Plato in the Light of Yoga

Author(s): Jeffrey Gold

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 17-32
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
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PLATO IN THE LIGHT OF YOGA

Gold
Jeffrey

One of the reasonsthat interestin Plato has persistedfor 2,500 years is

that his dialogues are multifacetedand complex. There are a varietyof
useful and interestingways to approachand interpretPlato. Despite this
plethoraof interpretations,I plan to look at Plato from an atypical perspective. In this essay, I propose to interpretthe dialogues of Plato
through the lens of Yoga philosophy. I am not making any historical
claims alleging transmissionof ideas from Indiato Greece. I am claiming, however, that seeing Plato'sthoughtthroughthe categoriesof Yoga
is both a neglected approachand an illuminatingone. Certainthemes in
Plato that are often ignored stand out more prominentlyand become
more intelligiblewhen we examine his dialoguesfromthe perspectiveof
Yoga philosophy. Forexample, the geographicalsection of the Phaedo
(108c-115a) is an obscure and elusive passage that has provided difficulty for interpretersof Plato. If, however, we utilize certainthemes in
Yoga philosophy in interpretingthat passage, both the excerpt itself and
its connection to major topics in the dialogue become more comprehensible.
One of the majorthemes in the Phaedo that receives little attention
of Patanjaliare far
from scholars is the theme of liberation.Interpreters
of
liberation
than
the
more likely to emphasize
interpretersof
concept
Plato. That liberationis a prominenttheme in Patanjali'sYoga-Sdtrais
acknowledged by scholars of Yoga. In contrast,Plato'sattentionto the
theme of liberationin the Phaedo has received considerablyless attention from Plato scholars. I shall attemptto fill that lacuna by discussing
the role of liberationin Plato's philosophy, paying special attentionto
the Phaedo. Ifwe see liberationas a centraltheme in thatdialogue, other
passages, often neglected and overlooked by scholars (e.g., the geographicalsection mentioned above), begin to make more sense in the
context of the Phaedo.
I shall begin by discussing the concept of liberation in Indian
thought. In Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,Eliadestates: "It is not the
possession of truththat is the supreme end of the Indiansage; it is liberation,the conquest of absolute freedom."1The Sanskritword 'moksa'
is often translated into English as freedom or liberation. Sometimes,
'apavarga'is used (e.g. Yoga-Sutra11.18).Butthe term Pataijali seems to
preferis 'kaivalya',which means independence, aloneness, or isolation.
He
Pataijalifrequentlydiscussesthe natureof kaivalyain the Yoga-Sotra.2
specificallyconnects kaivalyawith the cessation of ignoranceor avidya
(11.25)and the inclination toward discriminativeknowledge or viveka
work (IV.34)defines and explains
(IV.26).The final sutraof Patainjali's
the ultimatestate of kaivalya.

Professorof Philosophy
at EastTennesseeState
University

PhilosophyEast& West
Volume 46, Number1
January1996
17-32
? 1996
by Universityof
Hawai'iPress

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Patafijali's commentators acknowledge and recognize the central

role of kaivalya or liberation in his thought. For example, in Patanjali and
Yoga, Eliade states: "The conquest of this absolute freedom constitutes
the goal of all the Indian philosophies and mystic techniques, but it is
above all through Yoga, through one of the manifold forms of yoga, that
India believes that the goal has been reached."3 Heinrich Zimmer,4
ErnestWood,5 Bhoja,6 Swami HariharanandaAranya,7 and Georg Feuerstein8 all support the idea that seeking deliverance (or liberation or release) is absolutely central to Yoga.
The emphasis on liberation we find in the secondary literature on
Yoga has no parallel or counterpart in the secondary literature on Plato.
Plato's commentators do not underscore the role of lusis (freedom or
deliverance) in Plato's writings. The dialogue which deals most directly
with Plato's concept of liberation is the Phaedo. Yet, there is relatively
little scholarly commentary on the role of liberation in that dialogue.9
Despite the lack of attention to liberation that one finds in most of the
secondary literature, Plato himself goes to considerable lengths to describe philosophy itself as liberating. In the Phaedo, Socrates repeatedly
claims that the philosophical soul seeks release. Socrates states (Phaedo
67d): "And the desire to free the soul is chiefly, or ratheronly, in the true
philosopher. In fact the philosopher's occupation consists precisely in
the freeing and separation (lusis kai chorismos) of soul from body."10 In
discussing purification, Socrates states that purification consists in
"separating the soul as much as possible from the body" (67c). When
that occurs, the soul is "freed from the shackles of the body" (67d). Later
in the dialogue (82e-83a), Socrates sums up his view:
Everyseeker of wisdom knows that up to the time when philosophytakes it
over his soul is a helpless prisoner,chained hand and foot in the body, compelled to view realitynot directlybut only throughits prisonbars, and wallowing in utterignorance.And philosophycan see that the imprisonmentis
ingeniouslyeffected by the prisoner'sown active desire, which makes him
firstaccessory to his own confinement.Well, philosophytakes over the soul
in this conditionand by gentle persuasiontriesto set it free.'1

PhilosophyEast& West

Plato's image in the Phaedo of the soul as a "helpless prisoner,

chained hand and foot in the body" is developed in the Allegory of the
Cave (Republic V1.514a-518d).12 In that allegory, the prisoners, who
are chained and fettered in a dark cave, can only see the shadows cast
on the wall of the cave. Eventually (515c), one of the prisoners is delivered or freed (lusin) from bondage.13 The allegory of the cave is not only
similar to the passage in the Phaedo quoted above, it also bears a striking
resemblance to the myth at the end of the Phaedo. In that myth, people,
believing themselves to be living on the surface of the earth, are actually
living beneath the earth in hollows.14 Socrates states:

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Althoughwe live in a hollow of the earth,we assumethatwe are livingon the

surface, and we call the air heaven, as though it were the heaven through
which the starsmove. And this point too is the same, that we are too feeble
and sluggish to make our way out to the upper limit of the air. If someone
could reach to the summit,or put on wings and fly aloft,when he put up his
head he would see the world above, just as fishes see our world when they
put up theirheads out of the sea. And if his naturewere able to bearthe sight,
he would recognizethatthat is the true heaven and the true lightand the true

earth.(Phaedo109d-e)
This image in the Phaedoof livingbeneaththe surfaceof the earthin
a darkerand less pure region is precisely the image we find in the Allegory of the Cave. In the Phaedo, the inhabitantsof the lower world are
"feeble and sluggish."Inthe Allegoryof the Cave, they are chained and
bound. In the Phaedo, we have a very clear image of freedom when
Socratesdescribesthe personwho reachesthe summitas the personwho
is able to "put on wings and fly aloft." In the Allegoryof the Cave, we
have the imageof a prisonerwho is releasedfromthe chains and climbing
out of the cave onto the surfaceof the earth.
Socratesmakes it very clear that the prisonersin the Allegoryof the
Cave are similarto us. When Glaucon points out (515a) that Socratesis
painting a strange picture with strange prisoners, Socrates responds,
"They are like us." Justas the prisonersare surroundedby darkness,we
are "in the dark,"that is, in a state of ignorance.Movingout of the cave
into the sunlight representsthe ascent of the soul from a state of ignorance to a state of illumination.It also representsthe transitionfrom
bondage to liberation.Therefore,in Plato'sthought,there is a connection
between liberationand illuminationon the one hand and ignoranceand
bondage on the other.At both the beginningof the allegory(514a) and at
the conclusion of the allegory (518b), Socrates makes it clear that the
centralfocus of the allegory is paideia (learningor education).At 515c,
Socrates makes clear the connection between the prisoners'situation
and ignorance when he says: "Considerthen what deliverance from
their bonds (lusin desmon) and the curingof their ignorance (iasin aphrosuneis)would be if somethinglike this naturallyhappenedto them."
Platothen describesthe liberationof one of the prisoners.This is the
flip side of the passage I quoted earlier from the Phaedo (82e) where
Socrates describes the soul as "a helpless prisoner,chained hand and
foot in the body, compelled to view realitynot directlybut only through
its prison bars, and wallowing in utter ignorance (amathia)."In the
Phaedo passage, Plato connects imprisonmentwith ignorance; in the
Republicpassage, he connects deliverancefrom bondage with the cessation of ignorance. It seems clear, therefore,that, for Plato,we are imprisonedby our ignorance,and with wisdom comes liberation.
That ignorance is the main source of our bondage is also a central JeffreyGold

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theme in Yoga. Eliade repeatedly states that, in SamkhyaYoga, ignorance is the cause of our bondage and knowledge is the cause of our
liberation.15Forexample, he states:
Thewretchedness
of humanlifeis notowingto a divinepunishment
orto an
to
kind
but
Not
and
of
but
originalsin,
ignorance. any
every
ignorance, only
ignoranceof the truenatureof Spirit,the ignorancethatmakesus confuse
Spiritwith our psychomentalexperience.... ForSamkhyaand Yoga the
has itsoriginin ignoranceof 'Spiproblemis clearlydefined.Sincesuffering
withpsychomental
rit'-thatis, inconfusing'Spirit'
can
states-emancipation
be obtainedonlyif the confusionis abolished.16
Eliade later quotes the Samkhya-Sutra(111.22,23), which states:
"Throughknowledge, liberation;throughignorance,bondage."17
Patanjalihimself makes it clear (Yoga-Satra11.2-4)that ignorance
(avidya) is not only one of the obstacles (klesas)to samadhi, it is the
source or breedinggroundof all the other obstacles. Laterin the YogaSutra (11.23-26) Pataiijalipoints out that the (false) identificationof
purusa (self) with prakrti(phenomenal world) is caused by ignorance
(avidya).Finally(11.25-26),he statesthatthe dispersionof ignoranceand
the practiceof discrimination(viveka)lead to liberation(kaivalya).Thus,
for both Plato and Patanjali,ignoranceis the cause of our bondage and
knowledge is the source of our liberation.
Furthermore,although I wouldn't want to say that the knowledge
that Plato seeks is identical to the knowledge Patanjaliseeks, there are
some strikingsimilarities.Pataijali defines ignorance(avidya)as follows
(Yoga-Sutra11.5):"Avidyaconsists in regardinga transientobject as everlasting,an impureobject as pure, miseryas happinessand the not-self
(anatman)as the self (atman)."18The Yogi with discriminativeknowledge (viveka)would, therefore,not confuse the transientwith the eternal,
the pure with the impure,miserywith happiness, and the not-self with
the self. Similarly,Plato's philosopherwould not confuse the transient,
impureworld of the senses with the eternal, pure world of the Forms.19
Nor would Plato'sphilosopherconfuse miserywith happiness(although
the ignorant,unjust person is characterizedby Plato as someone who
makes preciselythatconfusion).20Lastly,Patanjali'spoint that ignorance
confuses the self and the not-selfcan also be found in the Allegoryof the
Cave.21Therefore,it appearsthat Plato and Patanjalinot merely agree
that knowledge is essential for liberation,but also hold similarviews
concerningthe type and content of the knowledge required.
To summarize,both Platoand Patafjaliplace liberationin a central
place in theirphilosophy.Second, both associate liberationwith wisdom
and bondage with ignorance.Third,both speak of the wise personas the
one who can distinguishthe eternalfromthe transient,the self fromthe
PhilosophyEast& West not-self,and miseryfromhappiness.

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How is liberationachieved? For Pataijali, we must begin with his

classic definitionof Yoga (Yoga-Sotra1.2):"Yogais the suppressionof the
How arethe modmodificationsof the mind(Yogascitta-vrtti-nirodhah)."
ifications or fluctuationsquieted, calmed, or suppressed?Once again,
Patanjaliis clear (Yoga-Sotra1.12):"Theirsuppression(is broughtabout
This
by) persistentpractice (abhyasa)and non-attachment(vairagya)."22
in
the
view is repeatedvirtuallyverbatim
BhagavadGTta.23
I will begin with a discussion of vairagyaor detachment. Patanjali
defines detachmentas follows (Yoga-Sutra1.15):"When the mind loses
all desirefor objects seen or describedin the scripturesit acquiresa state
of utterdesirelessnesswhich is called detachment."The termtranslated
as "desirelessness"is vitrsna.That term is also translatedas "without
thirst"or "withoutcraving."Thus, detachmentrequiresa lack of thirst,
craving, or desire for objects. The Bhagavad GTtapresents a similar
view.24The Yoga-Sutraand the BhagavadGTtaidentifydetachmentwith
the loss of desire. When we turn to Plato, an emphasis on detachment
and desirelessnessis also evident. In the Phaedo, afterSocratesdefines
death as the separationof the soul and the body, he discusses the philosophical life (Phaedo 64c-68b). In that discussion, Socrates makes it
clear that the philosopheris not concerned with the so-called pleasures
(hedonas)connected with food and drink,sex, fancy clothing, and other
bodily adornments(Phaedo64d). At Phaedo65c-d, it is pointedout that
the philosophical soul seeks to be alone, independent, separate, and
detached from bodily desires. In terms of the previously mentioned
pleasures(food, drink,sex, etc.), Socratesmaintainsthatthe philosopher
"findsno pleasure in such things"and "thinksnothingof physical pleasures" (65a). Like Pataijali's sage, who acts without thirst or without
craving,Plato'sphilosopheris detached from pleasureand pain and unmoved by desire and aversion.Therefore,desirelessnessand detachment
are not simply centralconcepts in Yoga, they also play a role in Plato's
thought. In a passage that connects desirelessnesswith liberation,Socrates states (Phaedo 66c): "Wars and revolutions and battles are due
simply and solely to the body and its desires.All wars are undertakenfor
the acquisitionof wealth, and the reasonwhy we have to acquirewealth
is the body, because we are slaves in its service."
Earlier,I pointed out that, for Patanjali,there are two ways to calm
the modificationsin the mind. Having looked at one of the ways (detachment), let us now turn to the second, namely persistentpractice.
Patafijalistates (Yoga-Sutra1.13):"Exertionto acquire sthitior a tranquil
state of mind devoid of fluctuationsis called practice."25A greatdeal of
materialfound in books 2 and 3 of the Yoga-Sutrais devoted to a discussion of Yogic practices. All eight limbs of Yoga are to be practiced.
Forexample, posture(asana),controlof breath(pranayama),sense-withdrawal (pratyahara),concentration(dharana),and meditation(dhyana) JeffreyGold
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all involve diligence, effort,discipline,and practice.Vyasa (commenting

on Pataijali'ssutra11.28)insiststhat it is throughpracticethat ignorance
is reduced, impuritiesare attenuated,and discriminativeenlightenment
is attained.26

Practiceis also centralin Plato'sthought."Itmay be that the restof

mankindare not aware thatthose who apply themselvescorrectlyto the
pursuitof philosophy are in fact practicingnothing more nor less than
dying and death."27Philosophyis the practice of death and dying. For
Plato,that means that the philosophermust practiceseparatingthe soul
fromthe body. Socratessays that "realphilosopherstrainfor dying ..."
(Phaedo67e).28Thistrainingor practice is, as odd as it sounds, a philosophical pursuit,and as a philosophicalpursuit,it is associatedwith the
search for truth.Socratesasks: "Then when is it that the soul attainsto
truth?"(Phaedo65b). He answersthatthe soul attainstruththroughreasoning (logizesthai)(Phaedo65c). He continues:
Surelythe soul can best reflect[reason]when it is free of all distractionssuch
as hearingor sightor pain or pleasureof any kind-that is, when it ignoresthe
body and becomes as far as possible independent,avoidingall physicalcontactsand associationsas much as it can, in its searchfor reality.(Phaedo65c)

In his discussion of the forms, Socrates makes the following (very

similar)point:
Then the clearestknowledgewill surelybe attainedby one who approaches
the object so far as possible by thought (dianoia),and thought alone, not
permittingsight or any other sense to intrudeupon his thinking,not dragging
in any sense as accompanimentto reason:one who sets himselfto trackdown
each constituentof realitypurelyand simplyas it is by means of thoughtpure
and simple:one who gets rid,so faras possible,of eyes and ears and, broadly
speaking,of the body altogether,knowingthat when the body is the soul's
partnerit confuses the soul and preventsit fromcoming to possess truthand
intelligence.29

Plato's point that the soul can reason, think, and reflect most clearly
when not distractedby the senses is very similarto Patainjali's
emphasis
on pratyaharaor sense-withdrawal.In the Yoga-Sutra(11.54),Patanijali
characterizespratyaharaas the mind and the sense organswithdrawing
themselves from their respective objects. This is similar (though not
identical)to Plato'spoint that the soul reasons best when it withdraws
itselffromthe senses and theirobjects.
The precedingpassagesfromthe Phaedo make it clear thatthe philosophical pursuitof truthis accomplished only when the soul reasons,
reflects,and thinks.Two pointsseem to follow fromthis. The firstpoint is
that reasoning,thinking,and reflectionrequirepracticeand training.The
second point is that,for Plato,the soul reasonsbest when it is isolatedor
East
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withdrawnfromthe body.
Philosophy

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To summarize briefly, it seems to be the case that, for Plato, liberationrequiresknowledge. Knowledgedepends on one's abilityto think
and reason clearly. Thinkingand reasoningclearly requirethat the soul
be isolated from the body. This isolation of soul from body is similarto
Patanjali'spoint that liberationrequiresthe destructionof the union or
alliance between purusa(self) and prakrti(phenomenalworld). Patanjali
says (Yoga-Sotra11.25):"The dissociationof Purusaand Prakrtibrought
about by the dispersionof Avidya [ignorance]is the real remedyand that
is the Liberationof the Seer."30Vyasa has an interestingcommentary:
When Adarsana[ignorance,lack of discernment]
ceases, the allianceof
Buddhi[intelligence,
whichis partof prakrti]and Purusaceasesandthereis
completecessationof bondageforall time,whichis isolationof the Seer,i.e.
stateof aloofnessof Purusaand non-recurrence
of futurecontactwith the
Gunas.31
It appears, therefore,that liberationrequiresthe total isolation and
aloofness of Purusafor Patanjali,and it requiresthe total isolation and
aloofness of soul for Plato. Furthermore,this isolationdemands training
and practice.ForPatanjali,we must,among otherthings,practicebreath
control and meditation. Are there any parallels to these practices in
Plato?At firstglance, it does not appearthat Platoadvocatespranayama
(breathcontrol)or meditation.However, if I may conclude this essay in a
daring manner, I would like to suggest a symbolic interpretationof the
eschatological myth that occurs at the end of the Phaedo. Such a symbolic interpretationpoints in the directionof a Platowho both alludedto
and advocated practicesakin to meditationand pranyama.
Likethe other three eschatological myths in Plato,32the myth at the
end of the Phaedo (107d-114d) begins with a discussion of the wanderingsof the soul afterdeath. Whereasall four myths in Plato include a
discussion of the "judgment"of the soul, only the myth in the Phaedo
has an extended geographicaldescriptionof the earth.Socratesdescribes
the earthas filledwith hollows, undergroundrivers,and subterraneanpassages. My hypothesisis that Plato'svery detailed descriptionof the earth
is not an attemptat giving an accurategeographicalaccount of the earth;
it is rathera symbolic discussion of what Eliadecalls "mysticalphysiology."33I am suggestingthat when Plato is talkingabout the earth, he is
really discussing esoteric physiological states of human beings. In discussing the mysticalphysiologyof Yoga, Eliadestates:
Thebody-both the physicalandthe 'subtle'-is madeup of a certainnumberof nadTs(lit.,'conduits,''vessels,''veins,'or 'arteries,'
butalso 'nerves')
andof cakras(lit.,'circles,''disks,'butusuallytranslated
'centers').Simplifycircuingslightly,we couldsaythatthe vitalenergy,in the formof 'breaths,'
that
the
and
the
nadTs
cosmic
in
a
latent
state,in
latingthrough
energyexists,
the cakras.34
JeffreyGold

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Justas Eliadespeaks of vital energy or breathcirculatingthroughthe

nadTs(conduits)and cakras(centers),Platospeaks of hot and cold rivers
flowing in and out of hollows and channels deep within the earth. For
example, at Phaedo 111c-e, Socratesstates:
Inthe earthitself,all overits surface,thereare manyhollowregions....All
thesearejoinedtogetherunderground
by manyconnectingchannels,some
some
from
one basinto another,thereflows
narrower, wider,throughwhich,
a greatvolumeof water-monstrousunceasingsubterranean
riversof waters
bothhot and cold-and of firetoo, greatriversof fire,and manyof liquid
mud....
Plato'sdescriptionof hot and cold energy flowing throughchannels and
basins is remarkablysimilarto Eliade'sdescriptionof vital energyflowing
throughna.ds and cakras.Socratesgoes on to point out that the movement of the waters is caused by an oscillation inside the earth(Phaedo
111e). He then quotes Homer, who refers to Tartarusas the earth's
deepest chasm into which all the riversflow (Phaedo111e-1 12a). Given
this symbolic interpretation,Tartaruswould representwhat Eliadecalls
the muladharacakra.Eliadestates:"The moladhara(mula= root)is situated at the base of the spinal column, between the anal orifice and
the genital organs (sacrococcygeal plexus)."35Plato's great rivers of
fire remind the reader of kundalinT.Eliade states: "The awakening of
the kun.dalinT
arouses an intense heat.... [T]hepartthroughwhich the
kun.dalinT
passes is burninghot."36In both Plato and Yoga, we have a
of
hot
and cold energy (in the formof water,air, and fire)surging
picture
throughchannels, conduits, and hollows.
ForPlato(Phaedo 112a-b), the streamsthat surgeto and fro are accompanied by air, wind, or breathinside the earth. "Andjust as in our
breathingthe air is constantlyflowing in and flowing out, so in the interiorof the earththe wind swaying about with the waters,and entering
or leaving a given place, causes gusts of appalling violence."37 Plato
goes on to say that the waters and air flow throughmany channels but
eventually "dischargethemselves back into Tartarus,some with long
winding courses through many lands, others more direct.... [S]ome
complete a full circle, winding roundthe earthonce or more than once,
like snakes, descending as low as they can before once again plunging
Afterplunginginto Tartarus,the riversthen flow uphill
into Tartarus."38
(Phaedo 112d-e). My hypothesisis that Plato is carefullydescribing,using coded language, a meditationtechnique that appears to involve
moving hot and cold energy up and down the spinalcolumn throughthe
cakras. Like Patanjali,Plato is careful not to put too many details in
writing.Thisshould not be surprising,because if Platohad been privyto
the esoteric secrets found in Pythagoreanismor especially the Orphic
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cautiously. Virtuallyevery standard interpretationof the Phaedo acknowledgesthatthe Phaedowas heavily influencedby Pythagoreanand
Orphic doctrine.39And, althoughour knowledge of Orphismis limited,
we do know that the Orphic cult practicedsecret ritesof initiationand
purification.40Secret initiationritesof a Mysteryreligionare specifically
mentioned by Socratesat Phaedo 69c-d. In view of this, I am putting
forth the bold hypotheses that (1) these secret Orphic rites may have
included something analogous to meditation and pranayama; and
(2) Plato, throughoutthe geographicalsection of the myth in the Phaedo, was speaking symbolically and guardedly about these Orphic
techniques.
Why offer such bold hypotheses?The reason I advance these hypotheses is the explanatorypower they offer.My hypothesescan explain
a section of the Phaedo that has not yet adequately been explained.
Standardinterpretationsof the Phaedo admit that the geographicalsection at the end of the dialogue is mythological.41Hackforthand Bluck
both insistthat it is symbolic.42Forexample, Hackforthstates:"Platohas
given his mytha metaphysicalsymbolismas well as an eschatological."43
However, Hackforthdoes not back up his general claim with any specific interpretationsof the symbols. He makes no attemptto explain the
numerous detailed descriptionsinvolving hot and cold runningwater,
hollows, Tartarus,and so forth. Nor does any other interpretationthat I
have read. In short,the standardinterpretationsclaim thatthe end of the
Phaedo is mythologicaland symbolic, but provideno explanation,interpretation,or translationof the symbols. My interpretation,however, can
give quite specific and detailed explanationsof the hollows, the hot and
cold currents,the riversof fire, and Tartarus.All of these symbols represent very specific internalstates or processes akin to the mysticalphysiology describedin Eliade.The hollows representcakras;the hot and cold
and Tartarus,the
currents,pranaand apana;the riversof fire, kundalinT;
muladharacakra.
Furthermore,my hypothesis can explain why that very peculiar
geographical discussion belongs in the Phaedo. Other commentators
provide no explanationof the relevance of that section to themes in the
Phaedo. But,on the Yogic interpretationof Plato,the main theme of the
Phaedo is liberation.The esoteric physiology at the end of the Phaedo
providesa specific technique of meditationand pranayamathat one can
use as a means of acquiringliberation.Accordingto Eliade,Yogateaches
techniques of meditationthat are indispensabletools used in the acquisition of liberation.44ParamahansaYoganandaalso describes meditation as a technique for liberation.45I am suggestingthat Plato makes
the same connection.
Another hermeneuticalbenefit of this interpretationconcerns the
Gold
Socraticdoctrineof the unityof virtue.Manycommentatorshave offered Jeffrey

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interpretationsof the unity of virtue as it appears in the early Socratic

dialogues, especially the Protagoras.46Fewer commentatorshave noticed the appearanceof that doctrinein the Phaedo. However,the unity
of virtue is discussed by Socratesat Phaedo 69a-c. What is interesting,
for these purposes, is that in that passage, Socratesdraws a direct connection between true virtue and the secret rites of initiationand purification found in the Mystery religions. My suggestion is that the five
virtuesdiscussed by Plato representthe five lower cakrasfound in Yoga
philosophy. Given standarddescriptionsof those cakras,the following
correspondencescome to mind:self-controlis correlatedwith the earthy,
cakra;justicewith the watery,
heavy, constrictivenatureof the mQladhara
nurturing,healing of the svadhisthanacakra;courage with the fiery, intense energy of the maniiporacakra;piety with the devotional natureof
the heartor the anahatacakra;and wisdom with the intellectualnature
of the throat,tongue, and mind representedby the visuddhacakra.47The
doctrineof the unityof virtueis that all the virtuesare the same. My hypothesis is that the reasonthat the virtuesare identical is that each true
virtuerepresentsthe susumnicor balanced state of the relevantcakra.At
Phaedo 68c-69b, Socratescontraststrue virtuefromwhat is commonly
or popularly called virtue (e.g., bravery through fear or temperance
throughdesire). These popular concepts of virtue would representthe
imbalancedstate of the relevantcakra;true virtue would representthe
balanced state. The meditationtechnique hinted at in the geographical
section of the Phaedo is a techniquewhose aim is to balance the cakras.
Letme conclude this essay with a briefsuggestionabout how readfruit.If
Plato
throughthe lens of Yoga mightbearfurtherinterpretative
ing
we understandthat Plato's main emphasis is on liberation,we may be
able to combat and reject the common interpretationof Plato as antibody and anti-life. Since the time of Augustine, Plato has often been
characterizedas a haterof the body. Forexample, Hackforthspeaks of
Plato's"disdainor even hostilitytowardthe 'flesh.'"48He also speaksof
Plato's "contempt for all that empirical world which is apprehended
through the senses."49 If, however, we focus on Plato's view on liberation,we get a very differentPlato.The desire to be liberatedfromthe
body is very differentfrom hating the body. Gandhi desired liberation
from the British,but didn't hate the British.Teenagersmay desire freedom from their parentswithout hatingthem. Furthermore,given Plato's
own views, the desire to be liberatedfrom X is not only differentfrom
hatingX, it is incompatiblewith hatingX. Hatredis a formof aversion,
and aversion is simply anotherdesire (a desire to avoid). Given Plato's
views on detachmentfrom desire, it is hard to imagine that he would
advocate hatred of desire. Hatred is incompatible with detachment.
What Plato objects to is enslavement. Recall Socrates'claim at Phaedo
East&West 66c: "All wars are undertakenfor the acquisition of wealth, and the
Philosophy
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reason why we have to acquire wealth is the body, because we are

slaves in its service." It is liberationfromdesire, not hatredof desire,that
Plato advocates. If you hate something, if you desire to push something
away, it's got you, and you are not free of it. Plato'semphasis on liberation helps us to avoid the caricatureof Platoas a philosopherwho hates
the flesh.
In conclusion, I would like to stress that reading Plato throughthe
eyes of Patafjalibears much interpretativefruit.Firstof all, it restoresthe
place of importancethat liberationholds in Plato'sthought.Secondly, it
helps us to see the connection between liberationand wisdom in Plato's
thought.Thirdly,it connects the concepts of practiceand detachmentto
Plato'sviews on liberation.Fourthly,it sheds light on the geographical
section of Platoand drawsa connection between the unityof virtueand
that geographical section. Finally, it presents a more charitable interpretationof Plato than the standardones that present Plato as one who
despises the flesh.

NOTES

I would like to thank the following individualsfor helpful and critical

evaluation of earlier draftsof this essay: Bill Kirkwood,Niall Shanks,
Hugh LaFollette,Gail Stenstad,LauraWaddey, John Hardwig,and Kim
Rogers.I would also like to thank Shelly and Deborahfor all their wisdom and support.
1 - Mircea Eliade, Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,2d ed. (Princeton:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1969), p. 4.
2 - Patafjali, Yoga-Sotra11.25;111.49-51;111.55;
IV.26;and IV.34.
3 - Mircea Eliade,Patafnjali
and Yoga(New York:Funkand Wagnalls,
1969), pp. 6-7.
4 - HeinrichZimmerstatesthat Yoga "outlinespracticaltechniquesfor
the gaining of release" (Philosophiesof India [Princeton:Princeton
UniversityPress,1951], p. 280).
5 - ErnestWood says: "Often and often the goal of the yogi is described in yoga literatureas 'liberation"'(Yoga [Baltimore:Penguin
Books, 1962], p. 62).
6 - Bhoja,in commentingon a section of the Yoga-Sutra(IV.22),stated
that "any knowledgewhose object is not deliveranceis valueless."
See Eliade,Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,p. 13.
7 - Swami Hariharananda
Aranya,in an introductionto a translationof JeffreyGold

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8-

9-

10 -

11 -

12 PhilosophyEast&West

the Yoga-SQtra,
states:"Thatis the ultimategoal of Yoga, which is
perpetualpeace of mind or KaivalyaMoksa, i.e. liberation"(Yoga
Philosophyof Patanfjali
[Albany:StateUniversityof New YorkPress,
1983], p. xxiii).
Georg Feuerstein,in an introductionto a translationof the Yogais "morethanwhat
Sutra,explainsthatphilosophy(inthe Yoga-Sotra)
is commonly understoodby that term."Feuersteingoes on to state
that,for Patanjali,philosophycontains "strongethical prescriptions
and above all, includes a methodfor the systematictransformation
of consciousness with the ultimate purpose of achieving 'liberaA New Translationand Comtion"' (The YogaSutraof Patanfjali:
Vermont:
Traditions
Inner
International,1989],
mentary[Rochester,
p. 6).
For translationswith commentaries,see: David Gallop, Phaedo:
Translatedwith Notes (Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1975); R. Hackforth, Plato's Phaedo: Translatedwith an Introductionand Commentary(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1972); and R. S.
Bluck,Plato'sPhaedo: Translated,with an Introduction,Notes, and
Appendices(Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill,1955). In these texts, neitherthe introductoryessays nor the specific commentson the relevant sections of the Phaedo reveal sensitivityto the importanceof
the concept of liberation.See Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 3-24,
41-43, 48-51, 56-57; Bluck, Plato's Phaedo, pp. 1-36, 46-47;
and Gallop, Phaedo, pp. 79-98. Forbooks about the Phaedo, see:
RonnaBurger,ThePhaedo:A PlatonicLabyrinth(New Haven:Yale
UniversityPress, 1984); David Bostock, Plato's Phaedo (Oxford:
ClarendonPress,1986); Paul Stern,SocraticRationalismand Politof Plato'sPhaedo (Albany:State
ical Philosophy:An Interpretation
York
of
New
Press, 1993); and KennethDorter,Plato's
University
Phaedo: An Interpretation(Toronto:Universityof Toronto Press,
1982). Withthe exception of Dorter(pp. 10, 19-22), the concept of
liberationis downplayedor ignoredin these texts.
Plato,Phaedo67d. Unless otherwisenoted, all translationsfromthe
Phaedoare takenfromthe HughTredennicktranslation.Thattranslation may be found in EdithHamiltonand HuntingtonCairns,The
CollectedDialogues of Plato(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1963).
See also Cratylus400c, where Socratesattributesthe view that "the
body is an enclosureor prisonin which the soul is incarcerated"to
the Orphicpoets.
For an expanded treatmentof this allegory as an allegory of liberation, see JeffreyGold, "BringingStudentsout of the Cave: The
FirstDay," TeachingPhilosophy11 (1) (March1988): 25-31.

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13-All translationsof the Republic are by G.M.A. Grube, Plato's

Republic(Indianapolis:Hackett,1974).
14 - Phaedo 109b-110b.
15 - Eliade,Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,pp. 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 28.
16- Ibid.,p. 14.
17- Ibid.,p. 28.
18 - Unless otherwise noted, all translationsof the Yoga-Sutrawill be
from Swami Hariharananda
Aran.ya.
19 - Inthe Phaedo(78c-80b), Socratesdistinguishesthe world of Forms
fromthe physicalworld.The Formsare invisible,unchanging,pure,
and eternal. Physical objects are changing, visible, impure, and
transitory.At Phaedo 79c, Socratespoints out that when the soul
uses the instrumentalityof the body (e.g., sight or hearing)to be
aware of the visible, transientworld, it "loses its way and becomes
confused and dizzy, as though it were fuddled."Socratescontinues
(Phaedo 79d) by statingthat the soul achieves wisdom or understanding (phronesis)when it investigates"the pure and everlasting
and immortaland changeless."At the end of book 5 of the Republic (475b-480a), Socrates distinguishes the lover of sights and
sounds from the lover of wisdom (the philosopher).At 480a, Socratesidentifiesthe loverof sightsand sounds as the loverof opinion
or doxophilist.The lover of sights and sounds, who is unawareof
the Formof the Beautiful,believes in beautifulthingsbut not Forms
(476c). Socratessays that that person is in a dream state. The philosopher, however, is able to distinguishFormsfrom sensible particularsand is very much awake (476d). In short,the philosopheris
able to discriminatethe pure fromthe impureand the eternalfrom
the temporal.The philosopherdoesn't confuse realitywith appearance, shadows and illusionfromsubstance,or the dreamstatefrom
the waking state. This is remarkablysimilarto Pataijali'sview that
ignoranceis the confusionof the transientwith the eternal,the pure
with the impure.
20 - Forexample, at the end of book 1 of the Republic(354a), Socrates
concludes his argumentwith Thrasymachusby stating:"So the just
man is happy, and the unjust one is wretched." This is despite
Thrasymachus'claim that (344b) "when a man, besides appropriating the possessions of the citizens, manages to enslave the owners, as well, then ... he is called happyand blessed, not only by his
fellow-citizens but by all otherswho learnthat he has runthrough
the whole gamut of injustice." For Socrates, the ignorant,unjust
tyrant,despite appearances,is actually wretched. In Socrates'and JeffreyGold
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Plato's view, ignorant and unjust people may think they are happy
when, in fact, they are not. This theme is found in both the Republic and the Gorgias (especially in the discussion between Socrates
and Polus, at 461 b-481 b).
21 - At the beginning of the allegory, when Socrates is describing the
darkness and the fetters, he points out (Republic VII.515a) that the
prisoners (who are "in the dark") cannot see themselves or each
other. Since the allegory is symbolic, and vision and sight are symbols that represent illumination and knowledge, the fact that the
prisoners can't see themselves seems to imply that they lack selfknowledge or self-awareness. That the prisoners who are ignorant
lack self-knowledge seems similar to Patanjali's idea that victims of
avidya confuse self with not-self.
22 - Translation by Dr. I. K. Taimni, p. 20.
23 - In chapter 6 of the Bhagavad GTta, when Arjuna points out to
Krishna (VI.34) that the mind is restless and impetuous, as difficult
to control as the wind, Krishnaresponds (VI.35) that it is difficult to
curb the restless mind, but it is possible through constant practice
and detachment.
24 - In chapter 2 of the GTta,Arjuna asks Krishnafor a description of the
man of stabilized mentality. The concept of stabilized mentality is
something like the notion of a calm, serene, peaceful, unwavering
mind. Krishna's description of the sage with these qualities is as
follows:
55. When he abandonsdesires,
All that are in the mind, son of Prtha,
Findingcontentmentby himselfin the self alone,
Then he is called of stabilizedmentality.
56. When his mind is not perturbedin sorrows,
And he has lost desirefor joys,
His longing,fear,and wrathdeparted,
He is called a stable-mindedholy man.
57. Who has no desiretowardsany thing,
And gettingthis or that good or evil
Neitherdelightsin it nor loathes it,
His mentalityis stabilized.

PhilosophyEast& West

71. Abandoningall desires ...

Man moves free fromlonging,
Withoutself-interestand egotism,
He goes to peace.

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This passage serves to reinforcethe idea that stabilizationof the

mind (calming the fluctuationsof the mind) requiresboth desirelessness and nonattachment.The passages in the Bhagavad GTta
emphasize repeatedlythatthe sage whose mind is stable abandons,
lacks, or has no desires. (All translationsof the BhagavadGTtaare
from FranklinEdgerton,The Bhagavad GTta[Cambridge:Harvard
UniversityPress,1972].)
25 - Patanjalicontinues his discussionof practiceas follows (Yoga-Sutra
1.14):"Thatpracticewhen continued for a long time without break
and with devotion becomes firmin foundation."
26 - For Vyasa's commentaryon the Yoga-Sutra,see Swami Hariharananda Aranya. Vyasa's commentary on this particularsOtrais
found on pp. 203-204.
27 - Phaedo 64a (Blucktranslation).
28 - Phaedo 67e (Hackforthtranslation).
29 - Phaedo 65e-66a (Hackforthtranslation).
30 - Translationby Dr. I. K.Taimni,p. 198.
31 - Swami Hariharananda
Aranya,p. 198.
32 - The four eschatological myths in Plato are: Phaedo 107d-114d;
RepublicX.614b-621a; Phaedrus246c-257b; and Gorgias523a527e.
33 - Eliade, Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,p. 239.
34 - Ibid.,pp. 236-237.
35 - Ibid.,p. 241.
36 - Ibid.,p. 246.
37 - Phaedo 112b (Hackforthtranslation).
38 - Phaedo 112c-d (Hackforthtranslation).
39 - Forexample, see Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo,pp. 47, 52, 127, 195-196;
Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 4-6, 15, 38, 42, 172, 185; Bostock,
Plato's Phaedo, pp. 11-14, 29; and Dorter, Plato's Phaedo, pp.
177-178. Fortwo excellent sustaineddiscussionson Orphismand
the Orphic influence on Plato, see Douglas J. Stewart,"Socrates'
Last Bath,"Journalof the History of Philosophy 10 (July 1972):
253-259, and W.K.C.Guthrie,TheGreeksand TheirGods (Boston:
Beacon Press,1966), pp. 307-332.
40 - See Stewart,"Socrates'LastBath,"p. 253; Guthrie,The Greeksand
TheirGods;and Dorter,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 177-178.
JeffreyGold

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41 - See Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 127, and Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo,

pp. 167, 171-175.
42 - Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, p. 174; Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 127.
43 - Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, p. 174.
44 - Eliade,Yoga:Immortalityand Freedom,pp. 14-15.
45 - Accordingto Yogananda:"A Yogiwho faithfullypracticesthe technique [a kriyayoga meditationtechnique] is graduallyfreed from
karma"(Autobiographyof a Yogi [Los Angeles: Self-Realization
FellowshipPublishers,1974], p. 275).
46 - See especially TerryPenner, "The Unity of Virtue,"Philosophical
Review38 (January1973): 35-68, and GregoryVlastos,"The Unity
of the Virtuesin the Protagoras,"Review of Metaphysics25 (1972):
415-458.

47 - Fordescriptionsof these cakras,see Eliade, Yoga:Immortalityand

Freedom, pp. 241-245.

48 - Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, p. 4.
49 - Ibid., p. 5.

East&West
Philosophy

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