and

Wyclif

English

graphical
Geo-

Invasion,

Angles,
Norse,

Saxons,
Norman

Differences

Chaucer,
; Other

; Technical

of

Roman
"

or

English, Spelling

in

Influences

tween
be-

Elements

Terms

; a

in

Simpler

Classification.
CHAPTER

Greek,

Latin,

French

and

III

Elements

English

in

specially

Considered

Greek,
with

Lists

Saxon
;

34

Latin, and
of

French

Stems

Derivatives,

under

Element

; Hints

Diagram

showing

for

Each

of

CHAPTER
Growth

and

Roots

Greek,
;

Change
; Stems

Latin,

Form

in

of

; Inflectional

French,

Weakening

of

Description,
Traits

Distinguishing

of

the

ing
testing Origin by Spell-

approximately

Proportion

General

"

in

Elements

English.

IV
Words

English

Change

Compounds,

Suffixes,

English;

Endings.
7

"

Greek,

50

Prefixes,
Latin,

"

lish
Eng-

TABLE

CONTENTS

OF

CHAPTER

rAOE

Spelling

The

Latin-English

of

from

Derivatives
Words

forming

Verb

Noun

in
Exceptions ; Exercise
in
-ble ;
; Adjectives

Stems

Verb

Stems

Latin

from

from

Derivatives

66

Weakened

Stems;

VI

CHAPTER
Growth

Change

and

in

Words

70

Meanings ; Principles of Change ; Change

of Meaning,
in
to Mental
Meaning
; Transfer
traced
and
Saxon
in
the
Growth
Words
of
History
;
of Meaning.
; Narrowing

VII

CHAPTER
Latin

Words

of

of

Development
from
Physical
Latin

Meaning

the

Forms.

Saxon

and

the

Effect of
Saxon

the

Words

and

Latin

Element

Latin

82

English

Choice
of

Saxon

Elements

between

Latin

and

Saxon

Science

Exact

of

; Character

Use

the

Words
of

Saxon

Language
; Proper
Vocabulary at Different
Proportion of Latin and Saxon
Periods, with Quotations from Representative Writers.

CHAPTER
The

Artist's

and

of

Use

Scientist's

the

Association
in

VIII

Words

Value

of

of

93

Associative

the

Element

Illustrations.

Meanings;

CHAPTER
'^

Words

IX

Synonyms

98

Meanings, by Derivation, Development,

of Several
Groups of Synonyms,
;

with

Synonyms,
Arnold

No

Choice

Absolute

Synonyms

Illustrations
of

Words

from
in

and

Association

with

Value

of

tinctions
Regard to DisDistinguishing

and

Shakespeare

Argument

in

amination
; Ex-

Matthew

Persuasion

and

Diplomacy.
CHAPTER

Rhythm

Ill
Prose

Prose

Accent

Rhythms

; Recurrence

illustrated

of Unaccented
from

Stevenson

Syllables ; Value
and

Dr.

R.

of

S. Storrs.

OF

STUDY

ENGLISH

WORDS

CHAPTER

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Difference
the
tree

child
a

The

little
did
and

door,
We

of

say
it

which
house

house

is

building,

each

day,

or

we

can

It

was.

For
and
names

is

these
those
:

we

adding

only

have

have

in

put
"

say,

of

ten

front

the

house

shoot

thing
some-

up

this

what

the

while

been

has

of

rows

more

of

bigger, stronger

than

It

is

of

things,

the

then

story,

one

staircases";

the

the

tree

and

just

laid

roots,

tiny

the

in

out

of

ground.

first

seen

the

never

branches

and

on,

point

They

''

the

out

be

may
can

set

within

swell

parts

little

kitchen,

grew^

was

by

"

''They

it

was

of

that

is

house

few

from

that

difference

The

bricks,"
tree

the

enlarged

was

another.

done

made

little

There

and

inches

tree

built.

was

with

One

"

tree

the

small

with

three

the

and

began

and

GROWTH

Mechanism.

house

tree

begin

roof

and

tree, while

trunk,

not

LANGUAGE

Organism

child

house.

house

OF

between

once

weak

that

between

differences
was

the
it

developing."
two

which

Organism

classes
are

and

made^

"

Mechanism.
9

we

which

those

"

have
The

two

first

^r^ow

important

question

10
of

STUDY

our

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

which

present study is, To

class does

Language

belong ?
examining

In

the

history of
primitivelanguage,we find that its parts are not brought
togetherall ready-made, like bricks for a house, but begin
as
baby words and grow to maturity,changing as a boy's
and recognizablein their
features change ; yet the same,
and hands
are
developed forms, as the boy's nose
nizable
recogman's.
Like
in the grown
a
tree, again, the
is irregular; language sends
out
growth of the whole
an
unexpected shoot here, and there it loses a branch
through scanty supply of sap at that point. The many
in which
be
language life is like tree life may
ways
guessed from the student's use of the words
root^ stem^
branch, to express the facts of language growth.
The
guage
deeper we go, the clearer it becomes that a lanis Organic ; that like a tree, like a human
being,
it has life and
the stages of life, childhood, maturity,
Language

is

Organic.
"

"

old age, death.

its
language dead when
life as a language is finished, though as a literature it
still live and
thought. Such a literature
may
convey
is not unlike a mummy
of a man's
as
livingappear; and
ance
his mummy
and
brings down to us very slight
vague
notion, so of the beauty and richness of an ancient tongue
miss much
when
we
we
study it as a dead language.
Another
Ancestry and Descendants.
sign of organic
be
and
life, long lines of ancestors
descendants, may
traced in languages as
in men.
Take, for example,
Latin.
It is a dead
language, but it has left many
When
the
Romans
quered
living children.
fought and conDead

Languages.

"

We

call

"

"

the

savage

these tribes learned

tribes
to

in
use

the

countries

the

Latin

around

tongue.

them,
So

the

took

Latin
we

and

root

call

now

well

Italy;

her

children,

or

at

one

like

unlike, with

Thus

these.

places which
Portugal. Like a

human

lands

mother, Latin

others

like

or

these

in

scattered.

children

of

as

left
And

the

same

apart, these all grew

up, alike and
yet
family features, and individual variations

educated

stock

in the

and

home, the

transplantedtrees,

like

on

Spain

11

GROWTH

died, it left offshoots

it

in

and

LANGUAGE

shoots

out

sent

France

tree, when
as

OF

PRINCIPLES

GENERAL

have

we

the

Roman') languages of Modern

family tide is like this :

Romance

('from
And

Europe.

the
their

"

LATIN

Italian

The

Indo-European

Latin

tell

must

we

that

go

there

French

Spanish

Family.

back

to

"

Portuguese

For
vaguer

the

ancestors

record.

of

Scholars

which
originalfamily
they
and that it gradually spread
call the Indo-European
and
covered
large parts of Asia and
nearly all of
Europe. Of the common
grandmother tongue we have
But
there seem
to
a
nothing left,not even
mummy.
have been eight branches
in this family tree.
will
We
look at these, leaving out some
of the unfamiliar
names
in order
attention
to give all our
to the more
tant
imporus

was

an

"

"

ones.

These

eight

directlyfrom
from
are

one

very

branches

the

another.
much

not, however,

originaltrunk, and
From

alike

it is clear that
Italic),
been
separated so long

others.

did

the

at

fact that

even

some

all

sprout

distances
of

Hellenic
(especiallythe
these, for example, have
from

each

other

as

from

them
and
not

the

12

OF

STUDY

pi Aryan- 1

Indo-European

II Armenian

their
with

undoubtedly

alike
rV

to

is

Avestan,

the

to

nearest

the

become,

branches

various

lllyria)

of

words

the

do

Albanian (the language of

ancient

back

of the
parent
original form
speech. The farther back we
the Indogo in the history of
European languages, the more

Attic Greek

"

guages
lan-

Sanskrit,

but

kindred

the

these

traced

be

source

original
tongue,

of

none

can

Ill Hellenic

have

we

of the

remnant

no

Persian

old

therefore

"

said,

Sanskrit

j
]
fAvestan

Iranian

been

has

As

Vedic
Indian

WORDS

ENGLISH

"

the simple, familiar,

especially
words,
pointing to
necessary
"

the

PUmbrian
Oscan

I"

Italian,French
iSpanish,Portuguese
(

'

Gaelic

guage
the lan-

formed
of

Gallic

"

"

an

original childlike
of
speech, variations
which

Britannic

in

roots

same

tant
dis-

our

Welsh, Cornish

ancestors

Irish,Scotch-Gaelic,Manx

while

they were
still living near
Prussian, Lithuanian

EOld

another

one

in

Russian, Bulgarian
Bohemian,

Polish

common

some

But

home.
Norwegian

this

originalhome

Icelandic
-

L-VIII Teutonic

wjiere

Gothic

"

Scandinavian

High German

"

"

was,

Swedish

Europe

Dutch
Low

or

in
in

German
Frisian

whether

Danish

German

Asia,

can

never

Flemish

[ English

determined.

ably
probbe

GENERAL

From

the chart,Latin

LANGUAGE

OF

PRINCIPLES

and

English

are

the

much

same

her aunts, Greek

from

and

to

seen

Family, but not to the same

English language is Teutonic, though she
to

13

GROWTH

Branch.
has

belong
The

inherited

Latin, and has borrowed

largelyfrom her cousins,especiallyFrench, and from her

Modern
sisters,especially
(calledHigh
(High) German
the high lands, while the twin
Low
because spoken on
German
languages,Dutch and English,or Anglo-Saxon,
the lowland tongues).
were
This is but a hint of the vast study of the Genealogy of
Languages. Let us now look at one great trait of every
developed language, the mode of writing it, and trace
therein the laws of heredityand growth.
Development of

Written

Characters.

The

"

earliest written

language of which we know anything is the picture

writing of the Egyptians,called the Hieroglyphic,from
the Greek
words
because it
meaning 'sacred carvings,'
used to carve
From
in stone
the priestlyrecords.
was
these hieroglyphics
opment
trace the stages in the develwe
can
of alphabets.
The hieroglyphics
of things.
rude pictures
were
actually
If one
wished
he made
to write sun
a
or
picture,
moon^
somewhat
The

we
or

like

second

our

modern

almanac's

O,

^.

the

drawing of one thing,to represent

several words
sounding alike ; as if,for instance,
should make
either pear
the pictureof a pear, to mean
little sign to show which was
pair or pare^ with some
stage was

intended.
This

soon

led to the third

In this,each

instead
figure,
representeda syllable.
The
a

fourth

letter,and

step was

stage of writing,the Syllabic.

of

to have

this is the

real

a
representing

whole

word,

figurerepresent only
beginning of an alphabet.
each

14

STUDY

The
we

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

picturesbegan to have fewer and

have, for example, the Phoenician

fewer

strokes

sign ",

till

which

the

Greeks

to A.
So
changed to A and the later Romans
Egypt was
probably the birthplaceof the alphabet now
used over
nearly all Europe.

In

of the

some

Roman

numerals,

find

we

of the

traces

old

picturewriting. I,II, III,IIII may have arisen from

the holdingup of the fingersin counting.
Our

Saxon

Runic.

The

or

Runic

written
letters,

because
can

they

see

of these

trace

letter called

writing,called

alphabet consisted of sixteen Runes,

almost
wholly in straightlines,partly
carved

were

kind of

another

had

ancestors

thorn^]"

in stone

old

Runes

th.

our

"

like y, and that is the

the is so often written
ye or

hard

and

in

This

We

Anglo-Saxon

letter looked
that

reason

It

y^.

an

woods.

was

the

what
some-

old

English
and
really'})e,'

always pronounced 'the.'

was

In

the

nation

part of the

latter

began

to

use

the

sixth

Roman

century, the

alphabet, and

eleventh

century they had the Black-letter

writing it (the origin of the present German
The

two
are

present forms

named

from

came

English
in

method

the
of

type).

Italy,and

ingly
accord-

"

The

Roman

The

Italic

"

"

A,

a.

A,

a.

languages inherit,and hand

down
with slightchanges, such specialfeatures as alphabets,
be found
in a tribe or
just as a particularnose
may
for generation after generation.
family,distinguishable
We
how
such
shall now
see
special features help us
languages and
greatly in tracing the originof modern
We

have

dialects.

now

shown

that

GENERAL

Resemblances

words

Such

often

recognizableby
a

student

have

Of

"

the

course

signs of family relationshipsamong

that

the Words

are

15

GROWTH

in Words.

Changes

and

distinct

most

LANGUAGE

OF

PRINCIPLES

will

appear

so

who

looks

one

in them

see

in

common.

be

hardly
while
carelessly,
to

as

them

at

deep

have

they may
changed

guages
lan-

likeness

that

could

not

by chance.

come

growth, there is no absolute regularityin

these changes ; but again, as in all growth, there are
underlying and general laws. The law of the Variation
of Consonants
in the Indo-European family of languages
discovered
and his brother,and is
was
by Jacob Grimm
called Grimm's
Law.
(These are the famous Fairy Tale
the fairytales,
Grimms, and the law is as interesting
as
when
takes the time to understand
it fully.)
one
all

in

As

Consonant
name

Vowel.

and

from

comes

the

'sounding with '; and

because

they

sounded

when

wliich were
word

from

is

Latin

with

vowel

themselves

the Latin

to

was

vocal

"vocal"

those

by

except

letter sounds

called

were

modified
vocalis,

means

class of sounds,

be

while

The

which

one

to

consonant

consonans^

given
thought not

were

of

What

"

Vowels

the French

(a
form,

voyelle).
This
sounds

distinction

is not

of the consonant

alone,as with
clearly,
of degree of openness
the freest,because
the throat and
true
or

the breath.
are

vowel.

The

closeness.

or

The

accurate.

for instance,can

the breath

mouth

most

be sounded

distinction
The

is allowed

vowel
to

sounds

as

is rather
are

through

pass

with the least obstruction

sounds

two

while the

shaped by the palateor tongue

teeth, considerably
obstructing the passage of

consonant

lips or

5,

the

All
varied

are

vocal

by

sounds, whether

the

variation

of

vowel
the

or

shape

nant,
conso-

of

the

16

STUDY

throat

ENGLISH

OF

mouth, while

and

WORDS

breath

the

is

passing through

instrument
shape of the cavity in a wind
In the vowel
determines
the qualityof its tone.
sounds,
the breath
the
is, simply, shaped. In the semivowels
breath is slightlyobstructed in its passage.
In the true
consonant
sounds, the breath is actually blocked in its
the

just as

For

exit.

instance, the

sound

vowel

(as

shaped by freelyopening throat, mouth,

giving the least possibleobstruction to the
is

the breath.

The

is somewhat

closer,the breath

passinginto

sound

of the semivowel

the a-sound.

closed^in less

or

The

called Labial
If
If
If

by
by
by

consonant

of

passage

(as in water)

obstructed
slightly
true

"

before

sounds

are

"

If closed

by

the

lips,
they

(j9,S,/).

the teeth.Dental

(t^d^ tJi).

the throat.Guttural
the

Breathed

There

"

and

father^
lips,

greater degree.

Classification of Consonants.
are

in

(^,g^ K).
palate,Palatal (/,ch).
and Voiced Q'Hard'' and
Consonants.
Soft'')
'-^

is another

classification of these true

consonants,

equally clear,and

though,
equally recognizedby authorities,alunfortunately,
variouslynamed.
By comparing
the sounds of p and J, t and c?,c (k) and ^, it will be found
thatp,f,c can be pronounced simplyby expellingthe breathy
while 5, d, g requirethe use of the vocal chords as well.

The
and

two

Voiced.

/ (
with

which

classes have

been, therefore,called Breathed

the AspiIncludingwith these consonants

rates
build up a little table
th^A, we may now
jt?^),
of Grimm's
Law :
to illustrate the principles
"

Law.

Grimm's
in

words

OF

PRINCIPLES

GENERAL

of
principle

The

"

the

from

down

coming

LANGUAGE

17

GROWTH

Grimm's

Law

is that

Indo-European, or

in

of this

familyto another, have

according to these columns.
changed their consonants
For examThat
is to say, the change is not by chance.
ple,
the Latin and Greek
p is in English an /; while
the Latin and Greek / is in Englishchanged to I. (All
passing from

these

are

givento

branch

one

in the

column, and differ

same

the breath,being closed at the

For instance,we

have

find another

We

in force of check

place.)

same

"

illustration of the

law

changed to an English hard,

into an
English t\

soft
Latin

duo

regularrotation

Grimm

sical
clas-

Greek

or

"

Greek

The

in the

If A

Latin

English

duo

two

of consonants
for

is written

is thus summed

Aspirate,V

Breathed, the followingtable

will show

by

up

for Voiced, B for

the differences

"

readilymemorized by noticingthat,whether
read vertically
have AVB,
VBA, BAV.
or horizontally,
we
There is,then, a regularchange of consonants, in words
appearingin different branches of the same family. Let
notice another regularset of changes.
us
This

can

be

STIT.

ENG.

WOBDS

18

STUDY

in Consonant

Changes

found

consonants

and

harsh

to

easy

example,

(?( k), ^, or

Many

"

tongues of

the

do

French

the

nation, seem

one

and

nation

of

combinations

avoided

are

not

like

by

before

p.

takingfrom the
stomachus^ they put
spiritus^
combination, throwing the s
Hence

WORDS

Groups.

difficult to another
For

them.

ENGLISH

OF

in

such

Latin
an

in

back

words

front,

with

to

the

e.

as

scapus^
break the
We

have

thus the French

estomac.
escape, esprit,
like words, they afterwards

In many
find

we

and

"

Latin

French

schola

ecole

siudium

etude

Syllables Shortened
in words

change
in

dropped the

and

Dropped.
Latin

passing from

"

Another
to

frequent

French

is found

Those
syllablesthat follow
shorteningprocess.
accented
syllableof the Latin word are either cut
or
dropped altogether. For instance :

the

the

down

"

Latin

French

pdpulus
dngelus
Growth

of

in the

Compound

growth

of

peuple
ange

Words.

"

words, whether

ment
interestingelewithin their original

most

ing
language or in process of transfer to another, is the formof compounds.
For example, from such a combination
as

the

Latin

vera

mente,

'

with

true

mind,'

we

come

to

vraiment, 'truly.' And

compound as the French
French
this ending, -ment, becomes
the usual
suffix for
forming adverbs from adjectives; as our ending -ly,was
such

once

truly.

separate word, like ; true-like (German treulicK)

=

of

Danger
needs

One

"

before

up,

we

to

on

go

19

GROWTH

Etymologies.

Mistaken

taking

LANGUAGE

OF

PRINCIPLES

GENERAL

our

point
specialstudy
more

English tongue in its growth and changes; and

students.
These
that is an
earnest
warning to young
about, in the life and growth of any
changes that come
and
it is
language, often disguisethe word altogether,
only by the closest and most cautious historical study that
is with any certaintytraced.
the originof a word
Very
several laws
often there are
acting together,each of
be simple enough if acting alone, while
would
which
of all is very
the complex result of the interaction
puzzling.
of the

There

before

agree

mistakes

Many

corrected

be

about
later

by

certain

are

of

sure

words

an

must

ciple.
underlying prin-

already been made,

it is only in
investigations
; and

the latest dictionaries that

derivations

instances

of science,many

can

we

like laws ;

that look

coincidences

mere

branch

in every

for,as

and

also

are

or

have

is told whether

one

the offered

only acceptedfor lack of better

knowledge.
There

proved

to

be

line
ego.
same

have

words

are

And

do

not

look

alike, that

related,perhaps in
historically
is the

as

there

meaning,
no

that

are

which

case

words
have

historical connection

w4th

the

that look
been
;

as

words

can

be

direct genealogical

jT,je,ik, ich^

alike and

have

the

proved, nevertheless, to
the

Greek

holos and

the

Englishwhole,the Latin compono and the English compose.

tive
All language changes are especially
active in the formaperiod,the childhood of the language.
We
shall begin our
study of English,then, with an
of these early years and conditions of what
examination
call Angk)-Saxon.
we

20

STUDY

OF

ENGLISH

QUESTIONS
1.

What

2.

Give

and

CHAPTER

ON

is the difference between

five

of each

examples

and

growing

beingmade?

besides

process,

the

house

tree.

3.

How

4.

To

what
of

WORDS

the two

are

which

classes of

things named

class does

language belong?
Explain.
respects is language growth like the growth of a man

In
or

tree ?

5.

What

is meant

6.

What

is meant

by
by

7.

What

children

has

8.

From

what

9.

Write

"

dead

language ?
of languages?
families
"

"

"

Latin

left

tongue has Latin

us

herself descended

the

Indo-European family tree, as given.

Which
branches
two
to Europe ?
belong to Asia ? How
many
of this family does English belong ?
10. To what
branch
and to which
is she most
nearly related ?
Low
German
11. What
do we
?
mean
by High and
of writing ?
12. What
the earliest method
was
13. Through what
four stages did this pass, to reach
an
alphabet?
out

''

"

14.

Give

15.

What

numerals

the earlier forms

What

17.

Explain

18.

In

what

came

19.

How

20.

What

What

distinction
What
?

how

the

in the Eoman

we

we

?
to be written

came

century did
did

write

nation

our

it in

Black

y*.

use

the

Letter

Eoman
?

bet
alpha-

From

what

the

present mode of writing ?

traced among
are
languages ?
family relationships
the languages
is the law of consonant
change among

of the

22.

writing have
pictorial

the Eunes

were

When

country

21.

A.

our

16.

of

trace

of

"

"

Indo-European Family
is the

did this
is the

derivation

of the

called ?
word

consonant

What

imply ?
truer

distinction

between

vowels

and

sonants
con-

GENERAL

"

is all variation of vocal

23.

How

24.

In this sense,

semivowel,^'and
25.

LANGUAGE

OF

PRINCIPLES

"

sound

the exact

are

''

consonant

produced ?

distinctions of

sounds

classificationof

the

Give

what

21

GROWTH

"

vowel,"

Give

examples.
according to

consonants

the

closed.
they are partially
26. Give the classificationaccordingto the force of the check.
the table,combining these classifications.
27. Write
28. Give words
illustratingthe change of consonants
by
Also the mnemonic
table (mnemonic from
Law.
Grimm's
a
Greek word for ^memory').
found in many
two generalchanges in spelling
29. What
are
words
passingfrom Latin into modern French ?
30. Illustrate the formation
of compound words.
31. Explain the necessityfor caution in word
study.

pointat

which

IN

TOPICS

CONNECTION

[For
I.

Review

WITH

or

Look

words
principal
in Webster

up

alphabet
genealogy
III.

Some

Facts

When

was

ceased

about

signof

"

seal-muff

each class.
I.

of the words

history
development

"

characteristic
literature

Latin.

its classical
to be

umbrella

Chapter

family
language

classes
seal

the derivation

period?
spoken language?

into the countries

What

of

two

mine

Prepare an originallist under

The

Work]

Advanced

Organisms and Mechanisms.

In the followinglist distinguish
the
steam-engine family
nation
butterfly

II.

CHAPTER

now

Eoman

of these countries ?

long

How

What

was

took the Romans

Spain,Portugal?
left in the languages

called France,

conquest

is it since it

22

STUDY

IV.

Illustrations of the

yet

be

ENGLISH

OF

derived

words

that

fact

from

WOkDS

different
of

one

of this list

be

studied

to

are

roots, or
from

Dictionary; distinguish
referred

(The

Webster's

those

have
separate derivations,

to

least

at

original root.

different branches

alike and

look

may

from
words

tional
Interna-

which, though
a

origin

common

easilytraced.)
admiral, admirable.

date,fruit; date, time.

dock, three uses, as noun.

alder,elder,alderman.
annual, annular.

apparel,apparent.

fret,to

fret,to ornament,
gloss,polish; gloss,comment

arsenal,arsenic.
ash, the tree; ashes.
ball,social dance ; ball,a

tary.
round

and

verb, with

all its

meanings.
a
bill,of a bird; bill,

close,as
V.

tion
declara-

writing.
noun,

verb.
adjective,

Illustrations
but

tease ;

grate, parallelbars; grate, to

sound

object.
bank, as noun

in

distinct derivations.

ear, two

have

of
a

the
common

fact

harshly.

idea,idiot.

jet,of water; jet,ornament.

pile,a stake; pile,a heap.
ring,a sound; ring,a circle.
scale,in
that
root.

all

words

meanings.
may

(Study

look

each

word

unlike
from

Webster.)
amateur, amiable,

money,

capable,deceive,
cemetery, comedy, quiet,

rival,river,

discern,decree,critic.

preach,predicate,

ignore,agnostic,
fashion,
fact,deficient,

star,street,

double,ply.

Future
root

come

mint,

pathos, passion,

vision,envy,
ticket,etiquette.

chapterswill discuss how words from the

to vary either in spellingor in meaning.

same

CHAPTER

AND

ORIGIN

Language

How
is

through

daily
So

change.

that

people

life of

the

of
in

seen

was

use

the

of

youth

How

they

the

travel

people

man,

the

the

facts

of

especially true,

earlier
in

of

of

man

and

changes
of

boy

to

tain
uncer-

in

more

six
will

thirty-six

ture,
litera-

mouth

rude

very

the

book

as

of

periods

from

passing

recognize

travels.

of

comes

the

speaking

it

must

language

We

"

adopted

reach

have

Teutonic

family.
be

language

at

of

in

the

not

be

forty-six.

to

Caesar

get

language

the

books,

language

and

grow

growth

fixed

all, are

at

but

Language

Germanic

about

and

is

the

simply

are

Indo-European
in

of

become

hardly

at

This

"

chapter,

Like

sixteen,

tongue
of

Change.

last

You

different

very

to

seen,

come

they

as

origin

order

in

its words

spelling.
youth.

change

people

the

language,

and, if written

mouth,

its

living

study

Greatest

while

"

and

have

we

as

language.

before

language,

ENGLISH

Language,

"

growth

by

must

we

that

Period

Its

use

OF

GROWTH

changes.

thing.

living

II

first

by

it

carry

England,

foreign

branch
does

language

and

nation
How

over.

become

lish
Eng-

our

Germanic

or

But

that

seen

not

the

did

England's

had

gone

of

France

to

Britain

(ancient
23

as

well

Gaul)

to

as

is

Gaul.

Romance

The
lan-

24

STUDY

OF

WORDS

ENGLISH

why did not England receive a form

Roman
soldiers,as
language from the Roman
and Spain and Portugal ?
Or if the island rejectedthe Latin, why
her

preserve

native

Who

Celtic ?

Anglo-Saxons that brought in

speech?
of

Influence
the Romans
as

in Gaul

is that Britain

One

"

their rule

established
was

did

France

she

not

conquering

established

Position.

Geographical

never

and

did

the

were

old

of the

guage:

their Germanic

why

reason

fullyin Britain
island,which they could

an

so

reach

in their small
only by crossing a rough channel
From
of transportingsoldiers,
and
boats.
this difficulty
of getting prompt
reports of native uprisings,as well as
from a varietyof causes
lying in the nature and habits of
the barbarians
themselves, the Romans
always had great

keeping track of the constant rebellions among

these Britons and quellingthem.
And, though Caesar had
of the fifth
crossed as earlyas 65 B.C., we
find the Romans
century a.d. abandoning the island and withdrawing their
legions.
trouble

in

Traces
Romans

in
had

such

words

were

names

as

from

took

had

but
form.

the

from

Invasion.

of their

trace

"

Of

the

course

language, but

most

of

reallybecome part of the island speech

things introduced by the Romans, for

new

there

was

no

still have

we

Thus

Roman's
the

the Roman

some

course,

many,

changed
"

left

of

which, of
not

English of

Latin

we

some

measure,

of

These

them

they
via^ 'paved way.'

say

strata

word.

native

street^

milia

as

passuum^

in

slightly

said

Mil
'

were

street^

they

thousand

To
this period belong also
paces,'and we write mile.
the
endings, -caster^ -cester^ or -chester (Latin castra,
'camp'), and perhaps -coin (Latin colonia, 'colony').

So

we

still have

Lancaster, Worcester, Winchester, Lincoln,

ORIGIN

Celtic Element.

The

OF

GROWTH

AND

of this element

examination

The

"

25

ENGLISH

far from

complete that few

be made
with certainty. The
it can
about
statements
most
important Celtic words are place-names,especially
those of Scotland and Ireland : Aberdeen^ Aberfeldie(aher,
mouth '); Dunhar^ Dundee
(dun^ a protected place');
words
rowed
borKilkermy (kilU church '); and a few common
from Irish and Scotch : bog^erag^ whiskey.
of

language

our

is still

so

'

'

'

Teutonic

left Britain,some
the

between

Tribes.

of the German

Arrival

Sea

Baltic

thousand

two

and

the

them

few

the

and

lying

part of the Elbe

their

vocabulary of

own

words, includinga few words

with

Latin

the Romans

as

the lowlands

lower

origin{chalkySaturday^derived
their ancestors

soon

tribes from

pushed in, bringing with

about

As

"

through

the Romans.

With

Celtic words

referred

the

the

of Latin
contact

of

exception of
to

above, the

native

displaced by the languages of these

speech was
conquering Teutons, and these soon
began to be fused
the language of the island.
and to become
The Romans,
it will be
and
"

by

had

remembered,

600

by

of course,
have
for

now

"

alegant Latin

force

with

shown

Britain,

away
tribes

the three

a.d.

taken

went

fifth century,

"

edge

that there

the

Angles, Saxons, Jutes

ning,
large part of the island,begin-

the

in

were

We

the continent.

nearest

three

languages possible

Celtic,a for;n of the finished and

native

language, some

dialects of the Germanic

of the

combination

conquerors,

and

rough

that the tongue

look at the
We
now
adopted was Germanic.
actually
may
formation of this Anglo-Saxon parent of our
English.
ons'
Angles, Saxons, Jutes. The probabledate of the Sax"

first entrance
sixth

into

century, there

kingdoms, called

were

the

Britain

is the

seven

(some

Heptarchy,from

year
say,

the

449.

In

the

eight) distinct
Greek

words

26

STUDY

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

kingdoms.' Of these,the Jutes had Kent; the

had
Sussex
Saxons
(South-Saxons), Wessex
ons),
(West-SaxEssex
and
(East-Saxons); the Angles had the rest.
fewest and weakOf these three tribes,the Jutes were
est.

for 'seven

In the tenth

all the tribes

century,when

united

were

to the island,the Angles,

name
enough to give a common
it England (Angle-land),and
having the most land, named
the tongue English. Up to 1100, however, the language
is now
generallytermed Old English or Anglo-Saxon.
have
Ecclesiastical Latin.
We
alreadyspoken of two
of words
sets
wards
tribes,but afterforeignto the German
incorporatedinto Anglo-Saxon, the one taken from
"

the Romans

from

who

the

words

went

Celtic

native

tongue. A second
when, in 597, a band

introduced

was

missionaries

came

Rome

from

over

the heathen

in the fifth century, the other

away

to

customs
brought with them many
to the Church, and
belonging especially

received
Church

what
service

element

of this

as

itself

conducted

was

the

tianity
Chris-

aries
mission-

conceptions
Anglo-Saxon
Latin.

Ecclesiastical

is known

to

These
and

of Latin

of Christian

convert

tribes.

Anglo-Saxon

set

in Latin

the

The

Latin

only many
ecclesiastical terms
(altar bishop^churchy priest^
psalm)
but also a number
of common
names
words, particularly
of plants,animals
and foods (lily^
pea^ plantslobster^trout^
butter^cheese and others).
In 870
the Danes
Scandinavian
Norse.
or
began to
period includes,-however,

not

"

Britain, and

invade
is often

from

difficult to

the Saxon, but

five hundred.

suffixes

Among

-Jy, and

Oglethorp,

left

number

of

their

distinguishthe Norse
their
them

number
may

as
'thorp^ village,'
'

in

It

contributions

is estimated

be mentioned

words.

at

the

about

place-

by-laws^Whitby^

ORIGIN

Norman-French.
William

court

the
As

Normandy.

number

date
grown

of

1100, then, the

earlyEnglish,what
into English as

this

was

know

we

in

Norman-French

words

and

uses

educated

was

the

speech

common

In

"

of

of French

for fashionable

Early English.

who

consequence

the

into

of Edward,

vast

words

quest,
Con-

Conqueror brought in a court using

had already become
the
in fact, this use

fashion

crept

of the Norman

the
;

supremacy,

27

ENGLISH

In 1066, the year

"

Norman-French
in

OF

GROWTH

AND

the

thus

gradually
people, especially

manners.

year

from

which

we

Anglo-Saxon

which

it?

mainly, a

It was,

has

Germanic

tongue.,made up from a fusion of

the dialects of Angles,Saxons, and Jutes.
It had grafted
Latin words, received at two difit about six hundred
ferent
on
Teutonic

or

times

the first from

in

Latin, brought

taken

Again, it had
of the ninth
of the

the Confessor

up

Christian

few

and

the matter

William

more

English in
by

Danish

missionaries
words

from

after

697.

the invasion

it had

of Norman-French

table of these

by

century; and
use

earlyRoman

conquerors
in the fifth century ; the second. Church

left Britain

who

the

the

ence
begun to feel the influby the courts of Edward
Conqueror.

graftsupon a Teutonic stem may sum

clearly:
the Anglo-Saxon tongue, modified
was
"

1100

"

Celtic proper

1.

2.

Latin

words

for streets, etc., before

3.

Latin

words

of Church

4.

6.

Norman-French

By
three

few

native

few

1200

Danish

and

names.

the fifth

century.

scholar,after 597.

words, ninth century.

of court and high life,
after 1042.
educated

every

man

Avas

languages, English,French,
"

expected
and

Latin.

to

know

English

28

STUDY

the

was

For

unless

But

low

the

man

1272, when
of the

close

tongue.

of Gloucester

of Britain.

knows
to

fifteenth

Louns-

English :

"

French, he is little thought of,

English and

Edward

in

wrote

Professor

lines of it,put into modern

keep

men

language of polite

the scholar's

Chronicle

Englisha Rhymed
bury gives us some

the

century, Robert

In the thirteenth

From

WORDS

speech, French

common

literature,Latin

life and

"

ENGLISH

OF

I.

to their

to the

came

speech."

own

throne, on

to

used

in

century, French

was

public acts.
Influence

of

Wyclif and

then, for
of courage

which

Chaucer.

scholar to write
may

In the fourteenth

"

in

English took

easilybe underrated

courage on the part of two great writers

the first literaryEnglish.

tury,
cen-

degree

But

now.

did much

this

shape

to

of scholars who lacked insightinto

spiteof the scorn
the vast possibilities
and
of English,and still used French
forward
the fathers
came
as
Latin, Wyclif and Chaucer
of English literature.
lation
Wyclif finished his English transIn

of the
owe

of

much

Scripturesin 1380, and

the simplicity
and force

of later translations

Wyclif did

What

Chaucer
one

for the

went

we

peculiarbeauty

language and literature of

of the power and

language,and for one hundred

their work

and

that

of the Bible.

did for poetry and

had dreamed

it is to him

letters.

Before

beautylatent
years

unappreciated. Even

in

ligion,
re-

this,no

in the

lish
Eng-

after their death

1623, two

ries
centu-

quarter after Chaucer's death, Lord Bacon turned

his English works
into Latin, that they might be "preserved
and

"

thoughtof Latin as the universal and permanent

humble
language of learning,while English was a
speech for the less learned, and might die cut altogether.
!

For he

ORIGIN

OF

GROWTH

AND

29

ENGLISH

The
English.
Early and Modern
modern
English of Bacon and Shakespeare,though more
than that of Wyclif and Chaucer, is still not our
English.
Differences

Professor
read

between

Whitney

aloud

"

"If

we

one

of his works, it would

says:
from

scene

were

to hear

Shakespeare
be in

by reason
especiallyof the
part unintelligible,
his pronunciation and ours."
great difference between
To sum
up : the English of the Anglo-Saxon period,
although our own
English is descended from it,differs in
small

no

respectsfrom

certain

modern

our

for instance, from

Spanish.

able to understand

it

speechas

The

much

Latin,

as

written

English of the
sixteenth century, except for the chaotic spelling,
is for
the most
to us, though we
part intelligible
might not be
then

spoken.
Spelling. Johnson's Dictionary,
published in 1765, did
much
of English, and is by many
to fix the spelling
held
for some
of the lack of law or reason
therein
responsible
discoverable.
Spellingought to show the pronunciation
of words, and if possible,
at the same
time, the derivation,
while much
of our
spellingshows neither.
as

"

Other
a

Elements

general way,

influenced
far

There
:

are

"

Latin

other

shown,

in

French.

and

languages

Italian

Persian,Arabic, Turkish
For

now

English from Anglo-Saxon,

stages by Celtic and Danish, but

various

Spanish and

have

of

growth

many

We

English.

by
seriously

more

much

at

the

in

and

Modern
even

to

which

German
the American

we

owe

Hebrew,
Indian.

Italy,especially
in the period of the Renaissance, and their writings show
borrowed
strong traces of Italian influence ; words were
instance,English scholars

went

to

for the fine arts; e.g., canto^ studio^concert.

especially
Political dealings with
Spain, especiallyduring the
reignsof Mary and Elizabeth,introduced Spanish words;

30

e.g., don^

cigar.

The

from

the

taken

was

Italian

ENGLISH

OF

STUDY

suffix

WORDS

(as in Chinese^Maltese)
Spaniards,though modified by the
-ese

spelling.

brought England and the Netherlands

Dutch
into contact, and many
words, especiallyfor seafaring
anglicized;e.g., schooner^ sloop.
use, were
Biblical literature uses
a few
English words direct from
Reformation

The

the

Hebrew,

for the

as

of

names

chintz^indigo; and
Indian

words

Greek

of words.
not

recent

common

as

Oriental

derivatives

have

brought into English

importations; e.g., skawl^
borrowed

such

native

tobacco.

Words

the classics

German

use

have

Americans

canoe.,

Latin

and

speciallyin

Travelers

sciences, etc.

the

come,

Scholars

amen.

are

in

English.
"

Scholars

responsiblefor
of Greek

large element

and

trained

specialgroup

Latin

words

has

change and adoption,but by

in
direct borrowing; e.g., the following words
maxiin form : deficit^
use
are
unchanged even
by

slow

process

of

ORIGIN

OF

GROWTH

AND

climax^
stimulus^apex^ alumnus^ animus^ syllabus^
pathos^

mum^

delta.

Greek

used

have
especiallyscientists,

Scholars,and

impossibleto study the

without
intelligently
roots and endings.

sciences
Latin

Technical

Terms.

technical,such
words

as

the

and

classes of Greek

names

of

common

stillstrictly

families.

But

brought into

our

names.

words, then,

inventions,

new

been

have

and

practicaldiscoveries,for instance

have needed
electricity,
Of two

of botanical

nanies

the Greek

from

everyday usage,
of

the

as

are

ventions
in-

natural

of Greek

knowledge

of these terms

Some

"

also

for their classifications and

and Latin terms

until it is almost

many

31^

ENGLISH

"

we

of sciences

names

"

can

find

plenty of

examples.
Sciences

hence earth description,

Geo-graphy,earth-writhig,
Geo-logy,earth-word,hence earth-study.
Theo-logy,God-wordyhence study of God.

Inventions
at-a-distance sight.
Tele-scope,
Tele-phone,at-a-distance sound.
at-a-distance writing.
Tele-graph,

Simpler Classification,

It is

"

language as enfoldingso

our

generalpurposes,
Elements

of the

English Language.
A

Phono-graph,sound-writing.
Auto-graph,self-writing.
Photo-graph,light-writing.

many

confusingto
alien

elements.

simple twofold classification is used

f 1.

Latin

[ 2.

Saxon

:
;

words

of classical

native Teutonic

of

think

For
:

"

origin.

words.

styleis often described as containing a large proportion

of Latin words, or as being ^'almost pure Saxon."

32

STUDY

The

marks

characteristic

regard
future

stems, suffixes,and

the

French, and

and

the

is the

study of

study in a
more
exactly

in

Greek, Latin,

derivatives.

Saxon

What

shall

examine

us

with

classes

two

prefixes used

QUESTIONS
1.

these

style,we

first let

But

chapter.

WORDS

of

effect upon

their

to

ENGLISH

OF

ON

CHAPTER

connection

II

between

the

study of

people

language ?

2.

At

what

period does

3.

To

what

branch

language change

of the

rapidly?

most

Indo-European family does

the

English language belong?

4.

How

did it

5.

Why

did the

happen

to be

not

K/Omans

of the Latin

gain

never

foothold

branch

in Britain

as

in Gaul?
6.

In what

7.

What

8.

Have

9.

Who

10.
Draw

century

class of Latin

is the

the outline

relative

this

period?

is the date

12.

What

was

13.

When

14.

What

was

15.

What

class of

and

the three

settlements

of the

Saxons'

coming?

the

Heptarchy?

how

England so named ?
language called,up to 1100 ?
words
was
brought in by the

the

When

what

positionof

map.

What

In

belongs to

kept any native Celtic words ?

conquered Britain in the sixth century ?

11.

16.

words

Britain

we

What

leave

did the Eomans

was

Eoman

sionaries
mis-

century

did

the

leave

Danes

trace

of

their

language?
17.

When

18.

Give

and
a

how

short

was

review

Norman-French
of the

introduced

elements

of the

English

of

1100.
19.

Put

20.

In 1200

this in tabular
what

three

form.

languages

were

in

use

in

England

ORIGIN

21.

What

22.

What

33

ENGLISH

hold in the thirteenth

French

positiondid

of

great writers

two

OF

GROWTH

AND

English

lived

century?

in the

teenth
four-

century ?

specialvalue of the work of each ?

did Lord Bacon
regardEnglish ?
English modern ?
Shakespeare^s
it differ from
more
as
ours
spoken or as written
did the present spellingof English become

23. What
24.

How

25.

Was

26.

Did

27.

When

the

was

established ?
28.

In what

29.

What

are

Englishwords
30.
and

Latin

31.
from

bad
English spelling

before

of the sources, not

some

mentioned,of

Illustrate.

have

How

is

ways

English scholars

and

Greek

scientists used

in their treatises ?
of

specialclasses

What

words

borrowed

are

directly

Greek?

32.

Give

33.

What

illustrations.
twofold

classification of

is commonly
regard to derivation)

TOPICS

CONNECTION

IN

[For
I. The

short

Histories

II. Names
Look

(with

used?

WITH

or

words

Advanced

CHAPTER

Work]

in Britain.

Romans

Write

Review

English

of

gettingfacts from Caesar, from

England or Rome, and from any encyclopedia.
essay ;

of

English towns in -caster,-cester,-Chester.

these up on a largemap, or in a list of geographical

names.

III. Short
as

accounts

in any

given

IV.

Johnson's

V.

Additional
STU.

ENG.

of the

writingsof Wyclif and

standard English Literature

Dictionary;
Greek
words

names

consult the

Chaucer,
or

encyclopedia.

for sciences

or

inventions.

clopedia.
ency-

III

CHAPTER

GREEK,

ELEMENTS

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

CONSIDERED

SPECIALLY

somewhat

study

of

classes

how

learning

derivatives,

elements

in

contrasted

.three

Greek,

with

We

"

important

with

view

and

Latin,
and

another

one

now

may

most

English,

our

distinguish

to
as

the

detail

in

more

foreign

Derivatives.

French

and

Latin,

Greek,

ENGLISH

IN

to

French
Saxon

with

words.

Historically,
French

our

of

many

but

in
the

be

classed

that

with

the

took

Greek

As

taken
the
2.

that

Latin

As
came

From

adopted
language

last

from
so

the

in

this

chapter

them,

that

which

they

words

Greek

the

direct

part this

shall

we

those

Derivatives,

Derivatives

Roman

military

Augustine

mainly

Greek;

the

plainly modified

into

borrowing

(see

Chapter

class

they
had

have

to

reached

church

occupation

of

our

has

and

his

successors;

words.
34

have

English
been

II), those

Britain;

words.

"

which

"

mainly
From

have

directly from
most

been

have

and

Latin,

the

of

most

them.

Accordingly,
1.

from

borrowed

were

forms

the

case

tongues

we

words

II,

Chapter

in

seen

descended

were

Latin

each

by

when

w^ords
our

have

we

as

been

(for

recent).
words

GREEK,
the

From

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

scholars

and

monks

35

ELEMENTS

of the

Middle

Ages;

mainly scholastic words.

Derivatives,

French

As

various

for the most

words
3.

scholars;

modern

From

"

words, brought in from

Norman-French

reign of Edward

of the
educated

at

French

of

scholars

court)

the

Derivatives.
to

easy

few

are

so

1.

The

as

"

mandy
the loss of Nor-

the

The

introduced

words

thirteenth

centuries, and those of modern

Greek

to

beginning
(who was

(1042-1204).

both

French;

the

Confessor

the

the Norman

by King John
Parisian

purposes.

the

fourteenth

and

adoption.

Greek

and the
distinguish,
to be easilylearned :

by

words
stems

are

in

tively
compara-

common

use

"

five familiar

endings used
(compare end of Chapter II).

in

naming

Sciences

^word/ ^speech').
knowledge {log-,
"(o)logy,
science (nom-, law ').
"{p)nomy,
description{graph-,write').
'{p)graphy,
measurement
{metr-,
'{o)metry,
^measure').
from the feminine
adjectiveending -iMy used
-ic,-ics (suffix,
*

by
*

with the noun,

the Greeks

rhetorical art,^shortened
science

in this

'

case

e.g., mathematiM
we

have

added

techn^,*art' : e.g., rhetor

into our
rhetoric; or with

ike

techne,

episteme,
'

science ;
episteme, mathematical
shortened
s to the
form, making
'

mathematics).
with
endings -sophyand -logy^when combined
the stem
pMU are reallynot, as in this list of ejidings,
the less important,but the chief part of the compound :
love of wisdom
love of
philosophymeans
; philo-logy^
The

'

words.'

'

'

36

ENGLISH

OF

STUDY

WORDS

..

The

2.

forms

of

endings

have

common

more

of these

more

stems

been

"

aster, astr, star.

entom, insect.

bijlife.

ge, earth.
once

oeconomy,

opt, sight.

techn,art.

phon, sound.
physi,nature.

the,God.

the

to form

the

zo, animal.

knowledge of

few

Greek

commoner

derivatives

as

archaeology,this

stem

stems,

more

the

of

sense

the

to

recognize

them

meet

we

firstin

means

shall be able

we

derivatives,and

whenever

Greek

arch, archy, first (in

2.

chron,time.

With

1.

added

or

one

ancient.
archae, arcliai,

oiko, house; cf. economy,

such

which

to

rule).

In

"

archaic,

of ancient.

sense

crat, cracy, power.

Combine
of the

or

one,

following:

one

pair,of

endings with

these

"

hier,priestly.

pluto,rich.

auto, self.

hept,seven.

aristo,best.

olig,few.

demo, people.

patri,father.

alone.

mon,

an, without

One

; discussed

under

short,miscellaneous

more

ej**ch

micro, little.

Prefixes,Chapter IV.
list:
"

tele,at

distance.

amber, the substance in

pedia,
electr,
Compare en-cyclofirst
^in-a-circle (all-around) which
was
electricity

cycl,circle.

observed.

instruction.'
pan,
^

all.

Compare

view

in every

mim, mimic.
petr, stone.

pan-orama,
direction.'

seep

same

the

measures

of the

barometer

weight

or

atmosphere.
Compare petrify. crit, distinguish. Compare
pressure

critic,criterion,

din, lean.
meter,

baro, weight.

as

-metry above.

(skep),
scop, sight.

dynam, force.
polit,city.

GREEK,

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

37

ELEMENTS

learningof these stems by much and varied practice

in forming and
recognizing words, rather than by
memorizing stems, is earnestlyrecommended.
The

Latin
more

Derivatives.

"

The

Latin

the

Greek.

than

numerous

derivatives

are

far

Practically,they

be

recognizedby the Latin prefixes

often
and
not
are
suffixes,as the simple stems
used.
(See lists of prefixesand suffixes in the next
chapter.)
Let the student
the stems
carefullyexamine
given
below, and then analyze the subjoinedderivatives with
almost

are

reference

always

to

the

use

to

of

these

stems, both

in form

and

meaning.
do.
ig,act,drive,
alt,high.

ag,

anim, mind.
ann,

year.

gird.
cor,

cord, heart.
crown.

coron,

apert,

aper, apr,

round,
cing, cinct,sur-

corpus,

corpor,

body.

open.

apt, fit.

cred,believe.

art, art.

cur,

aud, hear.

curr,

aur,

gold.

brev,short.

care.
run.

dat,dit,give.

fac, face.
fac, fie,fact,feet,
make, do.
felic,
happy.
fer,bear.
fess, acknowledge.
Jid,faith.
Jin,end.
form, shape.
fort,strong.
frang, frag, fract,

cad, cid,cas, fall.

dent,tooth.
di,day.

cant, sing.

diet,speak.

fund, fus, melt.

capit,head.

dign,worthy.
dom, home.
domin, master.

genus, gener,
kind.

gest,carry.

dorm, sleep.
due, duct,lead.

grad, gred, gress,

step.

cap,
cam,

dp, capt, take.

flesh.

ced,cess,

move,

yield.
celer,
quick.
cent, hundred.

equ,

equal.

fa,fat,say.

break.

gran,

grain.

grand, great.

gen,

38

STUDY

gratf favor,thanks.

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

mir, wonder.

port, gate.
send.

hor, hour.

mitt,miss,

horr, shudder.

mon,

hospit,guest.

mort, death.

potent, powerful.

ject,cast.

mot,

prehend, prehens,

judic, judge.

mult, many.

junct, joined.

mu7i,

jm^, law.

7iat,born.

latjcarry.

nav,

leg,send.

not, known.

leg,lig,led,gather,
choose, read.

numer,

liber,free.

ocid,eye.

lin,flax,

par,

lingu,tongue.

par,

letter.
liter,

part, partit,divide.

loc,place.

pass,

loqu, locut, speak.

pat, pass, suffer.

ris,laugh.
7^id,

hid, lus,play.

past, feed.

riv,brook.

pater, patr, father.

rog, rogat, ask.

ped, foot.

rupt, broken.

pell,puis, drive.

sacr,

magn,

large.

older.
major, larger,
man,

mans,

remain,

dwell.
manu,
mar,

hand.

man,

advise.

move.

fortify.
ship.
number.

nunci, announce.

equal.
get ready.
step.

mater, matr,
mother.

pot, drink.

seize.

prim, first.
punct, point.

quadr, four.
quant, how

much,

quir, ask.

quer,

complain.
quiesc,quiet,quiet
quer,

radi,ray.
rapt, snatch.

rap,

rat, reason.
reg, rect,rule.

holy.

pen,

repent.

sal,salt.

pen,

aljiKTst.

sal,sil,suit,leap.

pend, hang, weigh.

sea.

stop, place.

pos,

sanct,

lished.
holy, estab-

pet, petit,ask.

pig,pict,paint.

sat, sa, enough.

medi, middle.

plac,please.

schol,school.

medic, heal.

pie,plet,fill.

sci,know.

plen, full.

scrib,script,write.

ment, mind.

plic,fold.

sec,

mere,

pay.

sen, old.

merg,

mers,

plum, feather.
plumb, lead.

mens,

measure.

dip.
migr, remove.

mingle,

pon,

posit,place.

port, carry.

sect,cut.

sent,sens, feel.
sequ,
serv,

secut, follow.

keep, serve.

GREEK,

AND

LATIN,

FRENCH

take.

sistystand.

sum,

sumpt,

soljalone.

surg,

S2irrect,rise.

sol,accustomed.

tang, ting,tact,
touch.

son, sound.

39

ELEMENTS

und,

wave.

ut, us,

vad,

use.

vas,

go.

val,be strong.

soii,lot.

teg,tect,cover.

ven,

spic,speet,sped,

temper, moderate.

vert, vers, turn.

temper, time.

vi, force.

tend, tent,tens,

vine,vict,conquer.

see.

spir, breathe.

stretch.

sta7it,standing.

vent, come.

vid,vis,see.

star.
stell,

test,witness.

viv,victu,live.

string,strict,bind.

tors,tort,twist.

voc, call.

stru, struct, build.

tract,draw.

volv,volut,roll.

sui,self.

rub.
trit,

vot, vow.

suad, suas, persuade.

trud,trus, thrust.
un,

Latin

one.

Derivatives

40

STUDY

OF

BN6IJSH

WORDS

GREEK,

LATIN,

Greek

3.

Derivatives.

French

that French

remember

To

"

is

one

draw
is

an

exact

line between

for
impossible,

of the later forms

English language there are

borrowed
directlyfrom the Latin:
1. Latin words
incorporatedin
they left Germany.
In

41

ELEMENTS

Derivatives

Derivatives

Latin

and

French

FRENCH

AND

the

four

we

must

of Latin.

classes of stems

"

Latin

2.

words

the

left in the British

Saxons' speech before

speech by

the

Latin

occupation.
words

taken

words

introduced

Latin

3.

from

the

Ecclesiastical

lary
vocabu-

of Rome.
4.

Latin

in the sixteenth

But

these bear

by

the Revival

of

Learning

century.
small

proportionin point of number to

the immense
Latin element introduced
into Englishthrough
French.
Those
French
tives
derivaas
only are distinguished
which underwent
marked
changes in the French use.
Two
classes of such changes in spelling
were
spoken of
in Chapter I, namely, the shortening
by which
process,
whole
be altogetherdropped ; and
the
syllablesmay
of coneuphonic process, by which a harsh combination
sonants
is broken
lables.
sylup by division into parts of two
Both
these changes were
illustrated by the Latin
word

studium^ written

French

and

in

Old

French

estude^ in Modern

the parallelderivative
English etude; compare
unmodified
by the French, study.

42

STUDY

Changes

due

of French
the

of

speak

It

to

shown

was

1.

"

of course,

was,

influence

The

Conquest.

Norman

in four

introduction

The

Norman

marked

most

at

Conqu^est, including,also, to
quest,
accurately,the period just before the Con1204
1042
to
all, from
(from the reign of
John's loss of the province of Normandy).

in

Edward

WORDS

ENGLISH

English

the

more
"

the

to

upon

time

OF

"

ways

of

"

number

vast

of Norman-French

words.
2.
Saxon
3.

introduction

The

prefixesor

largenumber

introduction

The

of old

Anglo-

resources

"

of

habits

new

habit

Anglo-

hybrids.

many
or

which

Teutonic

words

borrow

stems, which, with

new

marked

"

to

of

suffixes,formed

language growth.
The
Borrowing.
English from other
own

words.

Saxon
4.

correspondingloss of

tendencies

distinguishes
ness
namely, readi-

languages
instead of coining them
"

of

from

its

influence.

has been traced to the Norman

Anglo-Saxons found it an advantage to have both

native and foreignwords,
Saxon and Norman,
fold
twoa
treasury ; and the English have developedthis scheme
to its present proportions.
The

"

"

Introduction

of

New

actuallybrought into
though not so
introduced

in

the

Words.
the

"

As

the

to

language by the

numerous

fourteenth

as

the

new

Norman

FrencU

century, they
in at
they came

are

words
quest,
Conwords

tant
impor-

the earlier
study,because
formative period and became
part of the very foundation
Within
the years which
of the English language.
we
have
Period
(1042-1204) are
assigned to the Norman
for

counted

our

about

words
;

at

five

Chaucer's

hundred

of

these

death, in 1400, we

borrowed
find

French

nearlythirty-

GREEK,

five hundred

French

element
warp

with

LATIN,

43

ELEMENTS

English. The older (Norman)

from the Anglo-Saxon
distinguish

words

is harder to

which

FRENCH

AND

in

because,in obedience

it is interwoven,

to

are
more
general principlethat earlier combinations
often anglithe sound and spellingof a word were
so
vital,
cized
of the thirteenth
; while the later (Parisian)French
and fourteenth
centuries,and, in still greater degree,the
modern
French element, have more
nearlykept the French
sound and spelling.
In the followingpairs of words, the first is from
the

the

older,and the second from

Forsets of

chair,chaise

more

the

"

other

English the

suit,suite

general view,

words,

the

the later,French

from

the

first group

the

the

following

two

oldest French

latest; notice how

looks

"

ticket,
etiquette.

compare

from

one

borrowing:

ings,
borrow-

much

more

"

Early French

borrowings may also differ accordingto

the dialects from which they came.
For example, we find
doublets of the same
man,
period,showing a ch from the Norand

^-sound

from

another

dialect

e.g., chase^catch;

cattle.
chattel^

Marks
now

be

of French

given

for

Derivatives.

"

recognizingFrench

few

general rules may

derivatives

"

44

STUDY

1.

When

vowels, the

two

drop or
general

soften

ENGLISH

OF

Latin

stem

French
this

has

WORDS

between

consonant

one

shows

derivative

tendency

to

sounds

in

Consonant

consonant.

softened.

are

Most

in -que^ are
adjectives
derivation : as cavalier^sepulcher^
of French
unique,
3. Most
words
beginning with counter^ pur^ sur, are of
French
derivation : as counterpoint,
purpose, survey.
These
three
rules maj^ be summed
up in the general
2.

statement

very

nouns

that

much

derivatives.

in

-ier^-cher^and

words

most

changed

in

in

Latin

which

spellingmay

be

stems

classed

as

appear

French

GREEK,

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

Our

-English Hybrids.

Norman

"

45

ELEMENTS

third

the

class of Norman

Norman

(originally
often used with Anglo-Saxon
Latin) stems, which were
prefixesand suffixes; also, in compounds, with Angloelements

Saxon

English remains,

in

"

stems.

Anglo-SaxonPrefix,French Stem : a-round,he-cause,en-throne.

troublesome,
French
Stem, Anglo-Saxon SufB.x : duke-dom,false-hood,
genial-ly.

purpose-xss,

French

We

and

close the

may

glancing at

from

to classical

bas, low

heir-loom,scape-goat.

division

French

five stems

into the French

us

Compounds

Saxon

of this

French
peculiarly
Low

Latin, and

so

chapterby
(perhapscarried
not traceable by

Latin).

bat,beat

; gross, thicken

off :

cut
pari,speak ; taill,

parlor, parliament, tailor,

battle,debate, engross,
bas-relief,
entail.

DistinguishingTraits of
elements

in

the

Englishhave

definite in form

Saxon

been

and

Element.

eign
for-

The

"

because they
given first,

easilydistinguished.
The Saxon
part of the language,being the very root and
substance thereof,is harder to separate and analyze,
though
far more
useful for a scientific understandingof English.
Saxon stems have two generalcharacteristics :
1. They are
usuallyshort monosyllables;as the stem
are

more

more

"

hit^from which

come

the verbs bite^

hit^embitter; the

nouns

bitter.
bit^bitters;the adjective
2. They are modified (fornumber, tense, change in part
of speech) by root- vowel changes rather than by endings.
Verb8

draw, drew
fell ;
fall,
sing,sang

Nouns

Nouns

goose, geese ;
man,

mouse,

men

Adjectives

broad,breadth

strong, strength;

;
mice

from

deep,depth.

46

STUDY

Hints

for

OF

ENGLISH

approximately

WORDS

Origin

testing

Spelling

by

The

accompanying diagram represents approximately

the proportion of classical and
elements
in
Germanic
English, about five sevenths of the English vocabulary

being

of

about

two

classical

derivation, and
words

sevenths

origin.

The

small

unmarked

the

combined

represents

segment

from

elements

other

all

represented by only
three

thousand

But
upon

the

relative

number

this
of

manic
Ger-

of

sources,

about

two

or

words.

proportion

words

to

be

is

found

based
in

an

unabridged dictionary,and does not at all represent the

nary
proportion of Latin and Saxon words employed in ordispeech. Tested by use, it will be found much easier
to

do without

will be further

Latin

than without

developed in

Saxon

another

words.

chapter.

This

fact

GREEK,

in

are

English ?
2. Explain

tlie three

and

of

foreignwords

principleof classification,
(a) of
Latin derivatives of four periods

derivatives ; (b)of the

sources
; (c)of the French

Greek

III

important classes

in detail the

47

ELEMENTS

CHAPTER

ON

QUESTIONS
lo What

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

derivatives

of two

periodsand

sources.

3.

Explain the followingGreek

to stems

(The
so

reference

"

student

familiar

with
derivatives,

with

will find it
the few

an

stems

and
meaning instantly,

without

invaluable

aid in farther

given, that he

can

work,

become

to

recognize their form

and

consultingthe list.)

technic

(Frenchform techniqueoften used)

petroleum (secondstem means
oil)
skeptic(onethat looks into things)

4. Find

in

the

International

possiblefrom the Latin

the dictionary's
explanation of
is thoroughlystudied.)
as

5.

How

are

French

derivatives

Dictionary as many
stems
given. (Be
the

derivation

to be known?

of

tives
derivasure

each

that

word

48

STUDY

6.
with

Give

OF

short sketch

examples.
7. Give examples
8.

Write

derivative

Latin

the

in

of

ENGLISH

WORDS

of the threefold

earlyand

late French

derivative

English,from

each

Norman

influences,

borrowing.

in

English, and the French

the following stems :

of

"

reg
vocal

car

endings and

9. What
French
10.

Norman

origin?
How, in general,may

prefixesusually

mark

words

as

in

French

Latin

stems

be

from
distinguished

11.

Give

examples of

three classes of Norman-Saxon

12.

Give

five French

stems

13.

What

are

the

not

in classical Latin.

found

general marks

of

hybrids.

Saxon

stems

Illus-

trate.

Pick

14.

out

Saxon

derivatives

among

the

foreignwords

telephone

handsome

audible

harshness

friend

horseman

hand

elegant

domestic

doorway

hearth

holiness

house

distract

forceful

heaven

opening

reply

credulous

felicity
hope
quadrant

chicken

evaporate

shrewd

ladle

precise

orchard

holly

metric

Distinguishthe

15.

monograph
implication
16.

Give

Greek

and

inquisitive
bicycle

five words

derived

comparison
colloquy

derivatives

the Latin

rupture

anarchy

revolution

disturb

from

Latin

through French.

"

GREEK,

TOPICS

I.

of

produce

kindly,

different

from

the

genial,

general,

sane,

salutary,

healthy,

HI

languages,

meanings.

connection,

this

in

Discuss,

varied

of

words

CHAPTER

coming

meaning,

same

49

ELEMENTS

WITH

CONNECTION

IN

Stems

FRENCH

AND

LATIN,

following

groups

"

"

generic,
salubrious,

chronic,

timely,

temporal,

temporary,

motherly,
earthly,

II.

of

Origin

the

maternal,

metropolitan,

terrestrial.

geological,

Normans,

and

short

sketch

the

of

history

of

Normandy.
III.

Distinctive

traits

nations,
the

by
IV.

as

of

Teutonic

ENG.

having

French

modern
the

by

language

sources.

WORDS

the

suggested

French

Advantage

STU.

of

English

to

greater
the

claims

words

from

and

German

attention

given

of

euphony.

both

Latin

and

IV

CHAPTER

GROWTH

Roots.

if

Most,

"

languages
three

CHANGE

AND

letters,
roots

of

one

Such
of

all

in

Of

Other

"

of

or

which

an

cases,

internal
which

relation

binations
com-

changed
un-

the
syllabic
Mono-

called
the

is

most

degree

instead

All

the

of

several
of

turn,

the

changes

of

ways

change

by

"

"

are

Indo-European

inflectional.
60

root

other

added

are

formation

or

words

of

;
we

guages
lan-

Those

ical
grammatadditions,

external
called

as

letter,

or

vowel.

meaning

lables,
syl-

two

original

syllable

root

roots

consonants,

recent

so

added

an

of

two

of

originally independent

of

change

these

in

their

stems

forms

are

to

vowel

internal

languages.
some

these

marking

are

many

stems,

which

express
in

find

corrupted
these

letters

or

some

by

being

roots

combined

have

we

plainly traceable

have

or

the
To

syllables

in

or

by

the

Chinese

family,

syllable containing

be

combinations.

or

hyphen,

languages

one

must

be

only

and

relations,

this

closely,until

more

to

used

two

labic
monosyl-

meaning

keeping

roots,

only

representative.

Stems.
much

have

as

by

case

every

of

primitive

These

and

use

and

uses

languages.
familiar

in

languages

of

vowel.

WORDS

words

consisted

was

monosyllabic

for

compound

which

ENGLISH

the

have

to

modified

were

combined.

all, of

not

thought

are

OF

FORM

IN

Inflectional

languages

are

in

GROWTH

IN

UHAJNGE

AND

51

FORM

examples of these two kinds

take our
of inflectional change,in English,we
two
may
verb preterites. Our strong verbs change the root vowel
Our weak verbs
their past tense : as sing,sang.
to form
has
at first annexed
a
helping (auxiliary)verb, which
now
ending : as love, love-did
degenerated into a mere
(or a similar form of the verb do') love-d.
of stem
examination
The
changes to express various
grammaticalrelations,such as the modifications of nouns
We
and verbs, belongsto Grammar.
shall here take up
only the changes by which various shades of meaning
and relation are given to the same
stem, by the formation
Inflectional Change.

As

"

derivatives,in

of various

By adding to one word

By adding a prefixor
Compounds.
trace

can

seems

The

In

"

words

ways
another

sufiix to

the formation

the various

only a

two

different authorities

"

independentword.
stem.

of

stages by which

continuation
stand

compound

words

we

method

this second

of the first.

independently,written variouslyby
with or without
hyphens : e.g., man-

that each word

of-war; this is so loose a combination
retains practically
its distinct accent.
The hyphen disappears,
and the whole
written
is now
as
one
word, with only the one accent natural to a single
word:
e.g,, thanksgiving.
The less importantword is shortened, in pronunciation
and then in spelling
: e.g.,thanJcfull thankful; tillfinally,
the second element is recognizedonly as a suffix or prefix.
.

Prefixes.
of the

"

We

may

now

examine

the

form

and

force

arranged
English prefixesand suffixes,
in groups accordingto their source.
Prefixes may omit or change a final letter in order to
sound well with the first letter of the stem
to which they
commoner

52

are

attached.

match

called

This
When

Euphony.
to

OF

STUDY

the

is
the

ENGLISH

WORDS

illustration

an

final letter

initial letter

of

the

Assimilation

Assimilation.

of the

principleof
prefix is made

of the

stem, the
be

may

process

is

partial,as in
followinglists

syllable.The
contain the commonest
prefixesderived from Latin and
The
Greek.
prefixesare given in their originalforms,
and in the forms produced by euphonic changes.
sympathy^or complete,as

in

I. Prefixes

a, an,

without, not.

less

amphi,

on

and

Has

from

the

negative

Greek

force

Orchromatic,color-

lack of government.
an-arcliy,
both sides,around : amphi-biouSjlivingboth (on land

in

water).
of
to loose again (the elements
ana, up, upon, again : ana-lyze,
a compound) ; ana-tomy, a cutting up.
a
a
feeling against; ant-agonist,
anti,ant, against: anti-patliy,
struggleragainst.
from : apostle,one
sent from ; aph-orism,a
apo, aph, off,away,
marking off,definition.
a downcata, cath, down, completely,accordingto : catastrophe,
the whole, universal.
on
turning,overturning; cath-olic,
through.
dia, through : diormeter,measure
having two syllables
dis,di,twice,double : dissyllabic,
; di-mity]
'

double-threaded

fabric.

ec, ex, out

choosing out
ec-lectic,

in

burnt
en-caustic,

em-phatic,putting on

en, em,

in ;

ex-odus,a going

out.
stress

of

voice.

eph-emeral,
epi-gram, something written
on;
lastingonly for a day.
ger
a messeneu, ev, well : eu-phony,a pleasingsound ; ev-angelist,
of good.
hemi, half : hemisphere, a half-sphere.
over-critical.
hyper, over, excessive : hyper-critical,

epi, ep, on,

to:

GROWTH

bypo, hyph, under

stroke
meta,

hypo-dermiCyunder

parts of

unitingtwo
math,

met,

IN

CHANGE

AND

the

after.

Sometimes

meta-morphosiSychange of form
suspended among ; meth-odja way after.
change
para,

skin ;

hyph-euya

word.

with,

among,

53

FORM

denotes

met-eor, a thing

beside,contrary : para-dox,contraryto opinion:

par,

allel,
par-

beside each other.

peri,around
poly, many

pro, before

languages.
pro-hlem,a thing placed before.

pros, towards

syn,

around.

measure
peri-meter,
in many
poly-glot,

one
pros-elyte,

syl,sym,

sy, with

who

comes

to

(anotherbelief).

syn-tax, arrangement

together; syl-lable

taken together; sym-pathy^a sufferingwith;

(letters)
a placing
together.

II. Prefixes
a,

see

from

the

Latin

ab, ad, ex,

ab, a, abs, av, from

from

to
ah-lior,

abs-tain,to

hold

shrink

from

from

to
Orchieve,
to ;
to ;

am

to the

come

to fasten
af-Jix,

a-vert, to

av-aunt, from

before

turn

gone).
(be-

ad-equate,equalto ;
end, accomplish; ac-cede,to yield

ad, a, ac, af , ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, to

amb,

stem,
sy-

to bind
ag-gregate,toflock to ; al-ly,
ing
an-nex, to tie to ; ap-pend, to hang to ; ar-rogant,askfor ; as-sent,to think toward
; at-tempt,to try toward.
about: amh-ient,going around; amputate,
(= Greek amplii),
to cut

about.

ante, anti,an, before

take

bene, well

to ;

going before
ante-cedent,

to
ayiti-cipate,

before ; an-cestor,forefather.
:

bene-Jlcent,
doing well.

bis,bi,twice,two
every two

circum, around

years

twice cooked ; bi-ennial,

occurring
bis-cuit,
occurring twice a y^ar.
; bi-annual,

circumspect,lookingaround.
contra, contro, counter, against: contrordict,to speak against;
:

contro-versy,a turningagainst;counter-act,to act against.

5i

STUDY

com,

OP

col,con, cor, with

CO,

ENGLISH

WORDS

corn-bat,to fightwith

co-operate,to

work

to strike together; con-nect, to

with; col-lide,
with.
together; cor-respond,to answer

de, di,from, off,down

from

set

to
di-vide,

apart

dissimilar, unlike

desist,to

cease

to
de-feat,

out

; enormous,

undo

not easy.
dif-Jicult,

twofold.
du-plicate,
ef,a, from, out of : ex-clude,to shut

du, two

to drop down,
distill,

dis,de, di,dif,apart, not

ex, e,

from

de-duce,to draw

bind

of the

rule; ef-fusive,
out-pouring;a-mend,

to

free

out

from

fault.

extra, beyond
1.

in, am,

an,

extrorordinary,beyond the

em,

en,

in

am-hush, hiding

wood

to:

to
in-ject,

an-oint,to

smear

on

cast

in;

em-hark,

lustrat
shipboard; en-danger, to place in danger ; ilto throw
lighton ; im-hihe,to drink in ; ir-rnption,
a burstingin.
in, en, i, il,im, ir, not (= Eng. un): in-firm,not strong;
not
ful
lawnot
friend; i-gnoble,not noble; il-legal,
en-emy,
not reasonable.
not possible
; ir-rational,
; im-possible,
to

2.

il,im, ir, in, on,

common.

go

on

inter,intro,between

inter-pose,to put between

intro-duce,to

lead among.

mis, wrong,

ill (French,from

mis-creant,unbeliever.
ob, oc, of, op, against,towards

Lat.
See

minus): mis-chance,ill luck

also A.S.

mis-.

to cast against; oc-cur,

ob-ject,
to bring towards
to run
against; of-fer,
; op-pose, to place
against.
:

pen(e), almost: pen-insula,almost an island.

per, through, thoroughly: per-mit, to let pass through ; per-fect,

thoroughly done.
written after.
post, after: postscript,
fore-caution.
pre, before : pre-caution,
pro, before,forth : pro-duce,to bring forth.
re, red, back, again: re-act, to act backward; red-eem,to buy
back.

GROWTH

ee,

CHANGE

AND

IN

55

FORM

to go apart ; sed-ition,
a going apart.
sed, apart : se-cede,

semi, half: semi-annuaU

half-yearly.

sub, sue, suf, sug, sup, sur,

to cast under; suoceed,

under, close

sus,

over

sur,

added

name

come

hold underneath.

super-abundant,over-abundance
;

sur-loin,
part above

trans, tra, tran, tres,

dition,handing over;

an

; sur-name,

the loin.

to carry
trans-fer,
transcribe,to copy over;

across

sub-ject,

to fasten
after; suf-fix,
under; sup-pose, to place under;
to

after; suggest,to carry

to
stealthy; sus-tain,
sur-reptitious,
super,

after:

across

tra-

to
tres-pass,

overstep.
III.

French

Most

Prefixes

words

from

retain

French

the

the

Latin

form

of the

mon
com-

Latin

prefixes. In cases in which we have both old

forms
and modern
(as in the Latin super^ shortened in
F'rench to sur^ by the regular omission
of a consonant
between
in Latin-French
two
vowels
words) the French
form of the prefixwill usually be found with distinctively
French stems : sur-feit^
sur-mise^sur-prise,
sur-vey.
These

modified

French

forms

included

are

in the

ceding
pre-

list.
IV.
ft, of,

English

Prefixes

Orkin,a-board, a-foot. Special caution should be

employed in assigning derivations to words containing
this prefix,
which
values in
has at least thirteen different
English (see Greek a, Lat. a, ab, ad, ex). As an English
prefix it may represent Anglo-Saxon and:
a-long(A.S.
andlang); Gothic ur: a-rise: A.S. an, one:
a-pace, one
on;

pace.

^^iby, by, on.

It

This

is used

to

with

prefixhas
intensifytransitive
common

varietyof meanings.
verbs:
sprinkle
bespatter,be-

intransitive verbs to make

transitive verbs:

56

STUDY

be-think;with

WORDS

ENGLISH

OF

transitive

make

adjectivesto

and

nouns

verbs:

of nouns,
be-jeivel,
besiege,be-dim; as an element
and
adverbs
by-word, be-fore.
prepositions,
be-half,
,

for, from

force

bid

for-bid, to

for-lorn,quite lost.

also

has

It

from.

Forego

is

intensive

an

spelling

mistaken

for

forgo.
fore,before,in front : fore-bode,
fore-ground.
gain, against: gain-say,to speak against. Compare a-gain.

badly : mis-deed, mis-take (not to be confused with

French
Lat. minus).
mis- from
n-or.
n
(A.S.ne),not: n-one, not one; n-ever, n-either,
to give out
out, ut, out, completely: out-land ish,foreign; ut-tei^,
pass:
(voice).In compositionit sometimes has the force of surmis, wrong,

in

out-run, to surpass
1. un,

not

Lat.

(=

in, German
This

known, strange.
stems

running.

; its final

letter

negative):un-couth,un~
freelyused with French

un,

prefixis
is

assimilated

never

un-merited,

un-ruly.
2.

(=

un

German

denoting

ent).

verbal

action

reversed

with, against,back

prefixdistinct

from

1. un,

un-lock, un-fold.

(German wider): withstand, to

stand

against;

with-hold,to hold back.

Note.
usual

"

The

meanings

The

and

independent
in

student
stem

words

composition, and

should

of every

now

word

after,in, over,
therefore

need

up,
not

be able to account
in the

etc., retain
be treated

the prefix

for

followinglist :

their

here.

"

GROWTH

should
analysis

All

IN

CHANGE

AND

be made

without

lists,and then verified by Webster's

other

the

These

We

"

same

shall

suffixes

-ic^s

in

with

and

-sm

to which

these

I.

forms

-st^ a,

z, u

which

consequence

final stem

certain

portionsof

not
reality

stems

or

some

suffixes

commoner

regard to origin and

given in the
in English in

are

combination

in

International

the

examine

now

with

way,

graduallyassumed
i in

to former

reference

unabridgeddictionary.

Suffixes.
in

57

FORM

in

meaning.

they

have

quent
of their freletters.

-able^-ible^and

-uble

endings,but belong to
endings were joined.

Suffixes

the

Thus

from

the

are

the

Greek

-ic (French 4que, Old

English,-ick).Adjectiveending : graphic,
used
thus formed
are
dramatic,egotistic.Many adjectives
as

nouns

(see p. 36): arithmetic, music.

plural noun-form
The
Latin

-ics denotes

ending

-ic

is

-al,-ity,to produce the

electricity.

science:

The

modern

matics.
physics,mathe-

with
frequently combined
endings -ical,
-icity
; critical,

58

STUDY

Verb

ending

criticise.
eulogize^
(Greek -ma [stem -mat],-mps).
action,condition,or theory,or

-ism, -sm

-m, -ma,

denoting an
action

an

WORDS

-m, 4.

-ism,-ist,see
-ize,-ise.

ENGLISH

OF

Noun
the

ending
result of

rhythm, drama, Platoiiism,egotism,chasm.

ending in -ma
(or-m, when shortened from -ma)

nouns

final

of the

ending

stem

represents the
the

-sis.

Noun

-sm,

-St, see

Greek

stem

with

combined

Latin

before
when

the
the

the

ending is added
rhythmic. The ending -ism
-mos,

stems

ending, denoting
-m,

reappears

dramatic, prismatic; but

-ic:

to

-mat

In
the

adjective
final

-m

ately
immedi-

is often

provincialism.

action

genesis,analysis.

-t.

ending, denoting the agent : poet, iconoclast,

The
dramatist.
ending -ist is in very free use with stems
of Latin and other origin: naturalist.
"ter or -tre (Greek -tron). Noun
ending: theater or theatre.
: suryery.
ending,forming abstract nouns
-y (Greek -ia). Noun
Noun

-t,-St, -ist.

II.

-able,see
-ace,

see

Suffixes

from

the

Latin

and

Latin-French

-ble.
-ce.

(Lat.-aceus). Adjectiveending,used chieflyin botany

and zoology: herbaceous.
-acious.
Adjective ending, as if from Latin -aciosus; coined
by adding the suffix -ous to stems in -aci: pugnacious.
Noun
ending corresponding to the
-acity (Lat. -acitat[em'\).
adjectiveending -acious: pugnacity.

-aceous

-acy,
-age

see

-ce.

confined
to French
(Lat.-aticum).Noun ending, originally
freelyused with various stems : advantage,foliage,
stems, now

breakage.
-ain,see
-al

-an.

(Lat.-alis).Adjectiveand

noun

ending: formal,animal.

GROWTH

CHANGE

AND

59

FORM

-ianus). Adjective and

-ain,-ian (Lat. -anus,

-an, -ane,

IN

noun

endings: hitman,huynane, certain^Christian.

responding
endings cor-ance, -ancy, -ence, -ency (Lat.-antia,-entia).Noun
to the adjective
endings -ant, -ent: observance,
expectancy, obedience, dependency.
_

(Lat.-aneus). Adjectiveending : contemporaneous.

-en^[em]).Adjective and noun
-ant, -ent (Lat.-ani[em],
-aneous

Eng. -ing,-er

1.

2.

ing,
end-

expectant, obedient,servant, continent.

(Lat.-aris).Adjectiveending : regular.
-ear, -er (Lat.-arius,-arium).
-ar, -ary, -ry, -ier,
-ar

Noun

ending :

saucer.
volunteer,
vicar,secretary,sanctuary, vestry,chandelier,

1. -ary,

-arious,-arian (Lat. -arius).Adjectiveending:

sary,
neces-

precarious,riparian.
2. -ary,

2.

see

1. -ate, see

-ar.

-t.

ending of the fourth declension).Noun

(Lat.-at[us'],
ending,denoting office : senate, consulate.

2. -ate

-ic.

-atic,see
1.

-ble,-able,-ible (Lat. -bilis).

Adjective ending, in reality

always -ble,affixed
audible,voluble.
any
it
2.

to

It is

ending in a, i, u : admirable,
of
combined
in English with
stems
stems

origin: teachable,
gullible.Before
the

resumes

originalform

-bili:

the

ending -ty

noun

volubility.

-plex.

-ble,see

-ic^emj).Noun
(Lat.-tia,-cium,-tium,-acl^em"],
palace,
ending: diligence,
infancy (see-ance),
grace, sacrifice,

-ce, -cy, -ace, -ice

vice,furnace,pumice.
-cle

(Lat.-culum).

-ear,

see

2.

Noun

ending for

diminutives

particle.

-ar.

-al,-la (Lat.-ellus,
-idus).Noun

ending

for diminutives

libel,

angle.
-ance, -ancy,

-ant, see
-arn

see

-ance

and

-ce.

-ant.

(Lat.-emus,
cavern.

-erna). Noun

and

ending: subaltern,
adjective

GO

STUDY

-ernal
-esce

WORDS

(Lat. -ernalls).Adjectiveending : lufernaL

(Lat.-esco).Verb ending: acquiesce.
-t.

-ete, see

-tor.

see

-eur,

ENGLISH

OF

-fy (Lat.-Jico).Verb
-ian,see

ending

magnify.

-an.

-ble.

-ible,see

-atic (Lat.-icus, -ticus).Adjectiveending: public,

-ic,-ique,-tic,

uniquey rustic,aquatic.
-ice,see

-ce.

(Lat. -iciosus;also

-icious

pernicious.
and

-ocious

It is

coined

ending). Adjectiveending:
frequentlya coined ending like -acious
a

judicious,
-idus). Adjectiveending: candid,fluid.
(Lsit.

-id

2.

-ier,see

-ar.

Gentile,civil,
-ile,-il,-le (Lat.-His). Adjective ending: fertile,
gentle.
-in,-ine (Lat.-inus,-ina). Adjective and

ending

noun

Latin,

feminine, rapine.
-ion,-tion, -sion,-xion
-ise

persuasion,complexion.
completion,
ending: exercise.
(Lat.-itium). Noun
it is identical with
Verb

-ish.

-ism,

ending

Greek

see

Greek

of French

-ity,see

verb

ending

-ize.

derivation

finish.

-ism.

ambitious.

-ty.

(Lat. -ivus).Adjectiveending

-le,see

ending: union,
As

Adjectiveending:
(Lat.-itiosus).

-itious

-ive

(Lat. -ion\_em~^.Noun

-el and

active,passive,

-ile.

(Lat.-mentlumj). Noun ending: ornament.

(Lat.-monium). Noun ending : alimony,patrimony.
-mony
-ocious.
Adjectiveending, as if from Latin -ociosus; coined by

-ment

adding
1.

-or

the

(Lat.-or,
nouns

suffix
French

-ous

to stems

-eur). Noun

clamor, fervor.

in -oci

atrocious.

ending, forming abstract

GROWTH

2. -or,

AND

IN

CHANGE

61

FORM

-tor,

see

-orium, -ory (Lat.-orium): auditorium, factory.

tory,
preda-orious,
-ory (Lat.-orius).Adjectiveending: meritorious,

advisory,
"ory,

see

-orious,-orium.

-ose,

see

2.

1.
2.

-ous.

(Lat.-us). Adjectiveending: credulous.

morose.
-ous, -ose (Lat.-osus).Adjective ending: religious,

-ous

also

See

-ocious.
-acious,-icious,

fold (stem-plic)).
Adjectiveending:
-plex,-pie,-ble (Lat.-plex,

complex,folded together; simple,onefold

-ry,

see

2. -ar, and

-se,

see

-t.

-y.

-tor.

see

-sure,

double,twofold.

-ion.

-sion,see
-sor,

-ture.

see

ending of
-t,-se, ,-ate,
-ete,-ite (Lat.-t[um'],
'S[um'],
and
N"oun, adjective,,

reject;
-ter

verse,

reverse;

(Lat.-ter),Nonn

-tery,-try,see
see
-tic,

ending: fact,perfect,

private, complete,polite.

endingi minister,master.

-y.

-ic.

-tion,see

verb

ciple).
perfectparti-

'

-ion.

-tor,-sor, -or,

-eur

(Lat.-tor,-sor

; Frencli

-eur). Noun

ending

denotingthe agent : rector,divisor,emperor, amateur.

multitude.
Noun
-tude (Lat.-tud[inem']).
ending: fortitude,
ending: picture,measure.
-ture,-sure (Lat.-tura, -sura). Noun
Noun
agility.
ending : liberty,
ty, -ity(Lat.-tat[^em']).
-ure,
-y,

see

-tare.

ending : family, mastery,

freelyused with English nouns
bakery. By analogy with the

-tery,-try (Lat.-ia,-ium). Noun

ministry. This

ending is

of

ending in -er :
agency
last class of words, this
form

-ery, with
See

also

numerous
-ance.

ending
stems

appears
:

also, under

cookery, snuggery,

the
nery.
hen-

62

STUDY

OF

III.
-craft.

Noun

ENGLISH

WORDS

Suffixes

English

ending denoting skill

or

trade

witchstatecraft,

craft.
-d, see

-th.

-dom.

Noun

or
ending denotingjurisdiction
quality: kingdom^

wisdom.

1.

apple,nail.
and
-en.
Noun, adjective,
brighten.

2. -en,
1.

ending, usually diminutive:

Noun

-el,-le,-1.

see

-n.

ending, denoting agent, instrument,or

Londoner.
writer,stair (= riser),

itant
inhab-

2. -le.

2. -er,

see

-ern.

Adjectiveending :
see

ending : maiden, wooden,

Noun

-er.

-ey,

verb

kernel,bundle,

(= south-running).

southern

-y.

Adjectiveending: steadfast,
shamefaced (corruptedform
of shamefast,through a mistaken
connection
with face).
-fold.
Adjectiveending : tiuofold,
manifold.
-ful.
ending : hopeful,cupful.
Adjectiveand noun
-hood, condition
(A.S. -had). Noun
ending : childhood,priesthood.
-fast.

-lie,see

3. -le.

1.

-ing (A.S.-ung). Verbal

1.

-le,-1,see

2.

-le,-1,-er.

ending: traveling,
clothing.
2. -ing,son, part. Noun
ending: king (A.B.cyning),farthing.
-ish,-sh (A.S. -isc). Adjective ending : heathenish, Danish,
French
(= Frankish),fresh. (It has no connection with
the -ish of punish, etc.)
Verb ending, usuallyfrequentative
-k.
: hark.
Diminutive
-kin.
noun
ending : napkin, manikin.
noun

-el.

Verb

:
ending, usually frequentative
sparkle,

kneel,chatter.
3.

-le,-il. Adjectiveending : idle,evil.

-less,without.

hopeless.
Adjectiveending godless,
:

GROWTH

AND

IN

CHANGE

FORM

63

godly.
-ly (A.S.-lie).Adjectiveending : godlike,
-like,
worldling,
ending : gosling,
darling,
ending : room, dream, home, bottom.
ending : horn, oven, weapon.

-ling. Diminutive
-m, -me,
-n, -en,

see

-om,
-on,

Noun

-om.

Noun

-on.

ending:

Noun

-ness.

see

noun

loveliness.

-m.
-n.

-ish.

-sh, see

ending : friendship,worship.
-ship,state (A.S.-scipe).Noun
-some.
Adjectiveending : meddlesome, handsome.

ending : bedstead,homestead.
Noun
-ster.
equivalentto
feminine,but now
ending,originally
The only word in which it retains
-er : youngster,teamster.
a feminine
meaning is spinster.
-stead,place. Noun

-th.

-t,see

-ter,see

-ther.

-th, -t, -d.

and

Noun

adjectiveending: birth,height,bloody-

south,soft,dead.
-ther,-ter,-der.
-ward.

-y, -ey

Noun

ending : father,daughter,murder.

Adjectiveending: forward, heavenward.

and adjectiveending: body, honey,
(A.S. -ig). Noun

crafty.

in each
suffixes)

identifyall elements (stems, prefixes,

of the followingwords, giving meanings

both of elements

and

Let

the student

of derivatives

"

64

STUDY

Weakening.
have

given, we
in

have
;

stems,

to

We

"

weakened

into

passing from

seen

WORDS

how

stems,

prefixesor suffixes

that

many

of

the

dent,
indepen-

once

in the

lists

selves,
suffixes them-

language to another, through

of pronunciaand through carelessness
tion,
much
shorter as to be hardly recogso
nizable

time

become

one

e.g., the suffix

form

ENGLISH

have

noticed

have

lapse of

the

OF

in Latin

-osus

added

was

to

adjectivesdenoting usually the

noun

presence

odiosus
as
religiosus,
;
quality,or its abundance
forms
of this suffix
hate-ful. The modern
religion-ful^
(French -eux^ English -ous^ have been contracted into
one
syllable,
simply for easier pronunciation.
The weakening of grammatical endings which
belonged
inflections is a marked
originallyto Latin and Teutonic
characteristic of the English language.
of the first
For
example, the final -a of Latin nouns
silent e :
declension
in English oftenest as a mere
appears
become
thus Latin Roma^ rosa
English Home, rose.
of

ON

QUESTIONS
1.

What

is

2.

What

are

in
classes

of

MonosyllabicLanguage
the two
general methods

English.
noun

Give

plurals.

an

IV

CHAPTER

of inflection ?

original illustration

in

the

trate
Illustwo

GROWTH

3.

What

4.

Through

word

to

lose
5.

are

two

ways

what

of

forming

stages may

simple one; i.e.,how

its independence ?

Find

in

IN

CHANGE

AND

new

word

Dictionary lists

the

words

of

from

pass

the

may

65

FORM

less

compound
ment
important elea

deri^ratives

from

the

(The length of the lists may

prefixesgiven on pages 52-56.
of lessons
be regulated by each teacher according to the number
devoted
to this chapter.)
the suffixes given
similar lists of derivatives from
6. Write
:
on
pages 57-63, using the followingstems
"

7.
a

stem

What

further

has become

TOPICS

mere

takes

many

cases, after

suffix?

CONNECTION

difference

place in

WITH

CHAPTER

IV

prepositionsused separately
pare
or
as verb
prefixes.Compare write upon, inscribe. Comalso separableand inseparableprefixes
in German.
do not all
of English formations
Irregularities
; e.g., why
in -ance, and all
adjectivesin -ant correspond to nouns
in -encef
adjectivesin -ent to nouns
General

II.

IN

weakening

STU.

ENG.

WORDS

"

between

CHAPTER

Latin

Some

intelligible.
shall

of the

those

the

on

1.

and

on

A
each

these

in

seem

more

pronunciation
vowel

Conjugation

the

general

of
scheme

conjugation
reasonable,

gives

Pre8.

Part.

Stems.

key

the

help
those

in

the

to

to

prominent

nouns,

forms,

ciples.
parti-

in

spelling.

teristic
charac-

The

type.
ENGLISH

SUFFIX

ant(em)

ant

ance

(ancy)

II

ent(em)

ent

ence

(ency)

ent(em)

ent

ence

(ency)

ient(em)

lent

ience

(iency)

IV

Conjugation

I
II

Perf.

Part.

English

Corresponding

Stem

ate

at(um)

ete

et(um)
66

ation
etion

ator

to

the

which

III

ticularly
par-

spelling

our

cases

COERBSPONDING

Stem

our

belonging

make

by heavy

those

2.

perfect

vowels

the

will

of

and

the

on

declensions.

verb

Latin

we

especially
;

Latin

present
of

based

Many

"

on

the

kind

this

conjugation

of

spelling

our

conjugations,

in each

even

no

is made

those

based

are

stems

1.

stems

Verb

verbs

of

Latin

the

participles

from

distinctions

groups:

characteristic

Derivatives

adjectives,

two

of

vowels

characteristic

based

in

in

points

its

yet

distinctions,

original

certain

typical

examine,

now

from

makes

which

of

knowledge

certain

kept

has

element

spelling

in

irregular

proverbially

is

English

LATIN-ENGLISH

OF

SPELLING

THE

Suffix

ative

atory

etive

itory

THE

SPELLING

OF

67

LATIN-ENGLISH

Corresponding

It will be noticed

sign -nt

the

are

same

ite

itor

t(e)
s(e)
it(e)

tion

tor

tive

itory
tory

sion

sor

sive

sory

ition

itor

itive

itory

the vowels

before

in

English and

Latin.

Conjugation Verbs

Suffix

itive

that

Typical

First

English

ition

the

participial

Derivatives

expectant, acceptance,vacancy

commodate,
ac-

acceleration,
orator, administrative,anticipatory.

Conjugation Verbs : permanent, adherence, decency;

complete,completion,admonition, monitory.
rection
Third
ConjugationVerbs : regent, affluence,agency ; act, diactor, active, factory; verse, recess, admission,
confusion, divisor,excessive,cursory.
Fourth
ConjugationVerbs : expedient,experience,
expediency;
auditor,infinitive,
advent, finite,
expedition,
auditory.
Second

'^

In

often
have

of

our
irregularperfectparticiples,
spelling
follows the original; e.g., from pello^pulsum^ we
impelsimpulse.
cases

Exceptions.

"

"

Here

be noted

must

coming from verbs of

first,
through the old French
followingare from verbs of
-ant^

and
written

-ent:

conjugations than

use

of -ant

in all

the

second

and

directlyfrom

cases.

third
the

the
The

gations,
conju-

"

tenant

attendant

repentant

valiant

"

in

Latin, be

defendant

from
which

class of words

ascendant

Exercise.

to

would, if taken

other

tives
explain the spellingof derivafollowing stems, stating the conjugation

Form
the

they are

and

to

be

referred

"

68

STUDY

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

consist;pati, pass;

affirm; agglomer; conjluyinflu, aggreg ;

immiyi; alien; pend; alliter;transi; altern;

despond; imman;

constitu;correspond; alterc;delinqu; impend;

altern;

impud;

amalgam; diffld;efflci;amat; ambul; excell; expon ; intellig

;
the following
annihil; preced; also from
amplijic; anim;
irregular participlestems : solutyabsolut ; accret ; acquisit;
illat.

Adjectives in
took

and

The

"

-ahilis with

form

the

-ble.

-ihilis with

form

the

adjectiveending -hilis
of the first conjuverb stems
gation,
Latin

and
verbs, adjectives,

of the first conjugation,are

-ahle^while
fourth

As

from

those

to

of

of

the

second, third, and

the

and

stems

-ent^ Old
of all

French

used

conjugations;

-able
have

we

adjectivesin -ahle^not derived from

first conjugation,but taken
from
French

in -able.

Others

are

formed

simplyby adding -able

preferable

preventable

breakable

tenable

answerable

enjoyable

2.

words

from

Derivatives

derived

from

Noun

Latin

explained by reference

nominative
most

stems

English verb.

an

be

-ation^from

accompanied by adjectivesin

stems

of -ant

case

indiscriminatelyfor
thus in English many
forms

English,

in -ihle.
conjugationshave adjectives

in the

stems

and

in -ate

nouns

In

others.

form

to

Dictionaries.

following table

"

which
This

Stems.
nouns

and

to the

the

spellingof

The

"

adjectives
may

stem

rather

derivation

will be

seen

than

often
to

is referred

by study

our

of

the
in
the

THE

SPELLING

OE

Form,

NoMiNATivK

69

LATIN-ENGLISH

English

Derivativh

Word

Latin

vetiis

veter-

veter-an

rex

reg-

caput

csiipit-

reg-al
capiY-al

genus

gener-

gener-al

tempus

tempor-

mors

mor^

mortal

simplex

simplzc-

simpl?'c-ity

corpus

corpor-

princeps

princip-

miles

milit-

corpor-al
princip-al
military

"

tempor-al

ing
Many words, through the weakenor
shortening processes of language change, have
become
in sound
abbreviated
in spelling.
than
more
silent letters thus retained
The
seem
quite irrational,
unless referred to the Latin original;e.g., debtor^from
Latin debitor. The same
principlemay be seen at work
in words
of English origin,as in knee^ know^ would.
For
detailed study of these changes, Skeat's
Etymological
teachers
and
to
Dictionary is speciallyrecommended
Weakened

Forms.

advanced
The

students.
aim

that have

of this

Grammar

those

chapterhas

studied

not

of Latin

research

"

that

in the

Latin

to

give

to

students

glimpse into the influence

age
English spelling,and to encour-

upon

know

been

Latin

directions

done

Grammar

pointed

out.

to

make

If the

farther
class

has

elementaryLatin work, several lessons may be well

employed at this point,in enlargingthe lists above.
It is,unfortunately,
impossibleto give similar references
at this point to Anglo-Saxon
the pupilshave
as
grammar,
Such
usuallyhad no basis for such work.
study, if time
taken for it,would
throw
were
ing
equal lightupon the spellof Saxon

derivatives.

YI

CHAPTER

CHANGE

AND

GROWTH

of

Development
such
of

word

take

us

human

few

of

body,

and

trace

the

obsolete) through

now

have

but

does

as

simple

for

the

meanings

which

they

to

the

list
a

general.
of

parts
of

in

that

see

in

(some

have

the

at

language

names

look,

to

word,

common

changes,

WORDS

OF

International,

many

lives, grows,

Let

We
"

Webster's

as

under

meanings

MEANING

THE

Meanings.

dictionary

IN

which

the
are

passed.

Head
1.

Original physical meaning.

2.

Part

of

of

head
3.

Part

of

4.

The

inanimate

an

In

6.

The

conspicuous

In

order

into
the

counting,
brain

its

which
The

to

in
an

part

of

an

relation

head

man's

head

the

figures

associated

with

organized

body,

as

of

an

the

case

of

of

may

speech

metaphor

body

but

out

of

the

properly
is

from
70

clear

of

this
a

mal's
ani-

the

army.

study

head.

of

word

single

clear

(in review,

Metaphor
be,

have

must

we

is

cattle.

of

head

mental)

spreading

head

thirty

meanings,
classes

its

to

individual

study

various

word

object

(not physical,

principal
as

animal's

bed.

head
5.

an

pin.

of

head

object, resembling

inanimate

an

or

notion

of

tion,
anticipa-

Rhetoric,

to

belong).
two

Greek

words,

"

the

to
phor Latin /"3r,
beyond. A metaphor is
old meaning.
stem

on

carry, and

Principlesof Change.
the old, in

The

"

the

1.

Physicallikeness.

2.

Association.

3.

Likeness

4.

The

71

WORDS

OF

carrying of

prepositionmeta^
word

beyond

its

meaning must be based

following
respects:

new

other of the

or

one

MEANING

IN

CHANGE

AND

GKOWTH

"

of relation.

conspicuouspart,for the whole.

physical.
mental,for the corresponding

5. The

If the six definitions of head

studied

be

reference

with

of metaphor, the first definition will be

principles
into the second, on the princifound to have passed over
ple
1 ; the second into the third,on the principle
marked
to

these

marked
1. The

2, etc.

and
2.

"head"

The

of

head

of

head
4.

"head."
use
as

body.
expressedin
:

5.

"The
expression,

A clear

head

"

"

"

the

meanings.

is

one

as

is the

equalityof relations,
mathematical
proportion:
is

an

"

head

: :

for the

of man

: man.

sheep,is

whole

natural

for

used

an

invisible

whole,

ship";

inside,as

in

kettle boils."

example

transfer

This

the

(Principle
1) oi

first catches the eye, for the

Compare "a sail,"used for "a

also,a visible outside

the

called because

part which

counting.

body,

word.

same

leading member,

This

army

sheep,used

of

so

head

human

is its

army

of army

of the

use

table)is

animate

an

family (Principle
2).

an

the

the

human

of the
in

of

of

be

may

(orof

bed

it with

the head

"head''

and

of

like the head

to the mind

associates

with
The

pin looks

suggests

so

mind

3.

of

"head''

from

pointwe

of the commonest

physicalto
shall

now

mental

take up

of all metaphors,
or

more

spiritual

fully.

72

STUDY

Change
of

from
a

OF

ENGLISH

WORDS

Physical Meaning

child

or

of

to

Mental.

"

nation, the naming

guage
In the lan-

of

physical
simply

first. By physicalthings we
mean
things comes
there
Now
by the physicalsenses.
things tliat are known
are
correspondencesbetween the impressionsmade upon
the mind
and those made
the senses
or
spirit.When
upon
and spiritual
there comes
for naming these mental
a need
things,it is easy to transfer the words already in use,
from the physicalto the correspondingmental
or
spiritual

impressions.
kindness, which

spiritual
glow caused by human
corresponds to the bodilyglow felt from

physicallieat.

So

For

and

instance, there is

then, that

he

we

say that
has

man

has

heart.

warm

hands

The

"

principle
of two
2 above
is of the association
marked
physical
things; this transfer from the physical to the spiritual
of the same
is simply a carrying out
principle, the
association
and physical,
of the spiritual
A very large proportion of our
adjectivesdescriptive
of spiritualor mental
nouns
states, and of our
naming
such states, had first a purely physical application. But
before taking up this class of words, which
are
largely
finish our
Latin, we
study of the simple Saxon
may
of the parts of the body :
names
The
head were
used
six definitions given for the word
There
to illustrate the five classes of metaphor.
are
a
should
few other meanings, easilyto be classified:
we
keep in mind, however, that the list of definitions is not
its
meaning from
developed in strict order, each new
of natural
predecessor; but that there is the irregularity
growth, so that care must be taken to trace each use to
late meaning is
its real beginning. Sometimes
a
very
the first definition of the word.
taken directly
from
a

wa"rm

"

"

"

AND

GROWTH

Source,fountain

7.

Definition
A

IN

CHANGE

head

MEANING

of the Nile

OF

73

WORDS

(physicalmetaphor

from

1).
to treat

subjectunder four
heads (mental metaphor from Definition 4).
Crisis : to come
to a head (mentalmetaphor from Definition 1).

8.

9.

separate part of

We

and

make
same

in debt

ears

"

(metaphor,transferringan

immersion

physicalto the invisible).

resistance
head against(metaphor,
transferring
way).
the

from
To

idioms

also the

have

Head

discourse:

in the

Foot
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.

Originalphysicalmeaning.
Part of an inanimate
object,resembling an animal's foot:
foot of a chair.
Lowest
part,foundation: foot of a mountain.
Basis,plan : upon the foot of dry reason
(obsolete).
Eank, position footing(rare).
Measure
12 inches (another class of metaphor, the exact
for the inexact.
Physical metaphor from Definition 1).
Foot-soldiers :
Horse, foot,and dragoons."
Measure
used in scanning verse
tion
:
metaphor from Defini"

"

"

6.
,^.
'

U^

\"^^

Idioms

On

foot.

To

set

on

foot

to

originate.

Arm
1.
2.

Originalphysicalmeaning.
The part of an inanimate
objectresembling
of

arm

3.

The

part of

arm

4.

Power:

arm

the human

arm

windmill.
an

of

inanimate
a

chair.

the secular

ai^m^r

objectassociated with

the human

74

OF

STUDY

ENGLISH

WORDS

Idiom

At arrays

length'.

Hand
1.

Original physicalmeaning.

2.

Part

of

of

hands

4 inches

Measure

4.

Side

5.

Side,in

mental

6.

Power:

to

7.

Actual

8.

Servant:
the

9.

the

on

hand:

(used in measuring horses).

right hand.
: on
application

try one's

performance:

hand,

one

it is his hand.

hands

twenty

the

hand.

in the

field

(the essential part

for

whole).

Handwriting.
In his hands
Hand

human

clock.

3.

object,resembling the

inanimate

an

^^.^^^
in his

seal

and

contract.

hand

To

have

To

wash

one's hands

To

be hand

To

live

in

concerned

to be

to shake

of=

gloveivith

and

hand

from

possession.

off

intimate

to mouth

in.

responsibility.
connection.

without

store

or

resources.

Eye
1.
2.

Originalphysicalmeaning.
Part of an inanimate
object,resembling
:

eye of

of

Power

4.

Observation

5.

Resembling

under

the

day ;

eye for

To

an

the eye of the master.

human

compare

keep an

eye to
eye

on

mal
ani-

beauty.
importance or beauty: the
second
example.

eye
the

in

Idioms
To have

an

needle.

seeing: an

3.

eye of

the eye of

"

to be

to watch

on

the watch
over.

for.

AND

GROWTH

IN

CHANGE

MEANING

75

WORDS

OF

Tongue
of the

1. Part
2.

Words,

body.

in word
3.

Speech,language:

4.

tribe

an

Some

of

mother

and

animaPs

other

Let

us

love

not

their

speech:

all

tongues,

object,resembling in

inanimate

an

*'

tongue,

distinguishedby

nation, as

or

nations
5. Part

actions

opposed to thoughts or
neither in tongueJ'

as

tongue

tongue of

simple words

form

or

position

buckle ; tongue of land.

varietyof meaning

with

"

Court
inclosed

1. An

space.

place (from the idea of exclusiveness and protection:

Principle1).
The body of persons
forming the retinue of a ruler.
The assembly of these persons : to hold court.
tion)
Conduct
designed to gain favor (metaphor from associa-

2. A

3.
4.

5.

to pay

6.

place where justiceis administered.

of justice.
persons engaged in the administration

hall

7. The

court,

or

Set
trunk

1. To

seat,give placeto:

to set

2.

To

attach

affections

3.

To

put into

4.

To

fix

5.

To

6.

To

appoint,fix :
regulate: to

7.

To

fit : to set words

8. To
9.

To

now

to set one's
a

firmly:

stud

state

to set

to set one's
to set

on.

thinking.

one

features,set

jeweL

time.

watch, set

set a

down.

bone.

to music.

to set with

diamonds.

point out (of hunting dogs).

Transfer
is

of

Meaning

clear that in

our

in Saxon
Saxon

and

in Latin

English we

can

Words.
trace

"

It

within

76

STUDY

ENGLISH

WORDS

English dictionarythe transfer of words

from the earlier and simpler to the later and more
cated
complimeanings ; usuallyalso,from a physicalto a mental
of Latin
application. In the case
English, our English
dictionaryoften tells only the latter half of the story. It
is to be remembered
that the Latin was
a finished language
when we
took so largelyfrom it ; and that, having already
in physical
words for the simpler ideas,especially
our
own
retained
them, borrowing the
meanings, we in most cases
Latin words
in their later metaphoricaluses.
To find the
of these words we
first uses
must
go to a Latin dictionary,
the

j and

of

OF

limits

shall

we

an

that the older Roman

see

uses

of

word

throw

English derivatives therefrom.

A familiar example of this transfer is the word
intend.
Originallythis word had the sense of a physicalstretching
toward
something. This physicalmeaning we find in the
but it is marked
obsolete,and stands
English dictionary,
in displacinga
succeeded
\ there only to show that it never
of bending
good Saxon word.
Only the metaphorical sense
the mind
will upon
In
into English use.
has come
or
Latin, the two meanings stand side by side.
This metaphorical basis of our
mental
and
spiritual
vocabulary is a favorite subjectwith many great writers.
Carlyle (^SartorMesartus and Hero Worship^ and Ruskin
(Sesame and Lilies^stop often to discuss the facts of
human
thought and feelingas proved by these metaphors.
Archbishop Trench treats the subjectmore
technicallyin
his Study of Words.
The
is strongly advised
to
student
do some
reading on the subject at this point, as we have

! much

lighton

the

'

room

In

here for

only a

few

these
classifying

whether

word

has

strikingillustrations.
words, there is often a
a

fixed

metaphorical

simply capable of metaphorical use.

This

doubt

as

sense,

or

to

is

confusion, and

IN

CHANGE

AND

GROWTH

77

WORDS

OF

MEANING

questionof degree that enters mto the steps between

for open
literal and metaphoricaluses, will give a chance
the

free discussion

and

Stem

to

as

followingclassification.

the

obverse.
: invert,
Physical

vert,vers.

Mental

advert,

adverse,aversion, controvert,controversy, converse, inadvertence,

inverse,pervert, perverse, revert, version.

Both

avert,

uses:

convert, divert,reverse.
To

invert

The

cup.

of

obverse

coin.

To

advert

to

ject.
sub-

society. He converses
fluently. The theory
To
was
controverted;a political
controversy. To inverse order.
To pervert one's
to the subjectthrough inadvertence.
revert
to

Aversion

meaning
avert

In

from

the

similar

by

stream

is diverted

recreation.

into

water

convert

To

story.

To

from

reverse

an

his decision.

of derivatives

uses

"

Physical:
:

The

illustrate the

followingstems

uses

To

the

of

versioyi

misfortune.

is diverted

manner

vid, vis.

His

heathen.

judge reverses

Both
Stem

avert

convert

the

the

Stem

character.

perverse

; the mind

course

engine;

blow ; to

; to

steam

its

Mental

visible.

provide,providence.

vision,divide,evident,provision.

spectator,spectrum,
spic,spect. Physical: spectacle,
spect,
circumspect, expect,prospective,
respect, retrospecter. Mental:
speculative,
suspect, suspicious. Both uses : inspect,i^rosspec,

pect.
Stem

ven,

Both

event, invent,
prevent.
Stem

cap,

Stem

solv,solut.
resolution.
resolve,

the

uses

Physical:
Both

uses

convention,invention.
:

ceive,
de-

perceive,
capable,captive,
Mental

venient,
con-

solve,dissolute,

dissolution.
solution,dissolve,

with a careful
occupied profitably
metaphoricaluses of words in a connected

lessons

study of

uses

cept. Physical: capacious, receipt. Mental

receptive. Both
deceptive,
perception,receive,reception.

Several

Mental

Physical: advent, convent.

vent.

could

be

78

OF

STUDY

ENGLISH

WORDS

any essay or text-book

for instance, such
as
a
passage

Life :

Intellectual

branches

one

knowledge

two

or

and

every

has

ally
gradu-

it."

lessened

originalLatin

Privilege.The

of

in favor

ordinance

to

earlier ages,

to

world's

of the

accumulation

successive

studies

their

knowledge belonged

of

on

"

privilegeof limiting

"The

1.

psychology Take,
this,from Hamerton's

from

passage

used

meaning Chaucer

"a
bill or
meaning was
individual," a privi-law. In this

an

the

word, jet

we

hardly know

it

an

as

metaphor in our present use of it consists

the
of meaning, from
in the transfer
personal advantage
of an advantage
law, to the looser sense
gained by a particular
unofiicial permiscustom
or
allowed, whether
sion,
by law or mere
to one
as
compared with others.
person or class of persons
English

2.
a

The

use.

threshold.

transferred

later Latin

in

earlyuse

the

physicalto

uses, for that

for that which

Latin

The

the

by

studium

meaning, which

with

the

English limit

was

Latin

limen^

crosspath

has

word

simply been
the dictionary
by the eye,

mental, and

which

is measured

The

Studies.

is connected

hence, a boundary.

from

recognizesboth
3.

its

In

fields ;

between

and

word

Limiting. This

is measured

the mind.
zeal

meant

taken

or

The

eagerness.

into

English,can
be plainlytraced,however, to the earlier, a zealous application
of the mind
in the phrase"Study
to a particular
as
object,
veloped
The noun
to show
yourselfapproved unto God."
study has devarious meanings,
1, the act ; 2, the thing studied;
3,as used in the arts and in music (cf French kude); 4, a room
devoted
to study.
was

over
"

"

4.

Successive.

The

literal and

borrowed

both

The

meaning

comes

first

the Latin

succeeds

his

word

use

was

to

which

father."

succeed

is

case

in which

metaphoricalmeanings
go close up
we

Then

have
came

to, or

from

Latin.

advance; from

in the sentence,
the

have

we

derived

"

this

The

meaning

sod

tc

AND

GROWTH

advance, in the

these

successive

as

meanings

two

OF

we

Latin word

The

"

have

we

meant

79

WORDS

say

The

plan suc"
distinct adjectives

prosperous.

to

heap

metaphor is a simpletransfer

The

mound.

MEANING

following,and successful

5. Accumulation.
into

IN

of to prosper

sense

For

ceeded/'

CHANGE

up,

earth

as

from

cal
physi-

to mental.

6.

earlyEnglish use
of hymns sung
gradual,we have

of this

and

get

steps of the pulpit.

in the Growth

of Words.

an

to

in words

the actual events

counties

of

England

each

of

exists,though
thousands

settled

their

in

were

of the

some

case

'

our

is due

word

may

and

American

one

read

or

are

still
of

hundreds

scarcelygrown

In parts of this country

kept

of this old custom

in

Virginia.
has
geographically,
up

for convenience

natives,called Indians,

"

lose

even

division

'

have

find traces

error,

of

can

The

hundreds

others

Meaning. The
always imply enlargement
a

the

of

on

by watching

We

families.

English,we

based

Narrowing
not

readily

history. For instance, the

dreds,'
formerly divided into 'Hun-

originalnumber.

the

often been
in the

ing
mean-

in

hundred

and

needs.

new

Hundred,' a settlement
e.g., 'Bermuda
This stretchingof an
old name,
as

It will

"

its words

of families,while

by

of

use

can

adapt themselves

beyond

our

go deeplyinto the historyof a nation,

insightinto its peculiarcharacteristics,
simply
we

by studying the historyof

them

In

"

that

seen

word, from

the

Historytraced
be

the

on

an
step. There was
Church
Latin, for a book

gradus,

simple transfer of the first Latin

physicalto the mental, step degree.

the

from

Latin

From

Gradually.

more

growth of language
On the
of meaning.
of its uses.

does
trary,
con-

This process
having almost

mainly to the influence of other words

same
meaning and needing to be distinguished.It
to the chapter on
therefore,
Synonyms.

longs,
be-

80

OF

STUDY

ENGLISH

ON

QUESTIONS

WORDS

VI

CHAPTER

parallelbetween the life of a word and the

life of language in general?
head.
2. Give six meanings of the word
how
the meanings are
3. Show
related,and explain the
metaphor in each case.
4. Define Metaphor in general,and in the five specialcases
1.

Is there

any

illustrated.
5.

Give

original illustrations

some

mental

physicalto
Give

7.

Account

the

transfer

from

senses.

the additional

6.

of

meanings

for the definitions of

and

idiomatic

foot,arm,

uses

hand,

of head.

eye,

tongue,

court, set.
8.

Why

originless
9.

are

the

evident

How

are

in words

metaphoricalmeanings

than

in Saxon
for mental

words

words
and

of Latin

?
use
spiritual

veloped
usuallyde-

?
10.

Write

given in

sentences,using words

the table of Latin

derivatives.
11.

illustrations of curious

Eor
see

the

following words

Gotham,
12.
names

Find
of

some

as

and

word-derivations,
interesting

"

humorously appliedto

other

flowers,gems,

examples
and

of curious

cloths.

New

York

derivation

among

AND

GROWTH

TOPICS

I.

on

paper

results

Give
words

MEANING

IN

learning

child's

CHAPTER

to

81

WORDS

OF

WITH

CONNECTION

IN

widening
II.

CHANGE

VI

speak, illustrating

the

word-meanings.

of

into

research

of

the

history

of

the

ing
follow-

"

III.

IV.

V.

whose

Words

meaning

arose

from

error,

"

humor

Gothic

turkey

amethyst

melancholy

leopard

disastrous

empyrean

Geographical

names

Cf.

the

United

preserving:

large variety of
States

Delaware,

Carolina.

ENG.

WORDS

and

also, especially, the

Virginia^ Georgia,

STU.

tow.a

facts

"

New

of

early

river
names

York,

settlement.
in

names

of

the

New

the

states,

Jersey,

VII

CHAPTER

LATIN

of the

Effect
of

these

beautiful

without

and

scholarly

more

who

men,

home

Art,

of the

use

life

for

Latin

because

childhood,

than

do

words
such

from,

that

words

as

most

of

our

to

come,

run,

when

hurry

akin

Most

"

use

on

professional
of

questions
culture

in

the

to

in

speech

for

words

to

home

stems

in

shape

the

common

but, for,

find, lose, love, hate,

good, bad, true, sweet,

sour,
82

little
Saxon

are

tvhat;

I, you,

strong, weak,

and

are

too;

he,

mother,
tion,
associa-

verbs,
and

us

surely

the

life, father,

Saxon

are

Latin

shut, open,

which,

who,

and^

to

and

all

to

Just

familiar

Almost

of

and

taste.

quickly

common

words

Saxon

and

the^ this^ that;

to;

the

good

dear
more

us

of

are

not

been

use

brother, sister, fire, hearth,

even

get

elaborate,

more

finer

synonyms.

hy, with, in, at,

she, it;

is

move

an;

a,

not

abstract

daily

have

have

shoemakers

call

we

into

things

Latin

we

could

Element.

they

their

country

bring

constant,

words

from

and

longer,

it

short, simple,

farmers

what

makes

that

The

ence
pres-

taste.

these

these

is.

"

like

and

Saxon

of

and

words
are

"

and

thought

Character

whom

broadly

Religion, Science,
national

it

is the

It

"

English

our

like

are

more

go

in

Latin

the

Elements.

language

carpenters,
while

ENGLISH

Saxon

elements

words

all ;

at

SAXON

and

Saxon

everyday
and

Latin
two

and

rich

the

AND

the

go,

jectives,
ad-

Saxon.

the

from

Indo-European

same

and

paternal. These

the

one

words

told

language have

be

can

derived

words

fatherly

in

seen

have

Words.

Saxon

that, as

us

Some

"

uses,

well.

as

words

sweeping

most

"

students

rule,Saxon

But, like

words.

Latin

better than

and

Latin

between

stem

Saxon

equallynecessary
other for legalrelations

for the home, the

Choice

of

and

different effect of Latin

The

83

ENGLISH

SAXON

AND

LATIN

are

ments,
state-

modifying. The choice between Latin

ject
and Saxon
must
depend on several things: on the subthe aim of the speaker,
the audience ; and on
; on
the result aimed at is simple or complex.
that is,whether
As a general law, Saxon
to the heart and
goes straighter
ing
a
more
mind, and so arouses
simple idea or feeldirectly
for the making of subis more
tile
accurate
; while Latin
and more
distinctions,
profound for the arousing of
deliberate or complex emotion.
this needs

Latin
those

words
when

scientists that tell

are

better than

Saxon

would

most

For

in

instance,

emphaticallythat

find the need

Saxon
words

of Latin

of their greater exactness

scientific

been
;

used
and

place of these accepted Latin

unscientific.

section

The

to

terms

great advocate
cation,
Edu-

Spencer, in writing on

Education,'"not '"'Up^'-Physical
bringing

of the Body''; and

show
fairlyenough his
This

"

this very distinction

words
have
The
Latin

loose and

one

Science.

make

words, Mr. Herbert

calls

"

us

Latin

because

words

sound

of Saxon

will

to

scholarlyone.
scientists

use

of Exact

Language

they try

and

by

the

own

sentence

choice

from

this

of words,

essay
"

physicalreaction beingcertain,the questionis,whether

the gain resultingfrom the extra culture is equivalentto the
loss ; whether
defect of bodily growth, or the want
of that
structural perfectionwhich
gives high vigor and endurance, is
compensated for by the additional knowledge gained.''

84
this

In

there

case

words;

Latin

"As
we

ask

may

whether

weakness
the

mind-training
knowledge makes

for

reason
a

clumsy

using

so

many
substitute

Saxon

of

gain
for

we

body
get

is bound

from

to

that

this loss ; whether

follow,

much

more

the

gain in
for the lack in bodily growth, or the
up
fulness of frame
which
gives strength and

that

of

WORDS

"

makes

want

good

find but

answering

an

ENGLISH

was

can

we

for the passage,

OF

STUDY

up

freshness."

Aside

faults of translation,the

from

in two

We

ways.

the
miss, first,

exactness

original; second, the associations which make

terms
suggestive. Let us study these
somewhat
more
closely.
The

Saxon

give to the
The
and

constructions
ear

effect of looser and

an

words

untrained,

looser and

are

have

variable ;

the
two

less concise

that

fered
suf-

of the
tific
scien-

points

wordier, and
which

everyday usage

an

has

passage

so

ing.
think-

is inexact

their

meaning is
if closely
questioned. Take the phrase
open to discussion,
structural
perfection ; there is no Saxon word for perfection;
even

"

"

and

exact, while
bone

\j

so

structure

in the scientific

frame might
when

vaguely

mean

is

sense

absolutely

the outline

of the

large frame."
For
the words
in their
reaction^resulting^
equivalent^
scientific meaning, there is no Saxon.
It is impossibleto
give them accurate definition in Saxon words.
(Compare
of the Imperial Dictionary definitions of reaction :
one
Depression or exhaustion consequent on excessive exstructure,

as

we

say, "a

man

of

"

citement

words,
Each

or
as

stimulation.") Again, each of these three

used
by Mr. Spencer, is a host in itself.

calls up
really furnish

to

the

the

trained

key

to

mind

his

whole

set

of

laws

argument.

which
This

LATIN

force

AND

SAXON

is lost when

Saxon

we

that

may

say

85

ENGLISH

used.
ingly
Accordare
synonyms
when
scientist is speaking of
a

trained minds, it is
subjectsto scientifically
of language to use
wisest economy
Latin
terms.
minds, he
if, for the sake of reaching untrained

scientific
his
And

Saxon

uses

The

writing on

minds, with

of Saxon

equallywise
Lanier's.

choice

The

here

us

now

words,

poem

is to

look
of

arouse

deep, is perfectly
simple:

secretlybuilds

will build
the

Let

"

of Saxon, from

and

vast

the marsh-hen

flyin

Words.

writer's wish

which, though

In

Saxon

wise choice of Latin.

Proper Use

I will

and

force.

the intelligence
of the
on
subject,
the aim of the speaker. Mr.
on
Spencer,
scientific subject,
appealingmainly to trained
to argumentative persuasionand cona view
clusion,

made

Behold, I

Latin

and

the class of

hearer, and

As

of exactness

repeat,between

choice, we

depends on

^'

it is at the cost

words,

me

nest

the

on

at

Sidney
feeling

"

watery sod,

the greatness of God

on

greatnessof God,

as

the marsh-hen

flies

that fillsall the space 'twixt the marsh

the freedom

an

and

the skies ;

By

so

many

I will

Put

"

As

this
go

ahold

is ruined

the marsh-hen

Observe,I my

not

the

on

constructs
nest

voluminous

will erect

words
But

sod,

greatness of God."
into Latin

(we
scientific name)

"

her
on

words, construct^ aqueous^

understood.

in the

marsh-grasssends

picturesqueand musical Saxon

far as to give the hen her
so

the passage

The

the

as

lay me
heartily

will not
and

roots

abode

on

the power

the aqueous

sod,

of God."

observe^power^

erects are

they are simpleenough and easily

they are contemplative,mental words,
;

86

STUDY

fitted to

OF

ENGLISH

WORDS

scientific narrative; not

sympathetic,picturesque
words, playing upon the imaginationand the heart.
In the present century, Tennyson is the great master
of
the

music

Memoriam

of Saxon
:

I sorrowed

'Tis better to have

Than

But

never

this passage

from

In

Proportion of

lost,

at all.

hopes were

life,whose

wander

Where

and

loved

to have

on

all

thoughts,were
darkened
earth.

thingsround

Latin

and

pall,

bier and

most,

loved

remained, whose

Whose
To

study

with

born

came

I felt it when

"

"

This truth

"

words

me

Saxon

dim,
little

breathed

worth,

of him.''

Vocabulary

at

Different

proportionof Latin and Saxon English to

be found
in representative
writers,differs very markedly
at various
periodsof the historyof the language. In the
and eighteenth centuries, as representedby
seventeenth
Periods.

"

The

Milton

and

of the

nineteenth, as

is

Samuel

Johnson,

and

even

in the

earlier half

represented by Macaulay, the preponderanc

of Greek and Latin in a gentleman'seducation
in the Latin-Englishstylethus developed.
naturallyshown
But

in the last few

decades, there

has

been

oped
devel-

We
the use of "good Saxon."
tendency toward
have spoken of the fact that the scientific terminology is
trained in the natural
largelyLatin; yet, as a class,men
trained in the
sciences,use a simplerEnglish than do men
classics ; and, setting aside the technical terms, about
a

which
a

more

scientists have

no

choice,or

difficult one,

purely Saxon English in essays on

than
in literaryand critical essays.

we

find

jects
scientific sub-

Many

of the

LATIN

SAXON

AND

87

ENGLISH

generalliterature,however, recognizethe
of a Saxon
vocabulary in securingthe charm and
wherever
of simplicity,
is possible.
simplicity

latest writers of
value

force

Illustrations
Latin

Let

us

different
this
into

English,

of

examine

some

periodsand
of Latin

use

Saxon

or

Reference

with

to

(See Question 11, page 92)

passages from English writers,of

in different fields,
with reference to

English,remembering
character

the

always (1)

account

studied

be

Wording.

Saxon

and

to

of

the

to take

theme;

For an English that

(2) the fashion of the writer's age.
in a scientific work
would
be strongly Saxon, might in a
poem

on

Nature

be

unduly

And

Latin.

an

essay that in

the seventeenth
now

century would be markedly Saxon, might

strike us as characteristically
Latin.
1. The
Exhortation, inserted in the Morning and

Evening Prayer

of

the choice between

Prayer

Latin

word

learned

more

the

and

for

the

simpler for the simpler:

Saxon
more

of

Book

words
learned

1552.
is

Here

given,the

classes, the

"

us
Dearly beloved brethren, the scripture moveth
sundry places,to acknoivledgeand confessour manifold
and
dissemble
and
not
should
that we
wickedness,
cloak them;
chieflyso to do, when
yet ought we
assemble
and meet
together.
"

Shakespeare(1564-1616)
"

"

Julius

Caesar:

"

Thus, Brutus, did my master bid me kneel ;

Thus did Mark
Antony bid me fall down ;
And, being prostrate,thus he bade me say :
Brutus

is

Caesar

was

sins
nor

^^

2.

in

noble,wise,valiant,and honest ;
mighty,bold, royal,and loving."

we

88

STUDY

3.
'^

Bacon

But

OF

(1560-1626)

little do

is

Magna
4.
"

love.

no

The

civitas,
magna

Sir Thomas

of the soul

and

inhumation

but

Latin

and

faces

meeteth

with

far it
but

are

tinklingcymbal,

adage

it

where

little,

"

soUtudoJ

Z7m

(1605-1682)
"

voluminous
; but

nations

how

pains to
have

men

determine

been

"

the state

phantasticorporaldissolution;

of their

have

Burial:

most

rested in two

ways,

of

simple

burning."
"

nursed

were

we

is,and

(1Q08-1614:)" Li/cidas:

Milton
For

talk

"

solitude

company,

singular contrivances

whilst the soberest

"

is not

disunion

upon

cal in the

5.

Friendship:

"

Browne

taken

have

Many

WORDS

perceivewhat

men

extendeth; for a crowd

galleryof pictures,and
there

ENGLISH

the

upon

selfsame

hill ;

by fountain,shade, and rill ;

Together both, ere the high lawns appeared
the opening eyelidsof the morn.
Under

Fed

the

We

drove

and
afield,

time

What

flock

same

flocks with

our
Batt'ning

star that

Lost

Paradise

the

rose, at

heav'n's descent

Toward

On

gray-flywinds

the

Oft, till the

together heard

both

"

,,

had

her

sultryhorn,
fresh dews
of night.
evening,bright.
slopedhis westeringwheel."

Meanwhile

the

Son

his great

expeditionnow
appeared.
Girt with omnipotence,with radiance crowned
Of Majesty divine,sapienceand love
Immense."
6.
"

Bunyan (1628-1688)

So I

"

saw

of the old
tell what

man

to

that

Christian

went

Pilgrim'sProgress:
"

on

that sat at the mouth

because
think, especially

his way

yet, at the sight

of the cave,
he

he could

not

spoke to him, though

LATIN

he could

not

of you

more

7.

Addison

of

by

the two

as

"

model
I have

fair

reader

whether

mild

seldom

peruses

the writer of it be

he had

ascribed

with

black

Bond

visited

taken

to

much

and

me

gave

me

those

of the

account

an

endeavours.

or

duce
con-

"

spread a general good likingto

to

or

Autobiography:

"

"Dr.

book

choleric

or

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)

8.

married
disposition,
other particularities
of the lik6 nature, that
author."
to the rightunderstandingof an

of

very much

'^

that

knows

he

bachelor,with

till

"

observed

man,

mend

never

1710.
(1672-1719)" /Spec^a^or,
(Spoken
writers next quoted, Franklin
and Johnson,
the use of pure English):

in

till
pleasure,

will

be burned.'

89

ENGLISH

him, saying, You

after

go

SAXON

AND

had

the

the

pains

law, and

vanity to

ascribe all to my

Dialogue. However, not knowing but that

he might be in the right,I let him
enjoy his opinion,which I
take to be generallythe best in such cases."
Samuel

9.
sar'\'
"

and

Johnson

Ori

(1709-1784)

"

Oae-

''Julius

"

this

Of
the

particularpassages

tragedy many

contention

and

reconcilement

of

deserve

Brutus

regard,
Cassius

and

been
universallycelebrated; but I have never
strongly
cold and unagitated in perusing it,and think it somewhat
other of Shakespeare'splays;
affecting,
compared with some
is

"

his

adherence
to have

seems

10.
"

to

the

real

impeded

story,and

the natural

"

vague,

Performance,what
consciousness

dwells

the Eoman

vigor of

his

manners,

genius."

A^ar^or Resartus, 1833

Carlyle(1795-1881)

Between

to

"

and fixed,indubijable
wavering Capability
a

difference !

dimly in

us

certain inarticulate

j which

onlyour

Works

Selfcan

90

OF

STUDY

render

articulate

ENGLISH

WORDS

disceriiible.
Our
Works
decisively
are
first sees
the spirit
the mirror wherein
its natural lineaments.
Hence, too, the follyof that impossiblePrecept,Know
thyself;
till it be translated
into this partially
what
possibleone, Know
thou canst
"

And

Mountain

white

dames

her

children

stood

round

how

libertyof

sheltered

flower

green

the
still,

Mother

Emerson

12.
We

have

all

the

Maugre

world, the whole

love like

under

Ristort/of England:

"

that

discussion

settlement,the authorityof

and

(imi^\^^2^

found

of

bejcompatible

to

individual

great deal
human

kindness

more

selfishness

us

How

Friendship:

"

that

action

never

How

many

we

many

is

spoken.

ever

winds

bathed

element

with

yet

in

the

we

an

in

meet

we

persons

whom

see

than

"

chills like east

family is

scarcelyspeak to,

we

"

"^

fine ether.

baking

her."

known.*'

before

in

lawns, and

better

or

many

securityof property were

the

honor

their

Macaulay (lS00-lS59)

law and

whom

; with

stood

damsels, lovelyenough;

I shall relate

with

that
castles,

cottages, wherein

bread,with

"

hollows
and

straw-roofed

fair

fancy the

to

these

"

at.''

work
then

11.

and

honor,

the
of

houses,

and

who

sit with

street, or

church, whom, though silently,

we
warmly rejoiceto be
the language of these wandering eye-beams. The
Read

in

with

heart

knoweth."
Living

13.
"

Henry James,

In the matter

seem

admit

at

first to say

that

one

pleases even

other

of

day

says

Jr.

Niagara :

"

line,it
the

beats

least,but

the

most, in

spectator who

that he didn't

Writers

care

was

"

Michael
the

Angelo.

careful

saying
not

that

ashamed

for cataracts."

One

observer
it
to

may
will

pleases
"

write

the

AND

LATIN

14.

William

"At

home

live and
it

Dean

it sometimes

be done

with

altogetherbetter
15.

it

we

There

are

of

want

half-truths

no

that

have

we

On

India

atmosphere
worth

Life:

"

in such

are

time to be

no

I wish

to be rude ?

"

is

Venetian

"

seems

Rudyard Kipling

There

"

Howells

91

ENGLISH

SAXON

it

haste

to

polite. Or

is

not."

were

"

in

the

noticing.

painter'ssense.

Men

stand

out

all

with

nothing to tone them down, and nothing

to scale them
against. They do their work^ and grow to think
that there is nothing but their work, and that they are the real
pivotson which the administration turns."
crude

and

Richard

16.
"

raw,

Watson

Gilder

"

lightthe sea and wake the sleeping

land,
My footstepson the hills make music, and my hand
Plays like a harper'son the wind-swept pines."

ON

QUESTIONS

CHAPTER

VII

1.

to

Compare the values of Latin and Saxon English.

2. Which
givesus the words of home life ? Give examples.
3. Compare the words fatherlyand paternal,with reference
originand use.
4. On what three pointsdepends the choice between
Latin

and

Saxon

words

5.

What

6.

In what

is

^he generaldistinction
two ways

does

the

passage

from

Mr.

when
have replacedthe Latin by Saxon ?
we
suffer,
7. Explain this loss,
in detail.
^. Again, what is lost in changing the given bit
from
9.

its Saxon
How
vary

of

poetry

into Latin ?

does
with

Spencer

the
the

proportionof the Latin and Saxon

different periodsof English writing
?

ments
ele-

92

10.

respect
11.

scientists

do

How

of

Study

(b)

the

is

How

Look

English

the

(c) Compare

either choosing

style and

(d)

Where

the

should

marked

more

of Latin

and
the

statement

been
for

the

words,
accurate

that

in

are

selection

other

some

time,

made

from

the

them

in

or

words

Saxon

and

in

between

and

be

and

Saxon,

given

these

to

of

one

similar

If

results

research

the

however,

may,

some

the

be

of

week's

proportion

actual

ing
count-

against thinking

guard

final when

tion
propor-

it.

by

up,

expressed numerically, by
must

this

and

passages,

work.

characteristic

author,

same

explain

followed

be

should

pupil

or

The

limited.

has

the

necessarily
enough

accurate

general comparison.)

TOPICS

I.
II.

is

Saxon

Latin

next

contrast

ones

author's

the

on

Dictionary, the

purpose.

of Latin

(Much study

the

selections

two

notice

with

selection

in each

the

selection.

of

proportion

to

of each

words

adapted

International

in Webster's

up,

Book

Prayer

unlearned

the

and

important

of

in this

Specimen Passages.

learned

lessons

writers
literary,

with

compare

(a)

the

WORDS

ENGLISH

OF

STUDY

Louis

Eobert

Stevenson's
of the

Comparison
as

regards

Latin

English.

histories
and

VII

CHAPTER

WITH

CONNECTION

IN

of

Motley

Saxon

words,

and
with

Mr.

John

study

Fiske,
of effect

in each.
III.

Exercise

An

versions,

one

original essay
as

Latin, the

on

topic,written

any

other

as

Saxon,

as

in two

possible.

CHAPTER

of Words.

Association
have

may

In

spiritual.

the

of

if

significance
the

(2)

For

of

associations

instance,

the

minds

our

that

it is difficult
with

second

wife

may

say,

the

word

is

In

minds
The

has

The

She

is

of

definite

double
twofold

this

double

of

word;

are

familiar
to

unkind
not

colored

it with

connect

dictionary

in

the
the

may

say

that

properties

that

in

of

story

of

her

husband's

its

strict
a

mother
stepderella.
Cin-

children,
all !

"

Here

dictionary

word

but

particular

at

association

type

that

stepmother

used

by

explain
to

ing,
mean-

legal relationship

not

we

gives

the

brings

sense.

to

our

"

essential
to

the

accidental

and

always

necessarily

thing.
attributes

that

usually

accompany

these

properties.

b
The

by

so

and

another

definition

highly

so

wish

we

clearly

general,

belong
2.

if

''

to
we

is not

we

is

not

which

And

1.

word

is

word

word.

stepmother

the

that

elements

two

WORDS

physical

there

quite colorless, representing

to

the

dictionary

OF

shown

understood,

The

(1)

are,

been

words,

well

language.

to

has

USE

meanings,
of

use

significance which,
power

It

"

sets

two

SCIENTIST'S

THE

AND

ARTIST'S

THE

VIII

the

first element
scientist.

is

The

invariable,
second

is

and

so

is

variable,

depended

upon

resulting

from

94

STUDY

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

to the
experience, and so coming home
feelings and
this
more
imagination of each man
personally; upon
the poet, depends.
appeal to the feelingsthe artist,especially

As

homely example, the

invariable scientific value, as

have

also

variable

means
people : March
sunshine, November

value

of life "had

poet
come

of the months

names

fixed divisions of time

value

associative

when

to

bride

he
or

they
of

midsummer

means

This

Thanksgiving.

uses,

an

large classes

to

bluster,June
means

have

ative
associ-

June
suggests that the
he
a
story writer, when
"

morning."
story in a settingof a country "June
Yet to a New
Zealander, June suggests the slightfrosts
of their midwinter, though the name
June still belongs to
his

puts

the month

scientifically*
still more
prosaicexample

of the week.

only

mean

the

\j

these
Scientifically,
the

place each

day

we

may
names,

holds

find in the

days
Sunday^ Monday^

in the

fixed

order

By association,to one class of people,Monday

is
Wash
day,".Saturday Baking day ; to another,
Monday is "School
again," Saturday "Holiday"; to
is
another, Monday
day."
PayWork-again," Saturday
These
minds
associations
have
in our
entirely
day
the days; Saturreplaced the associations which named
to anybody Saturn-Day.
no
longer means
No
one
can
York,
now
speak of Fifth Avenue, New
without
suggesting to people in generalsomething more
seven.

"

"

"

"

"

than

the

If

to

and

be

between

avenue

you

humorous

\J

of

say,

He's

"

affectionateness

found

in

the

suggests the

liuman

Fourth

word

clever

and

Sixth.

little

chap,"

implied in the
hoy (which is

word
more

dictionarydefinition of a
l)eing). Imaginationplays upon the

there

is

chap

not

colorless,
young
words

male
little

ARTIST'S

AND

chap, and we
perhaps has some

think

of his

associative

that

and

subtle

so

speaks to
just how long

to

in the

see

count

on

of

children,

The

"

is of

of

word

the
the

of

management

the

experience and human

come
begreat artist they can
to

which

fine

so

is vital

issues
in

color

for

them, and

experience,

understanding
lating
fancy,and stimunot
simply rely
"

feelingand
He

does

dictionaryvalue, but
reader
to a
point where

is called oratory

What

fond

for its full

word

thought

the

tiring these.

without
the

that

universal

so

of

penetrate

discerns

Shakespeare

on

hands

the

in

95

WORDS

very greatest
associations have
somewhat

quality of human

ol: the variable

mood,

Element.

in words

power

OF

own.

It is because

importance.

USE

speaker is

the

of the Associative

Value
this

SCIENTIST'S

needed

for the

he

leads

he

may

effect desired.

depends for its persuasivepower

justthis management of the associative value of words.

For
example, study Antony's speech in Julius Caesar,
The power of this appeal to the people lies largelyin the

on

associations

popularlyconnected

Brutus

have

may

thinking of
lead

the

reasoned

with

the word

that Caesar

scientific fact, that

"

ambitious.

would

be

this ambition

king,"
would

politicalissues. But Antony, playing

the
the popular associations with
ambition^ draws
upon
the robbery of their money
between
that they
contrast
would
was

to

certain

he
this man
of whom
Brutus
said
expect from
ambitious," and the public bequestsof Caesar's will.
'-'"

prejudicesof the people,then shows

how these must
fail if directed against Caesar, and, by a
subtle move,
them
turns
against Brutus, this time by the
with the phrase ''so honorable (?) a
associations connected
Antony

arouses

man"

i.e.,he

the

rouses

their

scorn

of

dishonorable

friend.

with

diction-

Here, evidently,honorable is not used merely

96

STUDY

ary

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

value, but by the skill of the

is made

orator

equivalent

to dishonorable.

In the smaller

of

uses

of associative

is half the battle in situations

in words

values

life,this management

calling

speech. By understanding this power, one

avoid the petty brutalities of thoughtlessspeech,and
may
otherwise
be careless,ungoverned talk
would
raise what
Art.
to the dignity of an
A humorous
turn, too, may be given to a disagreeable
of a word that has humorous
trait or situation,by the use
be done
This
associations.
to bring a sordid fact
may
Du
Maurier
within
the pale of art, as when
says, "Oh,
happy times of careless impecuniosity! giving us pathos
for tact

in

"

instead of the blank

be used
hard

actual

in

ones,

life,to brighten
this

art of

between

words

and

"

of poverty

wretchedness

words

facts and

dull
may

or, it may

soften

be half the art of

living.
The

choice

often

turns

more

fullyin

their

on

of about

chapter,on

QUESTIONS

does the twofold

1. In what
2.

Illustrate

3.

Define

4.

Illustrate

the word

by

the two

elements

the

by

names

will be

seen

Synonyms.

VHI

CHAPTER

ON

meaning

same

This

value.

associative

the next

the

significanceof

word

consist ?

stepmother.
of word
of the

suggestions.
months,

and

of

the

days

of the week.
5.
"

Illustrate how

Fifth
6.

"

What

Avenue)
is the

so

colorless

word

accumulate

may

associative

as

mere

(as

number

associations.

value

of

chap

as

compared

with

hoy 9
7.
word's

How

does

such

associative

an

value ?

artist

as

Shakespeare make

us

feel

ARTIST'S

8.

Illustrate

9.

Explain

10.
"

the

the

associations

of

use

in

of

dependence

in

97

WORDS

OF

this

of

effectiveness

the

Illustrate

USE

SCIENTIST'S

AND

oratory.

humorous

phrases.

witticisms

some

word

upon

associations.
11.

What
with

IN

TOPICS

II.

of

in
word

the

for

older

III.
IV.

the

avoid

Exercise

the

BTU.

to

of

VIII

which

of

the

WORDS

"

the

is

It

softening

of

names

may
7
"

be

avoiding
of

use

associative

examples
ENG.

"

animal,

CHAPTER

of

of
of

Illustrate

similar

simple

instead
effect

nected
con-

use

seriously),

because

sake

abruptness

men,"

Demoralizing

their

are

they

are

poetry.

(Compare
to

used

words

poetic)

cattle), sweat,

WITH

certain

of

Change

with

CONNECTION

Associations

only

governing

(rarely

irrepressible

felloiv,

scornful,

compared

(as

kine

maid,

used

words,

following

the

old

I.

(humorous,

associations

the
drawn

the

unpleasant
comparative

positive
hard

for

phrases
values
months
from

ciations.
asso-

"

old
for

by
as

daily

It

degree
is

hard

for

men.")
evil
other

given.
life.

conduct.

words,

Many

IX

CHAPTER

SYNONYMS

Meaning.
used

almost

than

one

To

must

choose

word.

sxamined

from

the

of

depends

shade

more

wish

we

the

synonyms

three

on

be

to

language

our

just

group

meaning

Synonyms.

in

idea

tlie

in

them

have

we

give

choice

This

call

may

idea,

word.

it, we

best

we

every

alike

enough

are

interchangeably,

For

for

If words

"

points

one

already

"

1.

Derivation,

2.

The

Latin

Saxon

or

which

through

meanings

(Chapter

VII).
word

the

has

passed

synonyms

has

^'Chapter VI).
3.

Associations

The

choice

discussed.

know

must

The
when

they

before

both,
two

not

are

points

two

and

Past

Saxon

and

The

the

then

are

We

Latin

between

been

already

VIII).

(Chapter

we

the

Present

can

use

always,

the

associations

conflict, present

of

sidered
con-

word.

word
in

however,

be

to

now

ligently.
intel-

harmony;
decide

must

our

choice.
For
the
word

example,

the

word

tricky ; this

sense

means

now

been

meaning

adopted
of

pretty)

is

meaning

by
and

now

attractive.

physically

originally knowing,, skillful;

have

had

preMy

from

good

this

98

Middle

The

English

quite lost, and

Cunning
meaning,
tricky

usage,

tvinsome.

in

two

(the

purist that

the

meant

others

original
rejects

99

SYNONYMS

rejectthe first,as
meaning should logically
also the present use
of pretty.
is a better guide to
As a rule, however, the derivation
the

second

in that

present usage than

case^

example,adore^ dote

For
To
false

of

use

adorare

adores

"

one

say

to pray

is at

is

shown

once

know

we

the

to ;

that

for

"

we

and

in

On

this
most

in the

for

almost

choice

of synoa
among
group
nyms
consider : 1. What
each
must

choosing,we
the present assomeans
ciations
by derivation ; 2. Whether
uphold the derivative distinctions.
let us examine
these two principles,
some
groups of

word

the

the

seen

"

use,

Latin

pression,
fittingexword
implies

originalmeaning of the
but trivial fondness, such as is
innocent
an
stronger word, dotage.
this point,
We
have, then, to review
word

the

kittens is the

on

for the

every

to be

present usage follows

properlykept

To dote

associations.

sacred

kittens

the word

derivation,and

on.

word, when

the

meant

"

synonyms

"

by

accessible,
courteous, civil,
Affable,
benign. Affablemeans
This derivative meaning governs
derivation to-be-spoken-to.
of the word, for we
do not properlyapply it to men
use

our

in

general,but to persons of rank, who grant such approach as a

he gives us
of high positionis affable when
privilege.A man
an

access

to him

but this word

to

or

an

due.

simplywith

the

office ; but

servant
we

rubbed

corners

formed

We

may

say that he is accessible ;

has a special
suitability

and
to-be-reached,
island,in the physicalsense

is of the court,while

Courteous

say that

our

means

mountain,

manners

not

city. Civil

off

with

by

contact

formal life of a
is civil,
because his manner
a

reaching.

civil is of the

to suit the

say of

of

gentleman that

town.

men,

So

means

with

"

we

is formed

he is courteous

to

may
to his

lady.

100

WORDS

ENGLISH

OF

STUDY

well-born,and is used of the kindness

originally
from the higherto the lower, associated with
and condescension
nobility. In this group, we have found present association
almost exactlydetermined
by derivation.
meant

Benign

the

ending -fulmarks
the

others

the

and

purpose,

the

Saxon,

as

ending -ible,

be dropped, for our

suffixes may
that call for discrimination
are
awe,

The

Latin.

as

first three

nouns

The
originalmeaning of
fear, dread, terror, horror.
first used of the peril of travel.
choking. Fear was
meant
of the hair. These
tremhling; horror, a bristling
while

give it

they

invaluable

do

not

color.

of evil ;

while

we

so

"

"hair

our

evil.

threatened

accuratelydefine
Awe

was

Terror
tions,
deriva-

present usage,

our

be felt in the

may

awe

of

presence

evil,while we use horror only

choke '^ when
reading of a magnanimous deed,
of
bristles" only when
element
there is an

is vast, whether

what

the

this group,

In

horrible.
Awful, fearful,dreadful,terrible,

good

Dread

used

or

to have

graver

as

sense,

find

we

literature ; the ordinarypresent idea of it is

religious
of the
simply of a strong personal fear, as a child's "dread
dark."
While
we
usually associate fear with evil,there is
and worship,
of reverence
of it in the sense
the Biblical use
in the sentence, " They hated knowledge and did not choose
as

it used

the

in

fear

of the

Lord."

Fear

has

the

widest

small.

words, being applied to things large or

have
extreme
degree of fear; one
may
feet

wet, but he has

terror

of all five

range

is

Tensor

fear

of
of

of the consequences

an

gettinghis
some

grave

crime.

Love, like,enjoy,incline,
pleased,content,

The

satisfied.

fitting

by association. If we are to
keep it for the higher attachments,we must not vulgarizeit ;
" love
when
the word is cheapened at once
we
potatoes. To
like is found in Middle
English as an impersonal,liketh^ it is
like or suitable for; this suitableness is still the prominent

use

of the word

love is determined

"

idea ;

one

expresses

likes what
a

livelier

fitshis

taste.

feelingthan

mere

To

enjoy is

liking,
"

to

joy in, and

more

positive

101

SYNONYMS

pleasure.
in

incline to is to lean

To

it; one

to, and

stand

has

between

an

idea of

parison
com-

things,and to
from one thing toward the other.
lean away
To please is allied,
to appease
with the word
in its Latin original,
(asan enemy or
the
this
offended
an
give us
of it
may
specialsense
divinity)
;
as

to

seems

condescension,as

inferior.

is

person

is from

be content

To

two

usually pleased with an

Latin word
meaning to hold
"

"

and suggests that what

has corresponds to what
a man
together,
he wishes, or that he holds togetherand
restrains his desires.

be

To

also
satisfied

to

means

have

enough;

man

is said

to

be

if he has

limited his desires to his condition ;

voluntarily
if he has not been obligedso to check his desires,
he is satisfied
but has had them
fullymet.
To invent is to come
in thought; to
Invent, discover.
upon
The distinction is that a thing
discover is to uncover, reveal
discovered existed before the discovery
ica
to discover Amer: as
first existent
; to invent is used of a thing or combination
"hit upon'^ in our minds ; as
machine."
to invent a new
or
content

"

''

"

and

Leisure

Leisure,idleness.

time; but leisure is

regularemployment or business
doing nothing (from a Saxon
business
hours

man

could

person

to

Saxon) is used

book

used

both

of time

employed
free,un-

mean

exacted

by a
idleness means
actually
; while
word
meaning empty). So a
in his leisure hours,but these
not

be called idle.

not

from
lease,

To

Lease,hire.
the

write

may

idleness

whom
of the

French

is used of
word, laisser,

property belongs.

person

to whom

the

To

hire

(from the

property is

let for

season.

(Latin habeo, to have) is that which is

held or retained,acquired by long custom.
Custom
(French
coutume, cf. Latin consuetus, used) is an established practice
either of a man
of a community.
It is thus a more
or
general
word
than habit,and
definite meaning. We
has a more
speak
ot any common
vagary of a child,such as sucking the thumb,
and European customs.
there are American
as
a habit; while
Custom, habit.

Rabit

102

STUDY

One

Enough, sufficient.
is that

words
\

ENGLISH

WORDS

of the

distinctions

OF

already spoken of,as

colder
dignified,

Latin

these

between

difference between

the

the

homely Saxon.
Sufficient
meeting our
(Latin,sufficiens putting under, supplying,i.e.,
what
is adequate to needs.
what
Enough means
wants) means
the warm,

and

the

feelingof gratifiedwish, plenty.

Hinder
(from Anglo-Saxon, to keep back)
Hinder, prevent.
Prevent
to block, obstruct.
means
(Latin praevenio, to go
gives us

v/

"

means
before,anticipate)

in

good

than

sense

hinder

we

get ahead

to

We

hinder.

qualitiesof
is

what
or

by

thought;
fore-

Greek)
the

covers

means

essential

Reputation (Latin puto, to think)means

him, and may be a true sign of character

of

otherwise.

These

Vice, crime.
refers

to

law, until

These

artist is used

poetry

the

human

by

mechanical

{ars,
music, painting,

Latin

same

in the fine

worker
is

touched

vice

act, or crime, is committed.

from

are

be

but

arts,
"

word

laborer.

lished;
decreed, estab(Latin certus)means
safe. Certain is used more
(Latin securus)means

sure

mind,

fact,but

of

artisan

an

Certain

Certain, sure.
of the

evil

outward

some

ish
a blem(vitiiinfi,

wrongdoing,

Artist,artisan.

art);

the Latin

from

both

are

crime). They both mean

personal habit which cannot

crimen,

the

(from

distinguishes,and

or

man.

thought

used

progress.

marks

which

disease

prevent

Character, reputation. Character

that

is oftener

of,and

and

sure

of

Allow, permit.

of the

sure

feelings.

You

may

be

certain

of

friend.

Allow

(from

the

French) and permit (Latin

of
be used
to give leave.
Permit
permitto)both mean
may
"
mits
impersonal agents (" my health does not permit," time perbe
used
of
should
allow
only
") r
persons.
the
actually
Saxon) means
Empty (from
Empty, vacant.
of
an
means
occupant.
deprived
containing nothing; vacant
A

furnished

house

Kill, murder.

may
To

Mil

be vacant, but
means

cannot

simply

to

be empty.
take

life.

Murder

108

SYNONYMS

the

means

word

the

wrongful taking of
is metaphorical.

Hope, expect.

good

evil

or

to wish

We

information.
ripenessof

for something

that

it will

of

whether

"

To

come.

use

hope is

sure
feelingpartially

come,

calamity,but
These

wisdom.

Knowledge is of

meaning.

look

other

hope

we

for

even

what

of

simple

if it is desirable.

unattainable

Knowledge,

life;any

thing may

expect

may

to

confidence

with

"

ardentlythat

of it.
seems

expect is

To

human

Wisdom

the

Saxon

are

mind

is of the life and

words,

and
principally,
experience,and

means
means

character.

Convince,persuade. To convince

(Latin convinco, to conquer)

another's reasoning.
is to triumph in an argument, to overcome
with
To persuade is to sway a man's feelingand will,specially
reference
wrong,

There

of

action.

to

in order

are

no

to

One

persuade
Absolute

convinces
him

to

that

man

he

is in the

change.

Synonyms.

"

It is the

tendency
side by side

language to let no two words stand in it

with preciselythe same
meaning ; and it is a scholar's
duty to see to it that these distinctions are well founded,
based on the historyof the words.
There
are
instances,
into English from
however, in which words have come
in their
real
different languages, with
distinction
no
meanings. In such a case, an arbitrarydistinction
original
For example, sympathy and compassionare
arises.
soon
exactlyparallelwords, one from the Greek, the other from
the Latin,
both
meaning, by derivation, with-feeling^
distinction has grown
But
a
fellow-feeling.
up which
permits sympathy to keep its earliest meaning, applicable
to either joy or sorrow
compassionis used in the
; while
later sense
of i^Wow -suffering^
pity. On the other hand,
passionis used of a great emotion, whether of love or of
anger ; while pathosis kept for sorrow.
a

"

104

OF

STUDY

Distinctions.

of these

Value

ENGLISH

arise,it is the mark

not

limitations,but

as

words,

in

trained

to convey

artist to

the

and
thought,

of

tions
distinc-

these

opportunities. By

as

finer shades

feeling,the

However

"

is enabled

writer

of

WORDS

them

use

fine

shading

finer effects of
if his

choice

of

by the fact that in a

there is reallyonly one that fits
large group of synonyms
his meaning, the force and beauty of that one
right word
is just so much
heightened.
that show well-chosen
Let us now
study some
passages
words

words

"

"

Long
Or

The
art

JjTar^^arc?Commemoration

Lowell's

From

1.

narrowed

be

at first to

seems

man's

as

only guess

three words

that

here

can

"

discern

inspiringgoal."

more

some

insatiate^discern^

are

insatiate

hope

Ode:

chosen

seem

with

particular

Insatiate^ because

guess.

have
sympathetic with hope; insatiable would
be satisfied ;
never
boldly that the hope would
insatiate (which is reallyun-sated) has the more

it is
stated

so

idea

of not

and allows
yet satisfied,

Discern

future.

bring into vivid

imagination, of
discern

is to

and

guess

the

contrast

both

are

which

of

separatebetween^ and

one

well

to look

on

while
subtle

into the

chosen, because

faculties,reason

two

they
and

Hope avails herself; to

impliesthe most accurate

and

painstaking mental process ; to guess is to loose the

Some
cerned^
fancy from all bonds of reason.
goals can be dissuch
Hope presses
grasped by logic; toward
can
only be guessed by freest fancy
rationally
; others
such
or
Hope presses irrationally.
aspiration; toward
How

much

greed,
other

of

wora^.

more

Hope,

he
than

has

said

could

about

have

the

been

eagerness,

said

in

the
three

105

SYNONYMS

"

Matthew

From

2.

Sonnet

Arnold's

:
Shakespeare

on

"

self-secure."
Self -schooled,
self-honored,
self-scanned,

These

words

evidentlychosen

are

with

care

let

us

see

justhow.
What

the

author

and

standards

"

as

scanned

on

earth

him,

He

above

its

"

clouds,and

in

"

cloudy border of his base

searchingof Mortality."

the

the foiled

schooled

him, he schooled

he scaimed

himself

himself

for honor

and

if

none

security

himself.

depended upon
Doubtless

generation and

unguessed at,"

hides his head

Spares but

other

none

his

sympathy.

walked

To

he

its

the mountain
"

If

in

alone

stands

speare
emphasize is that Shake-

to

means

words

the

were
self-schooled^
self-scanned^

partly for the alliterative effect; but how, in

meaning, do they compete with their synonyms? Clearly,
much
would
be lost by not keeping the selfin the four
ciplined
schooled means
words.
As to the participles,
trained^ dischosen

in

hands

such

as

Matthew

Arnold's, schooled
meant

leisure^and

suggests, not the technical training of our

the calmer, more
pervasive education which

schools, but

recalls the

to

course,

originalGreek

but

to

life.

word, which

It is

belongs,not
here

better word

than

both in
is a prose word,
discipline
sound
and in association,too clumsy for poetry.
Scanned
scrutinized ; but it has the advantage of
means
being better suited to verse ; and it has not the suggestion
)f lookingfor a flaw that seems
to go with scrutinize; the
to
lerivation of scan (from Latin scandere^ to climb)seems
because
disciplined^

"

106

STUDY

OF

ENGLISH

give the idea of going over

not hastily.
Honored

has

number

revered^ esteemed; but

WORDS

and
hy degrees^

of synonyms,
of the group

"

thoroughly,

so,

praised^respected^

honored

is the

word

associated with the rewards

of literary
particularly
ness.
great-esteemed^have also associations of
Self-praised^
self
and self-respecting
is a decidedlyprosaic
self-glorification;
word.

Secure

safe (without care).

means

could

He

not

say

would

and
mean
selfsaved
self-safe^
self-rescued.Selfwould
protected
guarded or self
suggest aggressiveeifort,
while self
-secure
gives justthe rightimpressionof a calm
So it
carryingout the figureof the mountain.
self-poise,
that we
could not change one
of these words without
appears
marring the effect.
8. An
example from Shakespeare,- Macbeth:
"

"

the

"

king-becominggraces,

As

justice,
verity,temperance, stableness,
Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness,
'*
Devotion, patience,
courage, fortitude,
"

We

that this passage is ruined by the substitution

of less artistically
chosen synonyms
; for instance,

can

soon

see

"

the

sovereign-like
virtues,
Equity,truthfulness,
moderation, constancy,

Generosity,persistence,
pity,humility.
Faithfulness,resignation,
bravery,endurance.
Here

it is not

much

that the words

taken

separately
inferior for their purpose, as that the harmony of the
are
is gone.
whole
Shakespeare has the art of so grouping
words that,as in a pieceof mosaic, the impressionis of a
whole,

not

of

so

sequence

or

list. In

this

passage,

the

lQ7

SYNONYMS

effect of

the

broad
and
simplicity
humanity which he
calls king-becoming,rather than
sion
artificial condescenan
toward
is given by the whole as a whole,
his subjects,
by the simpler words,
though it is especiallymarked
stableness for constancy. The general
bountyfor generosity^
"

difference between

by

at

word
In

his first
than

of words

his group

generalterm,

graces

and
a

"

is hinted

ours

spontaneous

more

virtues.

pends,
dethis passage from Macbeth^ the choice of words
of course,
somewhat
the verse
meter
; and in
upon

prose, our choice will be partlygoverned by the

words and word
sequences.
Before
the

of

affecting
look at two
of words, let us
important
in distinguishing
be gained by care
synonyms
of
basis for Argument ; 2. As a method
a

taking

selection

advantages to
1. As

rhythm

up

subjectof rhythm

the

as

Persuasion.
of Words

Choice

often condenses

as

the whole

for Argument.

Basis

force of

Carlyle

"

into the

argument

an

and this distinction he

synonyms,
the derivation of the words.
almost always bases upon
do without
"A
Happiness, and
man," he says, "can
distinction between

instead thereof

two

depends on hap^ and

He must
be able
-per-haps!.
is there to take its place?
which
from

word

"

'Blood'

something

of

he

love God

We

have

with

to do

Ah
we

cannot

depend

without

this

! he
do

not

may

which

is

"

accept

'

"

upon

but

'

what

ness^
Blessed-

the

tion
deriva-

has

always

suggeststhe
hap but God,''

and

not

have

the idea of sacrifice

meaning,
religious

of its source,

meaning

if

even

man

piness
Hap-

Because

Why

find Blessedness.

fastness
steadThis

"Love
not Pleasure,
emphasizes further on,
this is the EverlastingYea."
Arnold's
instance of Matthew
an
just seen
"

1Q8

STUDY

of words

choice

cahn
Let

in

form

lit for sonnet

majesty,as
us

his choice

of

short, pithy words,

"

fittingfor

was

in prose,

words, making

was

as

impressionof
his subject,Shakespeare.

that carried

words

WORDS

ENGLISH

sonnet,

how,

see

now

OF

he

the

the

uses

his whole

same

in

care

turn

argument

on

phrasing that exactly suits his meaning, and repeating

insistence too severe
these phrases over
with an
and over
need
for a commonplace writer, who
would
a
variety of
to give varietyto his style. For, as in matters
synonyms
of architecture or of dress,so severe
is very
a simplicity
trying and must be carried out with perfectart.
he says that Homer
In his essay On TranslatingHomer
has four qualities
to be lost sightof by a translator ;
never
that he is eminently rapid ; eminently plain and direct in
style; eminently plain and direct in ideas ; eminently
noble.
in

These

the

utmost

of the
or

the

we

are

pages

that

and over,
great critic turns over
their
follow, wringing out of them
the

descriptivepower, showing that it is for want

understanding of these simple qualitiesthat this
other translator has wholly or partially
failed, till
of

"

driven

words
for

words

to

the

explain such

the

Choice

conclusion

failures of the

past and

other

no

possibilities

future.
of Words

as

Method

orator, the

choice
proper
for on
it to a

of

and

that these

Persuasion.

of

is of the

of words

To

"

utmost

the

portance
im-

large extent depends his power

As
ple
examan
persuading and swaying his audience.
of an
the right word
could
hit upon
who
orator

for

bringing

Disraeli.

audience

Once, after

to

his

took

the

side,

cutting speech

sting out of it
his opponent by remarking,
vigor,but it has
possesses
he

upon

his

and

may

xtake

Lord

bury,
Salis-

we

from

the

turned

laugh

vective
lord's in-

"The

noble

one

defect,
"

it lacks

109

SYNONYMS

The
finish!'''
that
judicial,

word

finishis so cool, so neat, so calmly

in point and
of its synodelicacyno one
nyms
it.
match
It
grace^ polish^ease, elegance can
end.
has also the other suggestion of an
this short chapter that in daily
from
It will be seen
speech we may gain or lose much, in proportion to our
In the
regard for the proper distinctions of synonyms.
! Do not say that a girl,
trivial talk. Discriminate
most
a
a
day, are
cheese, a dance, a sky, a story, a sermon,
lent;
"lovely." The girl may be lovely; the cheese is excelthe dance
was
delightful;the sky, beautiful;the
remarkably good; the
story, entertaining;the sermon,
day,fine.
Do not, above
all,use words with no regard whatever
for their meaning, in such a phrase as "I like her awfully
"

"

well."
habit

The

value, as
mind

of

using
and

means

an

end

1.

of

means

of

twofold

trainingthe

scholarlythought on any subject,and for wellthought in practicallife ; 2. an end, in improving

and letter writing.
of general conversation

for

defined
the tone

QUESTIONS
1. What
2.

is
intelligently

words

On

is meant

what

depend ?
3. How,
its Past

Present

4.

Comment

on

5.

Discuss

the

benign,and
meaning.

write

as

synonyms

considerations

two

in other

and

6. Use

by

words,

is

IX

CHAPTER

ON

our

does the choice of synonyms

use

of

word

governed by

the

historyof

synonyms
sentences

the words

cunning and pretty.

accessible,
courteous, civil,
affable,
and
showing difference in use

horrible.
above^ awful,fearful,dreadful,terrible,

110

STUDY

7.

ENGLISH

OF

WORDS

love,like enjoy, incline to,

To

he

pleased with, he

content

with, he satisfiedwith.
16.

Artist,artisan.

Leisure, idleness.

17.

Certain,sure.

10.

Lease, hire.

18.

Allow, permit.

11.

Custom,

19.

Empty,

12.

Enough, sufficient.

20.

Kill, murder.

13.

Hinder, prevent.

21.

Propose, purpose.

14.

Character, reputation.

22.

Hope, expect.

15.

Vice, crime.

23.

Knowledge,

24.

Convince, persuade.

25.

What

8.

Invent,

9.

26.

between

"Long

out

than

words

man's

as

only

hope
some

guess

niceties of word

those

insatiate

inspiringgoal.''

more

selection

in this passage.

in the

speciallynoted

discern

can

should

text

(Other
be

taken

here.)

up

28.
"

29.
and

Discuss
Self

the

to

31.

verse,

"

-schooled,self-scanned,self-honored,self-secure."

In

the

passage
and

synonyms,
30.

are

the

wisdom.

meant

synonyms

Or
Point

"

vacant.

between
by an arhitrary distinction
between
sympathy and compassion?
artist gain from
tion
discriminaa careful
a word
may

What

27.

hahit.

is

as

synonyms,

discover.

What

from

discuss

Macheth,

look

up

all

derivations

in detail.

particularadvantages to the writer or speaker

be gained by careful distinguishingof synonyms
?
What
of life ?
general advantages,for the daily purposes
two

TOPICS

Distinction

of synonyms

for the

Persuasion, Study, Conversation,

purposes

and

Letter

of

Art, Argument,

Writing.

CHAPTER

RHYTHM

Accent.

Prose

Prose

"

has been

said to be to

verse

what

of prose
dancing ; that is,while the measure
is not marked
of the accent
or
by a regular recurrence
beat, there should be a rhythmicalmovement,
giving to it

walking

is to

of its

grace

own.

there

In

English verse
As Sidney
verse.
Verse^ though each
bar

of music, has
over

is not
of

too

Lanier

of

great for

syllablesin

an

varieties of foot

Trochee;

are

easy

between

this time

English

foot

is two

named

thus

of English

the

number

usual

number

three.

or

uted
be distrib-

may

The

movement.

in classic

accents, like

two

provided
syllables,

with
syllables,

two

his Science

in

equal time,

an

regularitythan

says

measure

number

any

is less

These

"

an

accent

on

the

first,as

Idve-ly,
Iambus:

two

with
syllables,

accent

an

the

on

second, as

a-fdr.
three

Dactyl:

with
syllables,

an

accent

on

the

first,as

ten-der-ly.

Amphibrach

three
171

Anapest :

three
in

with an accent
syllables,
springtime (rare).
with
syllables,
the light.
Ill

an

accent

on

on

the second, as

the

third,as

112

STUDY

; or

is done

as

the

accent

for two

and

in music

(likea triplet

quarter, in music), or

one

the accent

the

shifted,for

the middle

when

time

general

be

may

two

for one,
turbed
dis-

not

are

specialeffect,

of the bar

receives

by syncopation.

Recurrence
either

WORDS

be substituted

Three

syllablesmay
of eighth-notesfor
provided the accent

ENGLISH

OF

of
in

Unaccented

verse

or

Syllables.
"

in

prose,

to

ever,
how-

It is rare,

have

than

more

two

follow each other.

So natural is this
syllables
habit to the English tongue, that it is almost
impossible
The tendency
able.
hd spit
to get people to say, cdntumeli/,
is to divide more
; or to give
evenly, contHmely,hospitable
a
mdtrimony^ ciistomdry. A certain
secondary accent,
class of words
is thus cut out of poeticaluse, unless the
effect is
is very
irregularin form, or a humorous
poem
form
aimed
It is difficult to fit into regular verse
at.
without
ing
interfersuch words
as
cdmbatable^disinterestedly^
with both accent
and time.
By the use of secondary
as
accent, however, in such words
readilyadmit it,long

unaccented

"

"

words

may

be

used

in

perfectlymetrical

verse

as

in

Poe's
"

This
its

tm-tin-ab-u-la-tion of the bells.''

four-time

raritymay

for
English. The reason
the prejudicespoken of above, against
unaccented
syllables.

verse

be

three consecutive

is

rare

in

It is

This

prejudiceholds in prose as in verse.

principlethat for rhythmical prose,
fault of too great regularityof accent

we

must

an

portant
im-

avoid

(sing-songin
it is to verse),and
to prose as
prose, because not proper
the opposite fault of too great irregularity
(for to that
both prose and
laws of rhythm govern
extent, the same
In other words, the accent
should occur
usually
verse)

the

113

RHYTHM

*:ita

greater than three syllables,

though

distance not

be varied with

three must

"

two
than
against more
accented syllables
or, in some
togetherfor specialeifects,as

for imitation of

rhythm,or
or

consecutive

is also

Two

be thrown

for the

emphasis of

in

feeling
; for

pause

in time

dice
preju-

accents.

three,may

cases,

made, equal

will be

pause

two.

Syllables. There

of Accented

Recurrence

and

one

the

broken
a

to the value

syllablebetween the two accents.

Carlylethrows the emphasisof pause
:
adjectives
unaccented

break
of

For
on

an

stance,
in-

these

"

huge

"one

dead

steam-engine."

study of the requirements of rhythmicalprose,

other things equal
how
see
we
naturallyput names
It is smoother
to say Tait and
togetherin a firm name.
For

"

"

Morrison

than

the accents

Mdrrison
better

are

and

Tait,because

arranged ;

in

in the

former

the latter,there

are

three unaccented

the accented extremes,

between
syllables
and the syllables
and and are
not easilypronounced
son
togetherquicklyenough to take the placeof one.
Again
of rhythm ;
we
may put in or leave out and for the purposes
the Shipley F6rd
Company needs no and, but the Smith
F6rd
Cdmpany sounds better with an unaccented syllable

inserted

to

break

Cdmpany.

These

and

aid

as

an

the two

accents,

as
effects,

to

"

of

sequences

Stevenson's
STU.

some

ENG.

WORDS

and

even

in prose,

F6rd

enters

arrangement of words.

analyze the words

descriptiveprose from a

"

and

pleasingto the popular ear,

have
a
practicalbusiness

memory,
value, e.g., in the titles of books.
This natural desire for rhythm,
into the choice of synonyms
In this respect,let us now

the Smith

and

word

story of

114
"

STUDY

sea, it is

The

but

was

seam

than

more

that

of

ENGLISH

smooth

true, was

on

caps

OF

like

glass:

mirror,and

wide

foam;

WORDS

but

to

the

eye

my

the Boost

even

and

Merry
ear,

Men
so

no

long

places,the sea also seemed to lie uneasily;

where
I stood ;
of it,like a long sigh,mounted
to me
a sound
and, quiet as it was, the Roost itself appeared to be revolving
in these
dwellers
mischief.
I x)ught to say that all we
For
at least a qualityof warning,
parts attributed,if not prescience,
of the tides/'
to that strange and dangerous creature
familiar

with

these

the
Study particularly
"a

the imitative

with

unaccented

syllables,
"

16ng sigh, mdunted,"

pause

demanded

between
syllable
"

as

for the time

of

an

"

mounted^
long (-er)
sigh(-ing),

examine, with regard to rhythm, the closingsentence

Now

of Dr.

River
"

effect of the

R.

S. Storrs's Oration

Bridge

Surely we

at

the

opening of the

this

hour, which

East

"

should

not

go

from

marks

and which
historyof these cities,
pointsto their
in each of us
future indefinite expansion, without
the purpose
that,so far forth as in us lies,with their increase in numbei-s,
wealth, equipment, shall also proceed with equal step thenin whatever
is noblest and
best in publicand
private
progress
life ; that all which
in them
shall come
sets humanity forward
to ampler endowment,
renowned
more
exhibition; so that,
linked
together,as hereafter they must
be, and seeing the
purpledeepening in their robes of power, they may be always
conscious of fulfilled obligationto the nation and
increasingly
make
the land, at whose
to God
magnificent gateway
; may
they stand, their constant
debtor, and may contribute their
societyfor
mighty part toward that ultimate perfect human
new

era

in the

115

RHYTHM

the

which

could

seer

find

image

no

meet

so

or

majesticas

so

from

above,its stones laid with

with sapphires,its windows
of
fair
agates, its gates of carbuncles,and all its borders of pleasant
stones, with the sovereignpromiseresplendentabove it :
that

of

city,coming down
colors,its foundations
a

"

The

greatshall

And

be the peace

rhythm

of

this

but

of

its

Stevenson;

is

of

"

artificial than

more

kind,

thy children.'

it is almost

that

of

perfect. The

depend on the words

in about
their sequence
and on
equal proportion.
it
With
the sovereign promise resplendentabove
the regular
reads like a verse
from
based
on
a
poem
followed
foot,two unaccented
syllables
by an accented ;
it is saved from being too regular for prose by the irregularity
of the followingphrase ; if this read, And
great is
the peace of thy children,"there would be an unpleasantly
sing-song sound to the whole ; so that,to break this,the
welcome.
three successive unaccented
are
syllables
If it
Now
the rhythm of the phrase is very beautiful.
had been written,
With
the majestic promise shining
smoothness

easilybe

can

to

seen

"

"

"

'^

it,"the. loss of effectiveness would

over

quite as much

meaning
As

to the lack of

take

to

the

much

would

rhythm
be

emphasis
as

to

have

anything in

the

In the

not
a

desired

was

fine

numbers,

in
we

say, "in

wealth,

ment,
equip-

phrase,the three
original
give us just the desired

resources.

does

fatal to

"

it is if

smoothly togetherto

effect of combined
But

phrase

poorer

wealth, numbers."
roll

to

as

associations of the words.

or

sequence,
equipment." How

words

rhythm

due

been

have

always

passage
;

sharp

in which

abruptness

rhythm

smoothness.

mean

of its

own

may
;

be
for

This

contrast

or

managed
example,
so

"

116
Be

"

it !

Here
of
"

WORDS

Produce

Produce

fraction

of

it

Were

Product,

duce
pro-

''

the

of the

swing

it, throws
were

Chaos.

infinitesimal
pitifulest

the

but

longer

no

ENGLISH

OF

STUDY

in
the

it but

the
"

sentence,

as

well

four

unaccented

then

comes

the

meaning
little syllables
with
emphasis on
as

"

out

and jerksout the crisis of stress

'-'pitifulest
infinitesimal,''
number
The
unusual
of unaccented
on
''frdction.''
bles
syllaand -tes
six of them
between
gives an effect
-pitof words
to the climax.
of a torrent
on
sweeping one
Rough as is this rhythm, it is not lawless or the effect
little change
To make
of chance.
most
one
pitifulfor
pitifulest would spoilit.
It is said that the natural
expressionof strong feeling
is always rhythmical ; like the rhythm of the unrestrained
"

"

"

winds

in

great storm
lapping waves.
a

Addison

says, in

not

"

the smooth

of the

one

rhythm

Spectatorpapers,

of peacefully

that the
"

English words are less tunable and sonorous

than those of other languages, "like stringmusic, short
and transient,sounds which rise and perish upon
a single
touch," while those of other languages are "like the notes
of wind
instruments, sweet and swelling,and lengthened
out into varietyof modulation."
sounds

of

''

"

The

lengthenedsound
the longer
We
is at once
felt in callingto a person.
use
form of a name,
Be^-sie ! rather than
Bess," prolonging
A monosyllable
the latter syllable
to be heard at a distance.
often say,
Southerners
has not much
carrying power.
0 Mary I
allowing the long sound of the call to rest
the vowel
0.
on
So, too, we
Hurry up l'' when,
say,
for meaning, Hurry !
would
do as well.
I should
When
read of Fox saying, If I had a son
we
inconvenience

of short words

"

"

"

"

"

"

for

"

"

"

"

"

117

RHYTHM

insist

his

frequentlywriting English verses, because

that sort of composition forces one
to consider
fully
very carethe exact meaning of words," we
can
go farther and
say that the necessities of rhythmicalprose also force upon
on

the

one

shall

of synonyms:
only when we

consideration

exact

of words

be masters

their metrical

can

that

balance

we

the

and
meaning, their associations,

of their derivative

claims

and

value.

than it used to be, that

clearlyunderstood
but a
this choosing and using of words is not a superficial
vital and inextricable part of thought^
of character.
even
So largelyis a man's vocabularythe result of his life and
development, that his language is,as Buffon said, of the
man."
So also is the language of a nation the expression
of the character and genius of that people.
It is

more

"

ON

QUESTIONS
1. Is there

in

anything

CHAPTER

prose

corresponding to

meter

in

verse

2.

What

3.

What

in both
4.

5.

two

and

prose

Give

wording

of

the recognizedvarieties of foot in

are

an

govern

the

verse

example

firm

general laws

English verse ?
frequency of accents

of the

applicationof

these laws

to the

name.

Analyze the

passage

from

Stevenson,with

reference

to

accents.

6.

The

same,

7.

Can

8. What
with

10.

rough emphasis
to

Illustrate
did

What

the choice

and

use

be

remark

Addison's

was

reference

9.

in the sentence

from

Dr.

Storrs.

rhythmical?
about

the

Englishlanguage,

rhythm ?
the necessity
of rhythm

in

callingto

of the

of

verse

Fox

say

of words

bearing

any

one.

writingupon

118

STUDY

TOPICS

I.

of

study
irregular
this

CONNECTION

IN

would

amply

(For

is

"Prose

advanced

weeks'

two

repay

that

theory,

verse."

of

variety

CHAPTER

WITH

Lanier's

Sidney

WORDS

ENGLISH

OF

an

students,
work

at

this

point).
II.
III.

IV.
V.
^"^'

-^

Rhythm
In

illustrated

Euskin's

Carlyle's
The

Sesame
contrasts

sing-song
of

Asia,

in

Emerson's

Lilies,

and

of

quality

Essays.
first

smoothness
of

parts

and
of

Edwin

lecture.

roughness.
Arnold's

Light

INDEX

PAGK

Character,
Accent,

102
influence

Chaucer,

111

Accessible,

99

Civil,

Accurnulation,

79

Classification

89, 116

Classification

quoted

Addison,

in

Adjectives

Angles,
Arabic

element

artisan,
and

Artist's

scientist's

use

31

15

10.2

groups,

Content,

100

25

Convince,

103

29

Court,

75

73

Courteous^

99
102

105

Crime,

102

Chinning,

98

Custom,

101

VIII

93-96

Association,

18, 51

13

of

Chapter

words,

derivatives,

18

of,

quoted,

Artist,

of

sounds,

Arm,
Arnold,

16

Consonant

English,

in

consonants,

Consonant

Jutes,

Saxons,

99
of

99

-ble,

development

Dead

100

Awful,

languages,

Development

of

10

101

of synonyms,

Distinguishing

104-109

99

Benign,

17

Dreadful,

88

Dutch

Brother,
Urowne,

Sir

Bunyan,

quoted,

quoted,

Thomas,

70

word-meanings,

Discover,
88

quoted,

Bacon,

28

words,

Affable,

Alphabet,

English,

Compound

68

Allow,

on

100

element

30

English,

in

88
E

Early
Carlyle, quoted,
Celtic

element

89, 107,
in

English,

Certain,
Change

words,
in

Changes

form

25

in

Empty,
English

15
of

English

meaning,

90

in

1100,

in

1200,

Early
119

26

102

English,

70-81

derivatives,

quoted,

Emerson,

50-65

words,

Changes

Ecclesiastical-Latin

116

102
in

27

English,

difference

and

Modem,

27

27-28
between
29

120

INDEX

Genealogy of Language,

11

of

Indo-European
12
languages,
12
of English,
in English,
element
29
German
91
Gilder, quoted,
79
Gradually,
Greek
31, 34-36
derivatives,
17
Grimm's
Law,
.

23
Language growth,
85
Lanier, quoted,
Latin derivatives,
spelling, 66-69
Latin element
in English, 34, 37-40
83
Latin-English, exactness
of,
Latin and Saxon
English,
Chapter YII
53-55
Latin prefixes,
Latin

Habit,
Hand,

74

Head,

70, 73

Hebrew

element

in

English,

29

Hinder,

102

Hire,

101

History
Hope,

in

words,

Horrible,

Howells, quoted,
Humorous
words,
Hybrids,

79
103
100
91
96
45

established

in

24

Lease,

101

Leisure,
Like, love,

100

101

Limit,

78

'

25

Heptarchy,

58-61

suffixes,
Latin, why not
Britain

101

37-39

stems,

Latin

Macaulay, quoted,
and

Mental

physical

90
of

uses

77
words,
in
language-growth,
Metaphors
70, 72, 75-79
24

Mile,
Milton,

88

quoted,

50

Monosyllabic language,

102

Murder,
N

Narrowing
Norman

of

meanings,
in English,

79

element

27, 42, 43
Norse

element

in

English,

26

121

INDEX

Shakespeare, quoted,
language

Organism,
Origin of

words

10

an,

tested

Spanish

element

in

87,

Spelling, English,

by
46

spelling,

Spencer,

106

English,

29
66-69

29,

quoted,

83

Stems,

50

Stevenson,
Periods

of

English,

*'

Saxon"

86

words,

Permit,

and

mental

Sufficient,

102

Suffixes,

57

35

from

Greek,

77

from

Latin

57,

and

68,61
from

51

Prefixes,

English,

from

Greek,

62-53

from

Latin,

53-55

Synonyms,

from

French,

from

English,

55,

Chapter

98

Prevent,

78

Privilege,
in

Proportion of elements

lish,
Eng-

Greek

Technical

86

Chapter

31
86

Terrible,'

100

tribes

in Britain,

25
75

Tongue,
element

Turkish

Rhythm,

derivatives,

quoted,

Tennyson,
Teutonic

46,

in

English,

29

17

Two,

in

traces

24

English,

50

Roots,

102

Vacant,
elements

Various

S
100

Satisjied,

25

Saxons,
and

IX

56

102

Saxon

63

55

Pretty,

English,

62,

102

Sure,

Saxon

58

French,

100

invasion,

78

Successive,

meanings,

Pleased,

Roman

41,

29

Philology, philosophy,
Physical

Study,

102

103

Persuade,

24

78

English,

in

element

Persian

114

Street,

and

"Latin"

to

quoted,

Storrs, quoted,

ence
refer-

with

114

45, 46,

in

29

English,

102

Vice,

15

Vowels,

85

W
Latin

English,
Chapter

Scandinavian

JSetf

element

in

VII

English,

26

75

Weakening

of stems,

64,

103

Wisdom.,

Wyclif

influence
,

69

on

English,

28

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COMPOSITION-RHETORIC
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AMERICAN
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Pope's Rape of the Lock, and Essayon Man
(Van Dyke)
Scott's Ivanhoe
(Schreiber).Double number
Lady of the Lake (Bacon)
Marmion
(Coblentz)
"

First Bunker

Hill
.20

Selections

(Venable)

.20

HISTORY

OF

ENGLISH

LITERATURE
By

REUBEN

HALLECK,

POST

Male

M. A.
School

High

OF

HISTORY

HALLECK'

the earliest times

ENGLISH

developmentof

the

traces

(Yale),Louisville

the present in
Although the

ATURE
LITER-

that literature from

concise,
interesting,
is
and stimulating
manner.
subject presented
that it can
be readily
so
comprehended by high school
clearly
is sufficiently
and suggestive
pupils,the treatment
philosophic
for any student beginningthe study.
and not
lection
cola
mere
^ The book is a historyof literature,
of biographical
sketches.
Only enough of the facts
author's
of an
life are
given to make students interested in
him

as

affected

and
personality,

his

work.

show

to

how

his environment

author's

Each

their relation
productions,
why they hold a position

age, and the reasons

treatment
literature,receive
to

in

to

the

with

commensurate

their

importance.

One

of the

most

features
striking

the way
in which
movements
literary
the beginningof each chapter.
the

essential

which
qualities

of the

work

consists in

clearlyoutlined

are

at

attention is given to
Special
differentiate one
period from

of each age.
The
author
animatingspirit
shows
that each
period has contributed something definite
the literature of England, either in layingcharacteristic
to
foundations,in presentingnew
ideals,in improvingliterary
form, or in widening the circle of human
thought.
^ At the end of each chapter a carefully
preparedlistof
books is given to direct the student in studyingthe original
works of the authors treated.
He is told not only what
to

another,and

to

the

read, but also where

contains

AMERICAN

to

find it

specialliterary
map

BOOK

at

of

the least

England

cost.

The

in colors.

COMPANY

book

DESCRIPTIVE
CATALOGUE

OF

SCHOOL

AND

HIGH

COLLEGE

TEXTBOOKS
Published

issue

WE

useful

forth

set

our

for their value

For

in

of

branches

make

books,
CollegeTextas

valuable

and

as

best textbooks.

In

from

well-known

much

for their

most

cases

there

teachers,which

descriptive
qualities

commendations.

convenience

the

published

as

to

and

possible. In this catalogue

teristics
clearlythe scope and leadingcharac-

given testimonials
been selected quiteas

have

of

Sections

in

School

tried

have

teachers

to

also

are

as

we

and
briefly

of each

and

Catalogueof High

which
as

are

Complete

of

teachers

this

Catalogue is also
sections
treating of the various
separate
study. These
pamphlets are entitled : English,

Mathematics, Historyand

Political Science, Science,

Modern

mercial
Foreign Languages, Ancient
Languages, ComA
Education.
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and
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seeking the newest
^ Teachers
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^[ Copies of
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All

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the followingoffices of the company:
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AMERICAN

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