AME 352

VECTORS

2. VECTORS
Vector algebra forms the mathematical foundation for kinematics and dynamics. Geometry of
motion is at the heart of both the kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems. Vector
analysis is the time-honored tool for describing geometry. A Vector can be described either
geometrically or algebraically.
Vectors
Geometric presentation
Vectors are denoted by bold-face characters such as

R
R, V, etc. The magnitude of a vector, such as R, is
V
denoted as:

| R | , R , or R
The angle of a vector is denoted as which is measured

positively counter-clockwise (CCW) with respect to a

well-defined axis. It is common to consider the positive
x-axis as the reference axis.
In kinematics and dynamics a vector may represent
F
A
position, velocity, acceleration, or force/moment.
Note: Since we cannot write by hand in
boldface, we denote a vector with an over-score arrow or
an under-score line, for example R or R.
Algebraic presentation
A vector can be projected onto the x- and y-axes of a
y
Cartesian frame in order to form its analytical
representation.
Ry
R
cos

Rx R cos

R= =
= R

R
R
sin

sin

This representation remains valid regardless of whether

the angle is in the first, second, third, or fourth quadrant,
as long as the angle is measured CCW with respect to
the positive x-axis.
Rotated Vector
If a vector such as R is rotated 90
CCW, it will be


denoted as R . The rotated vector will have the same
magnitude as R but its x-y components will be
different:

R cos( + 2 ) R sin
sin Ry
R=
=
= R
=

cos Rx
R sin( + 2 ) R cos

Rx

y
Ry


Ry

R

x


Rx

P.E. Nikravesh

Rx

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AME 352

Position vectors
In general a position vector describes the position of one
point with respect to another point. Either of these points
could be moving or stationary. When a point moves, the
orientation and/or the magnitude of its position vector change
as well. Examples: R BA connects two points that are defined

VECTORS

RBA

CO
on two separate moving links; R CO connects point O on the
O
ground (stationary) to point C on a moving link.
Note: A point depicted as a small black circle in a figure is assumed stationary (defined on the
ground).

Index of A Vector
In kinematic analysis of mechanisms, it is helpful to assign indices to position vectors. Most
commonly, an index refers to the end points of the vector. The first letter in an index indicates the
head of the vector (the arrow) and the second letter refers to the tail
B
of the vector. For example vectors R BC , which reads position of B
R
BC

relative to C, and R CO that reads position of C relative to O.

In some problems, for notational simplification, the index may
carry a single number. For example vector R 3 in the diagram is the

R CO

same as vector R BC .
Linear Velocity and Acceleration
The time derivative of a position vector represents the
velocity of the point the position vector represents. For
example:
d

V (velocity of B relative to A)
R =R
BA
BA
dt BA
d

V (velocity of C relative to O)
R =R
CO
CO
dt CO
This velocity is also called linear velocity.

R3

Q
B
A

RCQ

RBA

R CO
O

Note: Linear velocity is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector).
When the reference (the tail) point of a position vector is stationary, that points index could
be dropped from the index of the velocity vector. For example:
d
(a)
R = VCO = VC
dt CO
If we consider another stationary point such as Q, we get
d
(b)
R = VCQ = VC
dt CQ
This means that the velocity of a point with respect to the ground is independent of the defined
reference point on the ground. This vector represents the velocity of C relative to the ground or
the absolute velocity of C.
The second time derivative of a position vector, or the time derivative of a velocity vector,
denotes the acceleration of the point the position vector represents. For example, acceleration of
B relative to A is denoted as
d2


d V = V

A
R BA = R
BA
BA
BA
2
dt BA
dt
P.E. Nikravesh

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VECTORS

The absolute acceleration of C (acceleration of C with respect to the ground) is denoted as

d2


d V = V

A
R CO = R
CO
C
C
2
dt C
dt
Note: Linear acceleration is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector).
Angular Velocity and Acceleration
The time rate of change in the orientation of a vector, or a link, is
defined as the angular velocity of that vector or link. In planar systems,
the angular velocity is the time rate of rotation about the z-axis and it is
denoted as
d
=

dt
We consider a counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a
clockwise (CW) rotation as negative.
Note: Angular velocity is defined for a vector or a link, not for a point.
Note: Vectors that are defined on the same body experience the same
angular velocity. For example, R BA , R BC , and R CA have the
A
same angular velocity since they are defined between the points
of the same body.

R BA

RCA

R BC
C

The time rate of change of the angular velocity of a vector, or a link, is defined as the angular
acceleration of that vector or link. In planar systems, the angular acceleration is a vector along
the z-axis and it is denoted as
d
d2
=

=

2
dt
dt
We consider a counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a clockwise (CW) rotation as
negative.
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors in Mechanisms
Position vectors must be constructed between well-defined points of a mechanism. The
magnitude and the angle of a position vector must reveal certain information about the position
and orientation of a link with respect to another link or with respect to the ground. Depending on
the type of a position vector, the corresponding velocity and acceleration vectors may be
decomposed differently.
The following examples show typical position vectors, and their corresponding velocity and
acceleration vectors that appear in kinematic analysis of mechanisms.
Constant Magnitude, Constant Angle
The position vector is defined between two non-moving points.
Q
cos
R QO = LQO
R QO
, VQO = 0 , A QO = 0
sin
O

where LQO is the constant magnitude and is the constant angle of

the vector. Zero vectors for the velocity and acceleration should be
obvious since both ends of the position vector are fixed to the
ground.
Variable Magnitude, Constant Angle
Two links form a sliding joint. One of the links (the rod)
is fixed to the ground and the other (the block) slides on the
rod. The position vector is defined between a point on the
ground and a point on the block parallel to the sliding axis.
This vector does not rotate since neither link can rotate.
P.E. Nikravesh

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VECTORS

cos
R BO = RBO

sin
cos
cos
s
s


BO
VBO = R
BO
VBO , A BO = R
A BO
sin

sin









Vs

As

As
B

R BO
O

Vs

(It is assumed that the slip

components are positive.)
The velocity and acceleration vectors are along the axis of R BO they are called slip velocity and
slip acceleration.
Constant Magnitude, Variable Angle
The position vector is defined between two points on a
B
At
link. The link is free rotate.
An
cos
R BA
R BA = LBA

sin
Vt
A

where LBA is the constant length of the vector.

sin
t
VBA = LBA
VBA
cos





(It is assumed that the angular

velocity and acceleration are
positive.)

Vt = R

This vector is perpendicular to R BA it is called tangential velocity.

cos
sin
n
t
A BA = 2 LBA
+ LBA
A BA + A BA
sin

cos




 


An = 2R

At = R

The acceleration vector contains two components: one in the opposite direction of R BA called
normal, and one perpendicular to R BA called tangential acceleration.
Variable Magnitude, Variable Angle
Ac
A block and a rod form a sliding joint. Both the rod and
the block rotate together; i.e., the two links have the same
As
angular velocity and the same angular acceleration.
An
cos
At
R BA = RBA

B
sin

Vt
R BA
sin
cos
t
s
VBA = RBA
+ RBA
VBA + VBA
A

cos
sin

Vs








Vs

Vt = R

The velocity vector can be decomposed into two

components: a tangential velocity perpendicular to R BA ,
and a slip velocity along the axis of R BA .

(It is assumed that the slip

components, and angular velocity
and acceleration are positive.)

cos
sin

cos
sin
A BA = 2 RBA
+ RBA
+ RBA
+ 2 R
BA

cos
sin

sin

cos


 












An = 2R

At = R

As

Ac =2 V s

A +A +A +A
The acceleration vector is decomposed into four components: a normal component in the
n
BA

P.E. Nikravesh

t
BA

s
BA

c
BA

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VECTORS

opposite direction of R BA , a tangential component perpendicular to R BA , a slip component along

the axis of R BA , and a Coriolis component perpendicular to R BA .
Coordinates, velocity, and acceleration of A Point
Another type of position vector describes the
B
y
coordinates of a point with respect to the origin of a
Cartesian reference frame. For example, R CO describes the
coordinates of point C with respect to the origin O. When
the reference point is the origin, for notational
C
simplification, it may be dropped from the index; e.g., we
RCO
x
may say R C instead of R CO .
O
One common step in kinematic analysis is to determine the velocity and acceleration of a
point based on some other known velocities and accelerations. For this purpose we start with a
position vector equation and then take its time derivatives. Here we consider two typical
examples.
In the first example, two points are defined on the same
B
y
VC
link. The velocity of point C is given and we want to
AC
R BC
determine the velocity of point B. We start from the
following position vector equation:
C
R BO
(a)
R BO = R CO + R BC
RCO
The time derivative of this equation yields
x
O
VBO = VCO + VBC
(b)


t
A nBC
VB = VC + VBC
= VC + R BC
t
VBC
Assuming a known CCW angular velocity, the vector
AC
VC
summation in (b) can be constructed graphically as shown.
AtBC
Acceleration of B is obtained from the time derivative of
VB
(b):
AB
n
t
A B = A C + A BC = A C + A BC + A BC
(c)


= A C 2 R BC + R BC
Assuming known acceleration of C and known CCW angular velocity and acceleration of the link,
the acceleration expression in (c) can be constructed graphically as shown.
Equations (a), (b) and (c) can also be evaluated algebraically as:
x B xC
cos
R B = = + LBC
(d)

yB yC
sin

x
B x
C
sin
VB = = + LBC
(e)

y
B y
C
cos
xC
x B





cos
sin
A B = = 2 LBC
+ LBC
(f)
yB


yC



sin
cos
In the second example, two points are defined on two
links of a sliding joint. The velocity and acceleration of point
C are given and we want to determine the velocity and
acceleration of point B.
We start with the position vector equation that is identical
to (a). The corresponding velocity equation:


t
s
s
(g)
VB = VC + VBC
+ VBC
= VC + R BC + VBC
If the angular velocity (both links have the same angular

P.E. Nikravesh

VC

R BC
C

AC

R BO
RCO

x
O

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VECTORS

velocity) and the slip velocity are given, then VB can be

constructed graphically as shown.
The acceleration expression is written as
A B = A C + A BC = A C + A nBC + A tBC + A sBC + A cBC



s (h)
= A C 2 R BC + R BC + A sBC + 2 VBC
Assuming that the acceleration of C, the angular velocity and
acceleration of the link, and the slip velocity and accelerations
are given, then the acceleration expression in (h) can be
constructed graphically as shown.
Equations (a), (g) and (h) can also be solved algebraically:
x B xC
cos
R B = = + RBC
(i)

yB yC
sin

s
VBC

t
VBC

VC
VB
AB

A cBC
A sBC

AC
AtBC

A nBC

x
B x
C
sin
cos
VB = = + RBC
(j)
+ RBC

y
B y
C
cos
sin
xC
x B





cos
sin

cos
sin
A B = = 2 RBC
+ RBC
+ RBC
+ 2 R
BC

yB


yC



sin
cos
sin
cos

(k)

Vector Loop
The position vectors that are defined for kinematic analysis of a mechanism should form one
or more kinematic loops (also called closed chains). As an example the vectors that are defined
for the four-bar in (a) form a loop. These vectors may be directed differently to form a loop as
shown in (b)
If we navigate in a loop from vector to vector, the vector that is navigated from tail-to-head
is considered positive and a vector that is navigated from head-to-tail is considered negative. For
example, for the four-bar in (a), if we navigate through the loop in the following fashion
O2 A B O4 O2 , vectors R AO2 and R BA are navigated positively and R BO4 and R O4O2
are navigated negatively.
RBA

A
RBO 4

RAO 2
O2

RO4 O2

R AB

RO4 B

RAO 2
O4

O2

RO4 O2

O4

(a)
(b)
A kinematic loop can be expressed as a vector equation. For example, the vectors in the fourbar (a) form the vector-loop equation
R AO2 + R BA R BO4 R O4O2 = 0
Similarly, the vectors in (b) form the vector-loop equation
R AO2 R AB + R O4 B R O4O2 = 0
Obviously, there are many other possible scenarios. Any of these vector loop equations can be
used for kinematic analysis of the mechanism.
Examples
Several examples of commonly used planar mechanisms are presented here. For each
mechanism a set of vectors are defined to form a vector-loop equation(s).
P.E. Nikravesh

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VECTORS

(a) Four-bar
R AO2 + R BA R BO4 R O4O2 = 0

RBA

RBO 4

RAO 2
RO4 O2

O2

O4

(b) Slider-crank (inversion 1)

R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0

(c) Slider-crank (inversion 2)

R AO2 R O4O2 R AO4 = 0

A
A

RBA

RAO 2

O2

O2

RBO 2

(d) Slider-crank (inversion 3)

R AO2 + R O4 A R O4O2 = 0

RO4 O2

R O4 A

RBA

RAO 2

O2

RO4 O2

O4
RBO 2

O2

(f) Slider-crank (inversion 2 - variation)

R AO2 R O4O2 R BO4 R AB = 0

(g) Slider-crank (inversion 3 - variation)

R AO2 R O4O2 R BO4 R AB = 0

A
B

R AB
A
RAO 2
O2

O4

(e) Slider-crank (inversion 4)

R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0

RAO 2

RBA

RAO 2

RBO 4

O2
O4

R AO2 R AC R CO4 R O4O2 = 0

R BO4

RO4 O2
O4

RO4 O2

(h) Six-bar mechanism (a four-bar and a slider-crank)

This mechanism contains two
R AC
C
independent loops: O4 CAO2O4 and
O2 ABO2 . Therefore two
R CO4
RAO 2
independent vector loop equations
can be constructed:
R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0
(a)
RO4 O2
O4
O2

P.E. Nikravesh

RAO 4

RAO 2

RBA

RBO 2

(b)

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VECTORS

A third loop may be visualized as O4 CABO2O4 . However, this is a redundant loopits vector
loop equation can be obtained from subtracting the second equation from the first:
R BA R BO2 + R AC + R CO4 + R O4O2 = 0
If we combine the two ground vectors, R BO2 and R O4O2 , into one vector we get:

R CO4 + R AC + R BA R BO4 = 0

(c)

We only need two of these three equations.

(i) Six-bar mechanism (two slider-cranks)
This mechanism contains two independent loops:
R AO2 R AO4 R O4O2 = 0
(a)

R BO4 + R CB R CO1 R O1O2 + R O4O2 = 0

R CO1 C

O1
R CB

(b)

A third dependent loop can be constructed as

R AO2 + R BA + R CB R CO1 R O1O2 = 0
(c)
We only need two of these three equations.

R O1O2

R BO

RAO 2

O2

R AO4

RO4 O2

O4

Note: In examples containing a sliding joint, the vector

that connects the two links must be defined parallel
to the axis of the sliding joint. This is a rule that
we must follow, otherwise we can make a simple
problem too difficult to solve. For example, for
this slider-crank, we should not define a vector
directly from O4 to A. Instead, we should define
two vectors, R BO4 which is parallel to the sliding

R AB

RBO 4

O4

R AO4

axis and R AB perpendicular to the sliding axis.

Note: If the ground vector is not parallel to the x-axis, we
may decompose it into two vectorsone parallel
and one perpendicular to the x-axis. For example,
R O4O2 may be replaced by R QO2 + R O4Q .

RO4 O2

O2

P.E. Nikravesh

R QO2

O4

R O4Q
Q

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