Nationalism and Reform

What political ideas shaped Europe during the 1800s and early 1900s?
Nationalism means the desire of people with the same history, language, and customs for self-rule. During the
1800s, nationalism, along with demands for political reform, led to dramatic and far-reaching changes in Europe and
the Americas.
While inventors and innovators were changing the industrial world, nationalism grew stronger. Nationalism is the
cultural identity of a people. It is the pride in ones own country that is based on shared customs and a common
history. Nationalism went hand-in-hand with the independence movements of the late 1700s. The American and
French revolutions inspired loyalty in the people toward a nation rather than a ruler.
The spirit of nationalism, as captured in documents like the Declaration of Independence, impressed people with its
power to reshape governments. Nationalism encouraged the colonies in Latin America and elsewhere to build their
own nations.
In Europe, nationalism sparked unification movements movements that pulled people together into nations. Before
the spread of nationalism, there was no Italy and no Germany. It took nationalism to create them.

Napoleon and the Rise of Nationalism

The armies of Napoleon spread nationalism throughout Europe. In his quest to build an empire, Napoleon took control
of most of the continent. Within his empire, Napoleon introduced ideals from the French Revolution. They included the
principles of (1) legal equality for citizens, (2) tolerance for people to practice their own religions, and (3) economic
freedom and the right to earn a living.
The spread of revolutionary ideals helped undo Napoleons plans for his Grand Empire. People under Napoleons
control resented paying taxes to France. They also disliked sending soldiers to serve in Napoleons army. They felt
more loyalty toward their nations or states than to the French Empire. They longed for self-rule, just as the American
colonists had longed for it.
Napoleons dreams of empire collapsed with his capture by British forces in 1815. However, he left behind an
important legacy: a widespread nationalism among the peoples of Europe.

New Nations in Europe

Why did new nations arise in Europe during the mid-1800s?

In the early 1800s, Germany and Italy as we know them today did not exist. They were made up of many territories.
After 1850, their peoples began to form united countries.

How Did Italy Unite?

In 1848, Austria controlled most of Italy's small territories. In the north, the kingdom of Piedmont was independent.
Piedmont's rulers were King Victor Emmanuel and the prime minister, Camillo di Cavour (kah MEEL loh dee kuh
VUR). Both leaders wanted to unite all of Italy into one nation.

In 1854, Piedmont sided with Britain and France in a war with Russia. In return for Piedmont's support, France helped
Piedmont drive Austria out of Italy in 1859. Piedmont's victory was the first step toward uniting Italy. Soon, other parts
of northern Italy overthrew their rulers and united with Piedmont.
Cavours success led revolutionaries in Parma, Modena, and Tuscany to overthrow their governments. They, too,
joined with Piedmont. They shared a common goalchanging Italy from a collection of states into one nation united
under one government.
At the same time, nationalist leader Giuseppe Garibaldi (joo ZEHP pay gar uh BAWL dee) led uprisings in
southern Italy. In 1860, his forces gained control of the island of Sicily. Garibaldi was skilled in guerrilla warfare (guh
RIH luh WAWR fehr), a type of fighting in which soldiers make surprise attacks on the enemy. Garibaldi's army
won Italy's mainland. People in the south then voted to join a united Italy.
In 1861, Italy became a constitutional monarchy. Two areas remained outside the new kingdom. One was Rome, and
the other was Venice. By 1870, wars had brought both areas into Italy.

Unification of Germany
German unity was a change that seemed like a distant dream in 1815, the year Napoleons empire collapsed. Nearly
40 German states stretched north and south from the Baltic Sea to the Alps, and east and west from the Rhine River
to the Russian Empire.
In the mid-1800s, nationalistspeople who supported the building of a powerful German nationlooked to Prussia
for help. Prussia was known for its militarism, or reliance on military strength.
Prussian King Wilhelm I made no secret of his desire to build a strong, united Germany. In 1868, he appointed Otto
von Bismarck as his prime minister. Together they strengthened the Prussian army.
Bismarck, a deeply conservative Junker (Yunkuhr), or wealthy landowner, promised to follow a policy of blood and
iron rather than speeches and votes. He used the military to defeat neighboring Denmark and Austria in two short
wars. These successes helped him unite the northern German states. A successful war against Francethe FrancoPrussian War of 18701871 convinced the southern German states join a unified Germany.

In 1871, Wilhelm I took the title of kaiser, or emperor, of a new German empire. Bismarck in turn became
the chancellor, or chief minister, of Germany. With its industrial resources and military might, Germany became the
strongest nation on the European continent.

Independence in Latin America

How did the countries of Latin America win independence?
During the 1700s, Spain and Portugal did not face serious challenges to their rule in Latin America.
For 300 years, each held colonies in the Americas without any serious threat to their rule. In the 1800s,
however, the situation changed. Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, Latin Americans
formed their own movements for freedom.

A Strict Social Order

Spain and Portugal imposed a strict social order on their American colonies. Nearly all power belonged
to the peninsulares, colonial leaders born in Spain or Portugal. They stood at the top of government
and society. Next came the creoles, descendants of Portuguese or Spanish settlers born in the
colonies. Peninsulares looked down on the creoles, and the creoles resented it deeply.
The biggest group in most colonies was the mestizos, people of mixed Spanish and Native American
ancestry. They worked as servants, laborers, or the overseers of plantations. They had few, if any,
rights.
The lowest rungs in society were held by Native Americans, mulattospeople of mixed African and
European descent, and enslaved Africans. Their numbers varied from colony to colony.
All groups below the peninsulares resented Spanish and Portuguese rule, but they had little power to
challenge the home countries. Napoleons wars for empire, however, weakened these nations, which
had fought costly battles. Latin Americans saw a chance to win their independence.

Model for Revolution

The model for revolution took place in Santo Domingo, or Haiti. It lay on the island of Hispaniola in the
Caribbean Sea. Here enslaved workers produced a wealth in sugar and coffee. The colony belonged to
France, rather than Spain or Portugal. With France tied up in revolution and war, however, Haiti was ripe
for rebellion. More than 500,000 of the 560,000 people who lived in Haiti in the late 1700s were
enslaved or had been at one time.
In the 1790s, enslaved Africans under the leadership of Toussaint-Louverture rebelled against French
rule. Even though French forces seized Louverture, who died in a French prison, they could not crush
the revolt. In 1804, Haiti announced its freedom, becoming the first colony south of the United States to
win its independence. Haiti successfully changed its government from French rule to self rule.

Mexican Challenge
In Mexico, two Catholic priests, Miguel Hidalgo and Jos Mara Morelos, led mestizos and Native
Americans in a revolution against Spain. The 1810 revolt threatened the power of peninsulares and
creoles. Government forces captured and executed both leadersHidalgo in 1811 and Morelos, who

took over for Hidalgo, in 1813.

More than 10 years later, in 1821, the creoles announced independence from Spain. After a brief power
struggle, Mexico declared itself a republic in 1823. That same year, the Central American countries of
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also announced their independence
from Spanish rule.

South American Independence

Jos de San Martn of Argentina freed Argentina from Spanish rule in 1810. He then marched into
Chile. Meanwhile, Simn Bolvar was leading revolts in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. In Peru,
San Martn and Bolvar joined forces to crush the Spanish army.
By the end of 1824, nearly all of South America had successfully revolted and won independence.
These nations included Brazil, which declared its independence from Portugal in 1822 in a bloodless
revolution. (Recall that sometimes revolutions cause a large loss of life, such as in France.)

LESSON 3

Nationalism and Nation-States

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do governments change?

Challenges to Freedom

The new nations hoped to change their governments by building democracies, but they faced many
obstacles. Wide social divisions existed between the rich and poor. Most people still did not own land.
Power rested in the hands of a small group of landowners who now ran the government, controlled the
courts, and trapped peasants in a system of cheap labor. This change from foreign rule by Spain to rule
by an oligarchyrule by a fewmade many people unhappy. They wanted democracy.
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In many places, a series of strong leaders made it hard for democracy and prosperity to grow. They
were called caudillos dictators who ruled by military force. Some caudillos tried to modernize and
build. Most caudillos bowed to the upper class and did little to help the poor.
Finally, the United States and Europe underwent another kind of revolutiona change in industry and
manufacturing. Nations needed new markets. They looked to Latin America. Industrial powers,
including the United States, tried to dominate the new nations economically. Revolutions and the
struggle for freedom thus continued into the 1900s and beyond.