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PAPER SERIES

2001-01-2498

Simulation of Higher Voltage Vehicles to

Optimize Performance
Erik H. Gaarder and Robert C. Borregard
Visteon Corp.

Reprinted From: 42 Volt Technology and Advanced Vehicle Electrical Systems

(SP1636)

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Printed in USA

2001-01-2498

Simulation of Higher Voltage Vehicles to

Optimize Performance
Erik H. Gaarder and Robert C. Borregard
Visteon Corp.

Copyright 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT

FOCUS OF SIMULATION

This paper describes the simulation of a bi-tensional (14

Volt/42 Volt) hybrid vehicle. The focus is on gaining a
better understanding of vehicle sub-system interactions
through simulation. Sensitivity to assumptions on the
simulated performance of the vehicle is examined.
Variations in the simulation will focus on energy storage,
power generation, motoring, and load management.
Optimization of system interactions, relative to the
desired vehicle performance and function, are
considered in the conclusion.

This paper focuses on gaining an understanding of a bitensional Integrated Starter/Generator (ISG) vehicle.
This architecture is a likely new higher voltage vehicle
system to be introduced in the next decade. Vehicle
manufacturers are moving towards higher voltage
electrical systems to improve a vehicle's electrical load
carrying capacity. Higher voltage electrical systems will
assist in handling the steadily increasing vehicle
electrical demand in vehicles and enable new
technologies.

INTRODUCTION

SIMULATOR

REASONS FOR SIMULATION

The modeling tool used for these vehicle simulations is

ADVISOR. ADVISOR is an Advanced Vehicle Simulator
developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) [1]. ADVISOR contains models of various vehicle
types, such as conventional, series hybrid, and parallel
hybrid. ADVISOR has been extensively validated, and
numerous studies have been performed using this
simulator [2]. Various pre-existing control strategies are
available for electric launch assist, engine stop/start,
transmission shifting, etc. ADVISOR's Graphical User
Interface (GUI) provides easy access to model variables
and constants. Changing vehicle parameters for
parametric studies, performance assessments and tradeoff studies is expeditious. This simulation package is
1
1
based on Simulink block diagrams and Matlab script
data files, allowing one to manipulate model components
and easily extend or alter existing models.

The advent of higher voltage vehicle systems creates an

increased need for vehicle level simulation due to higher
system complexity. One simulates a vehicle system to
gain an understanding of that system's behavior. If the
model adequately describes reality, it will provide insight
into the interactions that occur within the system, and
assist in evaluating various strategies for the operation of
the system. This results in substantial cost and time
saving versus actually building alternative vehicle
configurations. It is vitally important to validate the
simulation results with real world data. This initiates a
continuous cycle of simulation, validation of results,
additional simulation, etc.

Matlab and Simulink are registered trademarks of The

MathWorks, Inc.

regenerative braking and torque boost strategies, as

compared to the base ADVISOR model.
Figure 1: ADVISOR's parallel starter/alternator vehicle model

LOAD MANAGEMENT

Figure 1 shows the top-level Simulink block diagram for a

parallel starter/alternator vehicle model.
From this
diagram one can see how requirements start at the drive
cycle and flow through the vehicle system until they
reach the fuel converter or energy storage subsystem
models. What is achievable by each subsystem model
flows back in the opposite direction until it reaches the
initial drive cycle. If the vehicle is unable to meet the
drive cycle, this is shown by the resulting achievable
flow.

The ability to dynamically control all the mechanical and

electrical loads in the vehicle system was added.
Instead of a single number for the mechanical or
electrical vehicle loads, the enhanced model can control
each load separately, and allow it to vary as a function of
other variables in the model. This allows one to more
accurately study different load management strategies
and their effects. To fully utilize this ability, one needs to
augment the current standard drive cycles to include
information such as steering events, climate conditions,
etc.

THE MODEL

SIMULATION

In order to simulate variations to energy storage, power

generation, motoring, and load management, the
standard ADVISOR models had to be enhanced.
ADVISOR was updated in the following way.

A small car (~1250kg), 1.6L, 4-cylinder engine, with a

manual transmission was chosen as the baseline
vehicle. All simulations were performed under the same
drive cycle; EPA City Cycle, with accessory loads added
to help illustrate sub-system interactions. Accessory
loads were considered under worst case operating
conditions. Ambient temperature was assumed to be 20
degrees Celsius (293 degrees Kelvin).

ENERGY STORAGE
ADVISOR was enhanced with the addition of two new
energy charge strategies. The enhanced model has the
ability to control energy storage by voltage control, with
the objective of maintaining the power bus voltage at a
certain set point. The enhanced model also has the
ability to control energy storage by State of Charge
control, with the objective of maintaining the energy
storage State of Charge (SOC) at a certain set point.
POWER GENERATION & MOTORING
The motor model within ADVISOR was enhanced to
more
accurately
simulate
an
Integrated
Starter/Generator
(ISG).
User
control
over
apportionment of required torque to the engine and
motor was added. This allows increased flexibility of

Eight simulations were performed. During all eight

simulations the primary goal was to meet the EPA City
drive cycle. A secondary goal was for the battery to be
at a State of Charge (SOC) of 100% at the end of the
drive cycle, unless otherwise stated. The resulting
performance (fuel economy) achieved for each
simulation is tabulated in the Results section of this
paper.
SIMULATION 1 (BASELINE VEHICLE)
A baseline vehicle simulation was performed to establish
reference data to compare changes to. This vehicle
simulation was performed under the following conditions:

Mechanical Accessory Loads - Pulley driven hydraulic

steering pump and pulley driven engine water pump.
(Note: Air Conditioning was not considered as a load for
the base vehicle.)
Electrical Accessory Loads - Worst case, rainy day loads
including a two speed electric engine cooling fan, all
supporting electronic modules, signal lamps, driving
lamps, headlamps, fog lamps, instrument panel lamps,
instrument cluster, heater blower motor (medium speed),
front wiper motor, rear wiper motor, fuel pump, and
supporting engine control loads.
Battery - 12 Volt, 26 Amp-hour, lead acid, initial State of
Charge (SOC) at 99%. Baseline charge strategy pursues
100% state of charge at all times.
Alternator - 14 Volt, 65A at 1800 rpm, 110A at 6000 rpm,
64% peak efficiency, pulley ratio of 2.66 to 1.

SIMULATION 4 (ISG VEHICLE WITH MECHANICAL

A/C)
Auxiliary loads can drastically affect the fuel economy of
a vehicle [4]. During our initial simulations we did not
include the air-conditioning system. Air conditioning is
one of the largest accessory loads in the vehicle, but is
not run in any of the standard fuel economy drive cycles.
In this simulation a mechanically driven air conditioning
compressor was added to the torque load of the initial
ISG vehicle. All of the air conditioning simulations were
performed under worst-case air conditioning compressor
load. For these air conditioning simulations it was
assumed that the initial interior temperature was 60
degrees Celsius (333 degrees Kelvin) and that the air
conditioner, during the drive cycle, worked to bring this
temperature down to 22 degrees Celsius (295 degrees
Kelvin) and then maintain this temperature.
SIMULATION 5 (ISG VEHICLE WITH ELECTRIC A/C)

SIMULATION 2 (INITIAL ISG VEHICLE)

To illustrate the effect of adding an ISG to the baseline
vehicle, and removing the mechanical loads (any load
which is driven from the front end accessory drive), an
initial ISG simulation was performed. This simulation
was performed under the following conditions:
Mechanical Accessory Loads - None.
Electrical Accessory Loads - Same as baseline vehicle
with the exception of added load for electric water pump
and electric power assist steering. (Note: As for the
baseline vehicle, air conditioning was not considered as
a load for the initial ISG vehicle.)
Battery - 36 Volt, 26 Amp-hour, lead acid, initial State of
Charge (SOC) at 99%. This battery is the equivalent of
three baseline vehicle batteries connected in series. The
charge strategy used is the same as for the baseline
vehicle.
Integrated Starter/Generator - 42 Volt, 60A at 700 rpm,
215A at 1200 rpm, 60A at 6000 rpm, 92% peak
efficiency, and inline crankshaft mounted.
SIMULATION 3 (ISG VEHICLE WITH STOP/START)
A main benefit touted for ISG vehicles is the ability to
provide stop/start operation. Stop/Start is a control
strategy that turns off the engine when the vehicle speed
is zero and the engine coolant has reached normal
operating temperature. When the vehicle is about to
move the engine is quickly restarted.
Stop/Start
operation provides both fuel economy and emissions
benefits, under certain drive cycle and vehicle conditions.
In this simulation the initial ISG vehicle was run with
stop/start operation enabled.

In this simulation an electrically driven air conditioning

compressor was added to the electrical load of the initial
ISG vehicle.
SIMULATION 6 (ISG VEHICLE WITH ELECTRIC A/C
AND STOP/START)
A simulation of the initial ISG vehicle with an electrically
driven air conditioning compressor added to the electrical
load along with allowing stop/start operation was
performed. During stop conditions, it was assumed that
the air conditioning continued to operate, and maintain
the interior vehicle cabin temperature.
SIMULATION 7 (ISG VEHICLE WITH TORQUE
BOOST)
A simulation of the initial ISG vehicle was performed with
a modified vehicle control strategy so that 10% of
required driveline torque was provided by the ISG during
engine accelerations between 600 rpm and 1500 rpm.
This strategy reduces the demand upon the engine to
meet the required drive cycle by utilizing the ISG to
provide torque boost.
SIMULATION 8 (ISG VEHICLE WITH REGENERATIVE
BRAKING)
A simulation of the initial ISG vehicle was performed with
a vehicle control strategy to provide regenerative braking
during all vehicle decelerations. A battery state of charge
control strategy was used, with SOC targeted at 0.98,
and bus voltage limited to 48V. The targeted SOC was
set at 0.98 to allow room for accepting energy from
regenerative braking and not degrade the life of the
battery.

RESULTS
Fuel economy results for the simulations are tabulated
below.
Simulation

(1) Baseline
vehicle

Fuel Economy

% Change from
Baseline vehicle

30.0 mpg
(7.8 L/100 km)

(2) Initial ISG

vehicle

31.4 mpg
4.7%
(7.5 L/100 km)

(3) ISG vehicle

with Stop/Start

32.7 mpg
9.0%
(7.2 L/100 km)

(4) ISG vehicle

with mechanical
A/C
(5) ISG vehicle
with electric
A/C
(6) ISG vehicle
with electric
A/C and
stop/start
(7) ISG vehicle
with torque
boost
(8) ISG vehicle
with
regenerative
braking

26.0 mpg

-13.3%

(9.1 L/100 km)

22.0 mpg
-26.6%
(10.7 L/100 km)
23.6 mpg

-21.3%
(10.0 L/100 km)
31.1 mpg
3.7%
(7.6 L/100 km)
32.6 mpg
8.7%
(7.2 L/100 km)

loads have on this hybrid vehicle. Numerous studies

have been done on the effects of auxiliary loads on
hybrid vehicles [3]. This paper shows the sensitivity
associated with load management.
In Simulation #2, the main contributor to the fuel
economy gain was the conversion of two mechanical
parasitic loads to electrical loads. Smaller average
accessory torque loads due to changing the engine
coolant water pump and steering assist from
mechanically driven to electrically driven have a positive
1.2-mpg (0.30 L/100 km) effect on fuel economy. The
other two main factors that affected the performance of
the vehicle in simulation #2 were increases in mass and
generator efficiency. The increase in mass (bigger
battery, ISG, and inverter) had a negative 0.4-mpg (0.09
L/100 km) effect on fuel economy performance. The
increased generator efficiency of the ISG compared to
the alternator had a positive effect on fuel economy. Due
to potential sub-system interactions, this value was not
calculated.
Simulations 4, 5, and 6 show air conditioning's negative
impact on vehicle fuel economy.
A change from
mechanically driven to electrically driven accessories,
with no change to duty cycle or component efficiency,
has a negative effect on fuel economy. This is due to an
increased loss associated with additional power
conversions in the ISG and electric motor.
An ISG running at a higher voltage can support more
electrical loads than the traditional alternator. This ability
allows one to take mechanical loads, such as the
steering pump, and convert them to electrical loads,
which only load the vehicle when needed. The resulting
fuel economy gain more than offsets the loss in power
transmission efficiency due to changing from a 98%
efficient belt to an electric drive. As seen in Simulation
#5, one should not arbitrarily switch a mechanical load to
an electrical load. In this simulation the switch from
mechanical A/C to electrical A/C was detrimental.
STOP/START OPERATION

DISCUSSION
By examining in detail the results achieved from the
previous simulations, one can highlight some of the
vehicle's fuel economy sensitivities. In this paper the
focus is on the direction and cause of the change to the
results, as opposed to the specific fuel economy number
itself.
LOAD MANAGEMENT
Simulations 2, 4, 5, and 6 show the large effect that
2

In this simulation the vehicle was not able to maintain

100% SOC. Battery was discharged to 85% SOC.

The ISG also facilitates stop/start operation. Simulation

# 3 shows that there is a fuel economy gain from
stop/start operation. The main factor, which contributes
to this change, is the difference between engine frictional
loss and battery charge/discharge loss [4]. While the car
is idling (no stop/start) there is an engine frictional loss
and during stop/start operation the battery undergoes
more charging and discharging cycles.
It is important to note that the magnitude of the change in
fuel economy, due to stop/start operation, is drastically
affected by the drive cycle chosen due to its dependence
on the number and length of vehicle stops.
As
mentioned above, the benefit from stop/start operation
can be negated by other system interactions, such as
loads, which are on during stop conditions.

MOTORING
An ISG can provide torque boost. In simulation # 7,
motoring by the ISG had a negative impact on fuel
economy, as compared to the initial ISG vehicle. This
was due to discharging the battery during torque boost
operations, recharging the battery between boosts, and
increasing ISG electrical generation. These all have a
negative effect on fuel economy as each incurs energy
losses. This negative effect outweighs the lower fuel
consumption during boosting operations. It is more
efficient to propel the vehicle directly with the engine than
indirectly via the ISG and battery.

losses exceed the battery losses incurred during vehicle

stops and subsequent recharging. If one is considering
regenerative braking then the limitations imposed by the
battery need to be taken into account.
Torque boost, or motoring with the ISG has a negative
effect on fuel economy. Opportunities for further study
would be to downsize the engine and utilize torque boost
to meet the drive cycle requirements. A vehicle using a
downsized engine and employing torque boost to meet
drive cycle requirements would theoretically have a fuel
economy benefit.

ENERGY STORAGE AND POWER GENERATION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The limitations imposed by the vehicle's energy storage
and power generation devices play a role in fuel
economy benefits. Simulation #6 shows how the ISG
was unable to support the additional loads. With an
electric A/C the vehicle was unable to recover from stop
situations and the battery was depleted to 85% SOC.
With the power generator and energy storage device
chosen in this simulation one cannot combine electric
A/C and stop/start operation over this drive cycle and
chosen strategies and expect satisfactory vehicle
performance.
Simulation #8 shows the fuel economy gain due to
regenerative braking. This positive change is attributed
to the energy recovered from vehicle deceleration, which
would otherwise be lost during a braking operation. The
gain, due to regenerative braking, was limited to the
ability of the battery to receive charge. A higher charge
acceptance battery would be able to recoup more of the
vehicle's deceleration energy and result in better fuel
economy.

CONCLUSION
A systems viewpoint of the vehicle is necessary when
optimizing for vehicle performance. Not only should the
conflicting objectives of each sub-system be analyzed,
but also the synergies to be gained should be exploited.

The authors would like to thank Arthur J. Gajewski, Roy

D. Schultz, and Shawn H. Swales for their assistance
with this paper.

REFERENCES
1.

Wipke K.B., Cuddy M.R., Burch S.D., ADVISOR 2.1:

A User-Friendly Advanced Powertrain Simulation
Using A Combined Backward/Forward Approach,
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology: Special
Issue on Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Nov. 1999.

2.

Ogburn M.J., Nelson D.J., Wipke K.B., Markel T.,

Modeling and Validation of a Fuel Cell Hybrid
Vehicle, FutureCar Congress 2000, Washington
D.C., SAE Paper # 2000-01-1566.

3.

www.ott.doe.gov/coolcar/

4.

Schmidt M., Isermann R., Lenzen B., Hohenberg G.,

Potential of Regenerative Braking Using an
Integrated Starter Alternator, SAE 2000 World
Congress, Detroit, MI, SAE Paper # 2000-01-1020.

DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS

This paper has shown that for an ISG vehicle one should
pay particular attention to load management, motoring,
energy storage, and stop/start strategies and their
interactions.
Accessory loads should be minimized by reducing
parasitic accessory loads whenever possible. Electrically
driven air conditioning compressors should be avoided or
the engine should be left running with a mechanically
driven compressor during vehicle stops.
Energy storage capabilities and strategies play a crucial
role in enabling new higher voltage technologies.
Stop/Start operation should be used if engine frictional

A/C Air Conditioning

ADVISOR Advanced Vehicle Simulator, developed by
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
Bi-tensional Dual voltages (14 Volt/ 42 Volt)
ISG Integrated Starter Generator, combines the
function of a generator (alternator) with that of a starter
motor
SOC State of Charge