University of St.

Thomas, Minnesota

UST Research Online

Professional Psychology Doctoral Projects

Graduate School of Professional Psychology

1-1-2012

A Group Coaching Model for Early Career

Ministers
Kimberly A. Christensen
University of St. Thomas, Minnesota, kasteffes@sttthomas.edu

Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.stthomas.edu/caps_gradpsych_docproj

Part of the Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation
Christensen, Kimberly A., "A Group Coaching Model for Early Career Ministers" (2012). Professional Psychology Doctoral Projects.
Paper 7.

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Graduate School of Professional Psychology

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contribution to practice or 2) empirical investigation.

Note that the doctoral project differs from a traditional doctoral dissertation that have a
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A Group Coaching Model for Early Career Ministers

by

Kimberly A. Christensen

A Doctoral Project Presented to the

Graduate School of Professional Psychology in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Psychology
University of Saint Thomas

2012

Abstract
Individuals who enter into ministry are met with many diverse demands and expectations. One of
the more noteworthy expectations is to effectively lead a congregation and support the mission of
the church. A comprehensive review of the literature identified long-standing concern regarding
ministers leadership capacities and their ability to efficiently take on administrative
responsibilities. As a result, early career ministers making the transition from seminary into
pastoral ministry is significant, especially given the substantial transformation from independent,
driven student to collaborative, inspiring leader. To successfully support these individuals in
making the passage into ministerial leadership positions a group coaching model was developed.
The focus of the group coaching model is to create and facilitate awareness of system dynamics
and ministerial leadership capabilities critical to early career ministers efficacy. In addition, the
group coaching model explicitly distinguishes the key ministerial leadership competencies vital
for ministry based on their support and recognition by researchers and professional authors in the
literature.
Keywords: ministerial leadership, early career ministers, ministry expectations, group
coaching, pastoral leadership development

ii

Acknowledgements
Thank you Dr. Len Jennings and Dr. Christopher Vye for ongoing support and guidance
throughout the program. You continuously encouraged me to think critically about the field of
counseling psychology and to raise the bar on my performance.
A special thank you to Dr. Mark Sundby and Dr. Christopher Fischer. This project could
not have happened or fully developed into the final project it became without your supportive
consultations, positive and constructive feedback, and genuine support. Thank you for your
guidance and professional expertise.
A big thank you to my husband, August, for your unconditional love and support
throughout the program. You have been by my side during the entire journey as a consistent
rock of support, strength, love, and patience. To my family and friends, I also say thank you for
your understanding, patience, and support.

iii

Table of Contents
Doctoral Project Approval Form ...........................................................................................ii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................v
Section I: Introduction of Topic .............................................................................................1
The Problem Statement ..............................................................................................3
The Research Purpose ................................................................................................5
The Project Format ....................................................................................................7
Section II: Literature Review .................................................................................................10
Method .......................................................................................................................10
Ministerial Effectiveness ...........................................................................................13
Models of Leadership ................................................................................................26
Importance of Leadership Development ....................................................................39
Processes and Tools of Leadership Development .....................................................42
Competence versus Competency ...............................................................................45
Culture and Competency............................................................................................50
Competency Modeling and Leadership Development ...............................................54
Effective Ministerial Leadership at the Competency-Level ......................................58
Individual Coaching ...................................................................................................66
Effectiveness of Coaching .........................................................................................69
Group Coaching .........................................................................................................72
Group Dynamics ........................................................................................................77

iv

Distinguishing Coaching from Therapy.....................................................................80

Summary and Conclusion ..........................................................................................81
Section III: Original Contribution to Practice ........................................................................85
Group Coaching Model..............................................................................................86
Facilitating the Group Coaching Model ....................................................................88
GROUP Model...........................................................................................................97
Summary ....................................................................................................................98
References ..............................................................................................................................99
Appendix A.1-A.2..................................................................................................................116
Appendix B.1-B.4 ..................................................................................................................118
Appendix C.1-C.3 ..................................................................................................................122
Appendix D.1-D.16................................................................................................................127
Appendix E.1-E.2...................................................................................................................143

Section I: Introduction of Topic

Individual coaching focuses on supporting individuals in unlocking their human potential
and facilitating a process that involves development of goals, understanding of realities, careful
consideration of options, and ultimately personal commitment to growth. The International
Coach Federation defines coaching as:
an ongoing relationship between the professional coach and the client, which focuses
on the client taking action toward the realization of their vision, goals, or desires.
Coaching uses a process of inquiry and personal discovery to build the clients level of
awareness and responsibility and provides the client with structure, support, and
feedback. (Auerbach, 2001, p. 6)
A critical concern of the dyadic approach, especially when utilized in organizations, is that it
seems to overlook and fail to foster awareness of the systemic factors essential to the coaching
process (Brown & Grant, 2010). If the systemic factors are neglected within the coaching
environment the ability to foster real change and developmental awareness of system dynamics
and complex interactions with the coachee can be lost. When the coachee becomes involved with
a group an assumption is made that the group itself becomes a microcosm of the organizational
environment (Brown & Grant, 2010). Performance in the group then has the potential to increase
awareness, alignment, and accountability through the process of dialoguing with others and
actively participating in group dynamics (Brown & Grant, 2010).
Individuals making the decision to enter into the complex system of ministry encounter
many personal and organizational challenges and new experiences as they make their transition
from seminary to leadership in the church. Each transition involves potential contact with many
different individuals, multifaceted dynamics, novel circumstances, and opportunities for growth

and development (Wind & Wood, 2008). As individuals make the important transition into
ministry the potential for significant consequences such as burnout, early termination from
ministry, feelings of being overwhelmed, and lacking leadership competency are great given all
the intricacy of becoming a minister. The complexity of the call process sets the expectations
high for individuals while their personal vocational future as a leader often appears more like a
daunting task that they are likely unprepared to tackle at the maximum level for their success and
the church. The communal future of the congregation of believers and the passing on of faith
traditions from one generation to the next must also be considered in this process (Wind &
Woods, 2008). With the pressure of the call process and the hope that the fit is right for the
individual and congregation the importance of having self-awareness and thoughtful insight of
systemic dynamics and leadership competencies becomes all the more relevant for this subpopulation of individuals. With so much at stake for individuals and congregations during this
transition, it seems imperative to have a practice in place during the early stages of a ministers
development and transition which can help facilitate individual self-awareness, personal
responsibility, and understanding of systemic dynamics. One suggested strategy for tackling this
critical phase in an individuals discernment process is to develop a group coaching model where
competencies for effective ministry can be discussed and explored within a group context to
foster a dynamic, systemic experience within a microcosm that leads to personal development,
understanding of the realities of ministry, skill attainment, and a framework for life-long
learning.

The Problem Statement

As students leave seminary and make the transition into ministerial life this is often their
first encounter with leadership responsibilities, serving God while balancing their theological
knowledge and books, balancing family versus work, and understanding human needs versus
financial obligations (Senske, 2004). This transition becomes personal and professional. The
personal functioning of pastors during this transition remains an increasing concern. One of the
largest concerns cited by professionals and researchers is acknowledgement of the high level of
demands placed on ministers (Henry, Chertok, Keys, & Jegerski, 1991; Morris & Blanton, 1994;
Ostrander, Henry, & Fournier, 1994). Pastors enter into a highly visible position and are
expected to meet the needs of their parishioners with limited boundaries around time. Lack of
time is one of the most frequently cited difficulties among pastors (Hall, 1997). There are
complex and shifting family and relationship dynamics that must be attended to: marriage,
careers of spouses or partners, relocation, economic changes, and variations in time with family
(Wind & Ward, 2008). A survey conducted by the Fuller Institute of Church Growth reported
striking statistics from pastors: 80% felt that ministry had affected their families negatively, 50%
dropped out of full-time ministry within five years, 70% reported not having a close friend, 37%
acknowledged engaging in inappropriate sexual behaviors with someone at the church, and 12%
admitted to having engaged in sexual intercourse with a church member (as cited in Meek,
McMinn, Brower, Burnett, McRay, Ramey, Swanson, & Villa, 2003). The burnout syndrome
(Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P., 2001) related to many human service
professions has also been increasingly associated with problems in ministry (Daniel & Rogers,
1981).

Professionally, the early career minister is moving into a leadership role very similar to
the chief executive officer of a non-profit organization. This transition involves new work
schedules, meeting congregational staff and members, addressing current and future issues of the
church, and building a spiritual culture that fits of needs of the congregation and minister.
Pastors identified one of the top three needs for training improvement in the area of human
relations, particularly leadership relational skills (Ellison & Mattila, 1983). This urge from
pastors for additional training in leadership indicates their awareness of the issues they are
confronted with early in their ministry careers and their drive to be effective in a leadership role.
At the same time as these personal and professional changes are occurring, the new minister is
also experiencing a significant identity transformation from seminary student to that of
leader/pastor.
As a seminary student, each individual is introduced to a diverse range of knowledge on
biblical, historical, theological, cultural, and practical aspects of ministry (Winds & Ward, 2008).
This expansive knowledge base creates the foundation for seminary students to begin the
personal, professional, and spiritual reflection necessary to sustain life-long growth and learning
with their theology. While students often experience seminary and the practical fieldwork,
clinical training, and internship as highly beneficial, much of their experience is often
anticipatory and preparatory overlooking the combination and necessary integration of
theological knowledge, pastor as leader, and communal needs.
One of the major reasons often cited for dying churches and struggling ministers is lack
of effective leadership provided by senior pastors (Barna, 1993). A strong pastor is considered
essential in the maintenance, sustainability, and growth of a church. Some of the unique
leadership qualities of effective pastors include team builder, visionary director, spiritual grower,

acknowledger of growth and participation, strategic thinker, and appropriate risk taker (Barna,
1993). Congregations also expect ministers to consider diverse points of view and to provide
encouragement to others to share in project development and completion (Wind & Wand, 2008).
These expectations and leadership competencies are often in direct competition to the
expectations and student competencies that are rewarded in seminary such as self-starter,
individual learner, competitor, independent decision-maker, and individual project worker. Thus
the major unresolved issue becomes how to teach and foster leadership expectations and
competencies that will be expected and required of the seminary student entering the role as
pastor or chief executive officer while ensuring alignment with communal needs.
The Research Purpose
The purpose of this doctoral project is to understand what effective ministerial leadership
is at the competency level after integrating this information with general theories of leadership
development from a secular perspective along with providing greater clarity around why
leadership development is important. Once effective ministerial leadership is defined at the
competency-level a group coaching model will be created based on ministerial leadership
competencies as a prevention tool or as a way for seminaries and/or congregations to support
individuals in effectively making the transition into the ministry field with solid leadership
capacities. Making this group coaching experience available during seminary or early in a
ministers career is supported by research which identifies transitions as a critical development
period for pastors (McKenna, Yost, & Boyd, 2007). Some of the most significant transitions in a
pastors development involve when she/he first became a church leader, first became head
pastor, first had staff members reporting to her/him, or when the pastor had to delegate
significant tasks (McKenna et al., 2007).

Group coaching sessions with a psychologist will involve, first, facilitating the selfassessment process with the early career minister to identify and understand their strengths and
development opportunities as a leader. Then, together in the group context, the early career
minister, other early career ministers, and the psychologist will explore the competencies needed
to be an effective minister along with potential challenges that could occur while transitioning
from student to pastoral leader. Within the group coaching context a framework for successful
life-long learning will be provided, in addition, to information or critical concepts identified as
significant to an early career ministers success. The discussions and processing will all occur
within a group context to simulate the systemic environment into which many ministers will or
could be entering into which will allow further processing of experienced dynamics.
While coaching is a somewhat foreign concept in the non-profit world and even in many
diverse organizations, it has the potential to support development of new skills, facilitate
reflection on personal and professional experiences, promote insight and awareness into
experiences, provide an environment for sharing of constructive feedback, and support an
ongoing cycle of learning (Hunt & Weintraub, 2007). The literature also supports the
effectiveness of coaching in developing individual and group leadership skills and competencies.
Genger (1997) suggested that 70.7% to 93.8% of the individuals who participated in his study
believed that coaching was highly effective and somewhat effective in contributing to
sustained behavioral change. McGovern, Lindermann, Vergara, Murphy, Barker, and
Warrenfeltz (2001) indicated that participants considered coaching to be very effective and
extremely effective in achieving 73% of their goals. Parker-Wilkins (2006) suggested that
coaching assisted participants in the development of three main competencies (a) leadership
behaviors (82%), (b) building teams (41%), and (c) developing talent. Finally, Kombarakaran,

Yang, Baker, and Fernandes, (2008) concluded that 98% of the executives who were involved
with coaching reported that their experience had refined their people skills by facilitating greater
awareness of how others perceived them. In addition, executives reported enhanced selfawareness and understanding of personal strengths (99%), greater results in managing talent
(91%), and better management of customer relationships (94%). Lastly, the executives reported
improved goals setting abilities at the individual and direct report level (80% and 88%,
respectively) and in prioritization skills (76%) along with increased engagement (75%) and
productivity (78%) (Kimbarakaran et al., 2008).
While much of the research on group coaching is anecdotal, at this time, based on the
research associated with individual coaching along with professional experience it is believed
that a group coaching model can help support early career ministers in successfully making the
transition into a pastor or leadership role within a congregation.
By taking a preventive and positive approach to the early career transition for ministers,
psychologists have a unique opportunity to focus on understanding and promoting healthy
functioning and leadership development versus focusing on remediation after the fact. Prevention
at the seminary level would also create an atmosphere of openness to allow future pastors to
discuss all aspects of ministry including problems in managing challenging people and
circumstances, managing feelings of sexual attraction, marriage challenges, developing
supportive friendships, signs of stress, and developing mentor relationships to ultimately support
a healthy transition (Meek et al., 2003).
The Project Format
This doctoral project is an examination of a number of different topics, the primary
purpose being to develop a group coaching model which supports early career ministers in

successfully making the transition into pastoral leadership. The target audience is early career
ministers entering into their discerned call of head minister or senior pastor of a congregation
right out of seminary.
Section I is an introduction of the project and identification of the problem and why this
problem is significant. This section includes a general statement of the problem, context, and
purpose.
Section II is a review of the literature and contains several parts. First is an exploration of
the literature on effective ministerial practices and leadership development. This section will
include an exploration of numerous models of leadership development and the chosen model of
leadership development specific for this doctoral project. Finally, this section includes
exploration of the importance of leadership development along with examination of the
processes and tools that are a part of leadership development.
Second, the literature review explores the concepts of competence and competency along
with cultural considerations and implications. This section further explores competency
modeling and leadership development In addition, this section will identify specific ministerial
leadership competencies based on the current literature.
Fourth, is review of the literature on individual coaching to understand what coaching is,
how it is used, and why it is used. Within this section, exploration of group coaching and
literature on group process in general will be completed.
Section III is the original contribution to practice, a psychologist-led group coaching
model for early career ministers to help them make the successful transition from seminary
student to pastoral leader. The proposed model will first describe the underlying purpose and
rationale for such a concept. Next, a session by session format will be presented to be utilized by

a psychologist to facilitate the group coaching experience with the primary focus being selfawareness of strengths and development opportunities, understanding of ministerial leadership
competencies, development of life-long learner skills, and immersion into a microcosm of a
group system, simulating the potential congregational experience.

10

Section II: Literature Review

Early career ministers have the challenge of making the dynamic transition from
seminary student to pastoral leader. During this transition, the vocational future of the individual
leader, the impact on the congregational community, and the passing on of spiritual traditions
from one generation to the next must all be considered. Since this transition is such an essential
step in the journey it seems imperative to develop a group coaching model to increase the
likelihood of early career ministers in making the successful transition into ministerial
leadership. The literature review examines effective leadership in ministry, leadership
development, competency modeling, ministerial leadership competencies, individual coaching,
and group process to fully understand the dynamic transformation of seminary student to pastoral
leader.
Methods
Several methods were used to review and explore the past and current literature on
leadership development, competency, competency modeling, effective leadership in ministry,
ministerial leadership competencies, individual coaching, and group process. The literature
review was completed at the Keffer Library and Ireland Memorial Library at the University of
St. Thomas. The primary electronic databases utilized were Psychology Information database
(PsychINFO), Google Scholar, Dissertations and Theses, and ALTA Religious Database.
PsychINFO is a database of psychology journals and dissertations. Google Scholar is a database
that provides a simple way to broadly search for scholarly literature. It allows a search to be
conducted across many disciplines and sources: peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts
and articles, from academic publishers, professional societies, preprint repositories, universities
and other scholarly organizations. Dissertations and Theses is a database that provides citations

11

for over 2.7 million dissertations and theses from colleges and universities around the world.
ALTA Religious Database is a database with primary focus on theology and religious topics
consisting of academic journal articles, books, reviews, and essays in collection with an
international scope. A large assortment of journals and books were utilized for this current
doctoral project, for example: The Effective Pastor, Healthy Congregations, Congregational
Leadership in Anxious Times, How Your Church Family Works, Ministry in America, Nurture
that is Christian, The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy, Coaching: An International
Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice, Academy of Management Executive, Harvard
Business Review, Psychology Bulletin, Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research,
Journal of Mental Health & Religion, The Christian Century, Religious Education, Union
Seminary Quarterly Review, The Christian Ministry, Pastoral Psychology, Review of Religious
Research, Journal of Pastoral Psychology, and Journal of Psychology and Theology. Keywords
utilized in the search process included: group coaching, organizational coaching, executive
coaching, clergy, pastor, ministry challenges, Christian leadership, religious leaders, church
work, church effectiveness, pastoral development, pastoral effectiveness, religious life,
ministerial effectiveness, pastoral health, clergy health, transition in ministry, seminary
experiences, and ministry expectations. An example of several authors and researchers that
emerged as significant in the various areas researched were: Blizzard, Nauss, Malony, Balswick,
Wright, Fishburn, McKenna, Boyd, Zaccaro, Van Velsor, McCauley, Ruderman, Fleishman,
Mumford, Gupta, Javidan, Yalom, Woodruffe, Hollenbeck, McCall, and Avolio.
The range of years for the searches conducted was from 1920 to the present with a
primary focus on 1995 through the present. The time frame was broad to ensure review of
original contributors to leadership development, competency modeling, effective ministry

12

development, effective ministerial leadership competencies and understanding of individual

coaching and group process. Primary focus on the more recent literature provided a way to
integrate the most current applications of leadership development and effective ministerial
leadership competencies to create a group coaching model.
The literature review did not explore specific theological implications, religious theories,
veteran ministers and their experiences, and specific denominational life. While important to
ministry, these various concepts were not explored due to the scope of this doctoral project and
focus on early career ministers. In addition, the wealth of literature available on different group
process styles and types of consultation processes, along with diverse theories of systems were
not reviewed in depth due to the focus of the project. Specific focus was placed on the most
relevant group process style and theory of systems related to the group coaching model that was
developed.
To effectively evaluate, summarize, and organize the relevant research this doctoral
project will utilize subheadings. Initially, this researcher will explore the literature on effective
ministerial practices and leadership development. In addition, an overview of leadership
development models from the secular literature and the importance of leadership development
will be examined and discussed due to lack of models in the ministerial literature. The next
component will include review of several of the processes and tools of leadership development.
The second section will explore the definition of competence and competency, cultural factors
and implications, and competency modeling and leadership development. The third section will
identify specific ministerial leadership competencies based on the current literature. The final
section will review the literature on individual coaching to understand what coaching is, how it is

13

used, and why it is used. Within this section, exploration of group coaching and literature on
group process in general is completed.
Ministerial Effectiveness
Through professional experience and detailed review of the literature this researcher
would suggest that ministers making the transition into pastoral ministry ultimately become the
senior leader or chief executive officer of their congregation. As a result, early career ministers
must understand and be aware of the leadership competencies necessary to be successful as a
senior leader. While seminary provides students with a rich experience to ground them in their
theological knowledge, it appears that the connection between leadership and ministry is lacking
in this context. The next sections of this doctoral project will review what the past and current
researchers have discovered and postulated with regards to effective ministerial leadership. Then,
this researcher will move into reviewing several models of leadership development from the
secular literature due to the lack of available leadership models within the ministerial literature.
Several authors have provided their insight into ministerial effectiveness. Effectiveness in
ministry can be challenging to measure and succinctly define. This author has determined what
research would be important and comprehensive to demonstrate what specific practices and
leadership competencies are common between effective ministers and their potential success on
the job.
In 1955, Samuel Blizzard was suggesting that parish ministers must re-examine their
roles within the congregation and the practices they use to make theology meaningful. In
addition, he was looking at specific cultural implications related to rural and urban communities.
Blizzard (1955) indicated that as American rural culture was changing, ministers needed to learn
to take on more professional leadership associated with community service and organizations.

14

He also acknowledged the many roles that ministers were expected to have competency in,
especially in rural communities. A crucial call was made for additional training in the social
science fields for seminary students to address the troublesome problems associated with the
administrative and organizational or leadership roles for many ministers (Blizzard, 1955).
In 1956, Blizzard continued his quest by providing research on the activities of current
pastors of the time. His research asked 690 pastors to evaluate six roles from three distinct
perspectives. The three perspectives used for rating purposes were effectiveness, enjoyment, and
importance. The roles identified by the parish minister informants, from most critical to least
important were: preacher, pastor, priest, teacher, organizer, and administrator. The preacher role
was defined as preparing and delivery of sermons. The pastor role described as developing and
maintaining interpersonal relationships. The priest was the liturgist, leading people in worship
and officiating the rites of the church. The teacher role was involved in aspects of church school
instruction, confirmation classes, study group leadership, and preparation for teaching. The
organizer role involved leadership, which included participation and planning of local church
association and community organization activities. Finally, the administrative role was defined
as manager of the congregation (Blizzard, 1956a).
Blizzard (1956a) also classified the roles into traditional roles (preacher, teacher, and
priest), neo-traditional roles (pastor), and contemporary roles (administrator and organizer).
These classifications were something quite new and not clearly defined prior to Blizzard making
the distinction. Even in the late 1950s there was concern shared by Blizzard (1956a) about the
lack of behavioral definitions and understanding of the leadership responsibilities that were
required of pastors. He stated [Individuals] who are recruited for the ministry usually have an

15

image of the preacher, priest, teacher, and pastor as servant of God. They lack a religiously
oriented image of the minister as organizer and administrator (Blizzard, 1956a, p. 508).
Blizzard (1956a) made the assumption that by having pastoral informants rate tasks in
order of importance, they would then identify the concept of ideal ministry. In addition, he was
making a statement about the norms of a ministers role and ministerial behaviors. He also asked
informants to rate effectiveness or level of personal involvement related to each role to
understand what was driving the pastor in their ministry. The ratings revealed effectiveness in
order of most effective to least effective: preacher, pastor, teacher, priest, administrator, and
organizer (Blizzard, 1956a). The final rating was on enjoyment in role activities. The ratings
showed from most to least enjoyed activities: pastor, preacher, teacher, priest, organizer, and
administrator (Blizzard, 1956a). A hypothesis could be made about the research, suggesting that
while pastors found the administrative or leadership activities least enjoyable and least
important; they also felt least effective in these roles which could indicate their lack of support
and competencies in these roles. In this researchers experience working with individuals in
ministry, if they feel ineffective in a role they are often likely to indicate that the identified aspect
of their job is unpleasant and not important to them. This hypothesis was also supported by
Blizzards (1956a) final comments The minister is urged to spend much more time organizing
and administering programs. The national church body is at the same time failing to give [them]
an adequate theological understanding of these offices (p. 510). These comments were also
further supported by Blizzard (1956b) in another research article discussing the training of parish
ministers whereby he suggested Any lack of integration of the scholastic and the practical
creates a problem for the clergy [person] in the parish (p. 47). His specific remarks were based
on comments from seminary students indicating that theological schools must develop their

16

academic training in relation to the actual day-to-day life of the church, its activities, and the
community. Again, even in the late 1950s, Blizzard (1956b) was noticing a shift from the
traditional ideals about a ministers roles to include contemporary role definitions of the
administrator and organizer. While Blizzards work identified early on the concerns about
ministerial leadership and brought attention to the need for greater leadership training, it should
be noted that his two studies involved clergy people from one denomination and may not be fully
representative of other denominations experience.
Douglass (1980) continued to echo the concerns raised by Blizzard (1956) in his time
study where he observed and classified a list of developed activities associated with how
ministers used their time. He discovered that ministers were spending 34% of their time engaged
in administrator activities compared to 20% of their time being spent in activities associated with
preaching (Douglass, 1980). While ministers indicated they wanted to spend more time engaged
in activities related to preaching, the reality of their work suggested much more time would be
spent in administrative areas. The implications that could be extrapolated from these findings
indicate that seminaries potentially needed to spend more time expanding their administrative or
leadership curricula and continuing education programs needed to be actively pursued by early
career ministers to address administrative skill deficits (Douglass, 1980). This study was based
on a group of conservative and liberal ministers from small to medium-sized congregations all
within the Protestant denomination. Even though the sample size was much broader and more
representative in certain aspects, the ability to fully generalize all of the conclusions to all
denominations of ministry must again be taken into consideration. In addition, the study was
only conducted for a week. While the ministers in the study all believed it was a representative

17

week if a larger sample size was used along with a longer time period for data collection the
study would likely yield greater information than the initial pilot study.
Allen Nauss (1972) reviewed various studies on ministerial effectiveness of the time and
asserted Research on ministerial effectiveness has not produced results of maximum value to
the churches (p. 141). He cited problems related to use of secondary criteria rather than primary
criteria, use of general ministerial functions, lack of collaboration among the various partners in
ministry such as church leaders, laity, and theologians, use of the rating mode of measurement,
and the changing of functions in parish ministry (Nauss, 1972). In response to his concerns,
Nauss began to conduct his own research which he published in 1983.
The effective ministers in Nauss study were initially selected through nomination from
presidents of 34 United States districts of the Lutheran-Missouri Synod. Out of the 120
nominated, 94 (78%) initially agreed, and 70 finally completed the questionnaire and all
inventory measures (Nauss, 1983). Nauss utilized the ministerial function scale (MFS) developed
by Frederick King (1958) which includes six clusters of pastoral function. The first cluster,
labeled Priest and Preacher, involves preaching sermons, leading worship, and working with
parish boards. The community and social involvement factor involves participation in
community organizations. The administrator factor includes managing the church office and
finances, and planning and strategy of programs. The personal and spiritual development cluster
describes the pastors maintenance of daily prayer and personal devotion, scheduled reading and
study, and creating a healthy home and personal life. The visitor-counselor function includes
visiting members of the church, counseling, fostering fellowship, and recruiting/training lay
leaders. Finally, the sixth factor, teacher, includes teaching and working directly with children
and youth (Nauss, 1983). In addition to the MFS, the pastors also completed the Job Diagnostic

18

Survey developed by Hackman and Oldman (1975), and a general questionnaire composed of
demographic data about the pastor, their parish, and the community (Nauss, 1983). To provide
further validation of the participants level of ministerial performance, Nauss had other
individuals well-acquainted with the pastor complete an effectiveness rating (the MFS) of the
pastor. All results were compared to data from a study Nauss conducted in 1977. Overall, Nauss
(1983) asserted that several unique combinations of the characteristics measured were found in
the profiles and these were described at length. Several characteristics were noted across the
profiles that seem important and make pastors effective: positiveness, use of feedback,
motivation derived from job dimensions, and satisfaction (Nauss, 1983). Overall, Nauss (1993)
asserted that satisfaction on the job and effectiveness were related. As such, the characteristics
identified could be viewed as competencies in role and traits that seminary students and
pastors in service could consider developing within themselves (p. 343). However, it should be
noted that while several characteristics were identified as leading to effectiveness, one cannot
assert that these characteristics alone caused a ministers effectiveness rating.
In 1989, Nauss, continued to address his concerns about the generality of ministry
effectiveness and leadership. He asserted that studies needed to be focused on the leadership of
parish pastors who were effective in their ministry. Nauss (1989) went even a step further with
his 1989 study to suggest a link between general leadership skills such as task-orientation,
relation-orientation, persuasiveness, and goal-orientation as potentially significant components of
effective pastoral leadership. Participants were selected parish office holders who were asked to
rate the performance of 310 parish pastors from three districts of the Lutheran-Missouri Synod
using the MFS (Kling, 1958) and the Ohio State Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire
(LBDQ). In total 45 variables were assessed through the mentioned assessments, a measure of

19

the pastors personality using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, self-ratings of the seven parish
functions and several leader behaviors, and also an assessment of the parish and congregational
leaders (Nauss, 1989).
The results suggested a set of characteristics of one category, leadership, to predict
effectiveness in ministry. Effective clergy appeared to need to find a balance between all the
skills and function. As a result, four different styles of effective clergy based on function were
explained; the professional factor included behaviors of persuasiveness, coolness under pressure,
task-orientation, accuracy in predicting, and control, the personal approach/factor included
relations-oriented, integrative, tolerant of freedom, and tolerant of uncertainty, the third factor
was related to presentation of a public image, the fourth factor, managerial approach included
goal-oriented, task-oriented, integrative, and accurate in predicting (Nauss, 1989). Again, it was
suggested that the effective pastoral leader encompasses many of these factors and they are able
to successfully navigate the appropriate time/context to emphasize certain characteristics or
competencies. While Nauss (1989) established concrete factors to describe ministerial
effectiveness as a leader, it should be noted that most of his research is based on one
denomination which may not be completely applicable to other religions. In addition, there are
likely other leadership competencies or characteristics that could encompass ministerial
effectiveness that were not measured during this study.
In 1994, Nauss continued his research on defining ministerial effectiveness by identifying
ten functions, expanding on the original six identified in earlier studies. Similar to previous
research, Nauss (1994) demonstrated that diverse patterns of leadership skills were displayed by
ministers engaged in separate ministerial functions. Implications from this study suggest that
ministers determine what leadership areas they are most interested in and that most closely align

20

with their career goals. Then, they can develop exceptional skills in these areas and leverage
their ministerial leadership skills rather than try to excel in all areas.
Finally, in 1995, Nauss, persisted in highlighting that it would be quite challenging to
identify a single label alone that would capture the overall concept of ministerial leadership
effectiveness. He, yet again, supported the notion of effective ministers being able to flexibly and
adaptively respond to changes in demands and priorities associated with their ministry contexts.
The minister must be able to select the skills most important to certain functions they have at any
given moment to maintain appropriate balance and effectiveness (Nauss, 1995). Nauss clearly
identified the importance of adaptability in leadership throughout his studies; however, all of his
research involved Lutheran Church Missouri Synod participants which limit the generalizability
of his results. He also studied effective ministerial leadership in different situations, but
additional situational variables could be further tested, such as the church environment and
interactional variables to further understand types of leadership style needed to be effective.
Based on the review of Nauss (1972, 1974) work and various other researchers in the
seventies and eighties, Malony (1984) attempted to establish a model of ministry effectiveness
by suggesting primary criteria and secondary criteria. The primary criteria included covert and
implicit effects that ministers had on peoples internal experiences associated with their
developed insights and understandings. The secondary criteria included overt or explicit effects
that ministers had on individuals in terms of external expressions of attitudes and behaviors
(Malony, 1984). The model established parameters for measuring effectiveness and reviewed
several studies within the ascribed definitions although seemed much more theoretical and
performance-based, making it challenging to explicitly deduce what variables were actually

21

making the minister effective. Consequently, making it difficult to extrapolate what specific
characteristics or competencies professionals could support ministers in developing.
Balswick and Wright (1988) also developed a model for understanding effective ministry.
However, their model acknowledged the need for flexibility in ministerial leadership and
recognized the importance of developing a complementary model of leadership to tackle the
various demands and challenges encountered in ministry. At the center of the model was the
ability of the pastor to empower the congregation and its people. Four leadership styles of
preaching, teaching, participating, and delegating were established to constitute the continuum of
leadership (Balswick & Wright, 1988). It was concluded that ministerial leadership must
incorporate all four leadership styles in order to foster full empowerment and effectiveness. Yet,
it was recognized that one minister did not need to encompass all the necessary styles and the
various leadership styles could be embodied in various other church leaders to make the
congregation complete. Again, at the center of this model appeared to be the idea of flexibility
and the ability to shift to the demands and needs of the situation, making this model applicable to
diverse circumstances and accounting for differences in ministerial leadership. This model also
appeared to support the potential leadership competency of flexibility and something
professionals could support ministers in developing.
Lichtman and Malony (1991) started to move their understanding of effective ministerial
leadership towards a situational measurement versus a specific style of leadership. They used
instruments designed to measure performance expectations within any organizational
environment along with laity satisfaction. The results revealed that organizational expectations of
effective ministers are that they must be a generalist as opposed to a specialist (Lichtman &
Malony, 1991). The generalist position suggests ability to be involved with a large variety of

22

tasks, flexibility in leadership style, and broad focus associated with influencing and involving
others. In addition, the generalist will need to relate to diverse types of people and function
successfully in a variety of group settings (Lichtman & Malony, 1991). The sample size was
limited and included only two groups within the California-Pacific Conference of the United
Methodist Church and so the ability to generalize the results is limited. Nonetheless, the results
highlight some of the shift in thinking associated with flexibility and administrative/leadership
expectations of ministers and are supported by other researchers, notably Nauss (1995) and
Balswick & Wright (1988), and the importance of adaptability as a leader.
Prior to the research of Lichtman and Malony (1991), the United Methodist Church as an
entire church body also took a stance on ministerial leadership effectiveness and in 1989, Janet
Fishburn and Neill Hamilton developed a description of effective ministry after consultation with
experts and through extensive discussions with the established taskforce. As a result, they
created fourteen characteristics they found in pastors who appeared to be effective in engaging
laity in ministry. The fourteen characteristics were denominational loyalty, evangelical witness,
mission, relational capacity, enabler of laity, self-affirming, community builder, nurturing,
theologically articulate, hopeful, spiritual vitality, courageous, and organizationally skilled
(Fishburn & Hamilton, 1989). After the creation of the fourteen characteristics, the researchers
developed questionnaires to collect data from 36 pastors who had fifteen years or more
experience in parish ministry. The results revealed that the fourteen established characteristics
were indeed present and relevant to United Methodist ministry and effectiveness as a pastor. The
information they obtained from the questionnaires was used to construct a profile of an effective
pastor. Furthermore, their research indicated that if certain personal characteristics (such as selfconfidence, intelligence to become theologically articulate and capacity to be an evangelical

23

witness) were present than other ministry skills such as teaching, administration, and leadership
skills could be learned and improved during a ministers pastoral career. While the current study
was completed with United Methodist pastors, limiting its overall generalizability, the general
results continue to support other researchers identification of administrative skills, relational
abilities, and leadership flexibility as strengths for ministerial effectiveness. In addition, the
study supports the notion that leadership skills can be learned and developed.
Kuhne and Donaldson (1995) extensively studied five evangelical Protestant clergy using
a structured observation protocol in an exploratory study with the goal of defining work activity
characteristics of pastors. They discovered that ministers needed to encompass diverse roles and
identified four broad categories: interpersonal roles (figurehead, leader, liaison), informational
roles (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson), decisional roles (entrepreneur, disturbance handler,
resource allocator, negotiator) and professional roles (mentor, caregiver, preacher). Their results
revealed again that ministers are involved in significant administrative and managerial tasks and
further supported the need for pastors to development leadership competencies and flexibility
between various roles.
Butler and Herman (1999) made the explicit connection between chief executive officers
and senior pastors when attempting to identify the factors necessary to be effective. They
selected three instruments the Managerial Practices Survey (MPS), the Leader Behavior
Questionnaire (LBQ), and the Ministerial Effectiveness Inventory (MEI) to assess 42 ministers
from the Church of Nazarene in the United States who pastored between the years of 1991 and
1993 and were nominated by a variety of individuals and passed through three rounds of
screening. The MPS results showed a statistically significant difference between effective
ministers and compared ministers on the manager, problem-solver, planner, delegator, and

24

inspirer scales (Butler & Herman, 1999). Effective ministers also scored significantly higher on
the change agent and shepherd scales on the LBQ along with significantly higher on all four
scales (multi-tasker, student, servant, and person of integrity) of the MEI (Butler & Herman,
1999). The results revealed that effective ministers share several characteristics similar to
nonprofit chief executive officers including manager, problem-solver, planner, and delegator.
Characteristics that effective ministers encompass that are more distinctly ministerial include
shepherd and servant (Butler & Herman, 1999). With the identification of significant leadership
characteristics comes the suggestion and push for seminaries to consider and strengthen their
academic curricula and offerings to enhance ministerial leadership development. In addition, the
current research supports the recommendation that denominations and seminary programs not
only provide assessments but also make available opportunities for development of ministerial
leadership skills as they are important to pastors success.
Transformational and transactional leadership have also been researched within a
ministerial context. Rowold (2008) revealed that transformational leadership was positively
correlated with followers satisfaction with their minister, additional effort put forth by
congregational members, effectiveness in role, and overall job satisfaction. Parishioners were
also reportedly more satisfied with worship service. Transformational leadership seemed to help
pastors to motivate and inspire greater performance in their followers and to be satisfied in their
work (Rowold, 2008). Carter (2009) also demonstrated significant correlations between a
transformational leadership style and pastoral leadership effectiveness. Her study used the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), NEO-Five Factor Inventory, and Spiritual
Transcendence Scale (STS) to measure leadership style, personality, and spirituality of 93
pastors from various religious affiliations. Pastors in the study scored higher in extraversion and

25

agreeableness and were above normative means established by Bass and Avolio (1995) on the
MLQ transformational leadership scores with individual consideration being a significant
predictor of pastoral leadership effectiveness (Carter, 2009). The research provided support for
transformational leadership, but also only relied on one particular leadership paradigm. If other
well-established leadership models were compared and considered during the study a more
comprehensive and more complete description of pastoral leadership behaviors could be
captured.
Lastly, Bill Hybels (1998) identified 10 manifestations of leadership styles observed
within the church. These styles appeared to be coming closer to the competency-based approach
that this researcher seeks to define and establish. However, Hybels (1998) described the
leadership styles as singular and suggested that often an individual minister will only have
leadership skill in one or maybe a few of the styles. Once a ministerial leader has identified their
style, teams should then be built around this style to support maximum success. His leadership
styles seem to be a goodness of fit model and places greater focus on leveraging the gifts one has
as a minister rather than being able to build leadership competencies as one grows. The ten
leadership styles he identified were visionary leader, directional leader, strategic leader,
managing leader, motivational leader, shepherding leader, team-building leader, entrepreneurial
leader, re-engineering leader, and bridge-building leader (Hybels, 1998).
While several researchers have studied effective ministerial leadership and identified
similar competencies that are needed to be effective, little research has been done to pinpoint the
specific competencies that make a minster effective in their leadership role. In addition,
numerous researchers have highlighted the importance of organizational and/or administrative
aspects of leadership which closely align with other secular definitions of leadership; however

26

limited data has been collected on the ongoing effectiveness and success of ministers,
specifically early career ministers, in those areas. Given the lack of clarity around leadership
development in the ministry literature and limited availability of actual identified leadership
competencies to be successful in ministry, this author has chosen to review the secular literature
on leadership development and competency development in addition to the ministry research
available. The follow sections are a review of the literature on leadership and development.
Models of Leadership
The leadership development literature is expansive and involves enormous complexity
and subtlety between the many models and issues that are studied and reviewed. That being said,
there continues to be a wealth of factors and topics to be discovered and explored about how
leaders and their followers interact within organizations to address challenges and constantly
changing environments (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011). One of the most commonly referenced and
debated ideas are whether leaders are born or made which has led to an abundance of modeling
and theorizing (Bass, 1990). While the debate persists on and has produced many useful theories,
strategies, and talking points, there is some belief that the study of leadership development is
disjointed and lacks a specific direction that incorporates the majority of scientific research into
an integrated model, leading some researchers to a call for a unified, integrated theory (Kilburg
& Donohue, 2011; Bennis, 2007). Understanding how the field progressed from diverse and
complex theories and modeling to the current state of pressing for a comprehensive and unifying
theory seems important.
Leadership theories cover varied levels of analysis, ranging from approaches that focus
on micro-level dynamics such as traits or behavioral features of the leader to macro-level factors
that emphasize processes, the impact on the larger organization, and outcomes for the shared

27

group (Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). When attempting to identify one definition of leadership, there
appears to be almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who
have attempted to define the concept (Stogdill, 1974, p. 259). In the beginning, leadership
development was looked at from a psychological perspective and research sought to identify
specific, unique characteristics, abilities, and skills that made the leader stand out from others
(Stogdill, 1948). Stogdill (1974) identified several core traits he believed essential for leadership
development, they included: assertiveness, cooperativeness, dependability, dominance, selfconfidence, high energy, stress tolerance, responsibility, adaptability, cleverness, persuasiveness,
organizational abilities, achievement orientation, and social skills (as cited in Glynn & DeJordy,
2010, p. 122). The development of specific abilities and skills that specified a range of useful
leadership behaviors seemed helpful and could provide a tool that individual leaders could use
for development. The idea of traits or leadership characteristics most frequently is traced back to
Galtons (1869) Heredity Genius. The origins of his theory often fall into the Great Man
theories of achievement and distinction because of the predominant attention placed on the
authority of men during that time (Fleishman, Zaccaro, & Mumford, 1991; Glynn & DeJordy,
2010). Galton further suggested that leaders often inherited or were genetically made up of
unique attributes defining leadership (Zaccaro, 2007). His other main point regarding leadership
was that it developed from extraordinary people whose decisions were capable of changing the
course of history (Zaccaro, 2007). Given Galtons strong focus on the heritability of
traits/characteristics, he seemed to overlook the importance of viewing behavior as the product of
personal attributes, situational variables, and their interaction. In addition, individual learning
abilities appeared to be overlooked in his theory.

28

The results of Bray, Campbell, and Grant (1974) work found that talented individuals
who engaged in stretch assignments early in their career were more likely to be successful in
higher areas of the organization later in their careers. Their results provide support for learning
abilities being taken into account as neither skill or the stretch assignment alone accounted for
the outcomes. In addition, while the practical implications of a leader having transformational
influence remains strong today, the applicability of Galtons theory that leaders were genetically
predisposed to develop leadership characteristics rendered developmental recommendations and
strategies non-applicable and a concern for many researchers. Even though the focus on traitbased leadership theories was quite prominent into the 1940s and 1950s, the search for
conclusive and universal leadership traits was mostly unsuccessful. Many people started to
question why everyone who supposedly possessed leadership characteristics didnt develop into
a leader (Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). As a result, many researchers started to discard the trait-based
leadership approaches as inadequate to explain leadership and leadership effectiveness (Zaccaro,
2007). This rejection lasted for the next 30 to 40 years although modified versions of trait-based
theories did re-emerge in the 1980s and into present day as additional empirical support
developed (Zaccaro, 2007).
During the absence of trait-based and behavioral theories of leadership in the literature
another body of theories started to emerge called contingency theories. The concept of
contingency theory was introduced by Fred Fielder in the 1960s (1967) and he initiated the
exploration of the relationship between leadership style and organizational environments. Other
researchers also started to define leadership with a greater focus on the interactional patterns
between leader and follower and the significant influence/motivation on people and systems that
is inherent in leadership (Avolio, 2007; Fielder, 1967; Vroom & Yetton, 1973; House &

29

Blanchard, 1969; Hersey & Blanchard, 1969). Attention started to be placed on the leaders
traits, characteristics, and behaviors and how they fit or matched the followers maturity and
situational demands (Avolio, 2007). Contingency theories formulated the foundation for
leadership development to become more flexible and adaptable to the situation and the
individuals within the context. Aspects of contingency theory have been incorporated into
competency models as it seems significant that leadership competencies be applied across a
range of positions and leadership situations. However, much of the contingency theorys
positions about leadership style viewed it as fixed and regarded a leaders success as more often
associated with fit in the situation. Nonetheless, contextual influences impacting an interaction
and the contingency have been expanded over the years to include cultural differences,
environmental factors, industry type, organizational characteristics, nature of goals, characteristic
of followers, and group membership (Zaccaro, 2007); however contingency theories have
continued to come under fire for being overly complex and often difficult to apply in practice
(Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). That being said, various forms of contingency theories continue to be
researched and discussed with a push for greater integration and broader scope.
With a push for greater integration several other variations of leadership theory have
emerged which have built on and expanded upon the earlier advances of trait, behavioral, and
contingency theories (Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). One such theory is authentic leadership defined
as a process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed
organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive
behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive development (Luthans &
Avolio, 2003, p. 243). Antecedents to the development of authentic leadership are often
associated with the leaders personal history and key events (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, &

30

Walumbwa, 2005). Personal history may include family experiences and significant encounters
with mentors while key events may be any situational experience that fosters personal growth
and development (Gardner et al., 2005). The combination of family experiences and important
trigger events leads to enhanced levels of leader self-awareness. Authentic leaders are then
defined as those who are deeply aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by
others as being aware of their own and others values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and
strengths; aware of the context in which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic,
resilient, and of high moral character (Avolio, Luthans, & Walumbwa, 2004, p. 4). As a result,
it is postulated that authentic leaders subsequently demonstrate these high levels of selfawareness, commitment to moral perspective-taking, an ability to act in emotionally stable ways,
and transparency with colleagues (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011). Using the authentic leadership
framework, researchers clearly define what characteristics, most notably self-awareness, create
success as a leader. However, limited information is provided to help people discriminate
performance at different levels along with taking into account the interaction with environmental
variables. The conceptual framework of the authentic leadership model suggests that authentic
leaders will foster heightened levels of follower self-awareness and self-regulation through
modeling, resulting in positive outcomes and greater performance (Gardner et al., 2005).
However, again, limited information is provided on how one can learn to be an authentic leader
differentially and effectively across different and challenging situations. Authentic leadership
theory views follower development as something that will occur over time and will be
significantly based on the relationship that develops between leader and follower and the growth
of authenticity between the two of them or the group (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) which seems to

31

leave much of the interaction and relationship up to chance rather than something that can be
developed or learned.
The accumulated research on traits, behavior, and contingencies also demonstrate that
there are some universal traits consistently seen in leaders that are repeatedly associated with
effectiveness. These traits include: persistence, tolerance of ambiguity, self-confidence, drive,
honesty, integrity, internal locus of control, achievement motivation, and cognitive ability
(Avolio, 2007; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Yukl, 1998).
Additional research suggests that while traits were originally thought to be fixed there is growing
evidence that some traits may be more flexible and could be influenced by interactional
dynamics in the environment (Avolio, 2007; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Given the research
evidence and behavioral genetic studies on the flexibility of traits, how they evolve over time,
the contextual factors, and leadership one could hypothesize that individuals being exposed to
varying opportunities for leadership development could likely grow and enhance a certain
amount of their skills and capabilities (Avolio, 2007; Arvey, Rotundo, Johnson, Zhang, &
McGue, 2006). As research comes to view and support the idea of leadership traits as being
somewhat more fluid, the appreciation of personal attributes, the situation, the interaction
between the two, and the ability to engage in ongoing development of leadership skills appears
clearer.
Zaccaro (2007) further suggests that when thinking about leadership traits one should
consider them as an integrated constellation of characteristics that influence leadership
effectiveness rather than isolated attributes. Additionally, Zaccaro (2007) refines the definition of
trait leadership by including a variety of personal qualities that promote stability such as values
and cognitive ability along with specifying that leader traits are relatively long-standing, leading

32

to cross-situational stability. Bringing the situation back into importance in leadership

development and effectiveness allows trait theory to re-emerge as a relevant perspective in the
leadership development literature. The theory also starts to provide support for identifying a
range of useful leader behaviors, ultimately providing a leadership framework that can be used to
help select, develop, and understand leadership effectiveness.
Another common leadership theory includes viewing the change process through either
transformational or transactional leadership. Transformational leadership was originally
theorized by James McGregor Burns (Bass, 1990) and later researched more extensively by Bass
(1990). Transformational leadership is often characterized as a leader possessing the capabilities
to inspire and excite followers to high levels of performance through visionary leadership (Glynn
& DeJordy, 2010). Channer and Hope (2001) echo this characterization by describing
transformational leaders as inspiring and engaging others through raw enthusiasm and
facilitating intellectual and emotional stimulation while possessing the capabilities to motivate
others with a strong sense of vision. Sosik and Megerian (1999) proposed four specific
characteristics associated with transformational leadership which are adherence to professional
standards, motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized focus for each team member
which are often considered to be closely aligned with high levels of emotional intelligence (Prati,
Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003). In contrast, transactional leadership is much more
focused on rewards and consequences to motivate individuals (Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). In spite
of the differences outlined between transactional and transformational leadership, there is often
limited information provided about how one could become a transformational or transactional
leader. In some ways, this lack of clarity returns the discussion of leadership development back

33

to inherent capabilities and assumes that individuals can only be successful in certain context
associated with their leadership characteristics.
Flanagan and Thompson (1993) suggest that a model of management leadership should
encompass both transactional management and transformational leadership. The degree to
which each is required is dependent on the situation (Flanagan & Thompson, 1993, p. 10). A
key factor in achieving a balance between transactional management and transformational
leadership, according to Flanagan and Thompson (1993) is acquiring and succeeding at being
sensitive to the situation while finding congruence between expectations and behaviors. This
expansion seems to make transformational and transactional leadership somewhat more
integrative and less of a silo approach; however actual tools or strategies that could help an
individual with their self-development continue to be lacking.
Along similar lines to transformational leadership is the resurgence of charismatic
leadership. This style of leadership is often focused on idealized methods of influence,
inspirational appeals, ability to envision new possibilities, value-driven missions, and
interpersonal support aimed at important stakeholders (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011; Glynn &
Dowd, 2008; Glynn & DeJordy, 2010). Riggio (1986, 1987, 1998) has suggested that charismatic
leadership encompasses well-developed social and emotional skills. Charismatic leaders often
utilize rhetoric to persuade and motivate followers (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).
An additional propulsion model of creative leadership developed by Sternberg, Kaufman,
and Pretz (2003) identifies eight types of creative leadership and explains how the type of
creativity that emerges from a leader will most likely depend on the leader and the organizational
context. Creative capacities were also acknowledged and highlighted earlier in the literature by
Fleishman, Zaccaro, and Mumford (1991) to illustrate how certain traits and individual

34

differences reflected and conditioned creativity, cognitive capabilities, problem-solving skills,

and social competencies to promote effective leadership. While creativity appears to be an
important aspect of leadership competency, this approach seems somewhat short-sited and
limited in scope given all the other responsibilities and aspects of leadership that are essential to
individual success.
Other major approaches to leadership development include ecological systems theories,
relationship/leader member exchange/attachment/social network theory, effectiveness/outcome
theory and ethical/moral theory. While all these theories provide important advances in the field
of leadership development they are beyond the scope of this current doctoral project.
The overall sentiment within the leadership development field appears to be moving
away from defining who leaders are, to creating greater understanding and definition around
what specific things leaders do and when they do those specific things (Glynn & DeJordy, 2010).
The perspective is echoed by Zaccaro and Klimoski (2001) in their book which presents a
contextualized perspective of leadership. Organizational leadership involves processes and
proximal outcomes that contribute to the organizations broader purpose while also being acutely
aware of the system dynamics and characteristics. Leaders become focused on defining,
establishing, identifying, or translating the broader organizational purpose and direction of
collective action for their followers that is expected to result in attainment of organizational goals
(Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001). The focus on functional leadership by Zaccaro and Klimoski
(2001) moves the emphasis away from a specific set of defined behaviors to understanding and
implementing responses that meet the needs of the situation and promote team/organizational
goal achievement. Their ideas on leadership reiterated what Hackman and Walton (1986, p. 77)
asserted when they changed the emphasis from what leaders should do to what needs to be

35

done for effective performance. This echoes the importance this researcher values in
understanding and identifying what seasoned leaders share as pivotal experiences and insights.
Then, by taking this information, individuals and organizations can specify a range of useful and
effective behaviors that lead to successful leadership.
In addition, as mentioned previously, there has been resurgence in defining an integrative
and unifying theory of leadership which is comprehensive and encompasses the critical elements
necessary and sufficient for leadership development. Bass (1990) attempted to create an
integrative definition of leadership in the past:
Leadership is an interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves
structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the
members. Leaders are agents of changepersons whose acts affect other people more
than other peoples acts affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member
modifies the motivation or competencies of others in the group. (pp. 19-20)
The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) has also weighed in on the leadership development
debate suggesting that their theory and definition is borrowed from many other current theories
and models to create an integrated definition (Van Velsor, McCauley, & Ruderman, 2010). CCL
makes a clear distinction between leader development and leadership development. Leader
development is defined as the expansion of a persons capacity to be effective in leadership
roles and process (McCauley, Van Velsor, & Ruderman, 2010, p. 2). CCL further clarifies
leadership roles and processes as those that facilitate setting direction, creating alignment,
and maintaining commitment in groups of people who share common work (McCauley et al.,
2010, p. 2). The distinction is made between leader development and leadership development
because of CCLs strong focus and commitment to developing the individual leader. Several

36

assumptions are made in CCLs definition including the belief that there are many different
leadership functions and practices, most individuals will be in some sort of leadership position
over their lifetime, development is context sensitive, and people can develop and grow their
leadership capabilities over the course of time and this is a valuable experience (McCauley et al.,
2010).
Even more recently Kilburg and Donohue (2011) suggested another integrative, working
definition of leadership based on their review of the literature, summaries, and critiques on
leadership development:
Leadership is a complex, multidimensional, emergent process in which the leader(s),
follower(s), and other formal and informal stakeholders in a human enterprise use their
characteristics, capabilities, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to create mutually
influencing relationships that enable them to coevolve strategies, tactics, structures,
processes, directions, and other methods of building and managing human enterprises
with the goal of producing adaptive success in their chosen niche(s) in the competitive,
evaluative, and evolving global ecology of organizations. (p. 15)
This integrative definition attempts to construct the beginning stages of a model that attempts to
appreciate and validate the importance of both micro- and macro-level variables and their
influence on leadership development. While it appears important to consider the psychological
theories of leadership that often focus on the individual there is also significant reasons to
understand the larger macro-level influences on leadership development. As Bennis (2007) stated
Any person can aspire to lead. But leadership exists only with the consensus of followers (p.
3). Leadership is built on a foundation of relationships. Bennis (2007) further clarifies this
important relationship in leadership In its simplest form, it is a tripoda leader or leaders,

37

followers, and the common goal they want to achieve. None of these three elements can survive
without the other (pp. 3-4). Based on Bennis six decades of research, he suggests that the
leadership community must embark on a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach before a
comprehensive, integrated theory of leadership can be achieved (Bennis, 2007). According to
him, this approach would need to involve cognitive scientists, social psychologists, sociologists,
neuroscientists, anthropologists, biologists, ethicists, political scientists, historians,
sociobiologists, and many others to adequately fill in the knowledge gaps.
Kaiser, Hogan, and Craig (2008) have challenged the academic community and their
knowledge about leadership by suggesting that many of the theories and much of the research on
leadership fall flat when it comes to real-world importance and applicability. While theoretical
definitions of leadership are helpful and initiate useful research studies, many of the models
often lack specific behavioral definitions or provide a leadership framework that can be
implemented by organizations to promote self-development and organizational success. Kaiser
and Hogan (2005) propose that leadership is important because it solves the problems of how to
organize collective effort and it is key to organizational success. They assume that leadership
should be a solution to the problem of collective effort and involves cooperatively influencing
individuals to add to the positive outcome of the group. Leadership is primarily concerned with
developing and sustaining effective teams along with persuading people to contribute to the
collective good and common goal (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005). In their view, then, leadership
should be defined in terms of the ability to build and maintain a group that performs well
relative to its competition (p. 172) and it should follow that leadership is evaluated based on the
performance of the group over time. As a result, based on their assumptions and implications of
leadership Kaiser, et al. (2008) argue that effective leadership should be defined and measured in

38

terms of team performance for which the leader is accountable. They recommend a greater focus
on results to enhance the real-world applicability of the leadership literature.
One final theory of leadership development to be reviewed by this researcher is called
skills/competencies/capabilities theory. This theory of leadership development forms the
foundation for the remaining components within this doctoral project and for the original group
coaching model that will be fully described in future sections of this project. These types of
theories are grounded in the belief that effective leadership is dependent on the individuals
ability and skill to solve novel, complex, and amorphous problems that threaten the organizations
for which they are responsible (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011 p. 9). Another belief is that an
individuals skills and capabilities can be systematically developed and improved with
experience (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011). While many of the theories developed and postulated on
individual skills, abilities, and competencies are individually focused in their understanding of
leadership development there has also been a push to understand the demonstration of effective
leadership capabilities in contextually sensitive ways (Kilburg & Donohue, 2011). McCauley, et
al. (2010) suggest that leader development is a process that requires the leader to experience a
wide variety of developmental encounters and learn from these experiences to successfully adapt
behaviors. Additionally, they indicate that any leader development experience must be
considered within the context in which it occurs. Through this process leaders develop and
enhance capabilities which include competencies in leading oneself, leading others, and leading
the organization. As a result, CLC (2010) defines leadership development as the expansion of a
collectives capacity to produce direction, alignment, and commitment (p. 20) where a
collective is any group of people who share work, for example teams, work groups,
organizations, partnerships, communities, and nations (p. 20).

39

From this point on the author will view leadership development from the CLC
perspective suggested above while appreciating the diverse history and perspectives on
leadership development. It is duly noted that much of CLCs focus over the years has been
influenced by Western values and has emphasized the individual and achievement. However, in
the recent past, they have started to incorporate the effects of globalization into their broader
definition and approach to leadership development (McCauley et al., 2010). While leadership has
traditionally been viewed as the process of leaders influencing followers, this author seeks to
move that view toward an understanding of leadership as the process of producing direction,
alignment, and commitment (DAC) in collectives (McCauley et al., 2010, p. 21). This
perspective moves leadership away from the sole focus on the individual to greater emphasis on
the development and results produced by the collective. It also allows for greater applicability
and understanding of the diverse contexts that leaders are involved in throughout the globe
because using the DAC model shifts the view of leadership as a particular process to
understanding leadership as any process that produces DAC in a collective (McCauley et al.,
2010). In addition to shifting the focus and definition of leadership to greater collective
experiences, the CLC approach to leadership development also focuses on results and outcomes
which has been a concern in the business and management world as it applies to return on
investment.
Importance of Leadership Development
There are many reasons why organizations invest and develop diverse leadership
programs aimed solely at developing the individual. The most commonly stated reason is to
improve leader effectiveness (Conger & Benjamin, 2006). The assumption is made that as
leaders develop greater skills and become more competent, their effectiveness at work improves

40

and they provide greater benefit to the organization. This assumption can also be extrapolated to
ministry, as pastors develop the skills necessary to be success their work likely improves and the
congregation benefits. Another reason that businesses focus on development is to personalize the
development experience to give greater attention to individual capabilities (Conger & Benjamin,
2006). Adult learning theory suggests that individuals learn best when developmental activities
are focused on topics that are important to personal goals and needs. Making leadership skills an
important aspect of ministry is likely to enhance early career ministers performance and
commitment to self-development activities. James Kouzes and Barry Posner (1987) point out
that leadership development programs should be focused on supporting the leader in finding their
voice and identifying their guiding beliefs. Leadership development programs that focus on
the individual, providing structured feedback, and prompting reflection, can stimulate an
important self-discovery process (Conger & Benjamin, 2006, p. 681). Collins and Holton
(2004) further support the importance of leadership development through their meta-analysis of
studies on leadership development programs from 1982-2001. They conclude that organizations
should feel comfortable that their managerial leadership development programs will produce
substantial results, especially if they offer the right development programs for the right people at
the right time (p. 240). The transitional period from seminary school to pastoral leadership in a
congregation has been identified as the critical time, while gaining leadership competency has
been cited as a clear need for early career ministers.
Other common reasons identified in support of leadership development programs are for
performance improvement, succession planning, and organizational change (McCauley, Kanaga,
& Lafferty, 2010). Leaders who keep learning may be the ultimate source of sustainable
competitive advantage (Fulmer, Gibbs, & Goldsmith, 2000, p. 49). In addition, by encouraging

41

companies to closely tie leadership development to business strategy it enables such programs to
align performance management systems to strategic priorities. To ensure that leadership
development programs are successful and in line with best practices Fulmer, Gibbs, and
Goldsmith (2000) suggest five critical steps: (a) Awareness-creating awareness of external
threats, business opportunities, internal development needs, and understanding of how others are
managing development, (b) Alignment-aligning leadership development with other corporate
functions while integrating and aligning assessment, development, feedback, coaching, and
succession planning, (c) Action-creating best-practice leadership development processes that
bring the world into the classroom by applying real-time business issues to skill development, (d)
Anticipation- focusing on the future through use of anticipatory tools such as focus groups that
explore potential challenges or group discussions that focus on analysis of future challenges, (e)
Assessment-best practice leadership development programs within organizations always assess
the impact of their programs to understand perceived value and return on investment. By
following suggested best practices with greater focus on action-oriented programs and defining
leadership development as ongoing, businesses, congregations, and individuals can see dramatic
results and fully align business and denominational strategy with leadership development.
Expanding the focus of leadership development programs beyond the individual is also
important as globalization continues to occur. The definition of leadership development can be
extended to include individual development, relationship development, team development,
organization development, and collective development. By expanding the definition, leadership
development becomes much more of a process within which the whole collective engages
(McCauley et al., 2010, p. 24). To increase the impact of leadership development programs, it is

42

important to understand the leadership culture, the collectives shared beliefs about leadership,
and the collectives ideas of leadership practices.
Processes and Tools of Leadership Development
The processes and tools that businesses and individuals identify and implement
associated with leadership development can vary substantially. While there are many more
models, perspectives, and tools than appropriate for this doctoral project, a few perspectives and
tools will be reviewed and the model utilized to assess and develop leadership within this
doctoral project will be fully discussed. Most of these tools and processes all have the common
goal of fostering self-development and growth in productive work behaviors. The three main
categories of self-development identified by Reichard and Johnson (2011) are engaging in stretch
assignments, self-reflection and self-awareness, and learning from others. One of the most
important strategies is considered to be seeking out and engaging in challenging leadership
initiatives and assignments on a regular basis which are referred to as stretch assignments
(McCauley, Eastman, & Ohlott, 1995). These types of assignments push the leader out of their
comfort zone and promote learning. Next, it becomes essential for the leader to reflect on and
understand the significance of what occurred during the stretch assignment. Whether the
experience was a success or failure, Ellis, Mendel, and Nir (2006) suggest that self-reflection is
critical and essential for leadership self-development. Part of the reason that self-reflection is so
crucial is that it allows the leader to understand their experience at a deeper level and identify
what will be needed in future environments or circumstances. Finally, leadership development
can be maximized when leaders participate in activities that involve learning from others in their
environments (Reichard & Johnson, 2011). By having early career ministers participate in a
group coaching program, it will allow them to identify opportunities to stretch their leadership

43

skills, reflect with others on the successes and challenges associated with the stretch assignment,
and learn from other early career ministers through discussions and processing.
One model to foster leadership development suggested by Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding,
Jacobs, and Fleishman (2000) is a capability model. This model involves understanding
leadership performance within the business environment while considering the skill and
knowledge requirements, as well as the development and manifestation of those capabilities over
a leaders career (Mumford et al., 2000, p. 12). To create a capability model, one must first
consider and identify the performance requirements to be established. The performance
requirements must include how the leader identifies goals, constructs viable paths to goals, and
directs others along these paths in ever changing environments. In addition, discerning how the
leader understands and manages convoluted, conflictual, and non-routine problems is essential in
grasping their ability to engage in a complex form of social problem solving (Mumford et al.,
2000). The capability model, then, creates an overview of the critical capabilities, knowledge,
and skills a leader needs to effectively problem-solve. At this juncture, problem solutions must
be understood within the context of the social environment and leader wisdom must be assessed
and developed if necessary. Overarching the capability model of leadership development is
effective application of knowledge. In generating solutions, tailoring solutions to the
organization, and implementing these solutions within the organization, leaders need knowledge
(Mumford et al., 2000, p. 20). The capability model authors note that the skills they describe as
part of leadership development emerge over a period of time and can sometimes develop rather
slowly. Without appropriate developmental experiences, even the most intelligent and
motivated individual is unlikely to be an effective leader in organizational settings (Mumford et
al., 2000, p. 24). Nonetheless, the conclusion can be suggested from this type of model and with

44

the support of other research (e.g. Erickson, 1959; Jacobs & Jacques, 1987, 1990; Lewis &
Jacobs, 1992) that leaders are not born, nor are they made; instead, their inherent potentials are
shaped by experiences enabling them to develop the capabilities needed to solve significant
social problems (as cited in Mumford, et al., 2000, p. 24).
Other processes involved in leadership development programs can include establishing
leadership metrics. These metrics can include data about the skills, knowledge, abilities, skills,
and cultural impacts of leaders within an organization (McCauley et al., 2010). Leadership
metrics can then be tracked at an organizational level or individual level to monitor progress and
development. Additionally, organizations can establish formal and informal review processes to
support development. These can include forums such as: talent reviews, management team
meetings, and leader development councils (McCauley et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier,
leadership development strategies can also be developed to align individual and group
development with the broader strategic priorities of the business. Finally, development can be
thought of within five broad categories (a) Developmental relationships-mentors, coaches,
manager as coach, social identity networks, etc., (b) Developmental assignments-job moves, job
rotations, expanded work responsibilities, temporary assignments, etc., (c) Feedback processesperformance appraisals, 360-feedback, and assessment centers, (d) Formal programs-university
programs, skill training, feedback intensive programs, and personal growth programs, (e) Skilldevelopment activities-reading, speakers and colloquia, conferences, etc. (McCauley et al.,
2010). By employing a wide variety of methods for development, organizations can build more
intentional learning into ongoing employment experiences and create added space for learning
and development for leaders at all levels. In addition, by having denominations invest in early

45

career ministers and their leadership development through a variety of methods, they can create
intentional learning and greater likelihood for success.
The final tool for assessing and implementing effective leadership development programs
to be discussed is competency modeling. This type of modeling will also be utilized as the
framework moving forward to not only understand what a competency model is, but to also
identify specific leadership competencies and specific ministry leadership competencies. These
identified competencies will then be used to create the framework and structure of the group
coaching model for early career ministers.
Competence versus Competency
Identifying and building competence and competencies have become one of the most
dominant models for selecting and developing talent within an organization (Hollenbeck, 2009).
Fulmer, Gibbs, and Goldsmith (2000) completed a study where they worked with 35
organizations and completed data-gathering surveys and hosted on-site interviews to identify six
companies that had strong or innovative leadership development processes. After observing and
analyzing their collected information they discovered that the majority of best practice, global
companies had identified or defined key leadership competencies as part of their leadership
development programs. Understanding exactly why individuals and companies, including global
organizations, want and utilize competency models has led to the identification of several
expectations. These include: to improve manager and individual performance, support the
organizations strategic priorities, and assist in fostering culture change (Boak & Coolican,
2001). White (1959) is recognized as one of the first individuals to introduce the term
competence and described it as personality characteristics associated with superior performance

46

and high motivation. He further expounded that competence involved effective interactions by
the individual with the environment.
The actual competency movement can be traced back to David McClelland (1973) and
his design of a model to identify competencies that were specifically related to a particular job in
a specific company with no intent to generalize this information. Some of McClellands (1973)
assertions have been challenged and disproven, at some level of analysis, to be inaccurate such
as grades do not really predict occupational success and intellectual ability and aptitude tests do
not predict occupational success (Barrett & Depinet, 1991). Nonetheless, many professionals still
view McClelland and his work as the beginning of the competency movement.
In 1998, McClelland, updated some of his perspectives and suggested that competency
captures skills and characteristics beyond cognitive abilities such as self-awareness, selfregulation, and social skills. He went on to clarify that competencies are fundamentally
behavioral, even though they may sometimes be found within personality taxonomies. However,
unlike personality and intelligence, competencies can be learned through education and
development (McClelland, 1998). While the behavioral competency approach promoted by
McClelland continues to be quite popular in the United States, a broader conception of
competence, which also underscores the importance of job-related functional skills and
foundational knowledge are clearly gaining momentum.
As research has continued on competence and competency the actual defining of the two
words has become complex and at times quite convoluted. Many organizations and researchers
continue to use differing methods and definitions to arrive at the competence or competency
model they use. Boyatzis (1982) defined competency as the underlying characteristics of people
that are associated with effective and superior performance that is generalizable across situations

47

at work and endures for a reasonable amount of time. Woodruffe (1991) weighed in on the
competency versus competence debate by defining competence as aspects of the job which an
individual can perform and competency as signifying the individuals behaviors sustaining
competent performance. In 1993, Woodruffe, made another finer distinction with his definition
of competency: a set of behavior patterns that they incumbent needs to bring to a position in
order to perform its tasks and functions with competence (p. 29). This refinement brings out the
importance of competencies being concerned with peoples behaviors, being a discrete
dimension of behavior, and a dimension of behavior that is related to job performance
(Woodruffe, 1993). Behind the overt behaviors and the competent performance must be both the
ability and desire to act in competent ways. Hartle (1995) argued that competency is a
characteristic of an individual that has been shown to drive superior job performance (p. 107)
and includes both visible competencies of knowledge and skills and underlying elements of
competencies like traits and motives (as cited in Delamare Le Deist & Winterton, 2005)
In 2002, competency was defined by Derr, Briscoe, and Buckner as a skill or
knowledge that distinguishes outstanding performance from merely good or average performers
(p. 8). Hogan and Warrenfeltz (2003) created a model of four broad classes of managerial
competencies after declaring that the competency movement had become chaotic and
idiosyncratic in the years following McClelland (1973) and Boyatzis (1982) work. Hogan and
Kaiser (2005) went even further and suggested that all existing competency models could be
captured within the domain model developed by Hogan and Warrenfeltz (2003). The model
identified four broad categories of managerial competencies: (a) intrapersonal skills-regulating
ones emotions and easily accommodating to authority, (b) interpersonal skills-building and
maintaining relationships, (c) business skills-planning, budgeting, coordinating, and monitoring

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business activities, (d) leadership skills-building and motivating a high performance team
(Hogan & Warrenfeltz, 2003). Hogan and Kaiser (2005) point out that the model is
developmental and each category develops in a sequential order over an individuals life cycle.
In addition, the model is a hierarchy of increasing trainability, with interpersonal skills being the
most challenging to train. Finally, the model should be viewed as comprehensive meaning all
other competency models could be placed into these four broad categories.
Three different, distinct uses of the word competence were suggested by Mansfield
(2004) and they include: (a) outcomes (vocational standards describing employment
expectations), (b) tasks people do (outlining their current activities), and (c) personal traits and
characteristics (defining actual personal characteristics). In 2009, Hollenbeck defined
competencies as specifying how to effectively enact a role (p. 136). He further clarified by
stating Competence is quite simply what it sayswhat one can do, demonstrated by what one
has done (p. 136).
Some of the other more frequently cited definitions of competency from the literature
include: (as cited in Shippmann, Ash, Battista, Carr, Eyde, Hesketh, Kehoe, Pearlman, Prien, &
Sanchez, 2000)

A mixture of knowledge, skills, abilities, motivations, beliefs, values, and

interests (Fleishman, Wetrogen, Uhlman, & Marshall-Mies, 1995).

A knowledge, skill, ability, or characteristic associated with high performance on

a job (Mirabile, 1997).

A combination of motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes or values, content

knowledge or cognitive behavior skills; any individual characteristic that can be

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reliably measured or counted and that can be shown to differentiate superior from
average performers (Spencer, McClelland, & Spencer, 1994).

A written description of measurable work habits and personal skills used to

achieve work objectives (Green, 1999).

Clearly, there are a significant number of definitions related to competence and competency,
even among expert researchers in the field. However, the lack of consensus should not be
surprising given the two words history in a variety of domains including the legal field, clinical
psychology, vocational, educational, and industrial psychology (Shippmann et al., 2000).
In the United Kingdom, researchers have been engaging in more of a functional approach
to competence and competency development rather than a behavioral approach which is
commonly seen in the United States. The UK government has sponsored an approach to
competence development focused on developing managers and the workforce at large. Through
their employment department and other agencies they have defined competence as: The ability
to perform the activities within an occupational area to the levels of performance expected within
employment (Training Commission, 1988). Cheetham and Chivers (1996, 1998) have suggested
a holistic model of competence. Their framework includes five domains: (a) cognitive
competenceencompassing practical, technical, procedural, and contextual knowledge, (b)
functional competenceincluding occupation specific, organizational processes, cerebral, and
psychomotor functioning, (c) personal competencecomprising social/vocational and
intraprofessional enduring characteristics, (d) ethical competencepossessing personal and
professional values and the ability to make sound judgments, (e) meta-competencies
encompassing the ability to cope with uncertainty and learn and reflect on experiences. The trend
in the United States appears to be functional with cognitive competences increasingly being

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augmented by the core behavioral competencies, while in the United Kingdom they seem to be
establishing greater inclusion of the cognitive and behavioral competences to their occupational,
functional competence models (Delamare Le Deist & Winterton, 2005).
The author has chosen to use a combination of definitions to conclude the discussion on
competencies. One part of this authors definition of competency was created by Woodruffe
(1993) who defined competency as a set of behavior patterns that the incumbent needs to bring
to a position in order to perform its tasks and functions with competence (p. 29). This definition
was chosen because it brings out the importance of competencies being concerned with peoples
behaviors, being a discrete dimension of behavior, and a dimension of behavior that is related to
job performance (Woodruffe, 1993). The other part of this doctoral projects definition is from
Cheetham and Chivers (1996, 1998) who suggest a holistic approach to competency building and
include meta-competencies as encompassing the ability to cope with uncertainty and learn and
reflect on experiences. This aspect seems critical to competency development especially when
attending to situational demands and being able to adaptively respond to changes and feedback.
Culture and Competency
It is a truism by now that large corporations need executives with global mindsets and
cross-cultural leadership abilities (Javidan, Dorfman, Sully de Luque, & House, 2006, p. 67).
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) is a research program
that has focused much of its time and effort on understanding the impact of culture and
leadership in 61 nations (House, Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002). The GLOBE project has
been described as the most ambitious study of leadership and the global implications and impact
(Morrison, 2000). Their major initiative involved exploring the diverse cultural values and
practices within 61 nations to identify and understand what impact and potential implications

51

these practices would have for organizations and leadership characteristics. The initiative was
driven by the vital need to understand what works and what does not work in different cultural
environments and to make these understandings a part of leadership and organizational theories
(Triandis, 1993).
More specifically, GLOBE was a multi-phase and multi-method project that involved
examination of the interrelationship between societal cultures, organizational cultures, and
organizational leadership. The meta-goal of the program was to develop an empirically-based
theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of specific cultural variables on leadership
and organizational processes and the effectiveness of these processes (House et al., 2002, p. 4).
The researchers studied nine cultural dimensions including uncertainty avoidance, power
distance, collectivism I: societal collectivism, collectivism II: in-group collectivism, gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane
organization by developing societal and organizational measures of culture in the first phase of
their research project (House et al., 2000). Items for the measures were analyzed by conventional
psychometric procedures (e.g., item analysis, factor analysis, generalizability analysis) to
establish nine dimensions of societal culture and nine isomorphic dimensions of organized
culture (House, et. al., 2000). In Phase two the researchers, developed unobtrusive measures for
each of the 9 core societal dimensions of culture which indicated that the questionnaire-based
scales were validly measuring cultural characteristics. Phase three investigated the impact and
effectiveness of specific leader behaviors and styles on subordinates attitudes and job
performance and on leader effectiveness.
Overall, the GLOBE research project extended the theory of implicit leadership which
suggests that individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality

52

characteristics, skills, and behaviors that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership

(Javidan et al., 2006, p. 72) to the cultural level. The project argued that the shared set of beliefs
in structure and content would be common among individuals living in the same or similar
cultures. They referred to the shared level of culture among individuals in leadership as
culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) (Javidan et al., 2006, p. 73). Based on
these beliefs they created six dimensions of the CLT leadership profile. The researchers were
then able to demonstrate that different countries do have divergent and convergent views on
leadership effectiveness. Universal factors of leadership effectiveness were identified as having
integrity, being charismatic and visionary, engaging and inspiring others, and fostering a sense of
collaboration (Javidan et al., 2006).
Johnson, Nilsen, and Hazucha (2001) also discovered universal acceptance and
importance in the United States and European countries for the competencies of drive for results,
conscientiousness (integrity), and analysis of issues or ability to solve complex problems.
Javidan et al. (2006) were also able to identify universal barriers to leadership effectiveness
which included being overly self-protective or asocial, being non-cooperative, and taking on an
autocratic or a dictatorial leadership style. Finally, the researchers described leadership
characteristics that were culturally contingent and they included individualism, status conscious,
and levels of risk-taking (Javidan et al., 2006).
As a result of the large GLOBE initiative, the researchers proposed a two-step process for
any leader who is embarking on a new assignment in a different country. First, the leader must
learn to share information about their own countrys culture while seeking information about
their host countrys culture. Step two, requires the leader to think about and identify ways to
build a bridge between the gaps inherent in the two cultures (Javidan et al., 2006). In summary,

53

the essence of global leadership is the ability to influence people who are not like the leader
and come from different cultural backgrounds. To succeed, global leaders need to have a global
mindset, tolerate high levels of ambiguity, and show cultural adaptability and flexibility
(Javidan et al. 2006, p. 85).
Gupta (2009) echoes many of the strategies and beliefs about global leadership shared by
the GLOBE researchers. Multiculturalism within the United States is increasing at a rapid pace.
As a result, workplaces are beginning to mirror the general population and cultural diversity.
Consequently, it is becoming imperative that leaders and employees understand how culture,
ethnicity, national origin, race, and gender intersect within our diverse business settings. Creating
a global mindsetlooking at business from a global perspective rather than a domestic or
regional perspectivebecomes critical. Gupta (2009) suggests three steps for leaders in
developing a global mindset (a) building a foundation of knowledge, (b) developing general
cultural competency skills including communication style, concepts of time, leadership and
decision-making, negotiation, motivation, and understanding of how to lead onsite and
geographically disperse teams, and (c) developing the capabilities to adapt to the needs of the
situation without judgment. Building a cultural competence and the ability to adapt to diverse
experiences becomes the foundational skills for being a successful leader working crossculturally. By developing cultural competency, leaders are able to adapt their communication
styles or negotiation practices in subtle, but important ways to create impactful interrelationships
with diverse cultures. A global mindset and development of cultural competence creates the
ability in leaders to view the world from a holistic perspective and establish connections between
different parts of the world to achieve greater business and leadership success.

54

Competency-Modeling and Leadership Development

Competency modeling establishes the critical success factors needed to bring about
superior performance, while competency assessment determines the range of competency level
the individual has based on the established critical level (Delamare Le Deist & Winterton, 2005).
The competency frameworks that are established and implemented often become the link
between human resource development and the organizations strategic priorities. Lucia and
Lepsinger (1999) explain this process as a descriptive tool that identifies the skills, knowledge,
personal characteristics, and behaviors needed to effectively perform a role in the organization
and help the business meet its strategic objectives (p. 5). Boak (1998) makes explicit that
competency models must be accurate, acceptable, and accessible. Characteristically,
competency modeling approaches provide descriptions and behavioral anchors of the individuallevel competencies that are core or common to the occupational group or whole job level
category along with placing greater attention on the long-term organizational fit of an individual
and what is best for the enterprise as a whole (Shippmann et al., 2000). Therefore, competency
modeling typically focuses on making the dimensions of the model broad in application and
leverages what is shared or universal to the business or in the case of this project, the
congregation or denomination.
Competency models assist organizations and individuals in summarizing the experiences
and insights of successful and senior leaders. They often detail a range of effective and
successful leader behaviors while providing a tool that individuals can utilize for selfdevelopment. Finally, the establishing of a competency model can support the outlining of a
leadership framework to aid in the selection, development, and understanding of leadership
effectiveness (Hollenbeck, McCall, & Silzer, 2006). At the macro-level, organizations and

55

congregations, can benefit from adopting a competency model because it provides a structured
framework which communicates the leadership behaviors that are important, discriminates
individual performance, aligns leader behaviors to strategic priorities and broad goals of the
business/denomination, and provides an integrative model of leadership that is often relevant
across positions and leadership situations (Hollenbeck et al., 2006). In general, competency
models attempt to leverage the experience, lessons learned, and knowledge of seasoned leaders
for the benefit of others and the organization (Hollenbeck et al., 2006, p. 403). The knowledge,
skills, and abilities a leader engages in should be seen as interactive which has sometimes been a
criticism of competency models that they are too prescriptive and independent. Nonetheless,
leadership competencies are basic building blocks that help people become more effective
leaders (p. 405) and are a useful attempt to help leaders learn a broader range of competencies
and, in the process, learn how to use them differentially and effectively across situations
(Hollenbeck et al. 2006, p. 412).
As the world becomes ever-changing and fast paced, some companies are beginning to
adopt already existing competency models because they come from a highly regarded source
while others may still create their own model and yet other firms may work from an existing
framework of organizational values or strategic priorities to create their competency model
(McCauley et al., 2010). One large challenge for organizations and denominations in building a
competency model, especially if they are global, is balancing consistency with flexibility to
allow for cultural differences (McCauley et al., 2010; Derr et al., 2002). As previously discussed,
culture plays a significant role in leadership development by impacting how people give and
receive feedback along with which competencies individual cultures identify as the most fully
aligned with their countrys culture (Kowske & Anthony, 2007). An example of how culture

56

could manifest itself within leadership development would be, understanding how an individual
accepts or rejects performance feedback based on their culturally prescribed role of authority. In
addition, one must be aware of which leadership competencies are valued over other skills based
on culture (Kowske & Anthony, 2007).
Another dilemma that has been recognized by many organizations is the potential costs
involved in creating a novel competency model for their organization (Derr et al., 2002). As a
result, many companies are now choosing to invest organizational dollars into applying already
established competency models rather than creating their own models. This wisdom came about
after many organizations and researchers discovered that most competency lists were
approximately 80% the same (e.g. Derr et al., 2002; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005).
An added concern to consider when selecting or developing a competency models is to
ensure that it adds value to an organization and a return on investment (Finn, 1996/97).
Obtaining results is crucial in the highly competitive and changing global economy. It is also
critical in congregational settings where expectations are high regarding the leadership skill level
an early career minister will bring along to address the diverse issues impacting the system, in
addition to their solid theological knowledge. Organizations and denominations need to prepare
themselves to understand that development must start early and continue throughout an
executives career (Hollenbeck & McCall, (2003). Often frameworks are created and before they
are even implemented they have become outdated. Along similar lines, competency models
cannot overlook the importance of being future focused. Finn (1996/97) suggests that
competency models must move beyond what an individual currently does and expand
expectations to support the needs of the organization and fully align with future business

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strategy. In addition, by maintaining regular follow-up and review of competency models it will
allow denominations and congregations to keep their competency models fresh and up-to-date.
To accurately and systematically identify what effective leadership looks like companies
develop frameworks or models to summarize the knowledge, skills, and abilities that
differentiate superior leadership performance and to isolate specific leadership areas that need
development (McCauley et al., 2010; Berke, Kossler, & Wakefield, 2008; Lucia & Lepsinger,
1999). Leadership competency models often serve many functions within an organization. First,
they promote a common language within the organization and foster greater understanding about
what it takes to be an effective leader. Second, they provide metrics and behavioral anchors that
distinguish between high and low performance which provides important information for
designing development systems. Competency-based behavioral anchors are often established to
define variations in performance capabilities and to further understand the knowledge, skill, and
ability of the leader (Dooley, Lindner, Dooley, & Alagaraja, 2004) Lastly, competency models
assist in integrating the broader organizational system together (McCauley et al., 2010).
After establishing the specific competencies that an organization or religious institution
will use or following the identification of an already established competency model they will
implement, it is imperative that organizations create a framework that can be effectively utilized
and applied by key stakeholders, denominational leaders, and church staff within the system.
Several guidelines are suggested: (a) Focus on a level of generalitya balance between
distinctness and generalization must be achieved to make the model practical, (b) Establish
observable dimensionsif a company is creating their own competencies the goal of job
analysis procedures should be dimensions that individuals can be assessed against which are
visible and measurable, (c) Simplicity and brevitythe number of competencies should be kept

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within reason, (d) User friendlinesscompetencies should be easy to understand and use
common organizational language, (e) Labeling the competencythe dimension title should
reflect the actual behaviors that are measured and observed, (f) Discrete dimensionsthe
competency should be distinct enough to allow for accurate discrimination between
competencies, (g) Future orientationcompetency should be based on the future of the
organization and what will be expected of individuals to drive for results (Woodruffe, 1993).
Identifying, educating, and supporting the implementation of a well-thought-out
competency model is at the core of the process. The clarity of the competency list sits at the heart
of development and assessment systems. A disorganized and improperly defined competency list
can only be the beginning of issues which can then lead to difficulty aligning assessments that
further contribute to challenges in developing and implementing successful development
opportunities. Bottom line, competency lists or models must be clearly defined and thoroughly
vetted out to ensure they align with the needs and strategic priorities of the business or
denominational body to drive the organization forward.
Effective Ministerial Leadership at the Competency-Level
Competency modeling establishes the critical success factors needed to establish superior
performance. Therefore, competency modeling typically focuses on making the dimensions of a
model broad in application and leverages what is shared or universal to the business or church
organization. In general, competency models attempt to leverage the experience, lessons
learned, and knowledge of seasoned leaders for the benefit of others and the organization
(Hollenbeck et al., 2006, p. 403).
As mentioned previously, many organizations adopt already established competency
models due to the commonalities within most models. This researcher seeks to utilize already

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existing competency models to explicitly identify the competencies needed to be an effective

ministerial leader while incorporating work from other existing frameworks based on previously
reviewed literature associated with church organizational values or priorities that make ministers
effective. The goal of this doctoral project will then be to use these identify ministerial leadership
competencies to create a group coaching model for early career ministers that supports the
development and strengthening of these competencies, thus making a successful transition into
ministry.
George Barna (1993) introduced a set of competencies in his book titled Turn-Around
Churches which resulted from research he conducted while analyzing churches that had once
been quite successful, but had fallen into a state of decline. Barna identified six competencies
that seemed to be associated with the renewal of the congregation. While these competencies
were linked with turn-around pastoral leaders, Barna (1993) contended that these competencies
could also be applied to those leaders in healthy churches. In addition to the competencies that
Barna identified, specific competencies from a few other secular and non-secular leadership
models will be utilized to create a comprehensive list of competencies needed for successful
ministerial leadership.
The competencies described below will be in no particular order of importance, merely
provided in a sequence to provide progressive order and structure. The first competency
identified by Barna (1993) and supported in the review of literature on effective ministry is
providing a vision. The pastoral leader, first, has the task of discerning the vision and next being
able to successfully communicate the vision in a manner that is understandable and grounded in
tangible action steps for implementation by church members. A visionary leader must be able to
envision the potential for positive change. The pastor needs to encourage others to share their

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visions, as well as to present his or her vision in such a way that it becomes a shared vision
(Bloede, 1996, p.31). The pastor must also modify the vision as appropriate and ensure that
she/he enlists others and adequately influences people toward the common purpose.
Kouzes and Posner (1995) define providing a vision as inspiring a shared vision. Their
competency is described in two ways. The first part of the competency being that the leader must
envision the future by imagining ideal scenarios. The second component of the competency
being that a leader must be able to attract people to a shared goal and common objective.
The second competency is the ability to establish relationships with individuals from
diverse backgrounds (Gebelein et al., 2010). A leader who is able to relate well to others fosters a
friendly, open ministry environment where parishioners and church staff feel that they can
contribute ideas, be creative, and share feedback. The pastoral leader treats all people with
respect and fairly within her/his congregation. Establishing relationships involves adjusting
interpersonal style and communication to a variety of people while displaying compromise to
build give-and-take within relationships (Gebelein et al., 2010).
The third competency is fostering a collaborative environment. Barna (1993) labels this
competency a team builder and describes the effective minister as leading by preparing others
to take on important tasks and authority in identified ministry activities. Kouzes and Posner
(1993) describe fostering a collaborative environment in two ways. One, they define it as getting
people working together on a common task. Two, they describe it as strengthening others
through sharing of power and information. While a group of people is not necessarily a team just
because they are working together, the leader must know how to build, lead, and work
effectively with the team members to accomplish critical congregational goals (Gebelein, et al.,

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2010). In addition, a pastoral leader of teams must have the ability to understand how successful
teams work, what they need to be effective, and how they evolve over time.
The fourth competency is the ability to think and act strategically. Barna (1993) classifies
this competency as strategic thinker and defines it as the ability to see the big picture. Barna
(1993) states Focused on the vision, motivated by the challenge, and prepared by experience,
Scripture and Gods Spirit, a pastor must provide people with the strategic direction and tactical
concepts that will propel the church forward (p. 65). Kouzes and Posner (1995) further echo
these statements by claiming that a leader must model the way by determining the basic
philosophy and establishing a set of values. In addition, they must lead by example, as effective
leaders do what they strategically claim they will do and expect others to do which ultimately
builds toward committed action (Kouzes and Posner, 1995). Gebelein et al. (2010) promote these
ideas even further by stating Strategy is the key foundation for organizational success (p. 35).
Pastoral leaders must stay aware of the short and long term strategies of their congregation and
formulate strategies for their parishioners to successfully achieve objectives.
This fifth competency demonstrating courage and taking appropriate risks aligns closely
with the ability to think and act strategically. In ministry, leaders will face situations that require
courage, the ability to make difficult decisions, and the competency to address tensions and
disagreements. Demonstrating courage and taking appropriate risks also means doing what is
right despite personal risk or discomfort and knowing when to drive hard on the right issues
(Gebelein et al., 2010). Barna (1993) calls this competency takes risks and defines it as
confronting the necessary issues related to change, at the possibility of failure. While a pastoral
leader is not encouraged to be an uncontrolled risk taker, they are encouraged to step out and do
what is necessary and in the best interest of the congregation to achieve success. Kouzes and

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Posner (1995) title this competency challenging the process. They define competent leaders in
this area as having the ability to identify opportunities to be confronted and challenged from a
status quo perspective while taking appropriate risks and learning from mistakes and successes.
The sixth competency is engaging and inspiring others which include not only
congregational staff, but also parishioners. Kouzes and Posner (1995) label this competency as
encouraging the heart. They suggest that an effective leader must consistently recognize the
contributions of individuals in the organization and link rewards with performance. Leaders must
also celebrate accomplishments, large and small, to demonstrate value in the victories. Barna
(1993) describes this competency in a pastoral leader as an encourager. The congregation not
only needs a leader who provides direction and builds skills, but also recognizes what the people
are doing and acknowledges and celebrates their growth (Barna, 1993, p. 64). Gebelein et al.
(2010) identify this leadership competency as influencing and motivating others. They suggest
that leaders must tap into shared values, articulate a compelling message, negotiate persuasively,
and win support. In addition, leaders must create an environment where people feel appreciated
and valued, where they display personal commitment to work, and want to raise the bar on
performance to define new and exciting opportunities for the organization.
The seventh competency is growing and renewing personal spirituality. This competency
was captured by Barna (1993) under the title grow spiritually. He described the competency as
focusing in on becoming a deeper Christian, knowing God at an intimate level, being
increasingly sensitive to His call, and more responsive. Growing spiritually should be viewed as
a multifaceted and planned event that occurs throughout a pastoral leaders life. Bloede (1996)
encompassed this competency under the title renewing your faith. He believed that before
spiritual renewal could take place the pastor must believe that she/he needed a renewal, wanted a

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renewal to take place, and was willing to do what was necessary for ongoing renewal. Then, to
grow and renew spirituality, leaders must schedule regular time, find their joy in prayer, make
use of resources, keep a journal, attend available retreats, and consistently pray as preparations
are made for worship (Bloede, 1996).
The eighth competency is communicating effectively. For pastoral leaders this
competency entails not only developing and fostering good verbal communication skills, but also
speaking effectively, listening attentively to others, writing effectively, and working through
disagreements. Fostering open communication requires an ongoing, conscientious effort on the
part of the pastoral leader to ensure that individuals are getting information on time and an
environment is created where people feel comfortable to share their ideas and opinions (Gebelein
et al., 2010). Speaking articulately and effectively is another aspect of this competency. Pastoral
leaders must develop competency to communicate in a clear, organized, and succinct manner.
Speaking effectively in groups of all sizes and understanding the needs of the audience.
Listening to others is another crucial component inherent in communication skills. Pastoral
leaders must listen attentively and with empathy to the concerns expressed by their staff and
parishioners. Listening attentively also involved asking clarifying questions, exhibiting
appropriate non-verbal behaviors, not interrupting, and actively reflecting back what is heard
(Gebelein et al., 2010). Writing effectively is another aspect of communication. Ministers need
to be able to adapt their written communication to the needs of the audience and prepare solid
written materials that provide clear rationale for their perspectives. Finally, pastoral leaders need
to have communication skills to manage conflict and disagreements. They need to understand
how others in their congregation react to conflict and encourage individuals with opposing
viewpoints to express their concerns and interests in an appropriate manner. Conflicts need to be

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addressed directly and constructively, focusing on the issues rather than the people (Gebelein et
al., 2010).
The ninth competency is acting with flexibility. Pastoral leaders must demonstrate the
ability to accommodate to changes in demands and priorities in a positive manner. They will
encounter many unexpected and ambiguous circumstances and will need to work effectively and
constructively toward solutions. Pastors will also need to adapt their leadership style to fit
situational needs and demonstrate an appropriate level of patience under challenging
circumstances (Gebelein et al., 2010). When rejection, frustration, setbacks, and mistakes occur
the pastoral leader must act with flexibility and composure.
The 10th competency is acting with a high level of integrity. The value that
congregations place on having an ethical pastoral leader is great. The ability to create trust,
demonstrate accountability for ones actions, and show consistency between words and actions is
essential. The pastoral leader must establish high standards for ethical behavior and model
ethical/moral behaviors for the congregation. These standards can be established by leading with
values, living up to commitments, not acting with biases or hidden agendas, protecting
confidential information, communicating with integrity, addressing questionable business
practices, encouraging discussions of unethical practices, and supporting efforts to improve
stewardship (Gebelein et al., 2010).
The 11th competency is worship and preaching skills. Pastoral leaders need to first
understand and define what worship means to them and their congregation. Once clear on this
invaluable practice and experience, the pastor must consistently be attuned to the content of
worship, making worship meaningful, planning the order of worship, and leading worship
(Bloede, 1996). These aspects must also be couched within the context of working with the

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worship committee to plan, consult, experiment, recruit, communicate, and evaluate the aspects
of worship while being open to making changes in worship practices (Bloede, 1996). Pastoral
leaders must also be aware of the importance of good preaching cited as a number one
requirement of pastors by many church leaders (Bloede, 1996). Pastors need to maintain
creativity in their preaching, understand the Christian traditions and the various types of
sermons, establish structured steps for preparing a sermon, and deliver the sermon effectively.
The 12th and final competency for effective pastoral leadership is building and managing
church talent and gifts among staff and parishioners. Ensuring that the congregation has the right
staff is a critical step toward making sure that the church achieves its goals effectively. By taking
a strong interest in finding the right people for congregational staff positions, pastoral leaders can
create a friendly, supportive environment. If a pastor enters a congregation where all staff
positions are filled, her/his role becomes more of a coaching and developing role. Coaching and
developing others can also be applied to parishioners in helping promote use of gifts for the
congregations success. Pastoral leaders as coach can take time to understand what is important
to his/her congregational staff and parishioners and get people excited about leveraging their
gifts. They can also assist individuals in accurately identifying strengths and development
opportunities while supporting people in creating development plans. In addition, pastoral
leaders must learn to address underperforming in productive ways and create an effective
learning environment for all people.
The purpose of this section was to identify and describe the core competencies needed to
be an effective pastoral leader. The competencies identified were based on already established
secular and non-secular models of leadership competencies. It is the application of these
competencies within a group coaching model that will be established to support ministers in

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making the successful transition into ministry. This doctoral project recognizes that there are
likely many other competencies not discussed in the core competencies identified here and that
certain denominations may identity other critical competencies essential to their religious
practices. The competencies identified here were based on review of the literature on leadership
competencies and effective ministerial practices along with professional and anecdotal
experiences.
Individual Coaching
There are many definitions of coaching and executive coaching in the literature. The
challenge for many researchers in identifying and agreeing on a stated definition of coaching is
associated with defining the boundaries relative to other fields such as therapy and consulting
while creating a definition that is specific enough to be inclusive and representative of the
diversity in the field (Peterson, 2011). As a result, a definitive definition of coaching and
executive coaching has remained elusive. O Hefferman (1986) noted that the term executive
coaching was first coined by a psychologist, Dick Borough, who was working in private practice
with individuals on leadership development. Peterson (1996) originally defined executive
coaching as a process of learning and behavioral change that is focused on goal attainment and
practical activities. In 2011, Peterson further refined his definition to identify and describe
executive coaching as: (a) one-on-one relationship, (b) relationship-based, (c) methodologybased, (d) provided by a professional coach, (e) scheduled in multiple sessions over time, (f)
goal-oriented for both individual and organizational benefit, (g) customized to the person, and
(h) intended to enhance the persons ability to learn and develop independently. Kampa and
White (2002) have also supported a similar definition for individual coaching and have indicated

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that individual and group coaching are roughly equivalent excluding the one-on-one criteria
mentioned above.
As a whole, coaching has predominantly been used as a tool for promoting individual
growth and supporting leaders in their development processes (Hunt & Weintraub, 2002). Katz
and Miller (1996) contend that executive coaching can be successfully used as a tool to support
leaders in working successfully through changes and transitions. Laabs (2000) further argued
about the quantifiable results of coaching, citing a study that found coaching alone could
increase leader productivity by 22.4% and when combined with training could increase
productivity by 88%. While coaching has often been reserved for leadership or individuals
identified as high potential within an organization, companies and coaching professionals have
discovered benefits for diverse levels of employees to support organizational and personal
change efforts. Change at the individual level within coaching has often followed the Prochaska
and DiClementes (1984) Transtheoretical Model of Change supporting coachees as they make
their way through the various stages. Coaching can be instrumental in helping coachees move
through the stages by defining and building steps to attain desired goals while assisting coaches
in pinpointing what stage the coachee is currently in (Stober, 2008).
As early career ministers embark on new experiences, changes, and become senior
leaders in their congregations it seems imperative that they understand the transition they will
encounter and work to establish goals for professional development and self-development.
By learning and developing the leadership competencies that are expected of a ministerial leader,
early career ministers will likely begin to engage and inspire their congregations, effectively
work through numerous, new transitions/situations, and build confidence as a leader. Individual
and executive coaching becomes an important method that can be used to support pastors in

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learning to manage and lead in new situations based on the literature support for coaching as a
tool to support leadership development. In addition, coaching can assist them in establishing
structure, defining and implementing their leadership charter, and developing new skills (Stern,
2004). Another unique component of coaching is the behavioral aspects and behavioral practice
that is central to the leaders success. The coaching plan that is developed encourages the leader
to develop new approaches and behaviors, practice them, evaluate, and try a revised approach as
necessary to build competencies and improve effectiveness (Kombarakaran et al., 2008).
Professional coaches working with early career ministers must understand the
organizational systems that pastors are leading within. The coach must be well versed in
knowing the skills the leader will need in order to succeed (Stern, 2004). It is assumed that most
early career ministers will want to see results and work with a coach who provides practical
solutions. As a result, the professional coach must be efficient, able to customize their approach,
and experientially-oriented (Stern, 2004). Coaching should also be viewed as a fluid process and
one that adapts quickly to the needs of the leader and the situation. For example, one discussion
within a coaching session may involve identifying the strategic direction for the church while a
later discussion could involve developing greater skill in building collaboration among church
staff. During these shifts in conversation the coach must respond, if a leader is to be helped,
she/he will need a coach who is flexible, provides live feedback, serves as a role model, and
provides specific guidance to support the leader in accomplishing critical goals (Stern, 2004).
Ennis, Stern, Yahanda, Vitti, Otto, Hodgetts, et al. (2003) identified some basic principles
to support the coach in achieving maximum success with their coachee: clear understanding of
the systems perspective, results-oriented, business focused, collaborative partner with a focus on
the individual and the organization, focused on building competence, emphasis on integrity, and

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solid judgment, informed intelligence, and professional ethics to guide decisions. Executive
coaching can be especially effective in executive assessment, development, and succession
planning, performance management, helping to build organizational values, vision, mission, and
strategy, building and improving collaboration, conflict resolution, and change leadership and
change management (Stern, 2004). A major strength of coaching is the respect for the style and
authority of the leader while creating a space to share positive and constructive feedback to
support the leader in understanding her/his impact (Kombarakaran et al., 2008). Hall, Otazo, and
Hollenbeck (1999) similarly emphasized the importance of providing feedback to executives and
noted how infrequently this happens due to the nature of their positions. It is assumed based on
this authors professional experience that ministers also encounter a lack of positive and
constructive feedback from others in their role. This experience likely does disservice to the
early career minister as the lack of clarity around what the denomination or congregational body
expect with regards to leadership competencies is left undefined or not discussed until concerns
are expressed. The use of a group coaching model early in a ministers career would allow for
identification of ministerial leadership competencies, a context to explore challenges and
triumphs, an environment where positive and negative feedback can be shared and processed,
and peer engagement.
Effectiveness of Coaching
Even though the phenomenon of individual and executive coaching has grown
significantly over the past several years often the question becomes, with something so popular
and readily utilized is it really effective and does it work. Overall, coaching as a consultation
intervention has received considerable attention in both scholarly and popular journals with
favorable reviews (Barrett, 2006). However, the majority of the empirical studies on coaching

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have lacked rigor in design, using metrics of less than adequate psychometric properties and
yielding results open to competing interpretations (Barrett, 2006). A key issue identified by
Barrett (2006) in his research was determining the appropriate criteria for assessing the impact of
executive coaching. Associated with this criterion, Campbell (2003) discovered in his review of
the research that elements of the coaching relationship facilitated learning in executives and led
to a supportive environment while Olivero, Bane, and Kopelman (1997) found that coaching
increased executive productivity.
Pfeffer (1994) demonstrated that organizations can see the financial impact when they
pay special attention to practices that support effective leader self-development programs. When
focused on leader self-development the return on investment previously spent on managerial
training is likely to increase exponentially. The idea behind a greater focus on leader selfdevelopment is similar to the old saying give a [person] a fish, you feed them for a day; teach a
[person] to fish, you feed them for a life time. If focus is placed on teaching leaders how to selfdevelop and organizational support is fostered to support self-development, the leader and the
organization with sustain long-term growth (Reichard & Johnson, 2011). By providing early
career ministers a context to explore their leadership competencies and an environment to foster
self-development, return on investment from the denominations perspective will likely increase.
Hall et al. (1999) conducted interviews with 75 executives in Fortune 100 companies who
were participating in executive coaching. The results of their qualitative study demonstrated
evidence of positive affective reactions, self-reported learning, and self-reported changes in
behaviors due to their coaching experience. Some of the reported learning included developing
new perspectives, greater self-awareness, and sensitivity to others. When combining these results
with a group experience, as the current group coaching model proposes for ministers, the model

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likely could provide opportunities to learn, create positive affective reactions around strengths
and growth opportunities along with creating a milieu to report changes and learning.
Olivero, Bane, and Kopelman (1997) conducted a comparative study on training and
training complemented by behavioral coaching to enhance performance in public sector
employment. The study was based on a sample of 31 participants and while it was a relatively
small sample size the results suggested that coaching increased performance by 88% while the
training only intervention results in an increase of only 22%. These results create support for the
current researchers proposal for a group coaching model because the group provides training on
competencies while providing behavioral coaching based on ministerial competencies.
Thach (2002) worked with a mid-size, global, telecommunications firm with
headquarters in the western United States and 281 executives as the developed a new executive
development system which included 360 feedback and coaching sessions. Results from a mini
360 post survey rated by others revealed that the overall impact on leadership effectiveness based
on six months of coaching and 360 feedback was an average increase of 55% during phase two
and 60% increase over phase three for the executives that participated. This was an action
research design and consequently no specific efforts were made to isolate variables. Therefore, it
was difficult for the author to separate impact of the 360 feedback from the executive coaching.
Nonetheless, coaching sessions along with feedback could likely be a helpful approach in
supporting ministers in developing leadership competencies.
Kinloch (2004) explored the inner to outer model of development championed by Wales
(2003) which stated that an executives self-awareness and confidence are aligned to and
stimulate external competencies of leadership effectiveness. This study also utilized group
coaching to scrutinize executive coaching with health leaders through focus groups, coaching,

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and survey results to ascertain if coaching was a key enabler of achieving targeted goals.
Executive coaching was found to be a positive influence on health leaders abilities to achieve
performance goals and increase leadership capacity (Kinloch, 2004). That being said, group
coaching as a whole has not been sufficiently examined in the current literature, though
researchers have begun to distinguish the merits of group coaching in leadership development
(Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Kets de Vries, 2005).
Group Coaching
Group coaching has direct links to Scheins (1969, 1988) theory of process consultation.
In this approach, the consultant observes and stimulates input from the individuals within the
group, consequently initiating interventions that fuel challenges and opportunities for self and
group awareness (Barrett, 2006). Group coaching can be viewed as an alternative to one-to-one
coaching or an adjunct intervention to support leadership development (Kets de Vries, 2005).
Hackman and Wageman (2005) suggested that group coaching is related to four different
conditions. Effective coaching interventions are linked to (a) the organizational context within
which the group operates; (b) group design and assets; (c) the individual leaders knowledge and
skills; and (d) the coachs abilities and intervention timing, along with a coaching focus on
behavior/task performance over group members interpersonal relationships (as cited in Barrett,
2006). When these conditions are met coaching can substantially increase stress management
skills, and work/life balance skills (Ludeman & Erlandson, 2004; Wales, 2003). Barrett (2006)
also contended that by increasing an executives self-awareness through coaching, group
coaching can take this awareness to the next level by fostering individual leader abilities to
effectively understand their own feelings; ultimately leading to enhanced capacity to receive,
process, and act on the feelings of others in the group.

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While literature outlining various models of group coaching has emerged, to date, no
published research has reported the effects of group coaching on executive internal dynamics or
leadership effectiveness. In general, coaching continues to be conducted almost exclusively at
the one-to-one level in most organizations (Ward, 2008), in spite of the fact that many group
interventions and organizational interventions exist that are predominately targeted at the group
level. Group interventions have the potential to get to the core of many systemic issues.
Researchers such as Hackman and Wageman (2005) and Kets de Vries (2005) have started to
differentiate the merits of group coaching from one-to-one coaching in the development of
leaders. However, empirically-supported literature has been lacking when compared to the
number of individuals engaging in and facilitating various group interventions associated with
leadership development.
Brown and Grant (2010) write that to foster real change and development within
individuals and organizations, it is essential that individuals and groups create a high level of
awareness around systemic processes and issues. Group work develops this type of systemic
thinking through creating a social microcosm of the organization and the interpersonal dynamics.
A systems theory approach assumes that groups are systems of interacting individuals and just as
a system receives information, processes that data, and outputs a specific product, groups also
gather information, review that data, and generate a product (Forsyth, 1999). By building broader
awareness, alignment, and accountability through the group process of dialogue and challenge,
individual and group performance increase (Scharma, 2007). Because of the many proposed
benefits of group coaching programs there is an emerging shift by coaching professionals and
academics to facilitate this type of coaching (Ward, 2008).

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Brown and Grant (2010) define group coaching as a broader category that relates to
any group of individuals, including but not limited to teams, whether participants are working
together towards specific goals or not (pp. 31-32). In their discussion of various group coaching
models, several researchers have identified many purported benefits of group coaching (e.g.
Anderson, et al., 2008; Ascentia, 2005; Kets de Vries, 2005; Ward, 2008) including:
development of greater insight into psychodynamic processes of the group, greatly likelihood of
durable changes, development of trust and support, improved communication skills, constructive
conflict resolution, development of coaching skills, leadership development, transfer of
knowledge, and systemic awareness.
Ward (2008) presented a model for group coaching arguing that coaching executives in
groups to leverage collective experiences in an experiential environment with ongoing support
was an efficient and effective way for executives to grow. His approach draws on aspects of
psychoanalytic theory and group process. During the leadership development process (LDP), a
clinical approach is utilized to support executives in gaining knowledge and insight into
unconscious behaviors and reflection in the past. Through the group coaching process executives
complete an introductory session, obtain feedback on two instruments, participate in a short
lecture on the rationales behind the process, and prepare for the group coaching day. During
group coaching day, executives participate in a self-portrait activity and then spend the
remainder of the day sharing one or two personal issues or challenges they face and listening to
other executives work through the same process. Groups are typically composed of five people
and they participate in an eight hour working day after the initial individual components the
previous day.

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Kets de Vries (2005) also presented a model for group coaching. His model starts with
engaging the group in conversation centered on effective and dysfunctional leadership which
often leads into discussions about high performance leadership and teams. Executives are then
asked to talk about personal peak or Everest experiences, when they felt their best as a leader.
After discussions, the leader of the group explains the challenges associated with giving and
receiving feedback. The group then discusses the rationale behind the 360-degree feedback
instrument that was completed prior to participation in the group. The executives are also asked
to complete the Personality Audit and a short biographical sketch. The group coaching session
involves each executive sharing with the group feedback they received from their assessment,
receiving feedback from the other group members, and development of a personal leadership
development plan.
Scamardo and Harnden (2006/2007) developed a manager coaching group model based
on their work with employee assistance programs (EAPs). The group was developed after
working with 16 members of a focus group who had attended previous manager trainings
conducted by the EAP professionals. The individuals in the focus group articulated a need for a
time and place to discuss what they already knew as well as the challenges of applying the skills
in difficult situations. The managers also wanted to hear from others to help them understand the
realities of their work environments and to decrease their sense of isolation. Consequently, the
EAP professionals developed a manager group coaching model. The group model consisted of an
introduction of members and facilitators, overview of group structure, and an initial goal-setting
workshop. This is based on the authors belief that well-defined goals improve performance. The
group members are taught the SMARTER format to set goals (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, timelines, evaluate, and redo). Each member then develops descriptors on a Likert-type

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scale to measure progress. For each subsequent meeting a topic is discussed based on important
areas identified during the initial focus groups and regular check-in time is allotted to monitor
goal progress. At the end of the group, managers were asked about their experience in the group.
Managers stated that they benefited from the accountability provided through discussion
(Scamardo & Harnden, 2006/2007, p. 138). Managers were also asked about how the group
contributed to their progress on goals. Some of the response included more effective
communication, improved organization, heightened attention to goals, and better use of resources
(Scamardo & Harnden, 2006/2007).
Many of the current group coaching models employs an intensive one or two day
approach to their group coaching programs. It is hypothesized that this approach is most likely
related to cost and time away from work. The group coaching model being proposed by this
researcher will be over 16-18 sessions and will be completed in hour and a half segments, as it
will most likely be implement throughout the course of a seminary students end of academic
training or early in their career. By conducting sessions over a longer period of time, it will allow
for greater monitoring of progress and more time to address any development opportunities in a
comprehensive manner. A potential limitation in having a 16-18 session group could be obstacles
on the ministers end associated with consistent attendance to the group due to other obligations.
Another potential limitation could be decreased attention to goals over time due to the
lengthened nature of the group, whereas one to two day groups can have an intense intervention
and maximize focus from group members on goals for such a short duration. However, with the
flexible nature of the proposed group coaching model along with the framework for life-long
learning it is hoped that this will decrease any lack of focus or commitment.

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While there continues to remain a push in the coaching field for empirically-supported
research to confirm or refute the effectiveness of executive and group coaching several studies
have emerged to support executive coachings efficacy at some level. There are many forms of
coaching including personal or life coaching, career coaching, performance coaching,
relationship coaching, legacy coaching, etc. that were not reviewed by this author. The focus was
placed on individual and executive coaching because of its focus on the experiential,
individualized, leadership development process that works to build a leaders competencies to
achieve short- and long-term organizational goals. This style of coaching seemed to align best
with the early career pastor who enters into a leadership role within the congregation and must
work to develop short- and long-term goals that meet and sustain the needs of parishioners and
the church.
Group Dynamics
People participate in groups for many different reasons. Some people want to get rid of
something or work through a significant issue. Other individuals seek to learn new skills and
develop new outlooks. And still others want to seek the support of others to overcome or resist
an addiction or challenging problem. As a result, the variety of change-promoting groups
available to individuals is expansive along with the different styles of groups that are conducted
to achieve diverse objectives. Group psychotherapy helps individuals overcome troublesome
mental health concerns (Forsyth, 1999). Interpersonal learning groups support individuals in
gaining self-understanding and improved interpersonal skills (Forsyth, 1999). Self-help groups
which are often voluntarily formed groups help individuals to cope with or overcome a common
problem (Forsyth, 1999).

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The group coaching model suggested by this author includes various aspects of structured
learning groups. These types of group often include orientation to the critical issues/goals of the
group, interactions with the group through structured exercises, general discussions about their
experiences, blending into analysis where the psychologist helps group members identify
consistencies in behavior and continued opportunities for growth, and ending with an application
discussion associated with how to apply new learning (Forsyth, 1999).
The group coaching model also considers several important common factors including
instillation of hope, universality, imparting information, altruism, and imitative behavior (Yalom,
2005) from the research on and practice of group therapy work. While the group coaching model
and psychotherapy group are themselves different, people in group psychotherapy and structured
learning groups often find their experiences beneficial for similar reasons.
The first common factor instillation of hope (Yalom, 2005) facilitates motivation toward
making changes and developing new skills during, sometimes, the most challenging of times.
Hearing stories from others who have experienced similar challenges and triumphs can be
reassuring to members and provide opportunities for growth. This common factor is closely
aligned with the critical transition challenge that early career ministers are facing and the need
for support during this discernment phase.
The second common factor universality (Yalom, 2005) is grounded in the belief that
despite the complexities of human concerns, certain common denominators clearly exist between
individuals and their problems. Through support groups, challenges and successes are shared and
support from other members can assist individuals in working through uncertainties.
The third common factor imparting information (Yalom, 2005) is associated with
members of the group sharing information through direct advice or providing information to the

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group members in a didactic form. The sharing of information allows transfer of new data,
modifying patterns of behavior, and creating structure to the group. Piper, McCallum, and Azim
(1992) described the most effective information occurring within the group to be systematic
instruction or alternative suggestions on how to achieve a goal.
The fourth common factor altruism (Yalom, 2005) is important because it plays a critical
role in creating interpersonal connections between group members. Individuals are able to give
back to others in the form of advice sharing, listening, information giving, insight, and
reassurance (Scamardo & Harnden, 2006/2007).
The fifth common factor imitating behavior (Yalom, 2005) allows group members to
learn from others what has worked and was has not worked. Through discussion and observation
group members are able to imitate what has successfully worked for individuals in the group to
tackle personal challenges.
As a final point and overarching the group coaching model, is the focus on understanding
the various influences and interactions that the system as a whole plays on leadership success. By
using a systemic approach to the group coaching model, the psychologist assumes that multiple
components of the group interact with one another over time and should take time in the group to
highlight these interactions or processes. Input into the system comes in the form of individuallevel factors (members skills, personality, attitudes), group-level factors (cohesion of group,
group structure, leader dynamics), and environmental-level factors (tasks, external pressures)
(McGrath, 1997). In addition, the actual group process within the system involves the task that
the group members are working to complete and includes how they communicate, plan, manage,
and work through obstacles. The inputs and processes then create the outputs in the system such
as quality of the product, efficiencies, cohesiveness, and member satisfaction (McGrath, 1997).

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As the facilitating psychologist of the group, making process comments at the input, process, or
output level can create greater awareness for early career ministers, specifically associated with
their own inputs, process style, and outputs that impact the system.
Distinguishing Coaching from Therapy
One final aspect to consider is the distinction between coaching and therapy. While there
are many ongoing debates and discussions on the true distinctions between the two practices, this
doctoral project will highlight a few of the common distinctions for practical purposes and will
not be exhaustive in explanation. Parsloe and Wray (2000) and Williams (2003) distinguish the
purpose of therapy as problem-centered with a focus on diagnosing, analyzing, and healing
which may also include focus on early life experiences and involvement with family members.
Their overall claim is that therapy is theory driven. On the other hand, Bachkirova and Cox
(2005) describe coaching as typically results or performance oriented with the emphasis on
taking action and as sustaining changes over time and that it is used to improve performance in a
specific area, is more practice driven and relies strongly on interpersonal skills (p. 2).
Kets de Vries (2005) weighs in the debate suggesting that therapy is past, present, and
future focused while coaching is present and future focused. In addition, he adds that therapy is
more passive and reflective, information is obtained from the client, analysis is made on
symptoms and character, and who the client is, is clear. On the other hand, leadership coaching is
more active and goal/action oriented, information is acquired from the client and key others, the
focus is on growth and development, and who the client is, is somewhat fuzzy.
Spinelli (2008) cites conversations he had with the i-coach Academy on their
perspectives. They found therapy to be much more regulated than coaching, to have much
stronger ethical boundaries, and focused on disturbances and arrests in growth and development,

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whereas, coaching was described as focused on the positive aspects of personal growth and
development, concerned with enhancing what already works well, and often much more
expensive. Bachkirova and Cox (2005) also distinguish between therapys predominant focus on
the individual while coaching often brings about a double accountability between the
organization and the individual. In addition, they cite therapys strong and comprehensive roots
in theory regarding mental, behavioral, and emotional life and coaching, as a relative new
profession, holding very shallow roots in theory. Additional points of contrast are suggested by
Spinelli (2008), up for discussion and debate, including: dual and multiple relationships between
coaches and clients often not viewed as problematic, distinctions between the coaching and
therapeutic relationship such as the coaching relationship being viewed as much more balanced
and egalitarian than its therapeutic counterpart, struggles that some coaches may have working in
the immediacy, and differences in quality and exploration of the relationship being fostered.
While many of the diverse examples shared, initially, seem useful there are obvious gaps in the
conclusions which make the debate regarding the difference between coaching and therapy, at
times, quite subtle, indefinable, contextual, and up for continuous debate.
Summary and Conclusion
As students leave seminary and make the transition into ministerial life this is often their
first encounter with leadership responsibilities, serving God while balancing their theological
knowledge and books, balancing family versus work, and understanding human needs versus
financial obligations (Senske, 2004). This transition becomes personal and professional. One of
the major reasons often cited for dying churches and struggling ministers is lack of effective
leadership provided by senior pastors (Barna, 1993). A strong pastor is considered essential in
the maintenance, sustainability, and growth of a church. Some of the unique leadership qualities

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of effective pastors include team builder, visionary director, spiritual grower, acknowledger of
growth and participation, strategic thinker, and appropriate risk taker (Barna, 1993).
Congregations also expect ministers to consider diverse points of view and to provide
encouragement to others to share in project development and completion (Wind & Wand, 2008).
These expectations and leadership competencies are often in direct competition to the
expectations and student competencies that are rewarded in seminary such as self-starter,
individual learner, competitive, independent decision-making, and individual project completion.
Thus the major unresolved issue becomes how to teach and foster leadership expectations and
competencies that will be expected and required of the seminary student entering the role as
pastor or chief executive officer ensuring alignment with communal needs.
The purpose of this doctoral project has been to understand effective ministerial
leadership, explain several general theories of leadership development, why leadership
development is important, what general leadership competencies are, and finally integrate all
these concepts into effective ministerial leadership at the competency level. As ministerial
leadership has been defined at the competency-level a group coaching model will be created
based on these ministerial leadership competency as a prevention tool or as a way for seminaries
and/or congregations to support individuals in effectively making the transition into the ministry
field with solid leadership capacities. Making this group coaching experience available during
seminary or early in a ministers career is supported by research which identifies transitions as
a critical development period for pastors (McKenna, Yost, & Boyd, 2007). Some of the most
significant transitions in a pastors development involve when she/he first became a church
leader, first became head pastor, first had staff members reporting to her/him, or when the pastor
had to delegate significant tasks (McKenna et al., 2007).

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While coaching is a somewhat foreign concept in the non-profit world and even in many
diverse organizations, it has the potential to support development of new skills, facilitate
reflection on personal and professional experiences, promote insight and awareness into
experiences, provide an environment for sharing of constructive feedback, and support an
ongoing cycle of learning (Hunt & Weintraub, 2007). The literature also supports the
effectiveness of coaching in developing individual and group leadership skills and competencies
(Genger, 1997; McGovern et al., 2001; Parker-Wilkins, 2006; & Kimbarakaran et al., 2008).
While much of the reported benefits of group coaching are coming from anecdotal
evidence with little outcome research to support the effects of group coaching, there is
encouragement and recommendations from researchers for continued investment in outcome
studies to empirically support many of the anecdotal reports. Group coaching appears to be
growing in much the same way individual coaching has grown, with practical implementation of
technique and strategies occurring far ahead of the research.
The next section is a model of a psychologist lead group coaching program, first,
involving a facilitated self-assessment process with the early career minister to identify and
understand their strengths and development opportunities as a leader. Then, together, in the
group context, the early career minister, other early career ministers, and the psychologist will
explore the competencies needed to be an effective minister along with potential challenges that
could occur while transitioning from student to pastoral leader. Within the group coaching
context a framework for successful life-long learning will be provided, in addition, to
information or critical concepts identified as significant to an early career ministers success. The
discussions and processing will all occur within a group context to simulate the systemic

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environment into which many ministers will or could be entering into which will allow for
further processing of experienced dynamics.

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Section III: Original Contribution to Practice

Individuals making the decision to enter into the complex system of ministry encounter
many challenges and new experiences as they make their transition from seminary to leadership
in the church. The personal functioning of pastors during this transition remains an increasing
concern. There are complex and shifting family and relationship dynamics that must be attended
to: marriage, careers of spouses or partners, relocation, economic changes, and variations in time
with family (Wind & Ward, 2008). To highlight survey results, mentioned previously in this
project, conducted by the Fuller Institute of Church Growth reported striking statistics from
pastors: 80% felt that ministry had affected their families negatively, 50% dropped out of fulltime ministry within five years, 70% reported not having a close friend, 37% acknowledged
engaging in inappropriate sexual behaviors with someone at the church, and 12% admitted to
having engaged in sexual intercourse with a church member (as cited in Meek, McMinn, Brower,
Burnett, McRay, Ramey, Swanson, & Villa, 2003).
With so much at stake for individuals and congregations during this transition, it seems
imperative to have a practice in place during the early stages which can help facilitate individual
self-awareness, personal responsibility, and understanding of systemic dynamics. One suggested
strategy for tackling this critical phase in an individuals discernment process is to develop a
group coaching model where competencies for effective ministry can be discussed and explored
within a group context to foster a dynamic experience within a microcosm that leads to personal
development, understanding of the realities of ministry, skill attainment, and a framework for
life-long learning.

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Group Coaching Model

The group coaching model for this project is 16 to 18 sessions, one and a half hours in
length, meets on a twice a month basis, and is conducted by a psychologist. Meeting twice a
month will allow participants time between sessions to implement their learning plans. While
extended time period between group meetings will allow for greater external learning and
practice, the stretched time may lengthen the amount of time it takes to facilitate group cohesion
and performing within the group. The 16 to 18 sessions will occur during the ministers
academic school year. The sessions can be conducted on a more flexible basis if working with
early career ministers in role. Again, while this flexibility will accommodate the demands early
career ministers face, it may take the group members longer to connect and perform together.
The twice monthly format was chosen due to the time constraints many students and early career
ministers likely face and to allow for adequate time between sessions to make progress on
development goals. Having the group spread over the course of nine months also allows
individuals to develop network relationships and to cover a larger course of time to address
issues that could ebb and flow.
Selection criteria for the group coaching model were developed based on consultation
with local professional experts working with individuals in ministry and review of the literature.
If the psychologist leading the group discerns that greater flexibility or additional restrictions are
required for group member inclusion/exclusion, the information below should be viewed as a
guideline and the criteria should be modified to appropriately fit group member and psychologist
needs or requirements. The psychologist should meet with each individual prior to entry into the
group for approximately a half hour to forty-five minutes to conduct a brief interview. Because
this is a growth group or structured learning group many of the criteria typically noted for

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inclusion or exclusion in the psychotherapy group literature will not be noted here. The group
coaching model should be viewed as a voluntary experience for early career ministers and a
personal level of motivation should be evident when meeting with them. Motivation could
include a characteristic such as verbally articulating interest in personal development and
building greater self-awareness. If the psychologist suspects any sort of deviant behaviors (i.e.,
lack of interpersonal sensitivity, judgmental, avoidance of personal strengths/development areas)
when meeting with the early career minister these should be explored further and the individual
possibly referred to a different type of service or perhaps excluded from the group. The coaching
group should also be viewed as an environment where an ecumenical experience will be fostered
for the early career ministers. Therefore, early career ministers from diverse denominations
should be encouraged and included to participate in the group. Creating a heterogeneous group
experience is supported in the group psychotherapy literature by Yalom (2005) as a way to
maximize learning opportunities. The social microcosm that develops facilitates a miniature
social environment where early career ministers can develop greater cultural sensitivity, new
methods of interpersonal interaction, and system experience/awareness. The dissonance theory
also supports a heterogeneous group experience by highlighting that learning or change is likely
to occur when an individual, in a state of dissonance, acts to reduce their dissonance and achieve
a more consistent state (Yalom, 2005). In general, the psychologist should seek to create
heterogeneity from a denominational viewpoint, in the areas of opportunity for
strength/development, and with patterns of handling diverse situations. The psychologist should
assess for and strive to create homogeneity with regards to motivational level, psychologicalmindedness, ability to become vulnerable within the group, and capacity to tolerate diverse
perspectives/experiences.

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The group coaching sessions will take place at the seminary school where the students are
attending. In a provided room, the group coaching sessions will take place in an agreed upon
location that is convenient for most members. Video conferencing or Skype will also be made
available for individuals that are unable to attend the twice monthly group due to travel
constraints or work-related issues. A limitation of having a group member participate via Skype
or video conferencing is certain aspects of the group experience may be missed. In addition,
confidentiality using these channels could be less secure. In general, there is limited concern
regarding confidentiality because the group is not a therapy group. The group is a developmental
coaching program that incorporates several components of a therapy group such as instillation of
hope, universality, imparting information, altruism, and imitating behavior. However, the
groups main goals are developing awareness of strengths and opportunities for growth,
understanding the competencies for effective ministerial practice, processing with other seminary
students potential challenges and together identifying strategies to manage difficulties, sharing
important accomplishments associated with the ministerial leadership competencies, and
creating, with the support of the group, a life-long plan for leadership development and growth.
That all being said, confidentiality will be discussed with all members at the onset of the group,
as the environment should be seen as one that is safe for individuals to explore ministerial
leadership strengths and opportunities. (See Appendix A. for confidentiality form)
Facilitating the Group Coaching Model
This next section will describe the model of how to facilitate the 16 to 18 session group
for seminary students and early career ministers to support them in leveraging leadership
competencies, addressing opportunities for growth, and learning a model for life-long learning.
This doctoral project wants to highlight that this model should be viewed as a practical guide or

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template for the group coaching process. When using this model it will be important for
psychologists to be flexible to effectively respond to the needs and priorities of the group
members. As a result, this model should be viewed as a guide, not an ideology to strictly adhere
to when facilitating the group.
Prior to the beginning of the group coaching sessions, participants will complete one or
all of the listed assessment inventories as they have been identified through assessment centers
and professional coaching psychologists as helpful in identifying leadership competencies and
style. The number of assessments completed will be based on the cost and ability of the seminary
program or congregation to financially support the facilitation of these assessments. The
suggested assessments are: California Personality Inventory-260 (CPI-260), Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI), Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), Fundamental
Interpersonal Relations Orientations (FIRO-B), 16PF, and Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode
Instrument (TKI). (See Appendix A. for ministerial leadership competencies list)
The first session of the group will be focused primarily on rapport building, initiating
relationship development among group members, and orienting group members to the purpose
and structure of the group. The psychologist will also review each of the ministerial leadership
competencies with members and answer any questions about the competencies. Group topics that
are likely to be explored during the first session include, but are not limited to, individual goals,
expectations, hopes, and concerns associated with the group purpose and goals.
Sessions two and three will be used to examine the results of each individuals
psychological assessments which were completed prior to the group commencing. Time will also
be devoted to orient each member on how to interpret their results. One individual session will
be offered during this initial phase to process test results separately and to answer any questions

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the individuals do not feel comfortable discussing within the group. During the first three
sessions the psychologist will also provide structure around identifying leadership strengths and
development opportunities based on the established leadership competencies and individual
assessment results to help build toward establishing goals. Scriffignano (2011) supports the
importance in establishing goals, as she suggested in her research goal setting can have a
profound impact on leaders success (p. 22). In addition, she revealed through her research that
learning goal orientation (LGO) which is a belief that one can improve their abilities by
acquiring new skills is significantly correlated with leaders level of professional development.
Session four is considered, one, the goal development phase and will consist of
completing the GAPS Grid (Peterson & Hicks, 1996) and, two, an orientation to the
Development FIRST Model (Personnel Decisions International, 2001; Peterson & Hicks, 1995)
with review of associated handouts.
The GAPS Grid provides an opportunity for participants to deepen their insights about
where they are now and where they want and need to be in the future with their leadership
competencies. Because people have blind spots, the GAPS Grid provides participants with a tool
to explore potential blind spots while acknowledging areas of strength. The Goals and Values
section of the grid encompasses the individuals view of where they want to be going and
identifying what matters to them. The Abilities section of the grid includes the individuals view
of how they currently view themselves at the present moment with regards to competencies,
capabilities, style, and performance. The Perceptions section of the grid includes the
incorporation of the others views about where the person is at with regards to their capabilities,
performance, style, motives, priorities, and values. The Standards section of the grid
encompasses the organizations established success factors for the individual and includes

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factors such as roles and responsibilities, cultural norms, and other peoples expectations
(Peterson & Hicks, 1996). The psychologists role during the GAPS Grid discussion is to
stimulate participants to gather their own information from others and through personal
reflection to maximize the usefulness of the grid. In addition, the psychologist should also
provide clear, honest, and objective feedback, as appropriate, to help participants develop a
comprehensive grid. (See Appendix B. for handouts and worksheets related to the GAPS Grid).
The Development FIRST Model (Peterson & Hicks, 1995) outlines five essential
strategies to support learning and utilization of new skills to build capabilities and competencies
on an ongoing basis. The first strategy is Focus on Priorities which consists of identifying critical
issues and development objectives that are important to concentrate attention on two or three of
ones most important goals. Within the first strategy the psychologist will facilitate discussions
about deciding where to focus energies related to strengths and development areas, analyzing and
understanding ones competency portfolio (often reviewing the GAPS Grid), determining
incentives and motivations, selecting top priorities, and beginning to prepare a plan for
development (Peterson & Hicks, 1995).
The second strategy is Implementing Something Every Day which emphasizes stretching
out of ones comfort zone daily. The importance of this strategy is highlighted by creating
development objectives and tactics that can be translated into daily action to make change a
reality (Peterson & Hicks, 1995). The focus is on spending at least five minutes a day on
personal development to make these activities a routine part of the participants daily activities.
Action steps highlighted here are being opportunistic (finding opportunities to learn in what
ones already doing), being proactive (seek new opportunities and reframe current opportunities),

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taking intelligent risks (redefine success and failure), and facing obstacles (Peterson & Hicks,
1995).
The third strategy is Reflect on What Happens which is highlighted to extract maximum
learning from experiences. The psychologist will facilitate discussions during this strategy about
taking stock of what happened, learning from success, learning from mistakes, learning from
emotional reactions, and coping with barriers. This strategy is important because change is often
more likely to occur when individuals pause to consolidate and assimilate learning (Personnel
Decisions International, 2001).
The fourth strategy is Seek Feedback and Support which involves learning from others
ideas and perspectives. The psychologists focus here should be on facilitating group discussions
where participants are seeking and providing feedback to one another regarding progress and
challenges. In addition, the psychologist should encourage participants to be routinely seeking
feedback from others external to the group. Guidelines such as knowing what to ask for,
knowing who to ask, preparing ones sources, and creating the right time are provided by the
psychologist during discussions (Peterson & Hicks, 1995).
The fifth strategy is Transfer Learning into Next Steps and consists of adapting and
planning for continued learning. The psychologist will facilitate this strategy by routinely taking
a step back from development plans to reflect with participants on successes and progress. In
addition, discussions will be conducted on strategies for revising plans and applying new
learning in different contexts. Finally, discussions will be facilitated around recharging personal
batteries, focusing on new goals, and fostering a continuous cycle on learning to keep
capabilities and competencies sharp (Personnel Decisions International, 2001). (See Appendix C.
for handouts and worksheets related to Development FIRST strategies)

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Sessions five through 16 will be considered the performing phase. Each session will be
focused exclusively on one of the twelve competencies, but discussions should be considered
fluid to appropriately accommodate the needs of group members. Concentration will also be
placed on continued review of development plans, processing individual accomplishments and
disappointments, discussing individual challenges, and leveraging other group members
experiences to learn from one another. Another important area of focus, which should be
discussed throughout the group and within each competency area, is the early career ministers
openness to cultural differences and the significant impact this has on leadership effectiveness.
While there is one specific competency, establishing relationships with individuals from diverse
backgrounds, that targets specific cultural dynamics at a relational level, this should not be
viewed as the only time when culture is discussed. As the psychologist and group members
explore all other competencies, congregational experiences, and personal experiences, culturallyrelated issues should be explored and assumptions challenged. As the GLOBE project (Javidan
et al., 2006) discovered there are universal competency that support effective leadership
development, but there are also barriers, culturally-contingent variables, and other specific
strategies that must remain in the forefront to facilitate a global leadership mindset that is
sensitive to cultural differences and similarities. The psychologist will want to make certain that
awareness is facilitated around potential barriers of the ministers such as being overly selfprotective, non-cooperative, and dictatorial in their leadership style as these are viewed as
potential derailers (Javidan, et al., 2006). In addition, the psychologist will want to facilitate
discussions associated with specific cultural dynamics inherent in each individuals experience
with their specific congregation and with their own cultural background. Overarching all these
noteworthy areas will be the importance of the psychologist in supporting the ministers to

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practice the two-step process identified by Javidan et al. (2006) of first, learning to share their
own cultural experiences and information while actively seeking out others perspectives and
challenges and step two encouraging the ministers to look for effectiveness ways to build bridges
and/or discuss gaps in experience between themselves and their congregation. Finally, it will be
crucial for the psychologist to monitor areas of inflexibility, as the tolerance of ambiguity and
ability to be adaptable (Javidan et al., 2006), are critical to a ministers success in positively
navigating diverse cultural experiences and backgrounds. To reiterate, the psychologist should
view cultural issues and dynamics within and between the early career ministers as something
that permeates all leadership competencies and discussions within the group to foster openness
and to ultimately support the growth of their current and/or future congregations. (See Appendix
D. for session five through sixteen group topics)
The storming phase (conflict between group members, uncooperative members, lack of
participation, defensiveness, etc.) of the group which has not been specifically acknowledged,
but is an important phase members are likely to experience throughout the group, especially as
sensitive information such as development opportunities or constructive feedback are discussed.
There are many strategies a psychologist may use to help the group work through conflictual or
challenging group times. The following suggestions will not be exhaustive, but are provided to
help facilitate the storming phase if/when is occurs.
The psychologist is encouraged to remember that there can be therapeutic use of conflict
within a group by remaining in the here-and-now and stopping the group to make explicit
process comments about the group process she/he is observing associated with the conflict
(Yalom, 2005). Then, the psychologist can foster group discussion focused on the observation of
targeted behavior/process and as a group create an understanding of what is occurring between

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members and how it is impacting the group. In addition, the psychologist can take this
experience and apply it to congregational life to create a full circle experience for the minister
and potentially create greater awareness for all ministers involved in the group.
A psychologist may also need to call out or bring along group members who are not
actively involved in the group experience. This call out could involve a process comment to
initiate group discussion and encourage the group members to share their thoughts about
individual participation in the group. As Yalom (2005) further suggests, during certain
conflicts/interactions, the psychologist may discover that role switching is a helpful, structured
intervention during tense group dynamics. This strategy would involve a group member taking
on the perspective of another member for a few moments to understand their feelings or point of
view. In general, with all storming phase strategies, the psychologist should maintain the groups
focus on the here-and-now and give most attention to the process, rather than the actual content.
In doing so, the psychologist will likely facilitate working through the issues as a group and
foster real-time learning.
Sessions 17 through 18 should be considered the evaluation phase with concentration
placed on returning to initial assessment results from inventories to process progress and ongoing
areas of opportunity, completing the Global Executive Leadership Inventory (as appropriate),
and processing participants overall experience in the group related to initial individual goals,
expectations, and hopes for the group. The Global Executive Leadership Inventory will be used
as the evaluation tool to track progress that was made by the participants throughout the group by
comparing initial assessment results with the Global Executive Leadership Inventory. The
inventory measures leadership in 12 dimensions including: visioning, empowering, energizing,
designing and aligning, rewarding and feedback, teambuilding, outside orientation, tenacity,

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global mind-set, and emotional intelligence (Kets de Vries, 2005) which closely align with the
ministerial leadership competencies that were established and promoted throughout the group
coaching model. The Global Executive Leadership Inventory will most likely only be used with
early career ministers already in role as they will have colleagues they are currently working
with who can provide feedback on the instrument regarding their leadership.
An evaluation with the seminary students with consist of using initial assessment results,
development plan review, and asking of two questions at the end of the group coaching sessions.
The two questions will be:
1. Did you identify and learn your personal strengths and development opportunities?
Were you able to create a GAPS Grid that effectively addressed growth opportunities
and leveraged strengths? How was the GAPS Grid helpful and unhelpful in your
development?
2. Did you engage in Development FIRST strategies and create a development plan that
fostered action-oriented learning? How was this process helpful and unhelpful?
3. How was the group process helpful or unhelpful to your growth and overall
experience?
The questions address the overall goals of the group which were to complete a self-assessment,
understand the leadership competencies, create an action-oriented development plan, and learn
strategies for ongoing learning.
In addition, during the last one to two sessions of the group the psychologist should
conduct the ending phase of the group. Since the group members have spent a considerable
amount of time together and most likely worked through varying levels of intimacy and
challenges, the creation of a closing experience is crucial. The psychologist should focus this

97

phase of the group on reviewing the successes and progress the group as a whole made,
reviewing and processing individual contributions that were impactful, having group members
provide constructive and positive feedback to one another about their individual experience
within the group, general and informal reminiscing about the group experience, and processing
of any distress members are feeling. The ending phase ultimately concludes the various roles
individuals played in the group, completes the task of the group, and promotes independence
moving forward (Forsyth, 1999).
GROUP Model
The overall model for practice that the psychologist will use while facilitating the group
sessions concerning self-assessment results, GAPS Grid, Development FIRST strategies, the
performing phase, and evaluation phase is the GROUP model. The GROUP model is a
modification of the GROW model (Whitmore, 2009) which is one of the most commonly used
methods for structuring coaching conversations. The GROUP Model follows the same initial
phases of the GROW model including goal setting, reality exploration, and option generation.
Goal setting involves supporting the participants in the goal development phase by helping them
clarify what they want to achieve throughout the group and determining the focus of their
development plans. Reality is facilitating awareness of present realities during the GAPS grid
development process and examining fully how the current situations are impacting the
participant. Options focuses on helping the participants identify and assess available options to
encourage brainstorming and solution focused thinking (Whitmore, 2009). The differentiation
from the GROW model comes during the fourth phase when the psychologist needs to support
group dialogue to facilitate a collaborative learning process (Brown & Grant, 2010). The ability
of each participant to understand the other members successes and challenges becomes critical

98

to the success factors in group coaching. The GROUP Model adds the Understanding Other
phase to foster a shift in individual and group awareness, which then enables generative
solutions at a systemic level rather than the more common reactive responses on a symptom
level (Brown & Grant, 2010, p. 39). The final phase of the GROUP Model is Performing which
consists of supporting the group in determining next steps, developing ongoing learning plans,
and building motivation and accountability. (See Appendix E for GROUP Model & GROW
Model)
As mentioned early in this section, the model of group coaching sessions should be
viewed as a framework and not a model that is rigidly adhered to at the loss of group member
participation. The main focus of the psychologist should be on creating a group that is flexible
and effectively responds to the needs and priorities of the group to maximize learning and
development.
Summary
Individuals making the decision to enter into the complex system of ministry encounter
many challenges and new experiences as they make their transition from seminary to leadership
in the church. Each transition involves potential contact with many different individuals,
multifaceted dynamics, novel circumstances, and opportunities for growth and development
(Wind & Wood, 2008). The group coaching model developed for this doctoral project and
implemented by a psychologist is one tool that may assist early career ministers and seminary
students as they make the transition into a role of leadership in the church. Helping them
understand the leadership competencies that are necessary and expected in their role along with
acquiring strategies for ongoing development will hopefully allow them to successful navigate
the challenges and triumphs of their new leadership role.

99

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Appendix A.1
Limits on Confidentiality
There are some instances in which a psychologist is required to break confidentiality under the law. These
include:

Suspected or reported child abuse which includes physical or sexual abuse, neglect, excessive
corporal punishment, child abduction, and exposure to domestic violence that is traumatizing to
the child. Child abuse reporting only applies to children who are currently under the age of 18.
The psychologist is required to report suspected child abuse in addition to known incidents of
abuse.
Suspected or reported dependent adult/elder abuse which includes physical abuse, sexual abuse,
neglect, abduction, financial abuse, self-neglect, isolating the adult and not providing proper care,
including medical and mental health needs.
If you intend to harm yourself or others. If you disclose the intention or a plan to harm another
person, the psychologist is legally required to warn the intended victim and report this
information to legal authorities. If you disclose or imply that you have plan to harm or kill
yourself, the psychologist is required by law to take precautions to keep you safe, which includes
contacting a family member or friend to watch over you for a specified amount of time, a referral
to a psychiatric hospital, or police intervention if necessary.
You elect to waive your right to privilege if you are in a court proceeding and want the
psychologist to testify on your behalf or release your records to your attorney or the court, you are
waiving your right to privilege. You must give the psychologist written permission to waive your
right to privilege. It is important to know that any time you waive your right to privilege all of
your therapy records can be released to the court and attorneys. You cannot control what content
is released. You cannot control the content of the psychologists testimony.
Introducing your mental status in court. If you use your mental health status in court or introduce
it during a legal proceeding, you automatically waive your right to privilege.
Lawsuits. If you decide to pursue legal action against your psychologist or the psychologist seeks
legal remedies to obtain payment for services provided for which you refused to pay, your do not
have the right to privilege.
Judges ordered psychologists are required to release client records or testify in court if a judge
orders this. This does NOT include subpoenas from attorneys.
Because this is a group format the psychologist cannot anticipate other group members responses
or the particular effects of other group members on specific individuals or fully guarantee that
each group member will maintain the confidentiality of all group members.
The psychologist reserves the right to consult with other psychologists or specific professionals
explicitly identified to group members at the beginning of entry into the group, as appropriate, to
provide continuity of care and a professional group experience.

If there are any questions or concerns about the limits of confidentiality please talk with the psychologist.
_____________________________________________
Signature

__________________
Date

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Appendix A.2
Ministerial Leadership Competencies

Providing a Vision
Establishing Relationships with Individuals from Diverse Backgrounds
Fostering a Collaborative Environment
Ability to Think and Act Strategically
Demonstrating Courage and Taking Appropriate Risks
Engaging and Inspiring Others
Growing and Renewing Personal Spirituality
Communicating Effectively
Acting with Flexibility
Acting with a High Level of Integrity
Worship and Preaching Skills
Building and Managing Church Talent and Gifts among Staff and
Parishioners

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Appendix B.1
Complete the GAPS Grid
Your development is a journey that will take you from where you are now to where you want to
be. By completing the GAPS grid, you can begin to map out your path. You will develop a clear
picture of what is most important to you and to others, and youll be able to pinpoint where
additional skill development can give you the greatest benefit.
The GAPS grid helps you focus your energy on development objectives that will make a
significant difference for both you and your organization. The left column shows where you
stand now, and the right column includes those things that matter most to you and to your
organization. The top row contains your own thoughts and perspectives, while the bottom row
reflects others viewpoints.
Review the questions in the GAPS grid below. For guidance on completing one of your own,
look at the GAPS questions, and sources of GAPS information.

Your View

Others View

Where you are

Where you are going

Abilities
(How you see yourself)

Goals & Values

(What matters to you)

What is your view of your own

capabilities, style, and
performance, especially in
relation to important goals and
success factors?

What motivates and energizes you?

What important interests, values,
desires, work objectives, and career
aspirations drive your behavior?

Perceptions
(How others see you)

Success Factors
(What matters to others)

How do others perceive you,

including your capabilities, style,
performance, motives, priorities,
and values?

What do other people, such as your

boss, senior managers, peers, and
direct reports expect or desire from
you? Consider your formal and
informal roles and responsibilities
as well as cultural norms and
values.

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

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Appendix B.2
GAPS Questions
Answer the following questions as you complete your GAPS Grid. It is often helpful to meet
with others to talk about these questions.
Where you are
Abilities

Your view

Where have you been the most

successful? What skills have
contributed to your success?
Where have you been the least
successful? What additional skills
would have been helpful for you?
Based on performance appraisals
and your own perceptions of your
track record, what do you see as
your abilities?
In what areas do you turn to
others for assistance?
In what areas are you the most
likely to offer expertise to others?

Where you are going

Goals & Values

Perceptions

Others
view

Based on feedback from others,

how do you think other people
see you?
What do others say about your
strengths and development needs?
What is your reputation with
different groups and at different
levels of the organization?
What feedback have you received
that you disagree with?

What are your most important

goals, values, and interests?
What do you want to do that
you are not doing now?
Whats the most important to
you? What do you care about
most in your work and your
life?
In what ways do you want to
contribute at work? What do
you hope to accomplish?
What gives you the greatest
sense of satisfaction and
reward?
Success Factors

What are the expectations and

criteria for success in your
current position?
What expectations are placed on
you because of the companys
culture?
Who is most valued and
respected in the organization?
Why?
What do your supervisors and
senior management value most
from you?
What capabilities are in greatest
demand at the organization right
now? Which ones will be most
important in the future?

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

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Appendix B.3
Sources of GAPS Information
The following sources can help you find the information you need to answer the GAPS
questions.

Your view

Where you are

Where you are going

Abilities

Goals and Values

Self-assessment
Track record
Professional assessment

Perceptions
Others
view

Direct feedback from

others
360-degree feedback
Customer feedback
Performance reviews

Development planning
Career development discussions
Personal goal setting
Values clarification

Success Factors

Roles and responsibilities

Roles models and people that others
look up to
Function/role descriptions
Competency models
Organizational vision and values
Organizational strategies and goals
Core competencies
Competitive challenges and market
demands.

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

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Appendix B.4
Your GAPS Grid
Where you are

Where you are going

Abilities

Goals and Values

Perceptions

Success Factors

Your View

Others
View

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

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Appendix C.1
Understand the Development FIRST Strategies
The development FIRST strategies outline five essential elements necessary for learning and
using new skills.
Focus on priorities: identify your critical issues and development objectives.
Focusing on one or two relevant objectives helps you find the energy and resources to
make development really happen.
You can make the most of the talents you already have by leveraging your strengths.
When you analyze your GAPS, you can choose development objectives that will benefit
both you and your organization.
Implement something every day: stretch your comfort zone daily.
Development objectives and tactics need to be translated into daily action to make change
a reality.
Spending just five minutes every day working on your development can produce
noticeable benefits.
Reflect on what happens: extract maximum learning from your experiences.
You can learn from your successes, mistakes, and emotions.
Change is more likely to happen when you pause to consolidate and assimilate learning
experiences.
Seek feedback and support: learn from others ideas and perspectives.
Youll receive relevant information about your progress so you can measure how you are
doing against your development objectives.
With the support of coaches and other resources, you will find it easier to sustain
motivation and stay on course.
Transfer learning to the next level: adapt and plan for continued learning.
Periodically, you need to step from your learning plan and take stock of your overall
progress. You may need to revise your plan or apply new learning in different situations.
Youll embark on a continuous circle of learning, enabling you to keep your skills sharp.

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

123

Appendix C.2
Complete Your Learning Plan
Now that you have identified development objectives, you are ready to complete your learning
plan.

1. FOCUS on priorities
This section has two parts:
Development objective: The skill or behaviors you will develop.
Criteria for success: What success on your objectives will look like to you and others. In
other words, how you will know that youve accomplished your objective.
Development objectives should describe a change in behavior, not a business goals. Objectives should
be specific, measureable, and realistic.

2. IMPLEMENT something every day

This section of the learning plan has three parts: on-the-job action steps, action triggers, and gaining
knowledge and skills.
On the job action steps: Daily opportunities to practice and build your skills. These are typically onthe-job, real-world activities.
Plan on-the-job activities that will help you practice a specific skill. Identify actions that will push
you out of your comfort zone and that you can do often. Since most learning happens in the context of
ongoing practice, emphasize real-world experiences.
Plan your development activities and time according to these proportions: Books 10%, Seminars
20%, and On-the-job 70%.
Tips for writing action steps:
Identify when and where you will try the new skill.
Include an action step to observe someone who effectively uses the new skill, and identify
specific things he or she does that might work for you.
Choose action steps that will challenge you but that are attainable.
Set realistic target completion dates.
Ask yourself: What can I do to fine-tune my skills? What different situations or people will
help me stretch myself? How do I ensure that I follow through with my actions steps?
Action Triggers: Situations or events that prompt you to practice your new skills. You will complete
the statement Every time I see the following situation(s)
Set action triggers that will prompt you to act. Identify common situations in which you can practice
the skill, and plan what you will do when you encounter those situations.
Gaining knowledge and skills: Methods to gain a foundation of knowledge and skills.

124
Note the resources you will need to learn new knowledge or a new skill. For example, books and role
models can help you acquire new skills that you can practice on the job.

3. REFLECT on what happens

Reflection is the process of reviewing and learning from your development experiences. As you
complete your learning plan, ask yourself how will think about:
What worked
What didnt work
What you want to continue doing next time
What you want to do differently next time
Document how you will remember to reflect, when you will do it, and how you will record your
thoughts. If necessary, plan a trigger, such as a weekly meeting with your coach, to ensure that you
reflect on your learning.

4. SEEK feedback and support

This section has two parts:
Feedback and information: How and from whom will you gather feedback about your
progress.
Support, resources, and opportunities: How will you get support and development resources
from your coach and others.
Plan how you will get the feedback and support you need. Specify:
Whom you will ask for feedback
How often you will ask for feedback
Which events will give you opportunities for feedback
What kinds of support will you need (e.g., time, training, mentoring)

5. TRANSFER learning to the next level

Plan when and how you will review and modify your learning plan. Circumstances change and so do
you; your learning plan needs to be flexible to reflect these changes. Schedule times to review your
progress and to make changes to your learning plan. Consider how you will take stock of your
progress and apply your new skills to other learning opportunities.
Take the time to consider how you can practice your skills and improve your abilities. As you fill out
your learning plan, consider how you will:

Celebrate accomplishments
Continually apply what youve learned
Move on to new challenges

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

125

Appendix C.3
Your Learning Plan
Name: _____________________________

Date:______________

1. FOCUS on priorities
What is my development priority? What do I want to work on? What skill of behavior do I want to develop or
leverage?

Criteria for success: A brief description of the skill above when performed adequately.

2. IMPLEMENT something everyday

Action steps to take to practice my skills

Who to involve

Due Date

Every time I see the following situation(s)

I will take the following development

action:

What situations, people, or events signal that now is the time to put
new behaviors into action

What new behavior will I try? Where will I push

my comfort zone?

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

126

How will I gain the additional knowledge and skills I need?

Due Date

3. REFLECT on what happens

Daily reflection: What do I do
each day to consider:
What worked?
What didnt work?
What do I want to do differently
next time?

4. SEEK feedback and support

Feedback and information

How will I track my progress

and get input from others?
Who will I ask for feedback?
When?

Support, resources, and opportunities

What else do I need to support my learning (e.g. mentors, advocates, contacts, further readings,
further training, additional time, etc.,)?

Due Date

5. TRANSFER learning to the next level

Periodic review

How will I take stock at major

milestones to evaluate my
progress toward my goals and
organizational priorities?
When and how will I evaluate
what I need to work on next?

From: Development FIRST Workbook: Creating your own learning plan (Personnel Decisions
International, 2001)

127

Appendix D.1
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session

SESSION ONE

Focus: Reviewing the purpose and goals of the group. Briefly review each ministerial
leadership competency.

Objectives:
o Review Confidentiality Agreement & any concerns
o Identify & understand individual goals for the group
o Clarify group expectations through interactive discussion
o Discuss hopes for the group
o Facilitate rapport building & relationship development among group members

128

Appendix D.2
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session

SESSIONS TWO & THREE

Focus: Assessment results review. Interpretation of results. Preparing group members for
GAPS Grid development.

Objectives:
o Facilitate understanding of individual assessment results.
o Allow adequate time for each group member to process results and discuss
concerns with group.
o Begin discussions about strengths for ministry and individual opportunities for
growth.
o Group members may also want to process any current struggles.
o Ongoing rapport building and relationship development among group members.

129

Appendix D.3
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session

SESSION FOUR

Focus: GAPS Grid & Development FIRST

Objectives:
o Review the purpose of the GAPS Grid and Development FIRST Strategies
o Orient group members to the process for completing and using each
o Begin completing the GAPS Grid and Learning Plan with group members
o Facilitate discussions about how individual members view current abilities and
goals/values. Promote discussions between group members associated with
personal GAPS Grids and using Development FIRST Strategies.
o Assign ongoing assessment and review of individual information group members
put in their GAPS Grid and Learning Plan

130

Appendix D.4
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION FIVE

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Providing a Vision)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Providing a Vision
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in Providing a Vision
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

131

Appendix D.5
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION SIX

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Establishing

Relationships with Individuals from Diverse Backgrounds)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Establishing Relationships
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in building relationships
with individuals from diverse backgrounds
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

132

Appendix D.6
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION SEVEN

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Fostering a

Collaborative Environment)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Fostering a Collaborative Environment
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in promoting team work in
their congregations and sharing power/authority
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

133

Appendix D.7
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION EIGHT

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Ability to Think and
Act Strategically)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Thinking and Acting Strategically
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in identifying big picture
issues and aligning strategic priorities to tactical concepts that move the
congregation forward
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

134

Appendix D.8
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION NINE

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Demonstrating

Courage and Taking Appropriate Risks)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Demonstrating Courage and Taking
Appropriate Risks
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in making difficult
decisions, addressing disagreements, tackling issues associated with change, and
promoting appropriate risks to propel the congregation forward
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

135

Appendix D.9
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 10

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Engaging and

Inspiring Others)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Engaging and Inspiring Others
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in encouraging and
energizing congregational staff and parishioners. Discuss how individuals reward
and acknowledge accomplishments and celebrate large and small wins.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

136

Appendix D.10
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 11

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Growing and Renewing
Personal Spirituality)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Growing and Renewing Personal
Spirituality
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in growing their spirituality.
Discuss how members renew spirituality in an intentional way and what gets in
the way of their ongoing spiritual development.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

137

Appendix D.11
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 12

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Communicating

Effectively)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Communicating Effectively
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in fostering open
communication, working through disagreements, communicating information in a
timely manner, and communicating through writing.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

138

Appendix D.12
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 13

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Acting with Flexibility)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Acting with Flexibility
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in accommodating to
changes and demands. Discuss difficulties they encounter associated with
adapting their leadership style to fit the needs of the situation and people.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

139

Appendix D.13
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 14

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Acting with a High
Level of Integrity)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Acting with a High Level of Integrity
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in demonstrating
accountability, creating trust with staff and church members, being overly trusting
thus being vulnerable, acting without biases or hidden agendas, and
communicating in a transparent manner.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

140

Appendix D.14
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 15

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Worship and

Preaching Skills)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Worship and Preaching Skills
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in making worship
meaningful, planning the order of worship, leading worship, maintaining
creativity, and delivering sermons effectively.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

141

Appendix D.15
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 16

Focus: Performing Phase & Ministerial Leadership Competency (Building and

Managing Church Talent and Gifts Among Staff and Parishioners)

Objectives:
o Review the competency focus of the session.
o Review work on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Identify and discuss key behaviors of Building and Managing Church Talent and
Gifts Among Staff and Parishioners
o Process with group members their biggest challenges in acquiring or recruiting
talent, coaching and developing already present church talent, and addressing any
issues associated with underperforming or unprofessional behavior.
o Encourage group members to share personal experiences and integrate to broader
group perspective
o Assist group and individual group members in defining next steps

142

Appendix D.16
Group Coaching Guide Session-by-Session
SESSION 17 & 18

Focus: Evaluation & Ending Phase

Objectives:
o Review overall progress on GAPS Grid and use of Development FIRST strategies
o Examine initial assessment results with progress and individual learning
throughout group
o Explain Global Executive Leadership Inventory (as appropriate) or review results
of Global Executive Leadership Inventory (if provided)
o Provide paper with three evaluation questions for group members to anonymously
complete
Did you identify and learn your personal strengths and development
opportunities? Were you able to create a GAPS Grid that effectively
addressed growth opportunities and leveraged strengths? How was the
GAPS Grid helpful and unhelpful in your development?
Did you engage in Development FIRST strategies and create a
development plan that fostered action-oriented learning? How was this
process helpful and unhelpful
How was the group helpful or unhelpful to your growth and overall
experience?
o Complete Ending Phase processing including discussion of personal experiences,
impactful group encounters, feelings about ending, etc.
o Assist group and individual group members in defining any next steps that would
be helpful for them moving forward after the group.

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Appendix E.1
GROUP Model

Acronym

Description

What do you want to achieve

this session?
How would you like to feel
afterwards?
What would be the best use of
time?
Raise awareness of present
How have things gone in the
Reality
realities. Examine how current past week?
situation is impacting goals.
How have you handled any
problems?
What didnt work?
Identify and assess available
What possible options do you
Options
options. Encourage solution
have?
focused thinking and
What has worked for you in
brainstorming.
the past?
What havent you tried yet
that might work?
Group
observes
deeply,
What is your view on the best
Understand Others
notices their internal responses options?
to what is being said and
What did you understand in
makes meaning both of what
her view?
they hear and their internal
What was your internal
response. The group connects dialogue when you were
to the emerging best future.
listening to that?
Can you integrate the broader
group perspective?
Assist the group to determine
What is the most important
Perform
next steps. Prototype best
thing to do next?
options. Develop individual
What can be learned from this
and group action plans. Build
prototype?
motivation and accountability. What might get in the way?
Who will be able to support
you?
How will you feel when this is
done?
From: Brown & Grant (2010) From GROW to GROUP: Theoretical issues and a practical model
for group coaching in organisations.
Goal

Group is asked to clarify what

they want to achieve from
each session. Determines the
focus of coaching.

Example Questions

144

Appendix E.2
GROW Model

Acronym

Description
Coachee is asked to clarify
what they want to achieve
from each session. Determines
the focus of coaching.

Example Question

What do you want to achieve

this session?
How would you like to feel
afterwards?
What would be the best use of
this time?
Raise awareness of present
How have things gone in the
Reality
realities. Examine how current past week?
situation is impacting
How have you handled any
coachees goals.
problems?
What didnt work?
Identify
and
assess
available
What possible options do you
Options
options. Encourage solution
have?
focused thinking and
What has worked for you in
brainstorming.
the past?
What havent you tried yet
that might work?
Assist the coachee to
What is the most important
Way Forward
determine next steps. Develop thing to do next?
an action plan and build
What might get in the way?
motivation.
Who will be able to support
you?
How will you feel when this is
done?
From: Brown & Grant (2010) From GROW to GROUP: Theoretical issues and a practical model
for group coaching in organisations.
Goal