Can the shape

change easily?
Can it flow?
Can it be
squeezed?
Are the forces
between the
particles strong?
Is there space
between the
particles?

Solid
NO

Liquid
YES

Gas
YES

NO
NO

YES
a bit

YES
YES

YES

NO

NO

NO

some

YES

Pressure and temperature with gas

When a gas is compressed into a smaller space, its
pressure increases

Heat energy -> Kinetic energy -> Velocity of the gas particles
increase -> Increased rate of collisions -> Increased force
per collision
*When you heat a
gas in a closed
container, pressure
increases
*When a gas is
compressed into a
smaller space,
pressure increases

Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is the random movement of
fluid particles (liquid or gas) / random
molecular bombardment

Diffusion

Paper chromatography

Movements of atoms / molecules from high

concentration -> low concentration -> until
particles are distributed evenly in the air
*Lower the mass, faster a gas will diffuse
*Higher the temp, faster a gas will diffuse

Mixtures of 2 substances travel at different

speeds because of different solubility and
eventually get separated.
Paper Chromatography pt 2
The more soluble a substance is in the
solvent, the further it will travel
Rf value = distance travelled by substance
-----------------------------------------distance travelled by solvent
the least soluble it is, the purer the solution
Chromatography is used to identify
substances, separate mixtures of
substances or purify a substance.
melting and boiling points for water

Rf values allow industry to use

chromatography to identify compounds

For colourless
substances,
locating agents
are used eg
ninhydrin these
bind to the
chemicals in
the spots. The
chromatogram
is put under UV
light and the
locating agents
glow

While the water is changing state, the

temperature stays the same the energy from
the heat is used to weaken the bonds.
Pure substances exact melting and boiling
points
Impure compounds have a range of melting /
boiling points because different substances
they contain melt and boil at different
temperatures
Impurity usually lowers the melting point and
raises the boiling poing. Greater the impurity,
the bigger the difference betweeen the true
melting / boiling points

Separation methods
Salt to water
Adding salt to water makes the water
impure, it lowers the melting point and
raises the boiling point which is why they
put salt on roads because it makes it harder
for the roads to freeze and easier to melt
Purity in life
Things like medicines and flavourings need
to be pure as it ensures accurate doses and
reduces chances of side effects. An
unwanted substance would be an impurity

Solvent = liquids that solid substances are

dissolved into
Solute = substances that dissolve
Distillation Heat Water -> Steam (Liebig
Condenser)
Cold Steam -> Water
Distillation seperate a solvent from its
solution allows you to recylce a solvent

Separation methods part 2

Filtration separate solid from liquid - separate
insoluble substances from a liquid (filter paper)
Evaporation the solvent is removed as a gas
separate a solvent from a solution
Condensing a gas changes to a liquid after
cooling
Crystallisation a solid appears after the
solution cools
Fractional distillation separate a mixture of
liquids with different melting / boiling points

Proton
Neutron
Electron

Mass
1
1
0

Charge
1
0
-1

Proton = +
Neutron = Neutral
Electron = -

Horizontal rows periods number of

electron shells

Vertical rows groups number of

electrons in the outer shell

Atoms smallest unit of a substance

Element a substance that cannot be
resolved further in chemical form
Compound substance made by more
than one atom
Molecule smallest unit of a compound

Ele
men
t

Sy
mb
ol

Elect
rons
in
shell
1

Elect
rons
in
shell
2

hydr
ogen

heliu
m

He

lithiu
m

Li

beryl
lium

Be

boro
n

carb
on

nitro
gen

oxyg
en

fluori
ne

neon

Ne

No. of protons = no. of electrons

Proton number
Symbol
Nucleon number
First shell = 2
Second shell = 8
Third shell = 8

Isotope = atoms of the same element &

same number of protons but different
number of neutrons which affects
the mass number or nucleon
number
Most elements have isotopes
Electron arrangement is the same
Radioisotopes occur naturally when the
nucleus of the isotope is unstable, they
eventually decay

The periodic table

Radioisotopes can be used to check for leaks
the plumber adds radioisotopes to the oil /
gas and the Geiger counter detects
radiation
-used to treat cancer gamma rays are
aimed
- kill germs / bacteria sterilize medical
equipment
2 elements reacting, ends with ide
Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

Elements are arranged in order of proton

number
All elements in a group have similar
reactions because they have the same
number of valent electrons
Left to Right = Metals to Non Metals
( across a period)
Metals are at the left of the zig zag
Hydrogen is alone has one outer
electron like group 1 but is a gas
Some elements in the lower block are
artificial radioactive and decay quickly
Alkali metals
All have one electron in their outer shell
When they lose the one electron they form
positive ions
Readily react with air
Softer and lighter than most metals

The amount of electrons an element

need to give / share in order to obtain a
full outer shell
They react with water to produce relative
hydroxides + hydrogen
Giving a valence electron creates a
positive ion and receiving a valence
Reaction with water = bubbles
electron creates a negative ion
Reaction with chloring = flames
Li

softnes
s

Density

M/B
point

N
a

Reactivi
ty
least

K
R
b

(heavies (lowest)
t)
decreas
increase es
s

(softest
Cs )
most
increas
es
Atoms of each element get larger going
down therefore the outer shell electron gets
further away from the nucleus which means
it gets easily lost in reactions

Noble gases group 8 / 0

Colourless & Monatomic
INERT (stable outer shell)
Helium Balloons lighter than air
Argon light bulbs wont react with non
metals
Neon Adverts
Krypton lasers
Xenon blue bright light
Provides an INERT atmosphere

He

M/B Point
Lowest

Density
Lightest

Ne

Size and
Weight
Smallest

Arg

Halogens (Diatomic Non Metals) Group 7

Fluorine Yellow Gas
COLOURS GET
Chlorine Green Gas
DEEPER
Bromine Red Liquid
Iodine Black solid
They react with metals to form halides
Need one electron to become stable so
they have a strong drive to react

Highest
Densest
Heaviest
M/B Point intermolecular forces between larger
atoms with more electrons are greater than
smaller atoms increasing attraction between
atoms make it harder to form gas

Fl
Cl

M/B
point
lowest

Density
Lightest

Reactivit
y

Br
I
A HALOGEN WILL DISPLACE A LESS
REACTIVE HALOGEN FROM A SOLUTION
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Chloride -----------No
No
Change
Change
Bromide DISPLACE ------------- No
D
Change
Iodide
DISPLACE DISPLACE -----------d
D
amount
Rates of Reaction= --------------------Time
To measure rate of reaction measure
amount of reactant used up per unit of
time or the amount of a product
produced
Temperature heating rate of
reaction increases because particles
have more heat energy and move
faster, increase in collision rate and
more particles have activation energy

Further the outer shell, harder to attract

electrons

Transition Metals
High melting points
Malleable
High densities
Good Conductors
Less Reactive no reactivity trend
Form Coloured compounds
Transitional elements and their
compounds act as catalysts
Used to make alloys
Have variable valencies / oxidation states
Iron II Oxide
Valency of 2
Iron III Oxide Valency of 3

Concentration increased ( of the

reactants or the pressure is increased )
More reactant particles in the same
volume greater chance of particles
colliding gases increasing pressure has
the same effect as concentrate
Increased SA more exposed reactant
greater chance of successful collisions more collisions
Smaller the particle Faster the reaction
Catalyst reduces activation energy and
never get used up

Flour Mills / Methane in Mines

Flour particles high SA high energy food
that can easily ignite and set off an
explosion
Coal Mines Methane + Gas collect ->
easily ignites
Concentration + temp + SA increase ->
boom
Reaction goes too fast -> Boom

Photography
One example of a photochemical reaction is the use of
silver halide salts (eg silver chloride) in black and white
photography.
Silver chloride is sensitive to light and breaks down to form
metallic silver, which appears black. This is because the
silver ions, Ag+, become silver atoms, Ag. The brighter
the light falling on the photographic film or paper, the
faster the reaction - and the darker that part of the
(negative) image appears.
Photosynthesis
In photosynthesis (the chemical change that occurs in
the leaves of green plants), light energy is absorbed by the
green pigment chlorophyll. This allows the reaction
between carbon dioxide and water to take place,
producing glucose and oxygen.