Cancer Classification

Cancers are classified in two ways: by the type of tissue in which the cancer originates
(histological type) and by primary site, or the location in the body where the cancer first
developed. This section introduces you to the first method: cancer classification based on
histological type. The international standard for the classification and nomenclature of
histologies is the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, Third Edition (ICD-O-3).
From a histological standpoint there are hundreds of different cancers, which are grouped into six
major categories:

Carcinoma

Sarcoma

Myeloma

Leukemia

Lymphoma

Mixed Types

Carcinoma
Carcinoma refers to a malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin or cancer of the internal or
external lining of the body. Carcinomas, malignancies of epithelial tissue, account for 80 to 90
percent of all cancer cases.
Epithelial tissue is found throughout the body. It is present in the skin, as well as the covering
and lining of organs and internal passageways, such as the gastrointestinal tract.
Carcinomas are divided into two major subtypes: adenocarcinoma, which develops in an organ
or gland, and squamous cell carcinoma, which originates in the squamous epithelium.
Adenocarcinomas generally occur in mucus membranes and are first seen as a thickened plaquelike white mucosa. They often spread easily through the soft tissue where they occur. Squamous
cell carcinomas occur in many areas of the body.
Most carcinomas affect organs or glands capable of secretion, such as the breasts, which produce
milk, or the lungs, which secrete mucus, or colon or prostate or bladder.
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Sarcoma
Sarcoma refers to cancer that originates in supportive and connective tissues such as bones,
tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat. Generally occurring in young adults, the most common
sarcoma often develops as a painful mass on the bone. Sarcoma tumors usually resemble the
tissue in which they grow.
Examples of sarcomas are:

Osteosarcoma or osteogenic sarcoma (bone)

Chondrosarcoma (cartilage)

Leiomyosarcoma (smooth muscle)

Rhabdomyosarcoma (skeletal muscle)

Mesothelial sarcoma or mesothelioma (membranous lining of body cavities)

Fibrosarcoma (fibrous tissue)

Angiosarcoma or hemangioendothelioma (blood vessels)

Liposarcoma (adipose tissue)

Glioma or astrocytoma (neurogenic connective tissue found in the brain)

Myxosarcoma (primitive embryonic connective tissue)

Mesenchymous or mixed mesodermal tumor (mixed connective tissue types)

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Myeloma
Myeloma is cancer that originates in the plasma cells of bone marrow. The plasma cells produce
some of the proteins found in blood.
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Leukemia
Leukemias ("liquid cancers" or "blood cancers") are cancers of the bone marrow (the site of
blood cell production). The word leukemia means "white blood" in Greek. The disease is often

associated with the overproduction of immature white blood cells. These immature white blood
cells do not perform as well as they should, therefore the patient is often prone to infection.
Leukemia also affects red blood cells and can cause poor blood clotting and fatigue due to
anemia. Examples of leukemia include:

Myelogenous or granulocytic leukemia (malignancy of the myeloid and granulocytic

white blood cell series)

Lymphatic, lymphocytic, or lymphoblastic leukemia (malignancy of the lymphoid and

lymphocytic blood cell series)

Polycythemia vera or erythremia (malignancy of various blood cell products, but with red
cells predominating)

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Lymphoma
Lymphomas develop in the glands or nodes of the lymphatic system, a network of vessels, nodes,
and organs (specifically the spleen, tonsils, and thymus) that purify bodily fluids and produce
infection-fighting white blood cells, or lymphocytes. Unlike the leukemias which are sometimes
called "liquid cancers," lymphomas are "solid cancers." Lymphomas may also occur in specific
organs such as the stomach, breast or brain. These lymphomas are referred to as extranodal
lymphomas. The lymphomas are subclassified into two categories: Hodgkin lymphoma and NonHodgkin lymphoma. The presence of Reed-Sternberg cells in Hodgkin lymphoma diagnostically
distinguishes Hodgkin lymphoma from Non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
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Mixed Types
The type components may be within one category or from different categories. Some examples
are:

adenosquamous carcinoma

mixed mesodermal tumor

carcinosarcoma

teratocarcinoma

In the next section, you will be provided with a comprehensive list of tissue types and the tumors
that arise from them.

Persistent Fatigue: Fatigue is one of the most commonly experienced cancer symptoms. It is
usually more common when the cancer is advanced, but still occurs in the early stages of some
cancers. Anemia is commonly the culprit -- a condition that is associated with many types of
cancer, especially types affecting the bowel. Fatigue is a symptom of both malignant and nonmalignant conditions and should be evaluated by a physician.

Unintentional Weight Loss: While it may be a welcome surprise to lose weight without
trying, it can be a red flag for many illnesses, including cancer. Losing 10 pounds or more
unintentionally definitely warrants a visit to the doctor. This type of weight loss can occur with or
without loss of appetite. Remember, weight loss can be a symptom of cancer, but is also a symptom
of many other illnesses, too.

Pain Typically, pain is not an early symptom of cancer, except in some cancer types like those
that spread to the bone. Pain generally occurs when cancer spreads and begins to affect other
organs and nerves.
Lower pack pain is cancer symptom that is associated with ovarian cancer and colon cancer.
Shoulder pain can also be a symptom of lung cancer. Pain in the form of headaches can be
associated with brain tumors (malignant and benign).
Stomach pains can be related to types of cancer, like stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, and many
others. Stomach pain can be a very vague symptom because so many illnesses can cause stomach
pain.

Fever: A fever is a very non-specific symptom of many mild to severe conditions, including
cancer. In relation to cancer, a fever that is persistent or one that comes and goes frequently can
signal stress on the immune system. Fevers are commonly associated with types of cancer that
affects the blood, like leukemia and lymphoma, but are also common in people whose cancer has
spread.

Bowel Changes: If you experience constipation, diarrhea, blood in the stools, gas, thinner
stools, or just a general overall change in bowel habits, see your doctor. These symptoms are most
commonly associated with colon cancer, but are also related to other cancer types.

Chronic Cough: A persistent, new cough or a cough that won't go away or becomes worse
needs to be evaluated by a doctor. Blood and/or mucus may accompany the cough and can be
caused many conditions. In relation to cancer, a chronic cough with blood or mucus can be
symptom of lung cancer.
Keep in mind that these are very general, vague symptoms of cancer. If you have one or two of these
symptoms, it is not a red flag for cancer but more an indication to your doctor to run certain medical
tests. The symptoms listed above are experienced by most people with cancer at various stages of
their disease, but are also linked to many other non-cancerous conditions. For more specific cancer
symptoms, see below for symptom information about several types of cancer. You may also get a
better understanding of what your symptoms may mean by using the About.com Symptom Checker,
an interactive

What are the Causes and Risk Factors for Cancer?

Tobacco
According to the National Cancer Institute, smoking causes 30% of all cancer deaths in the U.S.

and is responsible for 87% of cases of lung cancer. Not only does it affect the lungs, it can cause
kidney, pancreatic, cervical, and stomach cancers and acute myeloid leukemia. Quitting smoking
immediately decreases your risk factor for cancer.

Physical Activity
Exercising at least 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week greatly reduces your cancer risk. Exercise like
yoga, aerobics, walking and running are great activities to lower your cancer risk factor. Not only is
physical activity important to preventing other diseases, it reduces the chances of becoming obese.
Obesity is a major cause for many cancers. Exercising on a regular basis can prevent prostate,
colon, breast, endometrial and lung cancer.

Genetics
Genetics can play a big role in cancer development. If you have a family history of cancer, such as
breast cancer, taking extra precautions is vital. When cancer is genetic, a mutated gene has been
passed down. Genetic tests are available for many hereditary cancers. Keep in mind that if you
have a family history of cancer, it does not mean you will develop it. You only have a greater
chance of developing it.

Environmental Factors
The environment you are in can cause cancer.
Exposure to asbestos, a group of minerals found in housing and industrial building materials can
cause a variety of medical problems, such as mesothelioma.
Studies have shown that people who are exposed to high amount of benzene are at risk for cancer.
Benzene is a chemical found in gasoline, smoking, and pollution.

Unsafe Sex
Practicing unsafe sex can increase your risk of developing a virus called HPV. HPV is a group of over
100 viruses, medically known as human papillioma virus. HPV increases your risk factor for
cervical, anal, vulvar and vaginal cancer. Further studies are being conducted in HPV's role in the
development of other cancers.
There is a test available to see if you have contracted HPV. It involves scraping of cervical cells and
then the sample is sent to a lab. The lab test can even identify the strain of the virus, also.

Sun Exposure
Skin cancer is caused by exposure to the UV rays of the sun. A sunburn, or a tan is actually the
result of cell damage caused by the sun. Skin cancer can be prevented in most cases. Wearing
sunscreen when outdoors and staying out of the sun between the hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m.,
when the sun's rays are strongest is your best defense.

Cancer prevention: 7 steps to reduce your risk

Small changes in your everyday life might help reduce your risk of cancer.
By Mayo Clinic staff
You've probably heard conflicting reports in the news about what can or can't help you in terms of
cancer prevention. The issue of cancer prevention gets confusing sometimes what's recommended
in one report is advised against in another. What you can be sure of when it comes to cancer
prevention is that making small changes to your everyday life might help reduce your chances of
getting cancer. Try these seven cancer prevention steps.

Cancer prevention step 1: Don't use tobacco

All types of tobacco put you on a collision course with cancer. Rejecting tobacco, or deciding to stop
using it, is one of the most important health decisions you can make. It's also an important part of
cancer prevention.
Smoking has been linked to several types of cancer, including:

Bladder

Cervix

Esophagus

Kidney

Lip

Lung

Mouth

Pancreas

Throat

Voice box (larynx)

Chewing tobacco has been linked to multiple types of cancer, including:

Esophagus

Mouth

Pancreas

Throat
Inhaled chewing tobacco (snuff) may increase the risk of cancers, including:

Esophagus

Mouth
Even if you don't smoke, avoid exposure to secondhand smoke. Being around others who are smoking
may increase your risk of lung cancer.

Cancer prevention step 2: Eat a variety of healthy foods

Though making healthy selections at the grocery store and at mealtime can't guarantee you won't get
cancer, it may help reduce your risk.

The American Cancer Society recommends that you:

Eat an abundance of foods from plant-based sources. Eat five or more servings of fruits

and vegetables each day. In addition, eat other foods from plant sources, such as whole grains and
beans, several times a day. Replacing high-calorie foods in your diet with fruits and vegetables may
help you lose weight or maintain your weight. A diet high in fruits and vegetables has been linked to a
reduced risk of cancers of the colon, esophagus, lung and stomach.
Limit fat. Eat lighter and leaner by choosing fewer high-fat foods, particularly those from

animal sources. High-fat diets tend to be higher in calories and may increase the risk of overweight or
obesity, which can, in turn, increase cancer risk.
Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all. Your risk of cancers, including mouth, throat,

esophagus, kidney, liver and breast cancers, increases with the amount of alcohol you drink and the
length of time you've been drinking regularly. Even a moderate amount of drinking two drinks a day
if you're a man or one drink a day if you're a woman, and one drink a day regardless of your sex if
you're over 65 may increase your risk.

Cancer prevention step 3: Stay active and maintain a healthy weight

Maintaining a healthy weight and exercising regularly also may play a role in cancer prevention. Being
overweight or obese may increase your risk of cancers of the breast, colon, esophagus, kidney,
stomach and uterus. Physical activity can help you avoid obesity by controlling your weight. Physical
activity on its own may also lower your risk of cancers of the breast, colon, prostate and uterus.
Try to be physically active for 30 minutes or more on most days of the week. Once you achieve that
goal, adding more exercise to your day may reduce your risk of certain cancers further.
Your exercise sessions can include such low-key activities as brisk walking, raking the yard or even
ballroom dancing. Safe exercise programs are available for just about everyone. Your doctor or
physical therapist can help design one for you.

Cancer prevention step 4: Protect yourself from the sun

Skin cancer is one of the most common kinds of cancer and one of the most preventable. Although
repeated exposure to X-rays or contact with certain chemicals can play a role, sun exposure is by far
the most common cause of skin cancer.
Most skin cancer occurs on exposed parts of your body, including your face, hands, forearms and ears.
Nearly all skin cancer is treatable if you detect it early, but it's better to prevent it in the first place.
Try these tips:

Avoid peak radiation hours. The sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation peaks between 10 a.m. and
4 p.m. Minimize or avoid being outside during these hours.

Stay in the shade. If you go outside, minimize your sun exposure by staying in the shade.

Cover exposed areas. Wear light-colored, loosefitting clothing that protects you from the
sun's rays. Use tightly woven fabrics that cover your arms and legs, and wear a broad-brimmed hat
that covers your head and ears.

Don't skimp on sunscreen. Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen that has a sun protection
factor (SPF) of at least 15.

Don't use indoor tanning beds or sunlamps. These also can damage your skin. There's no
such thing as a healthy tan.

Cancer prevention step 5: Get immunized

Certain cancers are associated with viral infections that can be prevented with immunizations. Talk to
your doctor about immunization against:

Hepatitis B. Hepatitis B can increase your risk of developing liver cancer. Vaccination is
recommended for all babies in the United States. Certain high-risk adults also may need to be
vaccinated.

Human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is a sexually transmitted virus that can lead to cervical
cancer. The vaccine that protects against two cancer-causing types of HPV is recommended for girls
ages 11 to 12. In addition, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that the
HPV vaccine be given to girls and women ages 13 to 26 who haven't completed the full vaccine
series.
Talk to your doctor about whether you would benefit from immunizations to reduce your risk of cancer.

Cancer prevention step 6: Avoid risky behaviors

Reduce your risk of certain cancers by avoiding risky behaviors that can lead to infections that may
increase your risk of cancer. Viruses transmitted sexually or by sharing contaminated needles include:

HPV. HPV is most often associated with cervical cancer. But HPV may also increase the risk of
cancers of the anus, penis, throat, vulva and vagina. The more sexual partners you have in your
lifetime, the more likely you are to have HPV.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). People with HIV or AIDS have an increased risk of
anal cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, lymphoma and Kaposi's sarcoma. People with multiple
sexual partners and intravenous (IV) drug users who share needles have an increased risk of HIV.

Hepatitis B and C. Chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection can increase your risk of liver
cancer. Both forms of hepatitis can be passed through sexual contact with an infected person or
sharing needles with an infected drug user.
Reduce your risk of these cancers by avoiding risky behaviors. Abstain from sex or use condoms and
limit the number of sexual partners you have. Never share needles. Seek help for your addiction if you
use drugs.

Cancer prevention step 7: Get screened

Regular screening and self-examination for certain cancers may not prevent cancer, but it can increase
your chances of discovering cancer early when treatment is more likely to be successful. Screening
should include your skin, mouth, colon and rectum. If you're a man, it should also include your
prostate and testes. If you're a woman, include cervix and breast cancer screening on your list. Be
aware of changes in your body this may help you detect cancer early, increasing your chances of
successful treatment. If you notice any changes, see your doctor.
There are four standard methods of treatment for cancer: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy,
immunotherapy and biologic therapy. Clinical trials may be an option for some as cancer treatment
who meet certain study criteria. Others may choose alternative cancer treatments, which are usually
not FDA-approved and often given in locations outside of the U.S.
When initially diagnosed with cancer, a cancer specialist, an oncologist, will provide you with the
cancer treatment options. He or she will recommend the best treatment plan based on your type of
cancer, how far it has spread, and other important factors like your age and general health.
Ultimately, you are the one who makes your treatment decisions based on your doctor's
recommendations, possible second opinions, and other information gathered from qualified
professionals.

Important Questions to Ask Your Doctor When Diagnosed with Cancer

Tips for Getting a Second Opinion

How to Choose an Oncologist

Methods of Treatment for Cancer

Surgery: Surgery can be used to prevent, treat, stage (determine how advanced the cancer is), and
diagnose cancer. In relation to cancer treatment, surgery is done to remove tumors or as much of the
cancerous tissue as possible. It is often performed in conjunction with chemotherapy or radiation
therapy.
For those whose cancer is not treatable, palliative surgery may be an option to relieve pain that may
be caused by the cancer. Palliative surgery is not intended to treat or cure the cancer, or even to
prolong life, but more to lessen discomfort.

How to Find the Right Surgeon

Coping with Your Surgery Anxiety

Recovering from Surgery: Realistic Expectations

Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses of drugs to eliminate cancer

cells. Unlike surgery, chemotherapy affects the entire body, not just a specific part. It works by
targeting rapidly multiplying cancer cells. Unfortunately, other types of cells in our bodies also multiply
at high rates, like hair follicle cells and the cells that line our stomachs. This is why chemo can cause
side effects like hair loss and an upset stomach.
Chemotherapy is most commonly given by pill or intravenously (IV), but can be given in other ways. A
single type of chemotherapy, or a combination of drugs, may be prescribed for a specific length of
time. Like surgery, chemotherapy can be prescribed alone, in conjunction with radiation therapy or
biologic therapy.

Sexual Side Effects of Chemotherapy

Recognizing the Signs of Dehydration During Chemotherapy

Can You Prevent Hair Loss Caused by Chemotherapy?

Radiation Therapy: Radiation therapy uses certain types of energy to shrink tumors or eliminate
cancer cells. It works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Cancer cells are
highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Nearby healthy cells can be damaged as
well, but are resilient and are able to fully recover.
Radiation therapy may be given alone, along with chemotherapy, and/or with surgery. The decision to
combine radiation therapy with other types of treatment depends on the stage of cancer and other
factors.

Radiation Therapy Basics

Side Effects of Radiation Therapy

How to Manage Skin Irritation Caused by Radiation Therapy

Biologic or Targeted Therapy:

Biologic therapy is a term for drugs that target characteristics of cancerous tumors. Some types of
targeted therapies work by blocking the biological processes of tumors that allow tumors to thrive and
grow. Other types of therapies cut off the blood supply to the tumor, causing it to basically starve and
die because of a lack of blood.
Targeted therapy is used in select types of cancer and is not available for everyone. It is given in
conjunction with other cancer treatments.
Clinical Trials: Research studies of the latest drugs and therapies against many types of cancer are
continuously being conducted. This type of research requires human volunteers to test the safety and
effectiveness of new therapies. Volunteers must meet the criteria of each study to participate.