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JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES

AIRLINE TRANSPORT P IL O T S LICENCE

Theoretical Knowledge Manual

0 5 0 M E T E O R O LO G Y
First Edition, Second Impression.

A P P R O V ED

This learning m aterial has been approved as


JAA com pliant by th e United Kingdom
Civil Aviation A u th o rity.

METEOROLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

C h a p te r 1

T h e A tm o sp h e re

C h a p te r 2

P re ssu re

C h a p te r 3

D e n sity

C h a p te r 4

S y n o p tic C h arts

C h a p te r 5

P re ssu re System s

C h a p te r 6

A ltim e try

C h a p te r 7

T e m p e ra tu re

C h a p te r 8

H u m id ity

C h a p te r 9

A d ia b a tic s & S ta b ility

C h a p te r 10

T u rb u le n c e

C h a p te r 11

W in d s

C h a p te r 12

U p p e r W in d s

C h a p te r 13

C lo u d s

C h a p te r 14

C lo u d F o rm a tio n a n d P re c ip ita tio n

C h a p te r 15

T h u n d e rsto rm s

C h a p te r 16

V isib ility

C h a p te r 17

Icin g

C h a p te r 18

D o c u m e n ta tio n

C h a p te r 19

W e a th e r C h a rts

C h a p te r 20

A ir M asse s

C h a p te r 21

O c c lu sio n s

C h a p te r 22

O th e r D e p re ssio n s

C h a p te r 23

G lo b a l C lim a to lo g y

C h a p te r 24

L o c a l W in d s a n d W e a th e r

C h a p te r 25

A re a C lim a to lo g y

C h a p te r 26

R o u te C lim a to lo g y

C h a p te r 27

S ate llite O b se rv a tio n s

AMENDMENT SERVICE

A n am e n d m e n t se rv ic e to th is se rie s is p ro v id e d free o f c h a rg e o n th e O x fo rd A v ia tio n T rain in g


w e b site a t h ttp ://w w w .o x fo rd a v ia tio n .n e t/p ro d u c ts/stu d v a id s/am en d .h tm

First Edition : May 2001


Second Impression : October 2001 - incorporating Amendment List 1 to Edition 1

C H A PTER O N E - TH E A TM O SPH ER E

C o n ten ts

P age
1.1

A D E F IN IT IO N O F M E T E O R O L O G Y .....................................................................................1 - 1

1.2

R E A S O N S F O R S T U D Y IN G M E T E O R O L O G Y ................................................................. 1 - 1

1.3

A D E F IN IT IO N O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ...............................................................................1 - 2

1.4

T H E C O N S T IT U E N T S O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E (B Y V O L U M E ).............................1 - 2

1.5

P R O P E R T IE S O F T H E E A R T H S A T M O S P H E R E ............................................................1 - 2

1.6

T H E S T R U C T U R E O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ....................................................................... 1 - 3

1.7

T H E S IG N IF IC A N C E O F T R O P O P A U S E H E IG H T ...........................................................1 - 4

1.8

T E M P E R A T U R E S .............................................................................................................................. 1 - 4

1.9

A T M O S P H E R IC H A Z A R D S ......................................................................................................... 1 - 5

1.10

T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E (IS A )..................................... 1 - 5

1.11

IS A D E V IA T IO N .................................................................................................................................1 - 6

1.12

T H E IC A O IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E .....................................1 - 8
A T M O S P H E R E Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................................. 1 - 9

METEO RO LO G Y
1.1

THE ATM OSPHERE

A D E F IN IT IO N O F M E T E O R O L O G Y
"T h e b ra n c h o f s c ie n c e d e a lin g w ith th e ea rth 's atm o sp h ere a n d th e p h y sic a l p ro c e sse s
o c c u rrin g in it."

1.2

R E A S O N S F O R S T U D Y IN G M E T E O R O L O G Y
a)

T o g a in a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m e te o ro lo g ists d e d uctions.

b)

T o g ain a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m e teo ro lo g ists do cu m en tatio n .

c)

T o g a in a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f in -flig h t h azards.

d)

T o g ain a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f d a ta an d its c o llection.

e)

T o g a in a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f self-fo re ca stin g .

W e a th e r is th e o n e fa c to r in m o d e m a v ia tio n o v e r w h ic h m a n h a s n o c o n tro l, a k n o w led g e o f


m e te o ro lo g y w ill a t le a s t e n a b le th e a v ia to r to a n ticip a te so m e o f th e d iffic u ltie s w h ich
w e a th e r m a y c ause.
W e a th e r - in flu e n c e d a c c id e n ts to U K tra n sp o r t a irc ra ft
Table 1
Transport aircraft accidents, 1975-94
(a) All accidents_____________________________________________________________________
Aeroplanes

Rotorcraft

Year

Total

WI

Per cent

1975-79

52

17

1980-84

67

20

1985-89

95

22

1990-94

216*

25

11.58*

32.69

Total

All aircraft
WT

Per cent

Total

WI

61

21

Per cent

44.44

29.85

20

35.00

87

27

31.03

23.16

20

15.00

115

25

21.74

34.43

20

30.00

236*

31

13.13*

34.43
31.03

1975-94
298
84
WI; Weather-influenced

28.18

69

20

28.98

367

104

28.34

Table 2 Weather-influence accidents to transport aircraft by element of weather, 1975 -94

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THE ATM OSPHERE

METEO RO LO GY

Wind and turbulenC'

F o r th is c o u rse a k n o w le d g e o f a d v a n c e d p h y s ic s is n o t re q u ired , b u t a k n o w le d g e o f th e
e le m e n ta ry la w s o f m o tio n , h e a tin g , co o lin g , co n d e n sa tio n a n d e v a p o ratio n w ill b e useful.
1.3

A D E F IN IT IO N O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E
"T h e s p h e ro id a l g a se o u s e n v e lo p e su rro u n d in g a h ea v e n ly b ody."
T H E C O N S T I T U E N T S O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E (B Y V O L U M E )
N itro g e n

7 8 .0 9 %

A rg o n

0.93%

O xy g en

2 0 .9 5 %

C a rb o n D io x id e

0.03%

N eon

N itro u s O x id e

H eliu m

N itro g e n D ioxide

K ry p to n

C a rb o n M o n o x id e

X enon

S u lp h u r D ioxide

H y d ro g en

A m m o n ia

M eth an e

Io dine a n d O zone

P lu s w a te r v a p o u r an d so lid p a rtic le s.
T h e p ro p o rtio n s o f th e c o n stitu e n ts re m a in c o n sta n t u p to a h e ig h t o f a t le a st 6 0 k m s (e x c e p t fo r
O z o n e ), b u t b y 7 0 k m s th e fo rc e o f g ra v ity , b e in g less, c au ses th e p ro p o rtio n s to change.
A lth o u g h th e tra c e o f o z o n e in th e a tm o sp h e re is im p o rtan t as a s h ie ld a g a in st u ltra v io let
r a d ia tio n , i f th e w h o le o f th e la y e r o f o z o n e w ere b ro u g h t d o w n to se a level it w o u ld o n ly b e 3
m m th ick .
1.5

P R O P E R T I E S O F T H E E A R T H S A T M O S P H E R E
T h e ea rth 's a tm o sp h e re v a rie s v e rtic a lly a n d h o riz o n ta lly in:
a)

P re ssu re .

b)

T em p e ra tu re .

1 -2

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METEOROLOGY

THE ATMOSPHERE

c)

D ensity.

d)

H um idity.

T h e e arth's atm o sp h ere is a p o o r conductor.


T h e e arth's atm o sp h ere is fluid.
T h e e arth's atm o sp h ere supports life o n ly at low er levels.
1.6

T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E A TM O SPH ERE


a)

T h e T ro p o s p h e re ;i)

b)

th at lay er o f th e earth's a tm osphere w here tem perature decreases w ith an


increase in height.

ii)

co n sists o f % o f the to tal atm osphere in w eight.

iii)

co n tain s a lm o st a ll th e w eather.

T h e S tr a to s p h e r e m ay be defined as that layer above th e troposphere w here the


tem perature rem ains constant w ith an increase in height. (In fa ct tem perature show s a
gradual increase w ith h eight, especially at the top, w here the tem perature is zero at 50
km s. T h is is d ue to the ab so rp tio n o f the su n s ultra violet radiation by the concentration
o f o zone a t h igher levels).

c)

T h e T ro p o p a u s e :i)

m arks th e b o undary b etw een th e troposphere and the stratosphere and

is w here

tem p eratu re ceases to fall w ith an increase in h eight. (Practically taken as the
heig h t w here th e tem p eratu re fall is less than 2 C p e r 1,000 ft.)
ii)

is n o t a contin u o u s line - th ere is usually a gap a t 4 0 d egrees o f latitu d e betw een


the so-called p o la r an d tropical tropopauses.
is n o t u niform in height - it varies w ith;1)

Latitude.

2)

S eason o f th e year.

3)

Tem p eratu re p re v ailing on th e day.

4)

T im e o f day.

1-3

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THE ATMOSPHERE

METEOROLOGY

Figure 1.2. The Mean Height of the Tropopause at the Greenwich


Meridian
1.7

T H E S IG N IF IC A N C E O F T R O P O P A U S E H E IG H T
T h e significance o f th e tropo p au se heig h t is that it usually m arks;a)

the m axim um height o f th e cloud.

b) th e p resence o f Jetstream s.
c) th e p resen ce o f C lear A ir T urb u len ce (C A T).
d)
1.8

the m axim um w ind speed.

TEM PERATURES
T em p eratu re in th e tro p o sp h ere increases from th e po les to th e equator.
T em p eratu re in the lo w er strato sp h ere in creases from th e e q uator to th e poles in sum m er b ut
reach es m ax tem perature in m id latitu d es in w inter.

'id t

T h e lapse rate (th e ra te o f change o f tem perature w ith h eight) in the troposphere is p roduced by
~ risin g a ir, w h ilst that in th e strato sp h ere is p roduced b y s olar radiation, and is in fact reversed.

1 -4

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THE ATMOSPHERE

METEOROLOGY
1.9

A T M O S P H E R IC H A Z A R D S
A s aircraft o perating altitu d es in crease, so concentrations o f O Z O N E and C O SM IC
RA D IA TIO N becom e o f g reater im portance to the aviator.
A bove 5 0,000ft, norm al co n cen tratio n s o f o zone ex ceed tolerable lim its and a ir ne ed s to be
filtered befo re e n terin g th e cabin. T h e h eat o f the c om pressor system w ill a ssist in the b reaking
dow n o f the o zone to a n acceptable level.
C osm ic radiation is not norm ally hazardous, but a t tim es o f solar flare activity a lo w er flight
level m ay be necessary.

k% pin*

A dvances in m eteorological fo recastin g and com m unications should result in pilots receiving
prom pt and accurate inform ation re g ard in g high altitude hazards, but it is im portant that they
should be a w are o f th ese hazard s and prep ared to take the necessary re-planning action.
1.10

T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E (IS A )
F o r a v ariety o f reasons it is n e c essary to e stablish a standard average atm osphere, describing
variations in tem perature, p ressure a nd d en sity throughout altitude.
T here h ave b een several d ifferent Standard A tm ospheres, b ut the o n e in general use now is the
'IC A O ISA ', d ated 1964 w hich covers a n a tm osphere from -16.400ft(-5km ) to 262,464ft.
T h e IS A is needed for;a)

the calib ratio n o f aircraft instrum ents

b)

the d esign and testing o f aircraft.

T h e ICA O ISA is defined as follow s;a)

a M SL tem perature o f + 1 5 C elsius,

b)

a M S L p ressure o f 1013.25 m illibars,

c)

a M S L d en sity o f 1225 gram m es / c ubic m etre.

d)

from -5km , a lapse rate o f 1.98 C elsius / 10 00 ft (6.5 d egs/km ) u p to 36,090 ft (11 km s),

e)

a c onstant tem perature o f -56.5 C elsius up to 65,617 ft (20 kms),

an increase o f tem perature o f 0 .3 C elsius /1 000 ft (1 deg/km ), up to 104,987 ft 32 kms).

1 -5

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METEOROLOGY

THE ATMOSPHERE

?tra|topaus< : 104,987 ft
I

32' km

! ^56.5C j

Upfser L im it o f IC A O I^ A 6 5 ,^ 1 7 ft J
20! km

Tropopause 36,0 90 ft
11 km

Temperature C

-5o -40 -30 -56 -10

Figure 1.2. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

1.11

IS A D E V IA T IO N
A lthough m eteorological observ atio n s are m ade in ab so lu te figures, it is usual, w hen m aking
calcu latio n s inv o lv in g aircraft perfo rm an ce o r corrections to instrum ents, to co n sid e r them
relative to th e ISA . T hese are know n a s "ISA deviations".
If for in stance, the o b serv ed tem perature w ere 5C w arm er th a n that e xpected in the ISA, then
the d eviatio n w ould be+ 5C .
F o r the tem peratures b elow , calculate the ISA d eviations;-

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THE ATMOSPHERE

METEOROLOGY

Height (ft)

Temperature

ISA

(C)

Temperature

1500

+28

17,500

-18

2 4,000

-35

3 7,000

-45

9,500

-5

5,000

+15

3 1,000

-50

5 7,000

-67

ISA
Deviation

I f the lim iting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5 ,000 ft A M SL is I S A +10, what is
the m aximum temp at w hich you can operate?

I f the deviation at 3 ,5 0 0 ft i s + 1 2 , what is the ambient temperature?

1 -7

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METEOROLOGY
1.12

THE ATMOSPHERE

T H E IC A O IN T E R N A T IO N A L ST A N D A R D A T M O SP H E R E

H eight (km s)

H eight (ft)

T em p (C)

Pressure

H eight Change

(m b)

(p e r m b)

D ensity (% )

32.00

104,987

-44.7

8.9

1.1

30.48

100,000

-46.2

11.1

1.4

27.43

90,000

-49.2

17.3

2.2

24.38

80,000

-52.2

28.0

3.6

21.34

70,000

-55.2

44.9

5.8

20.00

,L6S,62!0 l~ .

-56.5

56.7

7.2

15.24

50,000

-56.5

116.6

15.3

13.71

45,000

-56.5

148.2

11.78

38,662

-56.5

200

11.00

3 6 ,0 9 0

-56.5

228.2

9.16

30,065

-44.4

300

5.51

18,289

-21.2

?o o ;

3.05

10,000

-4.8

696.8

3.01

9,882

-4.6

700

1.46

4,781

+5.5

850

ft
31 ft

+ 15

1013.25

27 ft

19.5

ft
91 ft
73 ft

103

26.3
29.7
36.8

48 ft

56.4

37 ft

73.8

36

74.1
87.3
100

Note:
T h e above heig h t ch ange figures show h o w th e pressure against height change equation is
m odified as a ltitude changes b u t th e figures offered only relate to ISA conditions o f T em perature
an d P ressure. W e can a ssess chan g es o utside these conditions b y u sing the follow ing form ula:
w here

H = h eig ht c hange p e r M b / H pa in feet


T = A ctual A bsolute T em perature a t that level
P = A ctual P ressure in M b / Hpa
K = 96 (the equation c onstant)

T he 4 % R ule:
T h e 4 % ru le is an exten sio n o f the a bove w hich states that w hen th e E L R te m p is 10C
aw ay from IS A a 4 % h eig h t c h ange error is generated at o r through any given altitude
change, e.g at FI 360 (H ) = 9 6 x 226.5 divided b y 228.2 = 9 5ft p e r M b h eight change at
th a t level w h ich equates to 4 % difference from the ISA change o f 91ft.

1 -8

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THE ATMOSPHERE

METEOROLOGY
A tm osp here Q uestions
1.

2.

T h e international stan d ard a tm osphere assum es a lapse rate of:


2 C /1000

1.5C /1000
3 C /1000 ft
1.98C /1000

T h e tropopause is:
-'a)

3.

T h e layer b etw een the tropo p au se and the stratosphere.


T h e lay er b ey o n d w h ich o n ly C l cloud occurs.

d)

T he line in d icatin g c lear a ir turbulence.

O ne o f th e m ost im p o rtan t characteristics o f the atm osphere is:


D ensity is constant above 10 000 ft.
T h e a ir is a p o o r c o n d u cto r o f heat.

c)

T em p eratu re lapse rate is very frequently above 3 C per

d)

1000 ft.
T h e a ir is a good c o n d u cto r o f heat.

M o st o f the v apour in the atm osphere is contained in the:


a)
b)
v c)
d)

5.

T h e line w here th e tem p eratu re n o longer decreases w ith increase o f height.

b)
c)

a)
V b)

4.

ft
ft
ft

a)
b)
c)
d)

tropopause
stratosphere
troposphere
stratopause

T h e captain o f an a ircraft n eed s to k now th e h e ig h t o f th e T ropopause b ecause:


^ a)
b)
c)
d)

it n orm ally rep resen ts the lim it o f w eather


d en sity starts to increase
th ere are n o longer j e t stream s and C A T
it indicates th e h eig h t o f th e therm al w ind

1 -9

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METEOROLOGY
6.

7.

a)

thermosphere

b)
c)
d)

troposphere
mesophere
stratosphere

The level in the atmosphere w here the air temperature ceases to fall w ith increase in height is
known as:
a)

The troposphere.

b)
c)

The Stratopause.
The Stratosphere.

< d)
8.

THE ATMOSPHERE

The main O zone layer is to be found in the:

The tropopause.

W hich statement is correct w hen considering the lower layers o f the atmosphere:
a)

the majority o f the weather is contained in the stratosphere and its upper boundary is the

b)

tropopause
the majority o f the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the

c)

tropopause
the majority o f the weather is contained in the tropopause and its upper boundary is the

d)

troposphere
the majority o f the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the
stratosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture o f gasses o f the follow ing proportions:

10.

a)

oxygen 21%

nitrogen 78%

other gasses 1%

b)

oxygen 21%

hydrogen 78%

other gasses 1%

c)
d)

nitrogen 78%
nitrogen 78%

argon 21%
oxygen 21%

oxygen 1%
hydrogen 1%

In the ISA the temperature is isothermal:


a)

Up to 36 090 ft/11 kms

N b ) From 3 6 090 f t/1 1


c) From 3 6 090 f t/1 1
d) From 3 6 090 f t / l l

kms to 65 617 ft/20 kms.


kms to 104 987 ft/32 kms.
kms to 45 0 9 0 ft/13.75 kms.

1 -1 0

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THE ATMOSPHERE

METEOROLOGY
11.

T h e In ternational (IC A O ) Standard A tm osphere assum es th at th e sea level atm ospheric pressure
is:
v' a)

1013.25 m bs a n d d ecreases w ith a n increase in h eight

b)

1013.25 m bs a n d increases w ith a n increase in h eight

c)
1013.25 m bs a n d falls to a b o u t h a lf th is v alue a t 30000
d ) 1013.25 m b s a n d
decreases w ith a n increase in h eight u p to th e tropopause. A bove the
tro p o p au se it rem ain s constant
A t sea level the ISA d ensity is sta te d to be:
a)
b)

1225 gram m es p e r c u b ic m etre


1252 gram m es p e r cubic m etre

c)

1013.2 m b (hpA )

d)

29.6 inches o f m ercury

W hich o f th e follo w in g statem en ts is m o st correct w hen d escribing ISA:


a)
b)

th e M S L p ressu re is 1013.25 m bs an d th e tem perature is + 15C


th e M S L p ressu re is 1013.25 m bs and the tem perature is +15 C w ith a lapse rate o f

ft

c)

1.98C /1000
th e M S L p ressu re is 1013.25 m bs an d the tem perature is +15 C w ith a lapse rate o f
1.98C /1000ft up to 36090 ft a b ove w hich there is frequently a n 'in v e rsio n

d)

th e M SL p ressu re is 1013.25 m b s and th e tem perature is +15 C w ith a lapse rate o f


1.98C /1000 ft u p to 36 0 9 0

ft

T h e follow ing is tru e fo r th e International S tandard A tm osphere:


a)

a t m ean sea level the follo w in g cond itions prevail: tem perature +15 C, pressure 1013.25
hp a, d en sity 1125 gm /m

b)

w ith in the tro p o sp h ere th e tem perature decreases b y 6.5 C p e r km

c)

th e tropo p au se is at a h eig h t o f 36090 A GL


th e tem p eratu re a t th e tropo p au se is 226.5 K

d)
15.

P ressure w ill ^
10 OOP ft and

w ith increase o f height a n d in the ISA pressure w ill be it>a


a t3 0 0 Q 0 ft:

at

800 m b 400

a)
b)

Increase
D ecrease

c)

Increase

700 m b 300
200 m b 800

d)

D ecrease

500 m b 200

1 -1 1

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METEOROLOGY

THE ATMOSPHERE
A N SW E R S

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

14

15

1 - 12

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C H A P T E R T W O - PR E SSU R E

C ontents

Page
2.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 2 - 1

2.2

A T M O SP H E R IC P R E S S U R E ................................................................................................. 2 - 1

2.3

T H E B A R O G R A PH .................................................................................................................. 2 - 2

2.4

IS A L L O B A R ................................................................................................................................. 2 - 3

2.5

T Y PE S O F PR E S SU R E

............................................................................................................2 - 4

2 .6

V A R IA T IO N S O F PR E SS U R E

2.7

PR E SS U R E D E FIN IT IO N S .................................................................................................... 2 - 8

2.8

S Y N O PT IC C H A R T S .................................................................................................................2 - 8

.............................................................................................2 - 7

PR E S S U R E Q U E S T I O N S ...................................................................................................................... 2 - 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2.1

PRESSURE

IN T R O D U C T IO N
V a ria tio n s in p re s s u re h a v e lo n g b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith c h a n g e s in th e w e a th e r - th e 'fa llin g glass'
u su a lly in d ic a tin g th e a p p ro a c h o f b a d w e a th e r. T h e H a n d b o o k o f A v ia tio n M ete o ro lo g y m akes
th e statem en t:
^

ln o U '<

"T h e s tu d y o f a tm o s p h e ric p re s s u re m a y be s a id to fo rm th e fo u n d a tio n s o f th e s c ie n c e o f


m e teo ro lo g y ."
2 .2

A T M O S P H E R IC P R E S S U R E
A tm o sp h e ric

p re ss u re

is

th e

fo rc e p e r u n it a re a e x e rte d b y th e
a tm o sp h e re o n
c o n ta c t

a n y s u rfa c e

w ith it.

If

in

TOTAL WEIGHT OF
-----ATMOSPHERE
ABOVE

p re ss u re is

c o n s id e re d a s th e w e ig h t o f a
c o lu m n

of

a ir

of

u n it

cro ss

s e c tio n a l a re a a b o v e a su rface,
th e n it c a n b e s e e n fro m th e

A COLUMN OF
UNIT CROSS
SECTION

d ia g ra m t h a t th e p re ss u re (w e ig h t
o f th e c o lu m n a b o v e )

at

th e

TOTAL WEIGHT OF
/A T M O S P H E R E
ABOVE

u p p e r su rfa c e w ill b e le s s th a n
th a t a t th e lo w e r su rface.
Thus

a tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re w ill

d e c re a s e

w ith

an

in c re a se

Figure 2.1. The W eight o f the Atm osphere on the


Surface o f the Earth.

in

he ig h t.
a)

U n its o f M e a s u r e m e n t. T h e s ta n d a rd u n it o f fo rce is th e N E W T O N (N ) a n d an
a v e ra g e f o r a tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re a t s e a lev e l is 100,000 N e w to n s p e r sq u a re m etre.
( P a s c a ls ) T h is p re s su re is so m e tim e s k n o w n a s a B A R . T o m e a su re sm a ll v ariatio n s
in p re s s u re , it is c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e b a r in to 1000 p a rts a n d so th e stan d ard
m e te o ro lo g ic a l u n it o f p re s s u re is th e M I L L I B A R (M b ). In so m e c o u n trie s th is is
k n o w n a s th e h e c to p a s c a l. O th e r u n its w h ic h a re still in u se a re re la te d to th e h e ig h t
o f a c o lu m n o f m e rc u ry in a b a ro m e te r ( se e b e lo w ) a n d thus:
1000 m b = 750.1 m m = 2 9 .5 3 in = 100,000 N /M 2

N o te :

It is p o s s ib le to c o n v e rt M b s to In c h e s b y u sin g th e fo rm u la

- x a n d
1 0 1 3 .2 5 2 9 .9 2

th e re fo re i f w e a re g iv e n ( fo r e x a m p le ) 1OOOMbs w e m a y in se rt th is in to th e fo rm u la a n d
fin d
1 0 1 3 .2 5

x - w h ic h g iv e s us a n a n sw e r o f 29.531ns o f m ercury.
2 9 .9 2

2 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
M e r c u r y B a r o m e te r . T h e b a sic in stru m e n t
u s e d fo r th e m e a su re m e n t

of

atm o sp h e ric

p re s s u re is th e m erc u ry b a ro m e te r.
atm o s p h e ric

T he

p re ssu re is m e a su re d b y the

he ig h t o f a co lu m n

of

m e rc u ry an d

this

he ig h t c a n b e re a d in te rm s o f a n y o f th e u n its
sh o w n abo v e.

T h e U S A still u ses in c h e s o f

m ercu ry a s th e ir m e a su re m e n t o f a tm o sp h e ric .
p ressu re.

Figure 2.2. A Mercury Barometer


c)

A n e r o id B a r o m e te r . A m o re co m p a c t m e a n s

of

m e a su rin g a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re is th e A n ero id


B a ro m e te r.

It

c o n sists o f a p a rtia lly e v ac u ated

c a p su le w h ic h re sp o n d s to ch a n g e s in p re ssu re by
e x p a n d in g a n d c o n tra c tin g , a n d b y a sy stem o f
le v ers,

th e se

changes

of

p re ssu re

be in g

in d ic ated b y a p o in te r m o v in g o v e r a scale.

Figure 2.4. An A neroid Barometer.

2 .3

T H E BAROGRAPH
T o e n a b le a c o n tin u o u s re c o rd o f p re s s u re c h anges
to b e m a d e , a p a p e r c o v e re d ro ta tin g d ru m is
su b s titu te d fo r th e sc a le a n d th e in s tru m e n t th e n
b e c o m e s a b a ro g ra p h . T h is in s tru m e n t i s u se d
b y th e m e te o ro lo g ist to m e a su re w h a t is k now n
a s p r e s s u r e t e n d e n c y , th e rise a n d fa ll o f p re ssu re
o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e . P re s su re te n d e n c y is an
im p o rta n t fo re c a s tin g tool.

Figure 2.5. Met Office Aneroid


Barometer

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE

Figure 2.6. A Barograph.


2 .4

IS A L L O B A R
A n isa llo b a r is a lin e jo in in g p la c e s o f th e sa m e p re ssu re tendency.

2-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

PRESSURE

METEOROLOGY
2.5

TY PES O F PRESSURE
a)

Q F E . T h e a tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re read fro m a b a ro m e te r o n

a n a irfield w ill giv e

th e a e r o d r o m e p r e s s u r e , o th e rw ise k n o w n a s Q F E .

Q FE 980 mb

Figure 2.8. QFE.


b)

Q F F . T h is is th e b a ro m e tric p re ssu re a t th e su rfa c e (Q F E ) re d u c e d to M S L u sin g the


o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re a t th e s u rfa ce ( th is th e re fo re assu m e s a n iso th erm al la y e r from
M S L to th e su rfa c e ). Q F F a c c o u n ts f o r th e e ffe c t th a t te m p e ra tu re h a s o n a p ressu re
read in g . F ro m F ig u re 2 .8 it c a n b e seen th a t alth o u g h th e p re ssu re a t th e a irfie ld w a s
9 8 0 m b /h P a, i f th e a irfie ld w a s ta k e n to M ea n S ea L ev el, th e p re ssu re w o u ld b e g re ater,
b u t a n a c c o u n t m u st a ls o b e m a d e o f th e e ffe c t th a t te m p e ra tu re h a s h a d o n th e pressu re .
T h is a llo w s u s to a c c u ra te ly d ra w su rfa c e p re ssu re c h arts. T h e co rrectio n to b e m ade
to th e s u rfa c e p re s s u re w ill d e p e n d o n th e h e ig h t o f th e s u rface (o r a irfie ld ) A M S L a nd
th e te m p e ra tu re p re v a ilin g a t th e tim e.
The

ra n g e o f Q F F so fa r rec o rd ed , low p re ssu re to h ig h p re ssu re , is fro m 85 6 to

1083 m b , b u t m e te o ro lo g ic a lly th e ran g e is ta k en fro m 9 5 0 to 1050 m b .


c)

Q N H . T h is is th e b a ro m e tric p re ssu re a t th e a irfield (Q F E ), r e d u c e d to M S L u sin g th e


IS A te m p e ra tu re a t th e a irfie ld . T h is w ill p ro v id e a p re ssu re w h ich d o e s n o t a c c o u n t for
a n y te m p e ra tu re d e v ia tio n a w ay from ISA . T h e c o rre c tio n to b e m ad e to th e surfa ce
p re s s u re w ill d e p e n d s o le ly u p o n th e h e ig h t o f th e a irfie ld A M S L .
In o r d e r to g e t Q N H a n d Q F F fro m a b aro m etric re a d in g a t a su rfa c e w e m u st u se a
f o rm u la e w h ic h w ill b e s h o w n o n th e n e x t p a g e.

It is n o t n e cessary to k n o w the

fo rm u la e a s s u c h , b u t it is v ita l to k n o w th e d iffe re n c e t h a t th e tem p e ra tu re d ev iatio n


w ill h av e w h e n b e in g a sk e d to a n a ly se Q N H an d Q F F .

2-4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE

T h e c o rre c tio n M (in h P a /m b ), to b e a d d e d o r s u b trac te d to th e b aro m etric p re ssu re is


g iv e n by:
M - p ( 1 0 m- 1)
W h e re m =

h_____
18429.1

and

+ 6 7 . 53t + 0.003h

p = b a ro m e te r lev el p re s s u re in hP a /m b
t = th e o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re a t sta tio n level in C (fo r Q F F c o rre ctio n use
o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re , f o r Q N H c o rre c tio n u se ISA tem p e ratu re)
h = th e h e ig h t o f th e sta tio n , in m etres, a b o v e th e level a t w h ic h th e c o rre cted
p re s s u re is re q u ire d i.e. a b o v e o r b e lo w m ean se a lev el fo r Q F F a n d Q N H ,
o ffic ia l a e ro d ro m e e le v a tio n fo r Q F E a n d to u c h d o w n z o n e e le v atio n fo r ru n w a y
Q F E . N o te th a t h w ill b e n e g ativ e i f b e lo w se a level.

E x a m p le 1:
1)

W h a t is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n Q F F an d Q N H given:
S ta tio n p re s s u re = 1020 hPa
S ta tio n h e ig h t = 5 0 m B F.L O W m sl
T e m p e ra tu re = 3 0 C
S ta tio n B E L O W s e a lev el, te m p e ra tu re W A R M E R th a n ISA.

a)

C a lc u la te Q F F u s in g th e fo rm u la e o n th e p re v io u s p ag e

M = -5.6 h P a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S ta tio n p re s su re 1020 - 5 .6 = Q F F 1014.4 h P a
b)

C a lc u la te Q N H u s in g th e fo rm u la e o n t h e p re v io u s pag e

M = -5.9 h P a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S ta tio n p re ssu re 1020 - 5 .9 = Q N H 1014.1 h P a

2-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE

E x a m p le 2:
1)

W h a t is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e en Q F F and Q N H given:


S ta tio n p re ssu re = 9 2 0 hPa
S ta tio n h e ig h t = 3 0 0 m A B O V E m sl
T e m p e ra tu re = - 2 0 C
S tatio n A B O V E sea lev el, tem p era tu re C O L D E R th a n ISA.

a)

C a lc u la te Q F F u s in g th e fo rm u lae o n th e p re v io u s page

M = 4 1 .2 hPa
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S tatio n p re ssu re 920 - 4 1 .2 = Q F F 961.2 h P a
b)

C a lc u la te Q N H u s in g th e fo rm u lae o n th e pre v io u s page

M = 3 6 .9 hP a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e ap p lie d is:
S tatio n p re ssu re 9 2 0 + 3 6.9 = Q N H 9 5 6 .9 h P a
SUM M ARY
S ta tio n s A B O V E M S L a ) H O T T E R than IS A
b)

C O L D E R than ISA

S ta tio n s B E L O W M S L a ) H O T T E R th a n ISA
b)

C O L D E R than ISA

2 -6

Q FF < QNH
Q FF > QNH
Q FF > QNH
QFF < QNH

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2.6

PRESSURE

V A R IA T IO N S O F P R E S S U R E
a)

H e ig h t. A lth o u g h p re s s u re w ill d e c re a se w ith an in c re a se in h e ig h t, d e n sity w ill a lso


d e c re a se a n d th e re fo re th e re d u c tio n in w eig h t o f a ir a b o v e a su rfa c e w ill n o t vary
lin e a rly . In th e IS A , a re d u c tio n in p re ssu re o f 1 m b w o u ld g iv e a h e ig h t d iffe re n c e of:
2 7 fe e t a t M S L

3 6 fe e t a t 1 0,000 ft

73 fe e t a t 3 0 ,0 0 0 ft
b)

S ee F ig u re 1.3.

D iu r n a l V a r ia tio n . T h e re is a c h a n g e in p re ssu re d u rin g th e d a y w h ic h a lth o u g h sm all


( a b o u t 1 m b ) in te m p e ra te la titu d e s, c a n b e a s m u c h a s 3 m b in th e tro p ic s a n d w o u ld
n e e d to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t w h e n c o n sid e rin g p re ssu re te n d e n c y a s a n in d ic atio n o f
ch a n g in g w e a th e r. T h e v a ria tio n is s h o w n in F ig u re 2.10.

TH E DIURNAL
VARIATION IN THE
TR O P IC S IS AS
M UCH AS

TH E DIUR NAL
VARIATION IN
TE M P ERA TE
LATITUDES IS
LESS THAN

1 mb
/ 'io o o X

3 m b
______

M IN IM U M
PR ESSU R E
A T 1600 A N D
0400

Jk

2200ANC

16 00

M A X IM U M
PRESSURE

07/J0

V ;

-----------------

0700

0400

MEA SI PRESSURE
REC( DRDED PRESSURE
Figure 2.10. Diurnal Variation.

T h e v a ria tio n is d iffic u lt to e x p la in , b u t is p ro b ab ly

due

to

a n a tu ra l o sc illa tio n o f th e

atm o sp h e re h a v in g a p e rio d o f a b o u t 12 h o u rs, th is o sc illa tio n b e in g m ain ta in e d b y th e 24


h o u r v a ria tio n o f te m p e ra tu re .

2-7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

PRESSURE

METEOROLOGY
2.7

P R E S S U R E D E F IN IT IO N S
QFE

T h e v a lu e o f p re ssu re , fo r a p a rtic u la r a e ro d ro m e a n d tim e, c o rrected


to th e o ffic ia l elev a tio n .

QFF

T h e v a lu e o f p re ssu re red u c ed to M S L in ac c o rd a n c e w ith iso th e rm a l

QNH

T h e v a lu e o f p re ssu re , fo r a p a rtic u la r a e ro d ro m e a n d tim e , correc ted

c o n d itio n s.

to th e M S L in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e I C A O sta n d a rd .
FO RECA ST Q NH

A f o re c a st, v a lid f o r o n e h o u r, o f th e lo w e st Q N H e x p e c te d in a n y p art

(R P S )

o f th e A ltim e te r S e ttin g R eg io n (A SR ).

QNE

T h e h e ig h t in d ic ated o n la n d in g a t a n a irfie ld w h en th e a ltim e te r s u b


s c a le is s e t to 1013 m b o r 2 9 .9 2 ins.

IS O B A R

A lin e jo in in g p lace s o f th e sam e a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re (u su a lly M S L


p re s s u re Q F F ).

IS A L L O B A R
2.8

A lin e jo in in g p la c e s o f th e sa m e p re ssu re ten d en c y .

S Y N O P T IC C H A R T S
Iso b a rs

on

sy n o p tic
M ean

n o rm al

c h a rts
Sea

a re

L evel

LOW

Iso b a rs (Q F F ) a n d are
n o rm a lly d ra w n
e v e ry

even

m illib a r , (i.e.
1002, etc .).
2 .1 1 .

fo r

w h o le
1000,
F ig u re

illu stra te s

th e

is o b a rs o n a sy n o p tic
c h art.
O n la rg e r a re a m a p s
th e sp a c in g m a y b e
ex p a n d e d to 4 o r m o re
m illib a rs b u t t h is w ill
be sta te d o n th e c h art.

Figure 2 .1 1 . Isobars on a Synoptic Chart.

2 -8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE

P r e s s u r e Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h e b a ro m e tric P re ssu re a t th e a irfie ld d a tu m p o in t is k n o w n as:


a)

QNE

b)

QNH

V c)
d)
2.

QFE
S ta n d a rd P re ssu re

T h e in stru m e n t th a t g iv e s a c o n tin u o u s p rin te d read in g a n d re co rd o f th e a tm o sp h e ric p ressu re


is:
a)

b aro m e te r

b)

h y g ro m e te r

c)

an e m o g ra p h

' d )
3.

4.

5.

b a ro g ra p h

T h e p re s s u re o f th e a tm o sp h ere:
a)

d e c re a s e s a t a n in c re a s in g ra te a s h e ig h t inc rea ses

b)

d e c re a s e s a t a c o n s ta n t r a te a s

c)

d e c re a s e s a t a d e c re a s in g ra te a s h e ig h t in creases

d)

d e c re a s e s a t a c o n s ta n t ra te u p to t h e tro p o p a u se a n d th e n re m a in s c o n sta n t

h e ig h t inc rea ses

W h e n c o n s id e rin g th e a c tu a l tr o p o p a u s e w h ic h s ta te m e n t is c orrect:
a)

i t is lo w o v e r th e p o le s a n d h ig h o v e r th e e q u a to r

b)

it is h ig h o v e r th e p o le s a n d lo w o v e r th e e q u a to r

c)

it is th e s a m e h e ig h t o f 3 6 0 9 0 f t a ll o v e r th e w o rld

d)

It is a t a c o n sta n t a ltitu d e o f 2 6 0 0 0 '

A tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re m a y b e d e fin e d as:


a)

th e w e ig h t o f th e a tm o sp h e re e x e rte d o n a n y su rfa c e w ith w h ic h i t is

b)

th e w e ig h t o f th e a tm o s p h e re a t sta n d a rd s e a level

{ c)
d)

in c o n tac t

th e fo rc e p e r u n it a re a e x e rte d b y th e a tm o sp h e re o n a n y su rfa c e w ith w h ic h it is in


c o n ta c t
a p re s s u re e x e rte d b y th e a tm o sp h e re o f 1013.2 m b s

2-9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
6.

PRESSURE

T h e Q F F is th e a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re :
a)

a t th e p la c e w h e re th e re a d in g is tak e n

b)

c o rre c te d fo r te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e fro m sta n d a rd an d a d ju ste d to M S L a ssu m in g


s ta n d a rd a tm o sp h e ric c o n d itio n s e x ist

vf c )

a t a p la c e w h e re th e re a d in g is ta k e n c o rre c te d to M S L ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e pre v ailin g


te m p e ra tu re c o n d itio n s

d)
7.

a s m e a su re d b y a b a ro m e te r a t th e a e ro d ro m e r e fe re n c e p oint.

W ith 1 013.25 m b s e t o n th e a ltim e te r s u b sc a le w ith a n a irc ra ft statio n a ry o n th e a irfie ld th e


a ltim e te r w ill read :

8.

^ a)

QNE

b)

QNH

c)

Q FE

d)

QFF

T h e a irc ra ft a ltim e te r w ill re a d z e ro a t a e ro d ro m e lev el w ith w h ich p re ssu re s e ttin g se t o n th e


a ltim e te r s u b scale:
a)

QFF

b)

QNH

c)

QNE

d)

QFE

Y o u a re p a s s e d a n a ltim e te r s e ttin g o f 2 9 .5 3 . Y o u w o u ld th e n se t y o u r a ltim e te r s u b scale to:


a)
b)

Q FF
1013

c)

1000

d)

QFE

T h e a e ro d ro m e Q F E is:
a)

th e re a d in g o n th e a ltim e te r o n a n a e ro d ro m e w h e n th e a e ro d ro m e b a ro m e tric p ressu re

b)

is s e t o n th e s u b scale
th e re a d in g o n th e a ltim e te r o n to u c h d o w n a t a n ae ro d ro m e w h en 1013.2 is se t o n the

c)

th e re a d in g o n th e a ltim e te r o n a n a e ro d ro m e w h en th e s e a level b a ro m e tric p re ssu re is

su b scale
se t o n t h e s u b s c a le
d)

th e a e ro d ro m e b a ro m e tric p re ssu re .

METEOROLOGY
1 1.

PRESSURE

W h e n a n a ltim e te r s u b s c a le is s e t to th e ae ro d ro m e Q F E , th e a ltim e te r reads:

12.

a)

th e ele v a tio n o f th e a e ro d ro m e at th e a ero d ro m e refe ren c e p o in t

b)

z e ro a t th e a e ro d ro m e r e fe re n c e p o in t

c)

th e p re s s u re a ltitu d e a t th e a e ro d ro m e re fe ren c e po in t

d)

the a p p ro p ria te a ltitu d e o f th e a ircra ft

T h e a e ro d ro m e Q N H is th e ae ro d ro m e b a ro m e tric p ressu re:


^

a)

c o rre c te d t o m e a n s e a lev el a s s u m in g s ta n d a rd a tm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s e x ist

b)

c o rre c te d to m e a n s e a le v e l, a ssu m in g iso th e rm a l c o n d itio n s e x ist

c)

c o rre c te d f o r te m p e ra tu re a n d a d ju ste d to M S L assu m in g sta n d a rd atm o sp h e re

d)

c o rre c te d to M S L u sin g a m b ie n t te m perature.

co n d itio n s e x ist

13.

A lin e d ra w n o n a c h a rt jo in in g p la c e s h a v in g th e sa m e b a ro m e tric p re ssu re a t th e sa m e level a nd


a t th e sam e tim e is :

14.

a)

a n iso th erm

b)

a n isa llo b a r

c)

a co n to u r

d)

an is o b a r

A n is o b a r o n a m e te o ro lo g ic a l c h a rt jo in s all p la c e s h a v in g th e sam e:
a)
I b)

15.

QFE
QFF

c)

QNH

d)

QNE

P re ssu re w ill---------------w ith in c re a se o f h e ig h t a n d w ill b e a b o u t--------------- a t 10000 f t a n d ---------- at 3 0 0 0 0 ft.

16.

a)

In crease

800 m b 400 m b

b)

D e c re a se

700 m b 300 m b

c)

In crease

200 m b 800 m b

d)

D e crease

500 m b 200 mb

A n a irfie ld in E n g la n d is 10 0 m a b o v e sea lev el, Q FF is 1030hP a, te m p e ratu re at th e surfa ce is


-1 5 C . W h a t is th e v a lu e o f Q N H ?
\ a )
b)

Im p o ssib le to d eterm in e
L ess th a n 1030hPa

c)

Sam e a s Q F F

d)

M o re th a n 1 0 3 0hP a

2-11

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

PRESSURE

METEOROLOGY
AN SW ERS

A nsw er

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

2-12

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R T H R E E - D E N S IT Y

C o n te n ts

Page
3.1

IN T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................... 3 - 1

3.2

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S O F P R E S S U R E O N D E N S I T Y ................................................3 - 1

3.3

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F T E M P E R A T U R E O N D E N S IT Y

..................................... 3 - 1

3 .4

A S IM P L E M A T H E M A T IC A L T R E A T M E N T ................................................................. 3 - 2

3.5

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F A L T IT U D E O N D E N S IT Y ..................................................3 - 2

3 .6

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F L A T IT U D E O N D E N S IT Y ..................................................3 - 2

3.7

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S IN D E N S IT Y O N A IR C R A F T O P E R A T I O N S

D E N S IT Y Q U E S T IO N S

3 -3

.............................................................................................................................. 3 - 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

DENSITY

METEOROLOGY
3.1

IN T R O D U C T I O N
D e n s ity m ay b e d e fin e d a s m a s s p e r u n it v o lu m e a n d m a y b e e x p re sse d as:
a)

G ra m m e s p e r c u b ic m etre.

b)

A p e rc e n ta g e o f th e sta n d a rd s u rfa c e d e n sity - re la tiv e d e n s ity .

c)

T h e a ltitu d e in th e sta n d a rd a tm o sp h e re to w h ich th e o b se rv e d

d e n sity co rresp o n d s

- d e n s ity a ltitu d e .
3 .2

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S O F P R E S S U R E O N D E N S IT Y
A s p re s s u re in a c o n ta in e r o f u n it v o lu m e is in cre ase d , th e m ass o f a ir w ill b e incre ased
a n d th e re fo re th e d e n sity w ill rise . L ik e w ise , i f th e p re ssu re is re d u c e d , th e m a ss o f a ir w ill
d e c re a se a n d so w ill th e d en sity .

W e c a n th e re fo re s a y that:
D E N S IT Y I S D I R E C T L Y P R O P O R T I O N A L T O P R E S S U R E .
In th e atm o sp h e re d e n sity can b e d e c re a se d b y r a isin g the
v o lu m e o f a ir to a g re a te r h e ig h t s in c e w e k n o w that
p re s s u re d e c re a s e s w ith a n in c re a se in a ltitu d e . S im ilarly,
d e n s ity c a n b e in c re a se d b y lo w e rin g th e v o lu m e o f a ir to
a lo w e r height.
3.3

E FFE C T O F CHANGE O F TEM PER A TU R E ON

DECREASE
P

D E N S IT Y
I f a v o lu m e o f a ir is h e a te d it w ill e x p a n d a n d th e m ass o f
air co n ta in e d in u n it v o lu m e w ill b e le ss. T h u s de n sity
w ill d e c r e a s e w ith a n in c r e a s e in te m p e ra tu re a n d w e c a n
say:
D E N S IT Y IS I N V E R S E L Y P R O P O R T I O N A L T O T E M P E R A T U R E .

3-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
3 .4

DENSITY

A S IM P L E M A T H E M A T IC A L T R E A T M E N T
T h e F u n d a m e n ta l G a s E q u a tio n (B o y le s + C h a rle s L aw s)
RT

sa y s th a t

(w h e re R = g a s c o n sta n t)

but p
V

P
an d

W h e re P
R

P re ssu re

G a s c o n sta n t

T e m p e ratu re

D e n sity

N o te : R fo r w a te r v a p o u r is 1.6 x th a t f o r d ry air.
T h e re fo re : p f o r w a te r v a p o u r is le s s th a n fo r d r y a ir a n d so p f o r m o is t a ir m u st b e less th a n p
fo r d r y a ir.
3 .5

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F A L T I T U D E O N D E N S IT Y
A lth o u g h ra isin g a n d th u s e x p a n d in g th e v o lu m e o f a ir w ill d e c re a se its d e n sity d u e to th e
re d u c tio n o f p re ssu re , a t th e sa m e tim e th e tem p e ra tu re w ill d ec re a se a n d th e re fo re th e d e n sity
sh o u ld in c re a se , th e o n e e ffe c t c a n c e llin g o u t th e o th e r. In fa c t, th e re is a g re a te r r e d u c tio n in
p re s s u re a s h e ig h t in c re a se s a n d th e o v e ra ll e ffe c t is fo r th e d e n sity to d e c re a s e w ith an
in c r e a s e o f h e ig h t.
(p - 100% a t s e a lev el, 5 0 % a t 2 0 ,0 0 0 ', 2 5 % a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 ' a n d 10% a t 6 0 ,000')
D e n sity w ill c h a n g e b y 1% f o r a 3 d e g re e c h a n g e in tem p e ra tu re o r a 10 m b ch a n g e in p ressu re.

3 .6

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F L A T I T U D E O N D E N S IT Y
a)

a t t h e s u r f a c e d e n s ity i n c r e a s e s w ith a n in c r e a s e in latitu d e.

b)

a t a b o u t 2 6 ,0 0 0 f t d e n s ity re m a in s c o n s ta n t w ith a n in cre ase in latitude.

c)

a b o v e 2 6 ,0 0 0 f t d e n sity d e c r e a s e s w ith a n in c r e a s e in latitu d e. (M a x im u m d ev iatio n


fro m s ta n d a rd o c c u rs a t a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 ft.)

3-2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

DENSITY

METEOROLOGY

Figure 3.1. The Effect o f Latitude on Density.


T h u s a irc ra ft w ith p o o r p e rfo rm a n c e a t lo w le v e ls w ill p e rfo rm b e tte r a b o v e th e tro p o p a u se a t
th e e q u a to r th a n a t th e p o le s.
3 .7

E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S IN D E N S IT Y O N A IR C R A F T O P E R A T IO N S
a)

A c c u ra c y o f a irc ra ft in stru m e n ts - M a c h m e te rs, A SIs.

b)

A irc ra ft a n d e n g in e p e rfo rm a n c e - lo w d e n sity w ill r e d u c e l ift, in c re a s e t a k e o f f r u n ,


r e d u c e m a x im u m ta k e o f f w e ig h t.
(L = C l '/2PV 2S)
W h e re L

L ift

c,

C o e ffic ie n t o f L ift

D en sity

TAS

W in g are a

3-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

DENSITY

A irfie ld s a ffe c te d w o u ld be:

c)

i)

H ig h

ii)

H ot

D enver
B a h ra in

N a iro b i

S aa n a

K h a rto u m

S in g a p o re

H u m id ity g e n e ra lly h a s a sm all e ffe c t o n d e n sity (h u m id ity re d u c e s d e n sity ), b u t


m u s t b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t a t m o ist tro p ic a l a irfie ld s,

3-4

e.g. B a h ra in , S ingapore.

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

DENSITY

METEOROLOGY
D e n s ity Q u e s tio n s
1.

C o n sid e r th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts re la tiv e to A ir D en sity a n d se le c t th e o n e w h ic h is c orrect:

a)

B e c a u se a ir d e n s ity in c re a s e s w ith d e c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re , a ir d e n sity m u st in crease


w ith in c re a se o f h e ig h t in th e In te rn atio n a l S ta n d a rd A tm o sp h e re (IS A ).

b)

A t a n y g iv e n su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re th e a ir d e n s ity w ill b e g re a te r in an ticy clo n ic


c o n d itio n s th a n it w ill b e w h e n th e M S L p re ssu re is low er.

c)

A ir d e n s ity in c re a se s w ith in c re a se o f re la tiv e h u m id ity .

d)

T h e e ffe c t o f c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re o n th e a ir d e n sity is m u c h g re a te r th a n th e e ff e c t o f
c h a n g e o f a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re .

T h e tro p o p a u se in m id la titu d e s is:

a)

L o w e r in su m m e r w ith a lo w e r te m perature.

b)

L o w e r in w in te r w ith a h ig h e r te m p e ratu re.

c)

L o w e r in su m m e r w ith a h ig h e r tem p era tu re .

d)

L o w e r in w in te r w ith a lo w e r te m p eratu re.

G e n e ra lly a s a ltitu d e in c re a se s:
a)

te m p e ra tu re d e c re a se s a n d d e n sity incre ases

b)

te m p e ra tu re , p re ssu re a n d d e n s ity d ecrease s

c)

te m p e ra tu re a n d p re ss u re in c re a se a n d d e n sity dec rea ses

d)

te m p e ra tu re d e c re a se s a n d p re s s u re d e n s ity in c rea ses

In t h e tro p o sp h e re :
a)

o v e r c o ld air, th e p re s s u re is h ig h e r a t u p p e r lev e ls th a n a t s im ila r lev e ls o v e r w a rm a ir

b)

o v e r c o ld a ir, th e p re ssu re is lo w e r a t u p p e r lev e ls th a n a t s im ila r le v e ls o v e r w arm air

O
d)

o v e r w a rm a ir, th e p re ss u re is lo w e r a t u p p e r lev e ls th a n a t s im ila r le v e ls o v e r w arm a ir


th e u p p e r lev el p re s s u re d e p e n d s s o le ly o n th e relativ e h u m id ity b elo w

D e n sity a t th e s u rfa c e w ill b e lo w w hen:


a)

P re ssu re is h ig h a n d te m p e ra tu re is h igh.

b)

P re ssu re is h ig h a n d te m p e ra tu re is low .

o)

P re ssu re is lo w a n d te m p e ra tu re is low .

d)

P re ssu re is lo w a n d te m p e ra tu re is h igh.

3-5

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

DENSITY

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

3-6

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R F O U R - S Y N O P T IC C H A R T S

C o n te n ts

Page
4. 1

D E F I N I T I O N .......................................................................................................................................4 - 1

4. 2

O B S E R V A T I O N S .......................................

4. 3

T I M I N G .................................................................................................................................................4 - 2

4 .4

P L O T T IN G ......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 2

4. 5

D E C O D E .............................................................................................................................................. 4 - 3

4 .6

A N A L Y S IS ......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 5

4 .7

P R O G N O S T IC C H A R T S ..............................................................................................................4 - 8

4 .8

E X E R C IS E S .......................................................................................................................................4 - 9

4 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
4.

D E F IN IT IO N
S y n o p tic M e te o ro lo g y is d e fin e d a s b e in g c o n c e rn e d w ith a d e s c r ip tio n o f c u r r e n t w e a th e r
re p re se n te d o n g e o g ra p h ic a l c h a rts a n d a p p lied esp e c ia lly to th e f o r e c a s tin g o f f u tu r e w e a th e r.

4 .2

O B S E R V A T IO N S
W e a th e r fo re c a s tin g h a s a lw a y s d e p e n d e d u p o n a c c u ra te o b se rv a tio n o f th e w e a th e r p rev a ilin g
a n d th e av a ila b ility o f th a t in fo rm a tio n to all fo re c a ste rs. O b se rv a tio n s m ad e a t o b serv in g
sta tio n s, w ill b e e n c o d e d in a u n iv e rsa lly re c o g n ise d nu m erica l c o d e ( th e S Y N O P C O D E ), se n t
to a c e n tra l co m m u n ic a tio n c e n tre (in th e U K th e N a tional M e te o ro lo g ic al C e n tre (N M C ),
B ra c k n e ll) a n d th e n re -tra n sm itte d to all in te re ste d p a rtie s in b u lle tin form .
F ig u re 4 .1 . is a n e x a m p le o f c o d e d o b s e rv a tio n s from L o n d o n /H e ath ro w . Y o u w ill n o t be
r e q u ire d to d e c o d e su c h a m e ssa g e , b u t i t is sh o w n fo r in fo rm a tio n purp o ses.

->

BLOCK NO (UK)
STATION NO (LHR)
"A ,
-J ,

CLOUD COVER
WIND VELOCITY (290/15)
0}

Cf*
9

VISIBILTY
PRESENT WEATHER
PAST WEATHER
MSL PRESSURE
DRY BULB PRESSURE

AMOUNT TYPE & LOW CLOUD


TYPE OF MEDIUM CLOUD
V ,
TYPF OF HIGH CLOUD "
DEW POINT TEMP <$,
PRESSURE TENDENCY

O'

RAINFALL *0
MAX OR MIN TEMP
AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT
OF LOWEST CLOUD

o'

AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT


OF SECOND CLOUD LAYER

Figure 4.1. Heathrow Weather


4- 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
4 .3

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

T IM IN G
M a in o b se rv a tio n s a re m a d e a t 0 0 0 0 , 0 6 0 0 , 1200 a n d 1800 U T C : in te r m e d ia te a t 0 3 0 0 ,
0 9 0 0 , 1500 a n d 2 1 0 0 U T C .

4 .4

P L O T T IN G
T h e in fo rm a tio n f o r e a c h o b se rv in g sta tio n is p lo tte d in a sta n d a rd fo rm a t o f n u m b e rs an d
s y m b o ls a ro u n d th e sta tio n o n a g e o g ra p h ic a l chart.
E x a m p le s o f a b la n k s y n o p tic c h a rt ( F ig u re 4 .2 ) a n d a s ta tio n p lo t (F ig u re 4 .3 ) a re show n:

Figure 4.2. Synoptic Chart.

4 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
4.5

DECODE
A fu ll d e c o d e o f th e n u m b e rs a n d s y m b o ls follow :

Figure 4.4. Station Circle Decode.

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Figure 4.5 The

4 -4

METEOROLOGY
1.

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

I f th e re are n o sy m b o ls in th e p a s t w e a th e r po sitio n th e n it m e an s th a t o b se rv e d w e a th e r w as n o t
sig n ific a n t.

2.

P a s t w e a th e r c a n h a v e d o u b le sy m b o l (W , W 2) e g .

R ain s h o w e rs in th e p a s t 6 ho u rs O R a d o u b le p re c ip ita tio n sy m b o l as


d is tin c t fro m a sin g le sym bol:

V*

3.

R ain sh o w e rs th ro u g h o u t th e p a st 6 h ours.

R ain in th e p a s t 6 h o u rs.

R ain th ro u g h o u t th e p a st 6 h o u rs (N O T E : n o t s lig h t c o n tin u o u s rain).

I f p a s t w e a th e r h a s a d o u b le c h a ra c te r b u t u sin g d iffe re n t sy m b o ls e.g.

or

th e n th e firs t sy m b o l is th e d o m in a n t c h a ra c te ristic . H en c e th e d e c o d e fo r th e tw o e x am p le s
a b o v e w o u ld b e re sp ectiv ely :
R ain d u rin g th e p a s t 6 h o u rs w ith so m e d rizzle: S n o w d u rin g th e p a st 6 h o u rs w ith so m e rain.
4.

P a s t w e a th e r is in th e p a s t 6 h o u rs fo r s y n o p tic tim es: 0 0 0 0 , 0 6 0 0 , 1200, 1800 z.


P a st w e a th e r is in th e p a s t 3 h o u rs f o r s y n o p tic tim es: 0 3 0 0 , 0 9 0 0 ,1 5 0 0 ,2 1 0 0 z.
P a st w e a th e r r e p o rts f o r a n y o th e r tim e s r e fe r to w e a th e r in th e p a st h our.

4 .6

A N A L Y S IS
a)

Iso b a r s. O n c e th e d a ta h a s b e e n p lo tte d o n th e c h a rt, th e m e te o ro lo g ist w ill d ra w in th e


iso b a r s, u sin g th e p lo tte d v a lu e s o f Q F F , u su a lly f o r e v en w h o le n u m b e rs o n a c h art
o f th is size. C h a rts c o v e rin g a g re a te r a re a , like th e N o rth A tla n tic , m ay sp a ce th e iso b ars
ev e ry fo u r o r e v e n e ig h t m illib ars.

b)

F r o n ts. T h e p o s itio n in g o f fr o n ts o n th e c h a rt w ill re q u ire a little m o re sk ill an d a


k n o w le d g e o f th e w e a th e r c h a n g e s to b e e x p e cted a t fro n ta l p a ssa g e . It is co m m o n
n o w a d a y s f o r th is p lo ttin g p ro c e d u re to b e c o m p le tely c o m p u te rise d a n d th e resu ltin g
c h a rts to b e d e sp a tc h e d b y F ax.

Figure 4.6. is an example o f a completed (analysed) surface chart.

4 -5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

METEOROLOGY

4 -6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Figure 4.7 N. Atlantic ASXX Analysis for 0000UTC 22 Nov


4 -7

P R O G N O S T IC C H A R T S
It is fro m th e se s y n o p tic c h a rts th a t th e m e te o ro lo g ist m akes u p h is fo re ca st o r p ro g n o stic chart. E x a m p les o f an aly se d an d p ro g nostic ch a rts fo r th e N o rth
A tla n tic are show n:

Figure 4.8 N. Atlantic FSXX Forecast Valid for OOOOUTC 23 Nov

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
4 .8

E X E R C IS E S
W e u se a n u m b e r o f th e s e s y n o p tic c h a rts in p r a c tic a l e x erc ises in th is c o u rse a n d y o u w ill n e e d
to b e a b le to d e d u c e th e o b se rv e d w e a th e r fro m th e p lo tte d s ta tio n circles.
A sim p le e x e rc ise u s in g s u c h a c h a rt is ap p e n d e d to t h is c h a p te r ( C h a rt 8 5.3). It c o v e rs M S L
p re s s u re , p re s s u re te n d e n c y a n d is o b a r v alu es. M ore d e ta ile d e x e rc ise s w ill fo llo w later.
S T A T I O N C I R C L E D E C O D E E X E R C I S E (C H A R T 8 5 /3 )
W h a t is th e p re s s u re a n d p re ss u re te n d e n c y a t th e s ta tio n s listed b e lo w a n d w h a t is th e v alu e o f
th e iso b a r to th e s o u th o f ea c h sta tio n ?
1.

48N

05W

2.

SON

06W

3.

56N

04'/2W

4.

47I/2N

3W

5.

53VSN

6.

51N

15W

7.

56H N

07W

13'/2W

8.

54N

10W

9.

55 V2N

07 A W

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

Crown copyright

Chart 85/3
4-10

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SYNOPTIC CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

PRESSU RE T ENDENCY

PRESSU RE
1004

1.4 F a ll/S lig h t rise

1000

0 .2 S lig h t fall/rise

994

0.1 S lig h t rise /fa ll

1006

1.2 F a ll/S lig h t rise

996

0 .0 S lig h t rise/fall

1002

0 .8 F a ll/S lig h t rise

992

0 .4 F a ll/slig h t rise

990

0 .8 Fall

992

0 .4 F a ll/ste ad y

4- 1 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R F IV E - P R E S S U R E SY ST E M S

C o n te n ts

Page
5.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ..............................................................................................................................5 - 1

5 .2

D E P R E S S I O N S ...................................................................................................................................5 - 1

5 .3

D E P R E S S IO N W E A T H E R

5 .4

A N T I C Y C L O N E S ..............................................................................................................................5 - 2

5 .5

A N T IC Y C L O N IC W E A T H E R .....................................................................................................5 - 4

5 .6

T R O U G H S .............................................................................................................................................5 - 5

5 .7

TROUGH W EATHER

5 .8

R I D G E S ..................................................................................................................................................5 - 7

5 .9

R ID G E W E A T H E R ........................................................................................................................... 5 - 8

5 .1 0

A R ID G E B E T W E E N T W O L O W S .......................................................................................... 5 - 8

5.11

C O L S .......................................................................................................................................................5 - 8

..........................................................................................................5 - 2

....................................................................................................................5 - 6

5 .1 2

C O L W E A T H E R ................................................................................................................................ 5 - 8

5.13

P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S M O V E M E N T ................................................................................... 5 - 1 0

5 .14

T E R M IN O L O G Y

........................................................................................................................... 5 - 1 1

5.15

B U Y S B A L L O T S L A W .................................................................................................................5 - 1 1

5 .1 6

P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T ................................................................................................................ 5 - 1 2
P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................5 - 1 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
5.1

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

IN T R O D U C T IO N
Is o b a rs

can

fo rm

p a tte rn s,

w h ic h w h e n th e y a re rec o g n iz e d ,
c a n h e lp u s fo re c a st th e w eath er.
T h e s e p a tte rn s a re c a lle d p re ssu re
d is tr ib u tio n

s y ste m s.

T hey

in c lu d e:
a)

D e p re ssio n s, o r low s.

b)

A n tic y c lo n e s, o r h ighs.

c)

T ro u g h s.

d)

R id g es.

e)

C o ls.

f)

S e c o n d a ry d e p re s s io n s
(S e e C h a p te r 2 2 )

5 .2

Figure 5.1. A Depression in the Northern


Hemisphere.

D E P R E S S IO N S
A d e p re ss io n

is

co m p a ra tiv e ly
sh o w n
and

a re g io n o f
D IV E R G E N C E

lo w p re ssu re

b y m o re o r le s s c irc u la r
c o n c e n tric

is o b a rs

su rro u n d in g th e c e n tre , w h e re

p re ssu re is lo w est. A d e p re ssio n


is s o m e tim e s c a lle d a lo w o r a

c y c lo n e .
T h e re

A !

a re

tw o

d e p re s s io n ,

ty p e s

fro n ta l

of

d e p re s s io n

and

sh o w n in F ig u re 5.2 .

a ir a s

lo w

(in

h e m isp h e re )

th e
an d

n o rth e rn

I
JH ? 7

r 1

AA szCTg-

LO W PRESSURE
CONVERGENCE

a c ro s s th e

iso b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre.

S u rfa c e

w in d s b lo w a n tic lo c k w is e a ro u n d
a

i '|

is a r e g io n o f

c o n v e r g in g a n d r is in g

ASCENT

n o n - f r o n ta l.
A

A /
A A

////////////////,
Fig 5.2. Vertical Cross Section.

5 -1

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
5.3

D E P R E S S IO N W E A T H E R
C lo u d

8/8 e x te n d in g to tro p o p a u se an d w ith a low base.

P r e c ip ita tio n

C an

be

c o n t in u o u s

l ig h t

to m o d e r a te a n d a l s o h e a v y s h o w e r s a n d

th u n d e rsto rm s.
V isib ility

P o o r in p re c ip ita tio n , o th erw ise g o o d d u e to a sc e n d in g a ir.

T e m p e r a tu r e

M ild.

W in d s

W in d s a re u su a lly s tro n g - th e d e e p e r th e d e p re ssio n a n d th e c lo se r th e isobars,


th e stro n g e r th e w in d .

5.4

A N T IC Y C L O N E S
A n a n tic y c lo n e o r h ig h is a re g io n o f re la tiv e ly high p re ssu re sh o w n b y m o re o r le ss circ u la r
iso b a rs s im ila r to a d e p re ssio n b u t w ith h ig h e r p re ssu re a t th e centre.
Iso b a rs are m o re w id e ly s p a c e d th a n w ith d e p ressio n s. T h e re a re th r e e ty p e s o f a n tic y c lo n e ,
w a r m , c o ld a n d te m p o r a r y c o ld . T h e y a re r e g io n s o f d iv erg in g an d d esce n d in g air. S u rfac e
w in d s b lo w c lo c k w ise in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h ere a n d a cro ss th e iso b a rs a w a y fro m th e c entre.

Figure 5.3 An Anticyclone in the Northern


Hemisphere.
5 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
W a r m A n tic y c lo n e s
W a rm a n tic y c lo n e s a re c a u s e d by
a n e x c e ss o f a ir a t h ig h level. T h e
d e s c e n d in g a ir w ill b e h e a te d b y
c o m p re s s io n

and

su rface

te m p e ra tu re s w ill rise a s a resu lt.


W a rm

a n tic y c lo n e s

n o rm a lly

o c c u r in lo w e r la titu d e s.
C o ld A n tic y c lo n e s
T h e s e a re c a u se d b y h ig h d e n s ity
a n d lo w s u r f a c e te m p e r a t u r e s .
A s a re s u lt, c o ld a n tic y c lo n e s
o c c u r in P o la r a n d h ig h la titu d e s
a n d a re m o re se a so n a l (W in te r)
th a n w a rm a n tic y c lo n e s.

Figure 5.4. Vertical Cross Section.

T e m p o r a r y C o ld A n tic y c lo n e s
A te m p o ra ry c o ld a n tic y c lo n e is
p ro d u c e d in th e c o ld a ir b e tw e e n
d e p re ssio n s o n th e p o la r front.
W hen

e v e n tu a lly th e

c o ld

a ir

te rm in a te s th e se rie s o f lo w s, th e
c o ld a n tic y c lo n e m ay b e o f so m e
s iz e th o u g h n o t o f g re a t d ep th .
O v e r th e se a , a n d o v e r th e la n d in
S u m m e r, s u c h a n a n tic y c lo n e w ill
la s t o n ly a few d a y s to b e re p la c e d
b y th e su b se q u e n t p o la r fro n ta l
d e p re ssio n .

Figure 5.5 A Temporary Cold Anticyclone.

5 -3

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
B lo c k in g A n tic y c lo n e s

W a rm a n tic y c lo n e s, w h ic h a re o fte n a n e x te n sio n o f h ig h p re ssu re a re a s d e v elo p ed in th e su b


tro p ic a l re g io n s, m a y h o ld u p o r d iv e rt th e n o rm al w est-ea st p assag e o f p o la r fro n t d ep re ssio n s
a n d p e rs is t f o r se v e ra l day s. T h e d ia g ra m sh o w s h o w th e u su al w e st-e a st f lo w b e c o m e s m o re
n o rth -so u th , o r m er id io n a l a s th e e ffe c t o f th e e x te n sio n o f th e A z o re s H igh a ffe c ts th e a ir flow .
T h e re is a d e c id e d te n d e n c y f o r b lo c k in g h ig h s to p e rsist in c ertain g eo g rap h ic a re a s su c h a s 10
to 2 0 W o v e r th e N o rth A tla n tic . T h e a ir w ith in th e s y ste m s is s u b sid in g d o w n fro m h ig h levels
a n d th is m e a n s th a t e x te n siv e sh e e ts o f S tra tu s o r S trato c u m u lu s m ay d e v e lo p b u t th e re w ill be
little v e rtical e x te n t. It is w o rth n o tin g th a t a w a rm a n tic y clo n e, in t h e S o u th , m a y jo in u p w ith
a c o ld a n tic y c lo n e fro m th e N o rth to c re ate t h is m e rid io n al flow .

Figure 5.3a. High from Azores to Scandinavia.

A N T IC Y C L O N IC W E A T H E R
C lo u d
P r e c ip ita tio n
V isib ility

N o n e e x c e p t o n th e ed g e o f th e a n tic y clo n e.
N one.
G e n e ra lly p o o re r th a n w ith a d ep re ssio n . A u tu m n /W in te r - fo g early m o rn in g
a n d nig h t. S u m m e r - h a ze is p o ssib le , o th erw ise good.

T e m p e r a tu r e
W in d s

D e p e n d e n t o n type.
Light.

5 -4

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METEOROLOGY
5 .6

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

TROUGHS
T ro u g h s o f lo w p re ssu re a re in d ic a te d b y iso b a rs e x te n d in g o u tw a rd s fro m a n area o f low
p re s s u re s o th a t th e p re s su re is lo w e r in th e tro u g h th a n o n e ith e r side.

Figure 5.6. A Trough of Low Pressure.

5 -5

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METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

TROUGH W EATHER
N o n - f r o n ta l: G re a t v ertic al d ev e lo p m e n t o f c lo u d - C U a n d C B .
F r o n t a l : T h e c lo u d w ill d e p en d o n w h e th e r c o ld a ir is overtak in g
w a rm , w h e n th e c lo u d te n d s to b e a s a b o v e, o r i f w a rm a ir is overtak in g
co ld , in w h ic h c a se th e c lo u d is lik ely to h a v e m u c h le ss v e rtical
d e v e lo p m e n t.
P r e c ip ita tio n

S h o w e rs, th u n d e rsto rm s, h a il, w ith n on fro n ta l o r c o ld fro n t; c o n tin u o u s


d riz z le , lig h t o r m o d era te rain w ith w a rm fro n ta l tro u g h .
F a ir e x c e p t in sh o w ers, th o u g h a t a w a rm fro n tal tro u g h v isib ility w ill
b e p o o r in c o n tin u o u s rain.
M o d e ra te w ith g u sts an d squalls.

Crown Copyright

Figure 5.7. A Frontal Trough Extending from the North

5 -6

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METEOROLOGY

5.8

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

RIDGES
R id g es o f h ig h p re s s u re a re in d ic a te d b y iso b a rs ex te n d in g o u tw a rd s fro m a n a n ticy c lo n e
a n d a lw a y s ro u n d e d , n e v e r V -sh a p e d a s s ee n in a trough. T h e y a re a lso so m e tim e s r e fe rre d to
a s 'w ed g es'.

Figure 5.8. A Ridge o f High Pressure.

5 -7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
5.9

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

R ID G E W E A T H E R
R id g e w e a th e r is s im ila r to a n tic y c lo n ic w e ath e r.

5.10

A R ID G E B E T W E E N T W O L O W S
A rid g e o fte n b rin g s a p e rio d o f g o o d w e a th e r b e tw e e n tw o dep ressio n s

5.11

COLS
C o ls are re g io n s o f a lm o st lev el p re s s u re b e tw e e n tw o h ig h s a n d tw o lo w s. It is a n a re a o f
s ta g n a tio n . T h is is illu stra te d in F ig u re 5.9.

5 .1 2

COL W EATHER
C o l w e a th e r is n o rm a lly se ttle d , b u t is d e p e n d e n t o n c h a n g in g p ressu re.
In a u tu m n a n d w in te r c o ls p ro d u c e p o o r v isib ility a n d fog, w h ilst in s u m m e r th u n d e rsto rm s a re
c o m m o n . F ig u re 5 .1 0 is a n e x a m p le o f a w e a th e r f o re c a st fo r a d a y w h e n a c o l in flu e n ce d th e
w e a th e r o v e r th e U .K .

WEATHER / July 2 3

METEOROLOGY
5.13

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

PR ESSU R E SY STEM S M O VEM ENT


W e a th e r p a tte rn s (p re s s u re s y ste m s) v a ry a c ro ss t h e g lo b e. T h e y a re m o b ile in h ig h la titu d es
w h ile slo w m o v in g in e q u a to ria l la titu d e s. P a tte rn s o f iso b a rs w h ic h in d ic a te w e a th e r w ill re tain
th e ir g en eral sh a p e w h ile m o v in g , b u t c h a n g e th e ir nu m e ric al v alue.
M o v e m e n t o f th e s y ste m s is th e k e y to a c c u ra te fo rec astin g .
T h e f o llo w in g fig u re s sh o w th e m o v e m e n t o f w e a th e r o v e r a p e rio d o f fo u r s u cc essiv e d ays.

Figure 5.11. Maintenance o f Shape.

5-10

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
5.1 4

T E R M IN O L O G Y
D e p r e ssio n s w ill fill u p o r d e c a y a s p re ssu re rises.
D e p r e ssio n s w ill d e e p e n a s p re ssu re fa lls.
D e p r e ssio n s m o v e ra p id ly , th e ir a v e ra g e lifetim e is 14 d ays.
A n tic y c lo n e s w ill b u ild u p a s p re s s u re rises.
A n tic y c lo n e s w ill w e a k e n o r c o lla p se a s p re ssu re falls.
A n tic y c lo n e s a re v e ry slo w m o v in g , th e y c a n la st f o r a len g th y p e rio d , u p t o 6 m onths.
C o ls la s t a few d a y s o n ly a n d a re th e n a b so rb e d into o th e r system s.
C h a n g e s o f sh a p e a n d in te n sity are slig h t in tro p ic al r e g io n s w h e re p re ssu re is g e n e ra lly lo w , b ut
in te m p e ra te a n d p o la r la titu d e s c h a n g e s are m u c h m o re v aried a n d rapid.

5.1 5

B U Y S B A L L O T S L A W
In th e 19th c e n tu ry th e D u tc h m e te o ro lo g ist B u y s B a llo t p ro d u c e d a la w b a se d o n th e observ a tio n
o f w in d d irec tio n a n d p re ssu re sy stem s.
B u y s B a llo t's L a w s ta te s th a t;I f a n o b s e rv e r s ta n d s w ith h is b a c k to the
w in d , th e lo w e r p re s s u re is o n h is le ft in
th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , a n d o n h is rig h t
in th e so u th e rn h em isp h e re .
A c o ro lla ry o f th is la w is th a t i f y o u a re
e x p e rie n c in g

s ta rb o a rd

d r if t

in

th e

n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re y o u a re h e a d in g
to w a rd s lo w p re ssu re . T h is is illu stra te d
in F ig u re 5.12.

Figure 5.12. A Corollary of Buys Ballot's Law.

5-11

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METEOROLOGY
5 . 16

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T
T h e p re s s u re g ra d ie n t is th e d iffe re n c e in
p re s s u re

b e tw e e n

c o n se c u tiv e

iso b ars

d iv id e d b y th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e m , th is
is illu stra te d in F ig u re 5.13.
N ote.
T h e g re a te r th e p re s su re c h a n g e fo r a
g iv e n d is ta n c e th e fa s te r th e w in d v e lo city

A ir trie s to m o v e fro m h ig h to

low

p re s s u re a n d t h is w ill g e n e ra te a p re ssu re
g ra d ie n t fo rc e w h ic h d e v e lo p s in to th e
w in d v e lo c ity th a t w e fe e l. T h is w ill b e
d is c u s s e d in fu ll in c h a p te r 11.

Figure 5.14. W hy Speed Depends on


Gradient.

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
P re ssu r e S y ste m s Q u e stio n s
1.

A tro u g h o f lo w p re ssu re is g e n e ra lly a s s o c ia te d w ith:


a)

2.

c o n v e rg e n c e c a u s in g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d p re c ip ita tio n

b)

d iv e rg e n c e c a u s in g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d p re cip itatio n

c)

s u b sid e n c e c a u sin g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d prec ip ita tio n

d)

s u b sid e n c e c a u sin g d e c re a se d c lo u d a n d p rec ip ita tio n

A rid g e o f h ig h p re ssu re is g e n e ra lly a ss o c ia te d w ith:


a)

c o n v e rg e n c e c a u sin g in c re a s e d c lo u d a n d p recip itatio n

b)

d iv e rg e n c e c a u s in g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d p rec ip ita tio n

c)
d)

d iv e rg e n c e c a u s in g c lo u d to b re a k u p a n d m o re p re cip itatio n
d iv e rg e n c e an d su b sid e n c e c a u sin g c le a r sk ie s a n d g o o d w e a th e r

3. A sm all lo w e s ta b lis h e d w ith in th e c irc u la tio n o f a n o th e r low is c a lle d


a)

a tro u g h

b)

a col

c)

a n an tic y c lo n e

d)

a s e c o n d a ry d e p re ssio n

A n a re a o f in d e te rm in a te p re s su re b e tw e e n tw o lo w s a n d tw o h ig h s is c alled:

a)

a tro u g h

b)

a rid g e

c)

a col

d)

a sa d d le

A tro u g h o f lo w p re s s u re is:
a)

a s m all lo w e s ta b lis h e d w ith in th e c irc u la tio n o f a n o th e r low

b)

a n e x te n s io n o r e lo n g a tio n o f a lo w p re ssu re sy stem a lo n g a n a x is o n e ac h s id e o f w hich

c)

p re s s u re in c re a se s
a c e n tre o f p re s s u re s u rro u n d e d o n a ll sid e s b y h ig h e r p ressu re

d)

a n a re a w h e re th e p re s s u re is lo w e r th a n a n y w h e re e ls e in th e a re a

5-13

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METEOROLOGY
6.

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

I f in th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re a n a irc ra ft in flig h t a t 2 0 0 0 ft is e x p e rie n c in g s ta rb o a rd d rift, the


a irc ra ft is f ly in g to w ard s:

7.

a)

a n a re a o f h ig h p re ssu re

b)

a n a re a o f lo w p re s s u re

c)

a w a rm fro n t

d)

a d e p re ssio n

In th e S o u th e rn H e m isp h e re , th e s u rfa c e w in d s a t B 1 ; a n d C 2 w o u ld b e resp e ctiv ely :


a)

c lo c k w ise a c ro s s th e is o b a rs a w a y fro m th e c en tre: a n d an ti-clo ck w ise a c ro ss th e iso b ars

b)

A n ti-c lo c k w ise a c ro s s th e is o b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre: a n d c lo c k w ise a c ro ss th e iso b ars

c)

A n ti-c lo c k w ise a c ro s s th e is o b a rs a w a y fro m th e c en tre: a n d c lo c k w ise a c ro ss th e

d)

C lo c k w ise a c ro s s th e is o b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre : a n d A n ti-clo ck w ise a c ro ss th e isobars

to w a rd s th e c e n tre .
a w a y f ro m th e c en tre.
iso b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre.
a w a y fro m t h e c en tre.
8.

S u b sid e n c e in a n a n tic y c lo n e p ro d u c e s:
_

9.

a)

sa tu ra te d a ir a n d a n in v e rsio n

b)

d r y a ir a n d a n in v ersio n

c)

iso th e rm a l d r y a n d s ta b le a ir

d)

in c re a se d p re s s u re a t th e su rfa c e

W ith a n a n tic y c lo n e o v e r th e U K th e e x p ec te d w e a th e r is:


a)

T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m e r, fo g in w inter.

b)

S tra tu s in su m m e r w ith d riz z le , C U a n d sn o w in w in ter.

c)

C le a r s k ie s o r f a ir w e a th e r C'U in su m m er, fo g in w in te r

d)

C le a r s k ie s in su m m e r w ith h a z e , co ld fro n ta l w e a th e r in w in ter.

R e fe r to a p p e n d ix A a n d a n s w e r q u e s tio n s 10 to 14
10.

T h e p re s su re sy ste m s a t A 2 ; B 1; B 2 ; B 3 ; a n d C 2 a re resp e ctiv e ly :


a)

D e p re ssio n ; A n tic y c lo n e ; C o l; R id g e; a n d T ro u g h .

b)

R id g e ; A n tic y c lo n e ; C o l; T ro u g h ; a n d D ep ressio n .

c)

T ro u g h ; D e p re ssio n ; C o l; R id g e ; a n d A ntic y clo n e.

d)

R id g e ; D e p re ssio n ; C o l; T ro u g h ; a n d A nticy clo n e.

5-14

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PRESSURE SYSTEMS

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

13.

T w o im p o rta n t w e a th e r f a c to rs a t B 2 w ill be:


a)

F ro n ta l w e a th e r in w in te r, fo g in sum m er.

b)

C le a r c o n d itio n s in su m m e r, th u n d e rsto rm s in w inter.

c)

T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m e r, fo g in w inter.

d)

F o g in su m m e r, th u n d e rsto rm s in w in ter.

H a z e in su m m e r a n d ra d ia tio n fo g in w in te r c a n b e e x p e c te d a t:
a)

C2

b)

B3

c)

B1

d)

B2

In th e n o n -fro n ta l p re s s u re sy stem a t B 3 , t h e e x p e c te d w ea th e r
a)

S T S C w ith d riz z le o r lig h t p re c ip ita tio n .

b)

C le a r sk ie s w ith m o d e ra te w in d s.

c)

C U C B w ith sh o w ers.

d)

L ig h t w in d s a n d h a z e w ith a n in v ersion.

5-15

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

PRESSURE SYSTEMS
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

5-16

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R S IX - A L T IM E T R Y

C o n te n ts

Page

6.1

T H E A L T IM E T E R ..................................

6 .2

A L T IM E T E R S E T T I N G S ............................................................................................................. 6 - 3

6 -1

6.3

T E R M IN O L O G Y

6 .4

A L T IM E T E R E R R O R S

.............................................................................................................................6 - 5
................................................................................................................6 - 5

A L T IM E T R Y Q U E S T I O N S .......................................................................................................6 - 7
6 .5

T E R R A IN C L E A R A N C E .............................................................................................................6 - 8

6 .6

M IN IM U M F L IG H T L E V E L ...................................................................................................... 6 - 8

6 .7

T R A N S IT IO N A L T I T U D E ........................................................................................................... 6 - 9

6 .8

T R A N S IT IO N L E V E L ..............................................................................................................

6.9

T R A N S IT IO N L A Y E R .................................................................................................................. 6 - 9

6 -9

A L T IM E T R Y Q U E S T I O N S .....................................................................................................6 - 1 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
6 .1

ALTIM ETRY

T H E A L T IM E T E R
A n a ltim e te r is a n in s tru m e n t w h ic h m e a su res p re ssu re a n d c a u se s a n e e d le to m o v e a c ro ss a dial.
T h e d ia l is c a lib ra te d in fe e t r a th e r th a n p re ssu re a s w e k n o w th a t p re ssu re d e c re a se s a s a ltitu d e
in c reases.
T he

in s tru m e n t

is

c a lib ra te d in a c c o rd a n c e
w ith

th e

IC A O

I n t e r n a tio n a l
A tm o sp h e re

S ta n d a r d
s o th a t all

a ltim e te rs w ill re a d th e
s a m e a ltitu d e f o r th e sam e
p re ssu re .

(S e e

p re v io u s

n o te s o n th e n e e d f o r th e
ISA ).
In a d d itio n , a ltim e te rs h av e
a m e a n s o f a d ju s tin g th e
n e e d le

se ttin g

changes

in

to

th e

ta k e

s u rfa c e

a tm o sp h e ric p re ss u re into

P A R T IA L L Y E V A C U A T E D
C A P S U L E ____________________

a cco u n t.
F ig u re 6.1 . s h o w s h o w the
a ltim e te r

re a d in g

Figure 6.1.

A Simple Altimeter.

w ill

c h a n g e w ith a c h a n g e in
p re ssu re .
In F ig u re 6.2 . se c tio n A ,
th e

p ressu re

at

th e

a irfie ld , w h ic h is a t s e a
lev el, is 1010 m b .

msl

The

M&L P RE&sbftt: 1010 mb

a ltim e te r r e a d s z e ro feet.

In se c tio n B, th e p re s s u re
a t th e a irfie ld h a s fa lle n to
1000

mb

and

th e

a ltim e te r ,

ra th e r

th a n

sh o w in g a

d e c re a s e

p re ssu re ,

show s

in

m sl

an

in c r e a s e in height.

Figure 6.2. The Altimeter Responding to Changes in


Pressure.

6-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ALTIM ETRY

METEOROLOGY
a)

W h e n fly in g a t a c o n s ta n t
in d ic a te d a ltitu d e , o u tsid e
a ir p re s s u re m u s t re m a in th e
sam e.

HIGH TO LOW, LOOK OUT BELOW!


lots. ..

/. "

T o a c h ie v e th is w e

m u st fly a lo n g a p re ssu re
lev el.

H o w e v e r, w h e n w e

fly to

a n a re a o f lo w e r

p re s s u re ,

th e s e

p re ssu re

1020,

1026

> -

lin e s w ill d ip , c o n se q u e n tly


our

tr u e

a ltitu d e

w ill

- j

d e c re a se . C o n v e rse ly w h e n
fly in g

in to

re g io n

of

LOW

HIGH

h ig h e r p re ssu re , th e p re ssu re

Figure 6.3

lin e s w ill ris e a n d o u r tru e


a ltitu d e w ill in crease.

H IG H E R PRESSURE; TRUE A L T IT U D E > IN D IC A TE D A LT IT U D E


L O W E R PRESSURE; TRUE A LT IT U D E < IN D IC A TE D A LT IT U D E

b)

V a ry in g te m p e ra tu re s w ith in
th e

a tm o s p h e re

sig n ific a n t

e ffe c ts

have
on

th e

p re ssu re an d th e sh a p e o f th e
p re s s u re lin e s. C o ld a ir w ill
te n d to c o m p a c t a n d lo w e r
p re s s u re lin es w h ils t w a rm air
w il l

expand

and

r a is e

p re s s u re lin es. U sin g F ig u re


6 .4

y o u c a n s e e th a t w h en

f ly in g to a c o ld e r a re a a t a
c o n s ta n t

in d ic a te d

a ltitu d e

y o u r tru e a ltitu d e d ecre a se s.

Figure 6.4

C o n v e rse ly , w h e n f ly in g in to
w a rm e r

r e g io n

your

tru e

a ltitu d e w ill in crease.

CO LDER T H A N ISA ; TRUE A LT IT U D E < IN D IC A T E D A LT IT U D E


W A R M E R T H A N ISA ; TRUE A L T IT U D E > IN D IC A T E D A LT IT U D E
c)

T h e re is a n e e d to b e a b le to r e s e t th e a ltim e te r to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e fall in p re ssu re .


C o n se q u e n tly , i f th e a ltim e te r is re se t w h e n th e p ressu re c h a n g es, th e a ltim e te r w ill read
c o rre c tly . W e m a y , b y a lte rin g th e a ltim e te r su b sc a le settin g , se t Q F E , Q N H o r S P S fo r use
w h e n w e fly to e n s u re m o re a c c u ra te re a d in g s.

6-2

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
6.2

ALTIM ETRY

A L T IM E T E R S E T T IN G S
QFE

A irfie ld p re ss u re . W ith th is p re ssu re se t o n t h e a ltim e te r, th e in stru m en t w ill


re a d z e ro o n th e g ro u n d , o r th e h e ig h t o f th e a irc ra ft a b o v e th e a irfield.

Figure 6.5. Airfield Pressure - QFE.


QNH
T h is is th e a irfie ld p re s s u re co n v e rte d to M S L in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e IC A O
ISA . T h e a ltim e te r w ill th e n re a d th e h e ig h t o f th e a irfie ld a b o v e M S L , o r th e
a irc ra ft's h e ig h t A M S L .

Figure 6.6. Mean Sea Level Pressure - QNH.

T h e lo w e st fo re c a s t Q N H w ith in an are a, fo re c a st f o r o n e h o u r a h ead . T h e


a ltim e te r w ill b e in e rro r, b u t a s th e se ttin g is th e lo w e st fo re ca st, th e a ctual
p re s s u re w ill a lw a y s b e h ig h er, o r a t le a st e q u a l to th e fo rec ast Q N H , an d th e
a ltim e te r w ill re a d lo w (o r s a fe) o r th e c o rre c t a ltitu d e.

6-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

ALTIM ETRY

FO U K 70

EGRR

11 006 00

FO QNH
V A L ID IT Y PERIOD

00708

01992

02995

03003

04007

0701 1

08011

09011

10014

11014

12019

13020

14015

15017

16987

17998

18989

19998

20004

21981

22987

23001

24011

05001

25014

N o te :

T h e C o ts w o ld a re a w h e re K id lin g to n is situ a ted is N o . 15 o n th e a b o v e d e c o d e tab le.

6-4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
SPS

ALTIM ETRY
(S ta n d a rd P re ssu re S e ttin g ) I f th e sta n d a rd p re ssu re o f 1013 m b is s e t o n the
a ltim e te r, th e in stru m e n t w ill re a d w h a t is k n o w n a s p r e s s u r e a ltitu d e h eig h t
in th e S ta n d a rd A tm o sp h e re. T h is is th e a ltim e te r se ttin g u s e d w h e n flying
a b o v e th e tra n sitio n a ltitu d e.

6 .3

T E R M IN O L O G Y
A ltitu d e

V ertic a l d ista n c e a b o v e m ea n se a level.

H e ig h t

V e rtic a l d is ta n c e o f a le v e l o r p o in t m ea su re d fro m a sp e cific

d a tu m , e.g .

h e ig h t a b o v e a su rface.
E le v a tio n

H e ig h t w h e n th e d a tu m is M S L .

F lig h t L e v e l

S u rfa c e o f c o n s ta n t a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re m e a su re d fro m th e 1013.25 d atu m


u s e d fo r v e rtic a l se p a ra tio n b y sp e c ifie d p ressu re in te rv a ls (u su a lly 50 0 o r 1,000
ft). F lig h t L e v e l is m e a su re d in h u n d re d s o f feet.
e .g ., F L 3 5 0 = 3 5 ,0 0 0 FT.

Figure 6.9 Altimetry Terminology.

6.

A L T IM E T E R E R R O R S
A p a rt fro m in s tru m e n t e rro rs, th e re a re tw o e rro rs o f in tere st m ete o ro lo g ic ally . T h e y a re:
a)

B a r o m e tr ic E r r o r - E rro rs c a u se d b y s e ttin g a p re ssu re o n th e s u b scale o th e r th a n th e


c o rre c t one.

6-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ALTIM ETRY

METEOROLOGY

Figure 6.10. Barometric Error.


b)

T e m p e r a t u r e e r r o r - T h e a ltim e te r is ca lib ra te d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e IC A O ISA . I f


th e te m p e ra tu re is o th e r th a n th a t in th e ISA , th e a ltim e te r w ill b e in e rro r. C o rre cted
a ltitu d e is c a lc u la te d b y u s in g a n a v ig a tio n al c o m p u te r, o r a c o rre c tio n tab le. H I-L O -H I
w ill still a p p ly . A n e x a m p le o f a te m p e ra tu re e rro r c o rre c tio n is show n:

A L T IM E T E R T E M P E R A T U R E E R R O R C O R R E C T IO N
a)

P re ssu re a ltim e te rs a re c a lib ra te d to in d ic a te tru e a ltitu d e u n d e r IS A c o n d itio n s. A ny

b)

W h en te m p e ra tu re s a re le s s th a n IS A a n a irc raft w ill b e lo w e r th a n th e altim e te r

d e v ia tio n fro m IS A w ill re s u lt in e rro n e o u s rea d in g s.

read in g .
c)

T h e e r r o r is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e en a c tu a l a n d IS A te m p e ratu re, a n d the


v e rtic a l d ista n c e o f th e a irc ra ft a b o v e th e a ltim e te r s e ttin g d a tu m , i.e. h eig h t a bove
to u c h d o w n . T h e e r r o r is a p p ro x im a te ly 4 f t/1 0 0 0 ft f o r e a c h C o f diffe ren ce.

d)

T o e n su re a d e q u a te o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e o n a p p ro a c h a d d figure in b o d y o f ta b le to
c a lc u la te d D H /M D H .

6 -6

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ALTIM ETRY

METEOROLOGY

ISA T E M P
D EV IA TIO N
C

H E IG H T A B O V E T O U C H D O W N O R H E IG H T A B O V E A E R O D R O M E IN
FEET
200

300

400

5 00

6 00

70 0

8 00

9 00

-15

12

18

24

30

36

42

48

54

1000
60

-25

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

-35

28

42

56

70

84

98

112

126

140

-45

36

54

72

90

108

126

144

162

180

-55

44

66

88

110

132

154

176

198

220

-65

52

78

104

130

156

182

2 08

234

2 60

QUESTIONS ON A LT IM E T R Y . F o r a ll o f th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s a ssu m e th a t lm b = 2 7 ft.


A n a irc ra ft is a t a n a irfie ld w ith a n e le v a tio n o f 3 50 ft. T h e a ltim e te r s e ttin g is 1002, b u t th e
a c tu a l Q N H is 9 9 3 . W h a t is th e a ltim e te r rea d in g ? A ssu m e th a t 1 m b = 2 7ft.

2.

A n a irc ra ft is o n a n a irfie ld , e le v a tio n 190 f t a n d h a s a n a ltim e te r re a d in g o f 7 0 ft w ith a


s e ttin g o f 1005. W h a t is th e a c tu a l Q N H ?.

3.

W h a t is th e a ltim e te r re a d in g i f th e se ttin g is 9 7 8 , th e Q N H 99 3 an d t h e a irfie ld e le v atio n


7 7 0 ft?

4.

T h e reg io n a l p re ssu re se ttin g is 1012, th e a ltim e te r s e ttin g is 1022 a n d th e in d ic ated a ltitu d e


is 4 1 0 0 ft. A h e a d is s o m e h ig h g ro u n d sh o w n o n th e m a p a s b e in g a t 3 7 0 0 ft. W ill th e
a irc ra ft c le a r th e h ig h g ro u n d , an d i f so , b y h o w m u c h ?

6-7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
6 .5

ALTIM ETRY

T E R R A IN C L E A R A N C E
T h e q u e stio n a b o v e le a d s to a n o th e r a sp e ct
o f A ltim e try - T e r r a i n C le a r a n c e . F ig ure
6 .1 2 .

e x p la in s w h a t w e n e e d to k n o w to

d e te rm in e th is.

Figure 6.12 Terrain Clearance.


6 .6

M IN IM U M F L IG H T L E V E L
T o d e te rm in e t h e m in im u m s a f e f lig h t level
th a t w e c a n fly a lo n g a p a rtic u la r ro u te , w e
sh o u ld n eed to k n o w th e e le v a tio n o f th e
h ig h e s t g ro u n d /o b s ta c le a lo n g o u r tra c k , the
m in im u m te rra in c le a ra n c e (v a rie s w ith
co m p a n y re g u la tio n s) a n d th e Q N H . F igure
6 .1 3 .

sh o w s h o w w e sh o u ld c a lc u la te

M SFL.

Figure 6.13. Minim um Flight Level


Calculation.

ALTIMETER
SETTING

TRUE
ALTITUDE

1012

1010

4,060

1015

1010

QNH

F ill in t h e

b la n k

fo llo w in g e x a m p le s .
A s s u m e 1 m b = 2 7 ft

s p a c e s in

th e

1010
1020

1013

999

1013

1015
1017

5,000
650

560
10,500
8,500

35

125

1027

3,300
330

993

415

1015

4,760

1012
1025

ALTIMETER
READING

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ALTIM ETRY

M ETEOROLOGY
A ltim e tr y Q u e s tio n s
1.

A n a irc ra ft is f ly in g at 3 0 0 0 fe e t in d ic a te d w ith th e a ltim e te r s u b sc ale se t t o 1020 m b


to w a rd s a m o u n ta in ra n g e w ith a n e le v a tio n o f 1600 fe et. I f d u rin g th e flig h t th e Q N H in th e
a re a fa lls to 9 8 9 m b an d th e a ltim e te r s u b s c a le is n o t re se t, th e e x p e cted c le a ra n c e o v e r th e
m o u n ta in ra n g e w ill be: (a ssu m e 2 7 f e e t = 1 m b)

c)

ft
ft
9 3 0 ft

d)

563 ft

a)
b)

2.

W h en f ly in g to w a rd s a d e p re s s io n a t a c o n sta n t in d ic a te d a ltitu d e , t h e tru e a ltitu d e w ill be:


a)

3.

4.

L o w e r th a n in d icated .

b)

H ig h e r th a n in d icated .

c)

T h e sa m e a s in d icated .

d)

L o w e r th a n in d ic a te d a t first th e n th e sa m e a s in d icated later.

T h e n a m e g iv e n to th e lo w e s t fo re c a s t m e a n s e a level p re ssu re in a n a re a is:


a)
b)

QFE
R eg io n al Q N H

c)

QFF

d)

QNE

T h e A ltim e te r w ill a lw a y s read


a)

W ith 1013 se t th e a ltitu d e a b o v e

M SL

b)

W ith a irfie ld Q N H s e t th e h e ig h t a b o v e th e a irfie ld d a tu m

c)

T h e v e rtic a l d ista n c e a b o v e th e p re ssu re level set

d)
5.

1400

470

th e c o rre c t f lig h t level w ith reg io n a l Q F E set.

A n a irc ra ft a t a irfie ld P e le v a tio n 2 7 0 f t h a s th e a irfield Q N H 1012 m b s c o rre c tly set. T h e


a ltim e te r s e ttin g is n o t c h a n g e d . L a te r o n la n d in g a t airfie ld Q e le v atio n 4 5 0 ft th e a ircraft
a ltim e te r r e ad s 531 ft.
a)

1014.7 m bs

b)

1009.3 m bs

c)

1015 m bs

d)

1009 m b s

W h a t is th e c o rre c t Q N H a t a irfie ld Q ?

6-1 1

( A ssu m e 27 ft = I m b)

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ALTIM ETRY

METEOROLOGY
6.

T h e a ltim e te r s u b sc a le is se t t o 1030 m b s an d th e a ltim e te r r ea d s 4 5 0 0 '.

Q N H is 9 9 6 m bs.

W h a t is th e a ltitu d e o f th e a irc ra ft ? (A ssu m e 1 m b - 27')


a)

7.

3480

b)

3990

c)

5418'

d)

3582'

A n a irc ra ft flie s o v e r h ig h g ro u n d 4 7 3 0 m e tre s a b o v e m sl. T h e tra c k is 140M a n d th e Q N H


9 9 5 m b s. T h e re q u ire d c le a ra n c e is a m in im u m o f 1500'. W h at is th e m in im u m flig h t level
in c lo u d ? ( A ssu m e 1 m b= 27')

8.

a)

175

b)

195

c)

190

d)

215

A n a irc ra ft, f ly in g a t F L 100 a t a c o n s ta n t R A S , flie s fro m an a re a o f w a rm a ir in to a n a re a o f


c o ld air. T h e Q N H is u n c h a n g e d .
A ltitu d e

H o w h a s th e a irc ra ft a ltitu d e an d T A S chan g e d ?

TA S

a)

d e c re a se d

in c re a se d

b)

In creased

in c re a se d

c)

d ecre a se d

d e c re a se d

d)

In c re a se d

d e c re a se d

A n a irc ra ft flies o n a tra c k o f 3 5 6 M o v e r h ig h g ro u n d w h ic h rise s t o 4 6 9 3 m e tre s a b o v e m sl.


D rift is 10 P o rt a n d th e re g io n a l Q N H 9 9 3 m bs. T h e a irc ra ft is re q u ire d to c le a r th is high
g ro u n d b y 1500'.
a)

10.

W h a t is th e m in im u m q u a d ran tal ru les flig h t lev e l?

(A ssu m e 1 m b = 2 7 ')

F L 210

b)

F L 205

c)

F L 190

d)

F L 185

Q N H a t J o h a n n e s b u rg is 1025 h P a , e le v a tio n is 1600m a m sl. W h at is th e Q F E . (A ssu m e 1


m b = 8m )
a)

1000.8 hPa

b)

8 3 0 .6 hPa

c)

1002 h P a

d)

825 hPa

6-12

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
1 1.

ALTIM ETRY

W h e n f ly in g fro m P a ris (Q N H 1012) to L o n d o n (Q N H 1015) a t F L 100. Y o u n eg le c t to reset


y o u r a ltim e te r b u t w h y d o e s y o u r tru e a ltitu d e r e m a in th e sam e th ro u g h o u t th e flight.
a)

12.

P a ris h a s a h ig h e r p re ssu re th a n L o n d o n

b)

T h e a ir a t L o n d o n is w a rm e r th a n P aris

c)

L o n d o n is a t a lo w e r a ltitu d e th a n P aris

d)

T h e a ir a t P a ris is w a rm e r th a n L ondon

A n a irfie ld in H o lla n d is 2 0 m b e lo w s e a lev el, Q F F is 1020 h P a , te m p e ra tu re a t th e su rfa ce is


- 3 0 C . W h a t is th e v a lu e o f Q N H .
a)

Im p o ssib le to d e te rm in e

b)

L e ss th a n 1020 h P a

c)

S am e a s Q F F

d)

M o re th a n 1020 hPa

6- 13

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ALTIM ETRY

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

10

11

12

6-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R SEV EN - T E M PE R A T U R E

C o n te n ts
P ag e

7.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ............................................................................................................................. 7 - 1

7.2

M E A S U R E M E N T ............................................................................................................................. 7 - 1

7.3

I N S T R U M E N T S ................................................................................................................................7 - 2

7 .4

H E A T IN G O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ........................................................................................7 - 4

7 .5

T E M P E R A T U R E V A R IA T IO N W IT H H E IG H T .............................................................. 7 - 7

7 .6

L A P S E R A T E ..................................................................................................................................... 7 - 7

7 .7

IN V E R S IO N S ..................................................................................................................................... 7 - 7

7 .8

S U R F A C E T E M P E R A T U R E ......................................................................................................... 7 - 8
T E M P E R A T U R E Q U E S T I O N S ............................................................................................. 7 - 1 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
7.1

TEM PERATURE

IN T R O D U C T I O N
O n e o f th e im p o rta n t v a ria b le s in th e a tm o sp h e re is tem p era tu re . T h e stu d y o f te m p e ratu re
v a ria tio n , b o th h o riz o n ta lly a n d v e rtic a lly h a s c o n sid e ra b le sig n ific an ce in th e stu d y o f
m ete o ro lo g y .

7 .2

M EASUREM ENT
T h e re a re th re e sc a le s w h ic h m a y b e u s e d to m e a su re tem p e ratu re th o u g h o n ly C e lsiu s an d
K e lv in a re u se d in m ete o ro lo g y . T h e fig u re s sh o w th e m e ltin g po in t o f ice a n d th e b o ilin g po in t
o f w a te r (a t S T P ) in ea c h scale.
a)

T h e F A H R E N H E IT scale: + 3 2 lo + 2 1 2 d e grees.

b)

T h e C E L S IU S (o r C e n tig ra d e ) sca le : 0 to + 1 0 0 d egrees.

c)

T h e K E L V IN ( o r A b so lu te ) scale: + 2 7 3 to + 373 d egrees.

C o n v e r s io n f a c to r s :

(F 32)

- C
5

7-1

32

(.56)

(1.8)

273

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
7 .3

TEM PERATURE

IN S T R U M E N T S
T h e sta n d a rd m e a n s o f m e a su re m e n t o n
th e g ro u n d is a m erc u ry th erm o m e te r
p la c e d in a S te v e n s o n S c r e e n . E le ctrical
r e s is te n c e th e rm o m e te rs m a y be u se d
w h e re th e S c re e n is n o t re a d ily a c c e ssib le
to th e ob serv er.

A T h e r m o g r a p h (sim ila r in its o u tp u t to a B aro g rap h ) w ill also b e fo und in sid e th e sc re en . T he


S te v e n so n S c re e n is a lo u v re d b o x 4 f e e t ( 1 .2 2 m ) a b o v e th e g ro u n d . T h is sc ree n , sh o w n in
F ig u re 7.1 , is u s e d w o rld w id e .

Figure 7.2. Thermograph.

7 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEMPERATURE

METEOROLOGY

U p p e r a ir te m p e ra tu re s a re ta k e n u s in g a R a d io s o n d e , sh o w n in F ig u re 7 .5 , - a d ev ice
tra n sm ittin g c o n tin u o u s re a d in g s o f te m p era tu re , p re ssu re a n d h u m id ity w h ilst b e in g c a rrie d
a lo f t b e n e a th a b a llo o n . R a te o f c lim b is 1200 f p m a n d m axim um ce ilin g b e tw e e n 6 5 ,0 0 0 a n d
11 5 ,0 0 0 ft.
iH H m

BALLOON

'

RADAR
REFLECTOR

RADIOSONDE
GROUND RADAR

Figure 7.3. A Radiosonde.

A irc ra ft re a d in g s, th o u g h o fte n th e o n ly w a y in w h ic h a tm o sp h eric te m p era tu re m ay b e m easu red


o v e r th e o c e a n s a n d o th e r a re a s fa r a w a y fro m m eteo ro lo g ica l statio n s, a re n o t a s a c c u ra te a s th ey
a re a ffe c te d b y c o m p re s sib ility a n d lag. T h e e le ctrica l th e rm o m e te r w ill g iv e a d ig ital re a d o u t
o f te m p e ra tu re an d th is c a n b e a u to m a tic a lly ca lib ra te d a n d tran sm itted o n so m e m o d e m aircra ft.

Figure 7.4. Electrical Thermometer

7 -3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

METEOROLOGY

7. 4

HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE


T h e a tm o sp h e re is h e a te d by 5 d iffe re n t p ro cesses:
a)

S o la r R a d ia tio n .

R ad ia tio n fro m th e sun is o f S h o r t w a v e -le n g th (A) a n d p a sses

th ro u g h th e a tm o sp h e re a lm o st w ith o u t h e a tin g it a t a ll.

A-

0.1 5ic- 4 m icro n s (m icro n

[j

10 6 m)

S o m e s o la r ra d ia tio n is
re fle c te d

back

u p p e r a ir
to p s

s u rfa c e s

to

th e

fro m clo u d

and

fro m
on

w a te r

th e e arth .

T h e r e s t o f th is ra d ia tio n
h e a ts th e e a rth s su rface.
T h e p ro c e ss w h e re b y th e
s u r f a c e is h e a te d b y so la r
ra d ia tio n

is

c a lle d

in s o la tio n

Figure 7.5. Solar Radiation.


b)

T e r r e s t r i a l R a d ia tio n .
T h e e a rth ra d ia te s h e a t a t all tim es. It is re la tiv ely lo n g w a v e ra d ia tio n A ^ 4 to 80
m ic ro n s, p e a k in g a t 10
It is a b so rb e d a n d th en
re tra n sm itte d a s h e a t by
th e w a te r v a p o u r an d
CO 2

in

th e

a tm o s p h e re .

T h is

re tra n sm issio n o f h e a t to
th e s u rro u n d in g a ir is
th e

m a in

m e th o d

by

w h ic h th e a tm o sp h e re is
h e a te d a n d ex p la in s w h y
th e a tm o sp h e re re d u c e s
in te m p e ra tu re w ith a n
in c re a se in h e ig h t. It is
h e a te d

fro m

b e lo w

h e n c e th e re is a la p s e

Figure 7.6. Terrestrial Radiation.

r a te .

7 -4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
c)

TEM PERATURE

C o n d u c tio n . A ir ly in g in c o n ta c t w ith th e e a rth s su rfac e b y d a y w ill b e h e a te d by


c o n d u c tio n .

A t n ig h t a ir in c o n ta c t w ith th e e a rth s su rfa ce w ill b e c o o le d b y

c o n d u c tio n . B e c a u se o f th e a ir s p o o r co n d u c tiv ity , th e a ir a t a h ig h e r level w ill rem ain


at th e sa m e te m p e ra tu re a s d u rin g th e d a y a n d a n in v e r s io n w ill result.

Figure 7.7. Conduction.


d)

C o n v e c tio n . A ir h e a te d b y c o n d u c tio n w ill b e le ss d e n se a n d w ill th e re fo re rise. T h is


w ill p ro d u c e u p c u rre n ts c a lle d t h e r m a ls o r c o n v e c tio n c u r r e n ts . T h e se w ill tak e
th e w a rm a ir to th e u p p e r le v e ls, th u s h e lp in g to hea t th e u p p e r a tm osphere.

Figure 7.8. Convection Currents.

7 -5

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO G Y
e)

TEM PERATURE

C o n d e n s a tio n . A s th e a ir is lifte d it w ill c ool b y a d ia b a tic p ro ce ss a n d th e w a te r


v a p o u r in th e a ir w ill c o n d e n s e o u t a s v isib le d ro p le ts fo rm in g c lo u d . A s th is o cc u rs
l a t e n t h e a t w ill b e re le a se d b y th e w a te r v a p o u r a n d th is w ill h e a t th e atm osphere.

Figure 7.9. Latent Heat being released through


Condensation.

INCOMING SOLAR
RADIATION

LATENT H EAT
RELEASED BY
CONDENSATION

ABSORBTION BY
OZONE IN ULTRAVIOLET

RADIATION
FROM
CLOUDS

HEAT DISTRIBUTE )
BY CONVECTION
AND TURBULENC1
REFLECTION
BY AIR AND
CLOUDS

ABSORBTION AND
EMISSION BY
W ATER VAPOUR
REFLECTION A
SURFACE
RADIATION FRON
SURFACE
CONDUCTION
BETWEEN EARTl
AND ATMOSPHEll

CONDUCTION
FROM EARTH'S
INTERIOR I

LATENT H EAT I
ABSORBED BY
MELTING AND
EVAPORATION 1

F ig u re 7.10. H e at P ro ce sse s in th e A tm o sp h e re .
7 -6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
7 .5

TEMPERATURE

T E M P E R A T U R E V A R IA T IO N W IT H H E IG H T
W e h a v e seen th a t a lth o u g h o u r so u rc e o f
heat

is

th e

a tm o s p h e re s

su n ,
v irtu a l

becau se

of

tra n s p a re n c y

th e
to

in s o la tio n , it is in f a c t h e a te d (b y lo n g
w a v e T R ) fro m th e su rfa c e u p w ard s.
T h u s a s w e m o v e f u rth e r a n d f u rth e r fro m
th e s u rfa c e w e w o u ld e x p e c t th e h e a tin g
e ffe c ts to d im in ish .

Figure 7.11. Temperature Variation with


Height
7.

LAPSE RATE
T h e ra te a t w h ic h te m p e ra tu re fa lls w ith a n in c re a se in h e ig h t is c a lle d th e L a p s e R a te . A n ideal
u n ifo rm a tm o sp h e re w o u ld s h o w a c o n s ta n t la p se ra te ra th e r lik e th e IS A , w h ic h is 1.98C (2)
p e r 1000ft.

7.7

IS O T H E R M
I f te m p e ra tu re re m a in s c o n s ta n t w ith h e ig h t i t is c a lle d a n iso th erm al layer.

7 .8

IN V E R S IO N S
W h e re th e te m p e ra tu re in c r e a s e s w ith a n in c re a se in h e ig h t, th e n w e h a v e w h a t is ca lle d an
in v e r s io n . W e h a v e a lre a d y se e n th a t a t n ig h t w e c a n e x p e c t a n in v e rsio n a b o v e th e su rfa c e , b u t
th is c a n o c c u r in m a n y d iffe re n t w ay s.
R a d ia tio n , o n a n ig h t o f c le a r s k ie s, w ill a lso re su lt in a te m p era tu re in v ersio n a b o v e th e surface.
T h is is c a lle d a R a d ia tio n In v ersio n .
W h e n w e lo o k a t c lo u d f o rm a tio n , w e sh all se e th a t b e c a u se o f tu r b u le n c e in th e la y e r c lo se st
to th e su rfa c e w e c a n h a v e a n in v e rsio n a t a h e ig h t o f 2 o r 3 th o u sa n d feet.
Q u ite o fte n , a t th e t r o p o p a u s e in ste a d o f th e te m p , re m a in in g c o n sta n t, i t m a y sh o w a slig h t rise
f o r a fe w th o u sa n d feet.
A t th e h ig h e r le v e ls o f t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e , tem p, w ill s h o w a n in c rea se w ith h e ig h t (in IS A from
6 5 ,6 1 7 ft te m p e ra tu re i n c r e a s e s a t a r a te o f 0.3 /1 0 0 0 ft).

7-7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

TEM PERATURE

In, a h ig h p r e s s u r e sy stem , a ir d e s c e n d s a t th e ce n tre . A s th e a ir d e s c e n d s it w ill b e h ea te d


a d ia b a tic a lly (m o re o f th is la ter) a n d w ill b e w a rm e r th a n th e a ir a t a lo w e r lev el. T h is is ca lled
a S u b sid e n c e In v ersio n .

Figure 7.12. Inversions.

7.9

SURFACE TEM PERA TU RE


T h e su rfa c e a ir te m p e ra tu re m e a su re d

in a

S te v e n so n S c ree n is su b je c t to c o n sid e rab le

v a ria tio n s: L a titu d e E ffe c t, S e a so n a l E ffe ct, D iu rn al V a ria tio n a n d m u ltip le e ffe c ts d u e to clo u d
a n d w in d .
a)

T h e a n g u l a r e le v a tio n o f th e s u n .

i)

L a ti t u d e E f f e c t. A t th e e q u a to r
o n ly a s m all a re a is a ffe c te d b y
th e s u n s ra y s a n d th e re fo re w ill
be

su b je c t

to th e

g re a te st

h e a t/u n it are a . A t th e p o le s the


su n s ra y s w ill c o v e r a la rg e r a re a
and

th e re w ill b e th e

h e a t/u n it

are a .

The

least
a c tu a l
' LATITUDE

d ista n c e o f p o la r r e g io n s fro m th e
su n is o n ly fra c tio n a lly m o re th a n
th at fro m th e e q u a to r, a n d th e
e ffe c t m ay be ign o red .

R g u re 7 13

7 -8

T h e E ffe c , Qf L a titu d e

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

METEOROLOGY
ii)

S e a s o n a l E f f e c t. O n the,,21 M arch
a n d 2 3 S e p te m b e r (th e V ern al a n d
A u tu m n a l E q u in o x e s) th e s u n

is

d ire c tly o v e rh e a d th e e q u a to r a n d
m ax im u m h e a tin g o c c u rs. O n 21
J u n e , th e s u n is o v e rh e a d th e
T ro p ic o f C a n c e r a n d m ax im u m
h e a tin g w ill o c c u r th e re .
N o rth e rn

h e m is p h e re

In the
th e

te m p e ra tu re w ill in c re a se a s the
su n m o v e s n o rth a n d d e c re a se a s it
m o v e s S o u th , re a c h in g m in im u m
about 23 D ecem ber

Figure 7.14. The Seasonal Effect.


b)

T im e o f D a y ( D iu r n a l V a r ia tio n ) .

i)

T h e s u n is a t its h ig h e st e le v a tio n a t n o o n , b ut f o r tw o to th re e h o u rs a f te r th is tim e,


th e e a rth is r e c e iv in g m o re so la r ra d ia tio n th a n i t is g iv in g u p a s te rre stria l ra d ia tio n
(T h e rm a l In e rtia ). A s a re s u lt te m p e ra tu re is h ig h est at a b o u t 15:00 (T m ax).

ii)

F ro m 15:00 o n w a rd s, th e te m p e ra tu re fa lls c o n tin u o u sly u n til a little a fte r su n rise. T h e

iii)

D iu rn a l V a ria tio n is g re a te st w ith c le a r sk ie s a n d little w ind. D V v a rie s w ith a n u m b e r

lo w e st te m p e ra tu re o c c u rs a t a b o u t 0 5 0 0 (T m in ) C.

o f fa c to rs, b u t in te m p e ra te la titu d e s is a b o u t + 6 d e g re e s a b o u t th e m ean.

DIURNAL VARIATION WITH,


CLOUD COVER OR STRONG
WIND

Figure 7.15. Diurnal Variation.

7 -9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

M ETEOROLOGY
C lo u d c o v e r b y
d a y . B y d ay
so m e o f th e so la r
ra d ia tio n is

CLOUD

re fle c te d b a c k by
th e c lo u d to p s
a n d T M a x is
red u ced .

Figure 7.16. Cloud Cover by Day.

Figure 7.17. Cloud Cover by Night.

2.

C lo u d c o v e r b y n ig h t. B y n ig h t terrestrial rad iatio n is a b so rb e d a n d ra d ia te d b a c k to


th e e a rth s su rfa c e fro m t h e c lo u d s. T m in is in c r e a s e d .

T h e s o c a lle d g re e n h o u se e ffe c t h a s a s im ila r a ffe c t u p o n tem p e ra tu re a s th a t o f c lo u d


c o v e r b y n ig h t b u t is g e n e ra te d d iffe re n tly in th a t lo n g w a v e rad iatio n fro m th e E arth
h e a ts u p th e la rg e q u a n titie s o f c a rb o n d io x id e tra p p e d in th e lo w e r le v els o f th e
a tm o sp h e re . T in s p ro c e ss c o n tin u e s d a y o r n ig h t a n d is s aid to b e le ad in g to a n overall
in c re a se in a tm o s p h e ric te m p erature.

7-10

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

M ETEOROLOGY
3.

E f f e c t o f w in d b y d a y . B y d a y w in d w ill c a u se tu rb u len t m ix in g o f th e w arm air


a t th e su rfa c e w ith c o ld a ir a b o v e, r e d u c in g T m ax . W in d w ill a lso re d u c e th e tim e
th e a ir is in c o n ta c t w ith t h e w a rm g round.

Figure 7.18. The Effect o f W ind by Day.

4.

E f f e c t o f w in d b y n ig h t. B y n ig h t th e re w ill no rm ally b e a n in v e rsio n a b o v e the


su rfa c e a n d w in d w ill c a u s e c o ld a ir to b e tu rb u le n tly m ix ed w ith w a rm a ir a b o v e th u s
in c r e a s in g T m in.

Figure 7.19. The Effect of W ind by Night.

7- 1 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

TEM PERATURE

In s u m m a ry , w in d o n c lo u d c o v e r w ill c a u se T m ax to b e r ed u c ed a n d T m in to b e increased.
T h e re fo re D V w ill b e re d u c e d .
5.

DV

o v e r se a .

A s th e S p e c ific H e a t (S H ) o f w a te r is unity, c o m p a re d to oth er

su b sta n c e s w h o s e SH is m u c h less, a n d a s th e te m p e ra tu re r is e is in v e rse ly


p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e S p e c ific H e a t , th e tem p e ratu re rise a n d fall o v e r th e s e a is sm all,
g e n e ra lly le s s th a n 1C.
c)

N a tu r e o f t h e S u r f a c e .
i)

S e a . T h e sea ta k e s a lo n g tim e t o h e a t (a n d c o o l) an d as w e h a v e s e en h a s a
v e ry s m a ll D V .
T h e d iffe re n c e in D V v a lu es b etw een la n d a n d se a is th e c a u se o f sea b reezes.
T h e m in im al D V o f se a tem p e ra tu re is th e re aso n w h y th e m o st co m m o n form
o f fo g , ra d ia tio n fo g , n e v e r fo rm s o v e r th e sea.
W h en th e a n g u la r e le v a tio n o f th e s u n is lo w , m uch s o la r rad iatio n is reflected
b a c k to th e a tm o sp h e re .

Figure 7.20. Diurnal Variation O ver the Sea.

7 - 1 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

7-13

TEM PERATURE

M ETEOROLOGY
ii)

L and.

B are ro ck , sa n d , d ry s o il, ta rred ro ad s a n d co n c re te ru n w ay s attain a

h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re b y in so latio n th a n w o o d s, lak es, g ra ssla n d s a n d w e t soil.


T h e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e b etw ee n a ir a b o v e c o n c re te ru n w ay s a n d ad jac en t
g ra s s c a n b e a s m u c h a s 4 d e g ree s. H ig h e r te m p era tu re su rface s p ro v id e stro n g
u p c u rre n ts c a lle d th e rm a ls o r c o n v e c tio n c u rren ts.

In f ig 7 .2 3 w e m ay n o te th a t th e s e a tem p e ra tu re r em ain s co o l in J u ly in th e N o rthern


H e m isp h e re b u t th e d e s e rt lan d a re a s o f A fric a a n d n e ig h b o u rin g A sia g et v e ry w arm .
A ir o v e r sn o w c o v e re d s u rfa c e s is v e ry co ld . S o m e 8 0 % o f so la r r a d ia tio n is r e fle c te d
fro m sn o w su rfaces.
Snow does not

p re v e n t th e e a rth fro m ra d ia tin g its heat.

H en ce

su rfa c e

a ir

te m p e ra tu re s o v e r sn o w w ill b e c o m e c o ld e r d a y b y day. T e m p e ra tu re s in S ib e ria can


r e a c h -7 2 C a fte r a lo n g c o ld w in te r. T h is v e ry c o ld a ir re su lts in high d e n sity a n d the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f an tic y c lo n e s.

7-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
d)

TEM PERATURE

L o c a tio n .
i)

O v e r L a n d . A ir in a v a lle y w ill te n d to b e m o re s ta tic th a n a ir in a n e x p o se d


p o sitio n . T h e re fo re b y n ig h t th e a ir is in c o n ta c t w ith th e g ro u n d fo r a lo n g er
tim e a n d th e a ir te m p e ratu re is lo w e r th a n o n a h ill. A d d itio n a lly , in a v alley,
c o ld a ir te n d s to s in k

fro m th e h ills a b o v e a t n ig h t, a g ain c a u sin g lo w e r

te m p e ra tu re s. It is f o r th e se re a so n s th a t m ist a n d fo g te n d to fo rm firstly in
valley s.

Figure 7.23. Location Effect.

ii)

O v e r O c e a n s . T h e fa c t th a t se a s te n d to h a v e a v e ry s m all D V o f te m p e ratu re
h a s b e e n sta te d a b o v e . O n a w id e sc a le th is m e a n s th a t in w in te r th e s e a is
w a rm e r th a n th e la n d a n d th u s th e re is a w id e sp re a d m o v e m e n t o f a ir fro m land
to s e a (m o n so o n e ffe c t). T h e re is a n o p p o site te n d e n c y in sum m er.

Figure 7.24 Monsoon Effect in W inter

7 - 1 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

METEOROLOGY
e)

O r i g i n o f a i r s u p p ly .

A ir te n d s to re ta in its te m p era tu re a n d h u m id ity fo r a

c o n s id e ra b le tim e, th e re fo re a ir fro m h ig h la titu d e s w ill b rin g lo w e r te m p e ra tu re s to


U K f o r ex a m p le . A s o u th e rly w in d , h o w e v er, w ill no rm a lly p ro v id e an in cre ase in
te m p eratu re.

Figure 7.25 Origin o f Air Supply

7-16

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TEM PERATURE

M ETEOROLOGY
T e m p e r a t u r e Q u e s tio n s
1.

2.

3.

T h e m e a su re m e n t o f su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re is m ade:
a)

a t g ro u n d level

b)

a t a p p ro x im a te ly 10 m e tre s fro m g ro u n d level

c)

a t a p p ro x im a te ly 4 fe e t a b o v e g ro u n d level

d)

a t a p p ro x im a te ly 4 m e tre s a b o v e g ro u n d level

T h e p u rp o s e o f a " S te v e n so n S c reen " is to:


a)

m a in ta in a m o ist a tm o sp h e re s o th a t th e w e t b u lb th e rm o m e te r c a n fu n c tio n c o rre ctly

b)

to p re v e n t th e m e rc u ry fre e z in g in th e lo w w in te r tem p era tu re s

c)

p ro te c t th e th e rm o m e te r fro m w in d , w e a th e r a n d fro m d ire c t su n sh in e

d)

k e e p th e w e t a n d d ry b u lb th e rm o m e te rs a w a y fro m su rfa ce e x tre m e s o f tem p eratu re

I f te m p e ra tu re re m a in s c o n s ta n t w ith a n in crease in a ltitu d e th e re is:


a)

a n in v e rsio n

b)

a n in v e rsio n a lo ft

c)

u n ifo rm la p se ra te

d)

a n iso th e rm a l lay er

T h e s u rfa c e o f th e e a rth is h e a te d by:


a)

c o n v e c tio n

b)

co n d u c tio n

c)

lo n g w a v e so la r ra d ia tio n

d)

sh o rt w a v e s o la r ra d ia tio n

C lo u d c o v e r w ill re d u c e d iu rn a l v a ria tio n o f te m p e ra tu re b ec au se:


a)

in c o m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n is r e fle c ted b a c k to sp a c e a n d o u tg o in g te rre stria l ra d ia tio n is


re fle c te d b a c k to earth

b)

in c o m in g so la r ra d ia tio n is re -rad iated b a c k to sp a c e an d a tm o sp h e ric h e a tin g b y


c o n v e c tio n w ill s to p a t th e lev el o f th e c lo u d la y er

c)

th e c lo u d s to p s th e s u n s ra y s g e ttin g th ro u g h to th e e a rth a n d also re d u c e s o u tg o in g


c o n d u c tio n

d)

in c o m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n is r e fle c te d b a c k to s p a c e a n d o u tg o in g te rre stria l rad iatio n is


re -ra d ia te d fro m th e c lo u d la y e r b a c k to th e s u rfa ce

7-17

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO G Y
6.

a)

7.

TEM PERATURE

D iu rn a l v a ria tio n o f th e s u rfa c e te m p e ra tu re w ill:


b e u n a ffe c te d b y a c h a n g e o f w in d speed

b)

d e c re a se a s w in d sp e e d in c reases

c)

in c re a se a s w in d sp e e d in c re a se s

d)

b e a t a m in im u m in c alm c o n d itio n s

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g s u rfa c e s is lik e ly to p r o d u c e a h ig h e r th a n a v era g e d iu rn al v ariatio n o f


te m p e ra tu re :

8.

9.

10.

11.

a)

ro c k o r co n c re te

b)

w a te r

c)

sn o w

d)

v eg etatio n

M o st a c c u ra te te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e g ro u n d level a re o b ta in e d by:
a)

tep h ig ra m

b)

a irc ra ft re p o rts

c)

te m p e ra tu re p ro b e

d)

ra d io so n d e

T h e m e th o d b y w h ic h e n e rg y is tra n sfe rre d fro m o n e b o d y to a n o th e r b y c o n ta c t is called:


a)

rad iatio n

b)

co n v e c tio n

c)

co n d u c tio n

d)

late n t h e a t

T h e d iu rn a l v a ria tio n o f te m p e ra tu re is:


a)

g re a te r o v e r th e sea th a n o v e rla n d

b)

le s s o v e r d e s e rt a re a s th en o v e r tem p e rate grassla n d

c)

re d u c e d a n y w h e re b y th e p re se n c e o f clo u d

d)

in c re a se d an y w h e re a s w in d sp e ed incre ases

T h e tro p o sp h e re is h e a te d la rg ely b y:
a)

ab so rp tio n o f th e su n 's sh o rt w a v e ra d ia tio n

b)

ra d ia tio n o f h e a t fro m c lo u d to p s a n d th e ea rth 's surfa ce

c)

ab so rp tio n b y o z o n e o f th e su n 's sh o rt w av e rad iatio n

d)

co n d u c tio n fro m th e su rfa c e , c o n v e c tio n an d th e re le ase o f la te n t h e at

7-18

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TEM PERATURE

METEOROLOGY
12.

13.

A n in v e rsio n is o n e in w h ich :
a)

th e re is n o h o riz o n ta l g ra d ie n t o f te m p e ratu re

b)

th e re is n o c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re w ith height

c)

th e re is a n in c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re as h e ig h t in cre ases

d)

th e re is a d e c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re a s h e ig h t inc rea se s

T h e s u n g iv e s o u t__________a m o u n t o f e n e rg y w ith ___________ w av elengths.


T h e e a rth g iv e s o u t re la tiv e ly ______________ a m o u n ts o f en erg y w ith re lativ e ly _____________
w av e le n g th s:

14.

a)

L a rg e , larg e, sm all, sm all.

b)

S m all, s m a ll, la rg e , large.

c)

L a rg e , larg e, sm a ll, large.

d)

L a rg e , sm all, sm a ll, large.

W ith a c le a r n ig h t sk y , th e te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e w ith h e ig h t b y e a rly m o rn in g is m o st lik ely to


show :

15.

a)

A s te a d y la p se ra te av e ra g in g 2 C p e r 1000 ft.

b)
c)

A sta b le la p se ra te o f 1 C p e r 1000 ft.


A n in v e rsio n a b o v e th e su rfa c e w ith a n iso th erm al lay er a b ove.

d)

A n in v e rsio n fro m n e a r th e su rfa c e a n d a 2 C p e r 1000 ft la p se r a te above.

O v e r c o n tin e n ts an d o c e a n s, th e re la tiv e te m p e ratu re co n d itio n s are:


a)

W a rm e r in w in te r o v e r la n d , c o ld e r in s u m m e r o v e r sea.

b)

C o ld e r in w in te r o v e r la n d , w a rm e r in w in te r o v er sea.

c)

C o ld in w in te r o v e r lan d a n d sea.

d)

W a rm e r in su m m e r o v e r lan d a n d sea.

7-19

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METEO RO LO G Y

TEM PERATURE
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

10

11

12

A nsw er

13

14

15

7-20

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R E I G H T - H U M ID IT Y

C o n te n ts

Page
8. 1

D E F IN IT IO N O F L A T F.N T H E A T ........................................................................................... 8 - 1

8 .2

E V A P O R A T I O N ...............................................................................................................................8 - 1

8.3

S A T U R A T IO N

................................................................................................................................. 8 - 1

8. 4

C O N D E N S A T IO N

8. 5

F R E E Z IN G

..........................................................................................................................8 - 1

......................................................................................................................................... 8 - 1

8 .6

M E L T I N G ............................................................................................................................................8 - 2

8. 7

S U B L IM A T IO N

8. 8

H U M ID IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T .................................................................................................8 - 2

8. 9

W E T B U L B T E M P E R A T U R E ...................................................................................................8 - 3

............................................................................................................................... 8 - 2

8.10

D R Y -B U L B A N D W E T -B U L B H Y G R O M E T E R O R P S Y C H R O M E T E R . . . . 8 - 4

8.11

D E W P O IN T T E M P E R A T U R E ................................................................................................... 8 - 4

8.12

D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F H U M I D I T Y ............................................................................ 8 - 5

H U M ID IT Y Q U E S T I O N S ........................................................................................................................... 8 - 7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HUMIDITY

METEOROLOGY
8.

D E F IN IT IO N O F L A T E N T H E A T
T h e la te n t h e a t o f a su b sta n c e is th e h e a t a b so rb e d o r re lea sed w ith o u t c h a n g e o f tem p e ra tu re
w h e n th e su b sta n c e c h a n g e s state. L a te n t h e a t d iffe rs a c c o rd in g to th e sta te o f th e su b stance.
W h e n ice c h a n g e s to w a te r, o r w a te r c h a n g e s to w a te r v a p o u r, latent h e a t is a b s o r b e d .
W h e n w a te r v a p o u r c h a n g e s to w a te r, o r w a te r c h a n g e s to ice, laten t h e a t is re le a se d .

8 .2

E V A P O R A T IO N
E v a p o ra tio n is th e c h a n g e
o f sta te

fro m

v ap o u r.

liq u id

to

L a te n t h e a t is

a b so rb e d .
E v a p o ra tio n c a n o c c u r a t
a n y te m p e ra tu re , e v e n from
ice.

For

te m p e ra tu re

p a rtic u la r

th e re

is

p a rtic u la r a m o u n t o f w a te r
p e r u n it v o lu m e th a t th e a ir
can

h o ld .

m a x im u m

W hen
is

this

re a c h e d ,

e v a p o ra tio n w ill c e ase.


8.3

S A T U R A T IO N
A ir b e c o m e s sa tu ra te d b y a d d in g m o re w a te r v a p o u r to it. A lte rn ativ e ly , a s w a rm a ir c an hold
m o re w a te r v a p o u r th a n co ld , s a tu ra tio n c a n b e a c h ie v e d by c o o lin g th e a ir.
A ir is sa tu ra te d i f it c o n ta in s th e m a x im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t it c an h o ld a t th a t
te m p e ra tu re . I f s a tu r a t e d a ir is c o o le d , c o n d e n s a tio n w ill o ccur.

8 .4

C O N D E N S A T IO N
C o n d e n sa tio n is th e c h a n g e o f sta te fro m v a p o u r to liq u id . L ate n t h e a t is re le a se d .
C o n d e n sa tio n c a u se s c lo u d a n d fo g to fo rm . C o n d en sa tio n w ill re q u ire m in u te im p u rities o r
p a rtic le s c a lle d c o n d e n s a tio n n u c le ii; w ith o u t th e se n u c le i, th e v a p o u r w o u ld b e co m e s u p e r
s a t u r a t e d w h ic h is 100% H u m id ity b u t s till in g a s form .

8 .5

F R E E Z IN G
I f th e w a te r d ro p le t is c o o le d b e lo w z e ro , th en it m a y ch a n g e s ta te a g a in to ice. T h e p ro c e ss is
c a lle d f r e e z in g (th e d ro p le t m a y c o o l to c o n sid e ra b ly b e lo w z e ro - c a lle d s u p e r c o o lin g ) .
F re e z in g m a y a lso re q u ire th e e x iste n c e o f fre e z in g n u cleii.

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
8.6

HUMIDITY

M E L T IN G
T h e o p p o s ite c h a n g e o f sta te , fro m so lid to liq u id , is c alle d m e ltin g . (T h e re is n o s u p e rfr o z e n
state).

8 .7

S U B L IM A T IO N
S u b lim a tio n is th e c h a n g e o f s ta te d ire c tly fro m w a te r v a p o u r to ic e w ith o u t w a te r d ro p lets
b e in g fo rm e d . L a te n t h e a t is r e le a s e d . T h is p ro c e ss is a lso k n o w n a s d e p o s itio n .
T h e c h a n g e o f s ta te fro m ic e d ire c tly to w a te r v a p o u r is a lso c a lle d su b lim ation.

8.

H U M ID IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T
a)

A b s o lu te H u m id ity is th e w e ig h t o f w a te r v a p o u r in u n it v o lu m e o f air. A b so lu te
H u m id ity is u s u a lly e x p re sse d in g m s/m 3.

b)

H u m id ity M ix in g R a tio ( H M R ) is th e w e ig h t o f w a te r v a p o u r c o n ta in e d in u n it m ass


o f d ry air.

T h e H u m id ity M ix in g R atio is u s u a lly ex p re sse d in gm s/kg. H M R

in

te m p e ra te la titu d e s u su a lly b e tw e en 5 & 5 0 g m s/kg. In u n sa tu ra te d a ir, H M R rem ain s


c o n s ta n t d u rin g a s c e n t w h ile te m p e ra tu re a n d p re ssu re decre ases.
c)

S a tu r a t io n M ix in g R a tio is th e H M R w h en th e p a rce l o f a ir is satu rate d .

d)

R e la tiv e H u m id ity .

T h e ra tio

B M B ------- x
Saturationm
ix
ingratio

100% ,

o r m o re sim p ly , th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r p re se n t in a v o lu m e o f a ir d iv id e d b y th e m axim um
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r w h ic h th a t v o lu m e c o u ld h o ld a t th a t te m p e ra tu re e x p re sse d a s a
p e rc en tag e.
RH 100% = S A T U R A T IO N

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

-30

-20

-10
0
TEMPERATURE IN C

Figure 8.2. The Amount of Water Vapour the Air can Hold
when Saturated at Different Temperatures.

8.

W E T BULB T E M PE R A T U R E
T h e lo w e st te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a ir m ay b e c o o le d b y th e e v a p o ratio n o f w a te r is k n o w n a s the
w e t b u lb te m p e r a t u r e .
In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e d r y b u lb t e m p e r a tu r e , th is fo rm s th e sta n d a rd m eth o d o f m easu rin g
h u m id ity a t th e ea rth 's su rface.

8-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO G Y
8 .1 0

HUMIDITY

D R Y -B U L B A N D W E T -B U L B H Y G R O M E T E R O R P S Y C H R O M E T E R
DRY

I f a ir is d ry , w a te r w ill e v a p o ra te
fro m th e m u slin c o v e rin g th e w e t
b u lb an d late n t h e a t w ill lo w e r th e

120
"F

te m p e ra tu re .

100

W ET

*120

\ 5C0 ?C
0*
I..-40 40 - .
30 30

10Q

80

I f a ir is sa tu ra te d , n o e v a p o ra tio n

20 2 0 -3

w ill o c c u r a n d th e rm o m e te rs w ill

pi-

60 ' :

re a d th e sam e.

10 10

40

D ev v p o in t, r e la tiv e h u m id ity and

HMR a re read fro m ta b le s o r slid e

40

20-.

ru le b y e n te rin g w ith th e tw o
te m p e ra tu re s o b ta in e d .
The

d e w p o in t

m ay

be

D IS T IL L E D
W ATER

C O N T A IN E R

a p p ro x im a te d fro m th e h u m id ity
u s in g th e fo rm u la

Figure 8.3. Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb


Hygrometer or Psychrometer.

D iffe re n c e b e tw e e n T e m p a n d D P = (1 0 0 - H um )
5
H u m id ity = 100 - (D iff x 5)
N o te th a t th e D ev v p o in t te m p e ra tu re is n o t th e sa m e a s th e W e t b u lb te m p e ra tu re (e x c e p t at
s a tu ratio n ).
8 . 11

D E W P O IN T T E M P E R A T U R E
D e w p o in t is th e te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a ir m u st b e co o le d a t c o n sta n t p re ssu re fo r s a tu ra tio n to
o ccu r.
N O T E : 1.

T h e D e w p o in t w ill

o n ly

c h a n g e i f t h e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r in th e a ir

ch an g es.
2.

W h en D ry B u lb T e m p e ra tu re = D ew p o in t th e n R elativ e H um idity

= 100%

a n d a little fiirth e r c o o lin g a n d so m e a ir m o v e m e n t w ill p ro d u c e c lo u d


3.

D o n o t c o n fu se th e D e w p o in t w ith W et B u lb T em p era tu re .

4.

T h e D e w p o in t h a s a sm all lap se ra te o f a b o u t /z p e r 1000 ft.

3 -4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

or

HUMIDITY

METEOROLOGY
8.12

D I U R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F H U M I D I T Y
By

day,

in c re a se s,

as
RH

th e

te m p e ra tu re

w ill

d e c re a se

b e c a u se th e m a x im u m a m o u n t o f
w a te r

vapour

a ir

can

h o ld

in c re a se s a s th e te m p e ra tu re rises.
A fte r 1500 h rs, th e te m p e ra tu re
w ill s ta rt to fall a n d th e m ax im u m
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th e a ir
c a n h o ld w ill fall a n d th u s th e R H
w ill in c re a s e . T h e h ig h e r R H a t
n ig h t

is

th e

re a so n

fo r

the

fo rm a tio n o f m is t a n d fo g a fte r
d a rk in a u tu m n a n d w in ter.

Figure 8.4. Diurnal Variation of Humidity.


R H is m a x im u m a t d aw n w h e n th e t e m p e r a t u r e is m in im u m .
F ig u re 8 .5 . s h o w s a g ra p h o f re la tiv e h u m id ity a t R A F W a d d in g to n o v e r a n u m b e r o f years. T he
m a x im u m an d m in im u m tim e s a n d th e sin u so id a l c u rv e c o n firm F ig u re 8.4.

Figure 8.5.
NOTE:

I f th e R H is less th a n 10 0% th e n th e a ir is co n sid e re d to b e dry.


e.g.

R H = 9 9 .9 % , th e a ir is d ry.
R H = 2 0 % , th e a ir is d ry.

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

HUMIDITY

H u m id ity Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h ro u g h o u t th e 24 h rs o f a d a y th e R e la tiv e H u m id ity c a n b e e x p e c te d to:


a)

2.

In c re a se d u rin g th e d a y a n d d e c re a se a t night.

b)

S ta y re a so n a b ly c o n s ta n t th r o u g h o u t th e 24 h o u rs.

c)

R e d u c e d u rin g th e d a y a n d in c re a se a t n ight.

d)

O n ly c h a n g e w ith a c h a n g e o f a irm ass.

D u rin g a n ig h t w ith a c le a r sk y , s u rfa c e tem p era tu re w i l l _______________


R H w ill_________________ a n d D e w p o in t w ill______________.

3.

4.

5.

a)

F all, R ise, R ise.

b)

R ise, R ise, F all.

c)

F all, R ise , R e m a in th e sam e.

d)

F all, F a ll, R e m a in th e sam e

A c h a n g e o f sta te d ire c tly fro m a so lid to a v a p o u r o r v ice versa is:


a)

in so la tio n

b)

co n d e n sa tio n

c)

ev a p o ra tio n

d)

su b lim a tio n

T h e in stru m e n t u s e d fo r m e a s u rin g th e h u m id ity o f a ir is a:


a)

h y d ro m e te r

b)

h y g ro m e te r

c)

w e t b u lb th e rm o m e te r

d)

h y g ro sc o p e

T h e p ro c e s s o f c h a n g e o f s ta te fro m a g a s to a liq u id is:


a)

e v a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb e d

b)

e v a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is relea sed

c)

co n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb ed

d)

c o n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is rele ased

8-7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
6.

7.

HUMIDITY

T h e p ro c e s s o f c h a n g e o f sta te fro m a liquid to a g as is:


a)

co n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e at is rele ase d

b)

ev a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is rele ase d

c)

co n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb ed

d)

e v a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d

A ir is c la ssifie d a s d ry o r sa tu ra te d a c c o rd in g to its re la tiv e hu m id ity . I f th e re lativ e hu m id ity


w ere 95 % th e a ir w o u ld b e c la ssifie d as:
a)

c o n d itio n a lly sa tu rated

b)

p a rtia lly sa tu ra te d

c)
d)

sa tu ra te d
dry

On a w e t b u lb th e rm o m e te r in a n u n sa tu ra te d a tm o sp h e re th e re w ill be a red u c tio n o f


te m p e ra tu re b e lo w th a t o f th e d ry b u lb th e rm o m e te r b ecause:
a)

h e a t is a b so rb e d d u rin g th e p ro ce ss o f co n d en sa tio n

b)

h e a t is re le a se d d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f c o n d e n satio n

c)

h e a t is a b s o rb e d b y th e th e rm o m e te r d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f ev ap o ratio n

d)

h e a t is re le a se d fro m th e th e rm o m e te r d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f eva p o ra tio n

R e la tiv e h u m id ity is:


a)

a ir te m p e ra tu re o v e r w e t b u lb tem p era tu re x 100

b)

a ir te m p e ra tu re o v e r d e w p o in t tem p era tu re x 100

c)

th e a ctu al a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r in a sa m p le o f air o v e r th e m a x im u m a m o u n t o f w ater

d)

th e m ax im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a sa m p le o f a ir c an c o n tain o v e r th e a ctual

v a p o u r th a t th e sa m p le c a n c o n ta in x 100
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th e sa m p le d o e s c o n tain x 100
10.

A b so lu te h u m id ity is:
a)

th e n u m b e r o f w a te r d ro p le ts in a g iv e n q u a n tity o f air

b)

th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a g iv en q u an tity o f a ir h olds

c)

th e m ax im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a g iv en q u a n tity o f a ir c a n hold

d)

th e m ax im u m n u m b e r o f w a te r d ro p le ts th a t a g iv e n q u a n tity o f a ir c a n h o ld

8-8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

HUMIDITY

W e t b u lb te m p e ra tu re w o u ld n o rm a lly b e lo w e r th a n th e d ry b u lb te m p e ra tu re b ecause:
a)

co n d e n sa tio n c a u s e s a re le a se o f la te n t h ea t

b)

e v a p o ra tio n c a u s e s c o o lin g

c)

la te n t h e a t is a b so rb e d b y th e b u lb th erm o m ete r

d)

o f co n d e n sa tio n o n th e m u slin w ic k o f th e bulb

T h e w e t b u lb tem p e ra tu re :
a)

is m e a su re d u s in g a h y d ro m e te r

b)

is th e m in im u m te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a th e rm o m e te r bulb c a n b e co o le d

b y the

e v a p o ra tio n o f w a te r
c)
d)

m e a su re s th e d e w p o in t o f th e a ir
is th e m in im u m te m p e ra tu re re a ch e d by th e su rfa c e o f th e e arth a s m e asu re d b y a
th e rm o m e te r p la c e d 1.2 m e tre s a b o v e th e g ro u n d

13.

W h ic h one o f th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts re la tin g to a tm o sp h e ric h u m id ity is c orrect:


a)

14.

I f th e a ir te m p e ra tu re falls th e n th e a b so lu te h u m id ity m u st increase.

b)

T h e a b s o lu te h u m id ity is th e m a ss o f w a te r v a p o u r c o n ta in e d in u n it v olum e o f air.

c)

T h e d iu rn a l v a ria tio n o f d e w p o in t tem p e ra tu re is g re a te st w h e n sk ies a re c le a r a t n ight.

d)

T h e d e w p o in t te m p e ra tu re is th e tem p e ra tu re ind icated b y th e w e t b u lb therm o m e ter.

W h en c o n d e n sa tio n ta k e s p la c e , th e h ig h e r th e te m p era tu re , t h e ____________ th e a m o u n t o f late n t


h e a t_____________ :
a)

15.

le sse r; re leased .

b)

g re a te r;

ab so rb e d .

c)

g re a te r;

re leased .

d)

le sse r; a b so rb e d .

W h en w a te r v a p o u r c h a n g e s to icc:
a)

L a te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d .

b)

S p e c ific h e a t is re le a se d .

c)

L a te n t h e a t is re leased .

d)

S p e c ific h e a t is a b so rb e d .

8 -9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

HUMIDITY

M ETEOROLOGY
ANSW ERS

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

14

15

C H A P T E R N IN E - ^ D I A B A T I C S A N D S T A B IL IT Y

C o n te n ts

Page
9.1

A D IA B A T IC T E M P E R A T U R E C H A N G E S .........................................................................9 - 1

9 .2

T H E D R Y A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E - D A L R ................................................................. 9 - 1

9 .3

T H E S A T U R A T E D A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E ( S A L R ) .............................................9 - 1

9 .4

T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N D A L R A N D S A L R . . . . 9 - 2

9 .5

T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E S A L R V A R IA T IO N W IT H T E M P E R A T U R E

9 .6

T H E E N V IR O N M E N T A L L A P S E R A T E ..............................................................................9 - 2

9 .7

S T A B I L I T Y .......................................................................................................................................... 9 - 3

9 .8

I N S T A B IL IT Y ......................................................................................................................................9 - 4

9.9

C O N D IT IO N A L IN S T A B IL IT Y

9.10

N E U T R A L E Q U I L I B R I U M ......................................................................................................... 9 - 6

9.11

S T A B IL IT Y S U M M A R Y .............................................................................................................. 9 - 6

9 .12

T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP B E T W E E N E L R /D A L R /D P /S A L R /
C L O U D BA SE A N D T O P

9 .1 3

EXAM PLES

9 -2

............................................................................................... 9 - 5

..........................................................................................................9 - 8

........................................................................................................................................ 9 - 9

A D IA B A T IC S A N D S T A B IL IT Y Q U E S T IO N S

...........................................................................9 - 1 1

*Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
9.1

A D IABATIC S AND STABILITY

A D IA B A T IC T E M P E R A T U R E C H A N G E S
A n a d ia b a tic te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e
o c c u rs w h e n a ir is c o m p re sse d o r
ex p a n d e d a n d th e re is n o e x tern al
tra n s fe r o f heat.
I f a ir is lifte d it e x p a n d s a n d w ill
co o l ad ia b a tic a lly , w h ilst i f it is
b r o u g h t d o w n it c o m p re sse s an d
w ill w a r m a d iab atically .
A n y h e a t tra n s fe r b y c o n d u c tio n ,
tu r b u le n t m ix in g o r

ra d ia tio n

w ill b e v e ry s m all a n d to o s lo w to
b e e ffectiv e.
A n e x a m p le o f a d ia b a tic h e a tin g is
in

an

a n tic y c lo n e ,

w h e re

d e s c e n d in g a ir w arm s.
9.2

T H E D R Y A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E - D A L R
T h e D ry A d ia b a tic L a p se R a te (D A L R ) is th e lapse
ra te f o r risin g d ry ( ie n o t s a tu ra te d ) air. It h a s a
c o n s ta n t v a lu e o f a b o u t 3 C /1 0 0 0 f t (1 C /1 0 0 m ) as
illu stra te d in F ig u re 9.2.

TEMPERATURS

F ig u r e 9 .2 .
9.3

THE

SA TU RA TED

A D IA B A T IC

LAPSE

R A T E (S A L R )
T h e S a tu ra te d A d ia b a tic L a p se R a te (S A L R ) is th e
la p se ra te f o r ris in g a ir w h ic h is sa tu r a te d (R H
100% ).

It h a s a n a v e r a g e v a lu e in tem p era te

la titu d e s n e a r th e g ro u n d o f 1.8 C /1 000 ft o r


0 .6 C /1 0 0 m .
S A L R is n o t c o n sta n t, v a ry in g w ith te m p e ra tu re
and

a p p ro a c h in g

th e

DALR

as

te m p e ra tu re

d e c r e a se s a n d /o r a ltitu d e in c rea ses.

9 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
9.4

A D IABATIC S AND STABILITY

T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N D A L R A N D S A L R .
A s sa tu ra te d a ir co o ls, w a te r v a p o u r w ill c o n d e n se o u t a s w a te r d ro p le ts fo rm in g c lo u d . L a tent
h e a t w ill b e r elea sed a n d th u s th e ra te o f c o o lin g o f th e risin g a ir w ill b e red u ced .

9.5

T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E S A L R V A R IA T IO N W IT H T E M P E R A T U R E
T h e a m o u n t o f la te n t h e a t r e le a s e d b y a v o lu m e o f sa tu ra te d a ir d e p en d s u p o n its tem p era tu re .
A t lo w te m p e ra tu re s th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r re q u ired to sa tu ra te th e a ir is sm all an d
th e re fo re th e a m o u n t o f la te n t h e a t r e le a s e d w ill a lso b e sm all.
A t h ig h a ltitu d e s (a n d la titu d e s) te m p e ra tu re s a re lo w , little la te n t h e a t is r e le a se d a n d th u s
D A L R a n d S A L R a re n e a rly th e sa m e . C o n v ersely , a t low la titu d e s a n d a ltitu d e s tem p era tu re
is h ig h , c o n s e q u e n tly S A L R is sh allo w .
T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n D A L R a n d S A L R is sh o w n in F ig u re 9 .3..
A co m p a riso n b e tw e e n S A L R s a t d iffe re n t la titu d e s is sh o w n a t F ig u re 8.3.a.

DALR

ZONE

TEM P

SALR
o /
/1 ,0 0 0 '

0 /
/1 ,0 0 0 '

COLD

M I D L A T IT U D E S L O W L E V E L

M ED

1.5

E Q U A T O R I A L L A T IT U D E S L O W L E V E L

W ARM

< 1 .5

P O L A R L O W L E V E L ; H I-A L T A L L

> 1 .5

L A T IT U D E S

Figure 9.4 SALR Differences

9 .6

T H E E N V IR O N M E N T A L L A P S E R A T E
T h e E L R is th e la p s e ra te o f th e a ir s u rro u n d in g th e risin g
a ir c o n s id e re d in th e p re v io u s tw o c a se s.

It is im p o rta n t

b e c a u se th is v a r ia b le la p se ra te c o n tro ls th e sta b ility o f


th e a ir.

Figure 9.5 Variable ELR

9 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
9.7

ADIABATIC S AND STABILITY

S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u se s a ir to b e fo rc e d u p th e s id e o f a m o u n tain th e n , i f th is liftin g force
is re m o v e d , th e a ir r e tu rn s to its o rig in a l p o sitio n . T h e a tm o sp h e re is s ta b le , a s illu stra te d in
F ig u re 9.6 . A t e v e ry lev el th a t th e a ir is fo rc e d to r is e to, it w ill a lw a y s b e c o ld e r th a n the
su rro u n d in g a ir a n d th e re fo re m o re d en se.
T h e a i r is s ta b le w h e n th e E L R is less th a n th e S A L R .

STABLE AIR
WHEN ELR < SALR
e.g. ELR 1C/1000 Ft

Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.7.
flr /

salr

9 -3

= abs o lu te
STABILITY
Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
9.8

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

I N S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u s e s a ir to b e f o rc ed u p th e s id e o f a m o u n ta in th e n , i f th is liftin g fo rce
is re m o v e d , th e a ir w ill c o n tin u e to ris e . T h e a tm o sp h e re is u n s ta b le , a s illu stra te d in F ig u re 9.8.
A t e v e ry le v e l th a t th e a ir is f o rc e d to r is e to , i t w ill a lw a y s b e w a rm e r th a n th e s u rro u n d in g a ir
a n d th e re fo re le s s d en se.
T h e a i r is u n s ta b le w h e n th e E L R is g r e a t e r t h a n th e D A L R .

Figure 9.9.
e lr> d a lr= a b s o lu te

INSTABILITY
9 -4

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

METEOROLOGY
9 .9

C O N D I T I O N A L I N S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u s e s a ir to b e f o rc ed u p th e sid e o f a m o u n ta in th e n , i f th is liftin g force
is re m o v e d , th e a ir w ill e ith e r c o n tin u e to rise i f s a tu ra te d (R H 100% ) o r r e tu rn to its o rig in a l
p o sitio n i f u n sa tu ra te d (< R H 100% ). T h e a tm o sp h e re is co n d itio n a lly u n sta b le, a s illu strated
in F ig u re 9 .1 0 . T h e sta b ility o f th e a tm o sp h ere is n o w c o n d itio n al u p o n its m o istu re c o n te n t an d
n o t ju s t th e v a lu e o f th e E L R .

CONDITIONALLY UNSTABLE AIR


WHEN DALR > ELR > SALR
e.g. ELR 2C/1000 Ft
ELR

ELR

+ 14c

-3 0 0 0 '

+16

-2 0 0 0

+ 14

-3 0 0 0

+16

-2 0 0 0 '

M 8

-1 0 0 0

+ 14.6

Vi
"w

*$
/

*18
+20

+20 +20

+20"

L IF T E D S A T U R A T E D A IR

L IF T E D D R Y A IR

IF IT IS SATURATED IT IS UNSTABLE

IF IT IS DRY IT IS STABLE

Figure 9.10.
T h e a ir is c o n d itio n a lly u n s ta b le w h e n E L R is
b e tw e e n

th e

S A L R , a n d th e

DALR

as

illu stra te d in F ig u re 9 . 11.

Figure 9.11

9 -5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
9.1 0

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

N E U T R A L E Q U IL IB R IU M
I f th e lifte d a ir s la p se r a te is th e sa m e a s th e e n v iro n m e n ta l la p se ra te th e n w e h av e neutral
sta b ility .

A t e v e ry lev el th e a ir is fo rc ed to ris e it w ill h a v e th e sam e te m p e ra tu re a s th e

su rro u n d in g a ir a n d th e re fo re th e sa m e d ensity.

NEUTRAL STABILITY
WHEN ELR = DALR OR SALR

ELR
1
3

+ 11

3
O
0

ELR

+14"

1-14 - 2000'

+14.6

H 5 1/2 -3000

+17

- 2000

+16

J l

H 7 - 1000 +17

+ I 8 V20 - 1000 +18.2"

<-20 +20

+2 0

+20

LIFTED SA TU R A TE D AIR

LIFTED DR Y AIR
ELR = DALR

ELR = SALR
Figure 9.12.

9.11

S T A B IL IT Y S U M M A R Y
a)

T H E E L R C O N T R O L S S T A B IL IT Y .

b)

I f th e E L R is less th a n 1,8C / 10 0 0 ft, th e a ir is stab le - a b s o lu te stab ility '.


S ta b le w e a t h e r

B a d v isib ility
L ig h t tu rb u len c e
S tra tifo rm c lo u d
In te rm itte n t to co n tin u o u s p re cip ita tio n

c)

I f th e E L R is g re a te r th a n 3 C /1 0 0 0 ft, th e a ir is u n stab le - a b s o lu te in s ta b ility .


U n s ta b le w e a t h e r

G o o d v isib ility
M o d e ra te tu rb u len ce
C u m u lifo rm c lo u d
S h o w e ry p re cip itatio n

9 -6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

d)

I f th e E L R is b e tw e e n 1.8C a n d 3 C /1 0 0 0 ft, th e a ir is s ta b le i f d ry a n d u n sta b le if


sa tu ra te d - c o n d itio n a l in s ta b ility .

e)

T h e c lo u d s w h ic h form
in sta b le a ir ten d to b e
sm all in v e rtic a l ex ten t
an d larg e in h o rizo n tal
e x te n t - l a y e r c lo u d s .
L ayer

c lo u d s

m ay

in c lu d e stra to c u m u lu s a s
s h o w n in F ig u re 9.13.
w h ic h is id e n tifie d b y its
w e ll

d e f in e d

w h e re a s

s tra tu s

sh a p e ,
is

ill

d e fin e d in sh a p e b u t c an
cover

e q u a lly

la rg e

areas.

Figure 9.13. Stratocumulus


f)

T h e c lo u d s w h ic h form
in u n sta b le a ir te n d to b e
la rg e in v e rtic a l e x te n t
a n d sm all in h o riz o n ta l
ex te n t - h e a p c lo u d s .

Figure 9.14. Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical


development.

9 -7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
9.12

ADIABATIC S AND STABILITY

T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N E L R /D A L R /D P /S A L R /C L O U D B A S E A N D T O P
F ig u re 9.1 5 is a te m p e ra tu re /h e ig h t d ia g ra m w h ic h re p re se n ts g ra p h ic a lly th e p ro c e ss o f
co m p a rin g th e te m p e ra tu re o f lifte d a ir w ith th a t o f its en v iro n m e n t.
In th is e x a m p le th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e a ir a t th e e a rth s s u rfac e is 12 C a n d its d e w p o in t is 6 C .
W ith th e s e tw o fa c ts a n d th e k n o w le d g e th a t th e D A L R a n d th e S A L R a re 3C a n d 1.8C
re sp e c tiv e ly , th e te m p e ra tu re o f a n a sc e n d in g b u b b le m a y b e c alcu lated a n d p lo tte d fo r each
s u c c e ssiv e 1,000 f e e t lev el. B y p lo ttin g th e m e a s u r e d E L R on th e sam e d iag ram th e e xp e cte d
te m p e ra tu re o f th e b u b b le m a y re a d ily b e c o m p a red w ith th a t o f its env iro n m en t a t a n y level.
T h e first p a rt o f th e a s c e n t m ay b e c a lle d th e d r y s ta g e . H ere th e a ir c o o ls a t th e D A L R u ntil
it re a c h e s its d e w p o in t te m p e ra tu re (d o n t fo rg et th a t th e d e w p o in t tem p e ra tu re is m o d ifie d b y
h a l f a d e g re e fo r e v e ry 1 000ft a sc e n t a s p re ssu re d ro p s) - a b o u t 2 ,4 0 0 fe e t a n d 5 C in th is c ase.
A t th is h e ig h t th e a ir b e c o m e s sa tu ra te d a n d c o n d e n sa tio n sta rts - th e a ir e n te rs th e w e t o r
c lo u d sta g e . F ro m n o w o n th e a ir c o o ls a t th e S A L R a n d w a te r c o n tin u e s to c o n d e n se o u t until
th e ris in g a ir a rriv e s a t a lev el w h e re its te m p e ra tu re is th e sam e a s th a t o f its e n v iro n m e n t. A t
th is p o in t (ju s t b e lo w 4 ,0 0 0 fe e t) fu rth e r a sc en t is resiste d an d u p w ard m o v em en t c e a se s quickly.
F ro m j u s t b e lo w 4 ,0 0 0 ft u p w a rd s, n o m o re co n d en satio n tak e s p la c e a n d s o th is level w ill m ark
th e to p o f th e c lo u d .
N o te th a t in itia lly th e a d ia b a tic a lly c o o le d b u b b le is w a rm e r than its e n v iro n m e n t a n d th e a ir
th e re fo re is u n s ta b le u p to j u s t b e lo w th e 4 ,0 0 0 f t lev el.

A b o v e th is le v el th e te m p e ratu re

re la tio n sh ip is re v e rse d a n d th e a ir is sta b le. It m a y b e seen fro m F ig u re 9.15. th a t giv en a


trig g e r, c lo u d s w ill d e v e lo p w ith th e b a s e a t 2 ,4 0 0 fe e t a n d th e to p s a t ju s t b e lo w 4 ,0 0 0 ft. W e
c a n a p p ro x im a te th is c lo u d b a se u s in g th e f o llo w in g form ula.
C lo u d B a s e = S u r f a c e T e m p e r a t u r e - S u r f a c e D e w p o in t x 4 00
A p p ly in g th is fo rm u la to th e e x a m p le in figure 9.1 5 c a n q u ite a c c u ra te ly c a lc u la te th e c lo u d b ase.
T o su m u p , i f th e s u rfa c e te m p e ra tu re a n d d e w p o in t o f a n a ir sam p le a re k n o w n a n d i f th e E L R
is a c c u ra te ly m e a su re d , th e n w e c a n u se th e D A L R a n d S A L R g ra p h s to p ro d u c e a v e ry good
e stim a tio n o f th e h e ig h ts o f th e b a s e a n d to p o f c lo u d s fo rm e d in fre e ly c o n v e c tin g a ir.

9 -8

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AD IABATIC S AN D STABILITY

METEOROLOGY

Figure 9.15. ELR / DALR / DEWPOINT / SALR / CLOUD BASE /


CLOUDTOP.

9 .1 3

EXAM PLES
A s s u m in g a c o n s ta n t la p s e r a te in th e la y e r b etw ee n 2 0 0 0 ft a n d 5 0 0 0 ft a n d ig n o rin g th e effe cts
o f p re s s u re c h a n g e , w h a t is t h e s ta te o f sta b ility w hen:

TEM P A T

TEM P AT

2 ,0 0 0 '

5 ,0 0 0 '

4 7

+ 1

60%

+ 15

+ 9

100%

+ 12

+9

100%

+ 16

+2

75%

+ 11

+5

100%

+ 11

)-8

100%

-9

88%

+ 11

+4

50%

+ 15

+3

98%
100%

RH

S T A B IL IT Y
STATE ?

10

+5

11

+ 10

+ 10

90%

12

+ 10

+ 15

100%

W h a t e ls e is u n u su a l a b o u t th e e n v iro n m e n t w ith r e g a rd to q u e stio n s 11 an d 12?

9 -9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

METEOROLOGY
A d ia b a tic s a n d S ta b ility Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h e a c tu a l c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re w ith h e ig h t is k n o w n as:
a)

2.

th e e n v iro n m e n ta l la p se rate

b)

th e a d ia b a tic la p se rate

c)

th e te m p e ra tu re c u rv e

d)

th e tep h ig ra m

A n ad ia b a tic p ro c e s s is d e f in e d as:
a)

th e c o o lin g o f th e a tm o sp h e re a t 3 0 C /1000 ft

b)

a c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re b ro u g h t a b o u t b y a c h a n g e o f p re ssu re a c tin g o n a n in su la ted

c)

a c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re b ro u g h t a b o u t b y a ir b e in g f o rc e d t o r i se

d)

a n in c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re in a n in su la te d p a rce l o f a ir in w h ich th e p ressu re h as b ee n

p a rc e l o f a ir

d ecre a se d
3.

In a g iv e n a tm o sp h e re w h e re th e re la tiv e h u m id ity is 6 0 % an d th e E L R is less th e n th e D A L R .


I f a ir is f o rc e d to r is e it is:
a)

4.

s ta b le a n d w ill c a rry o n risin g

c)

u n s ta b le a n d w ill te n d t o re g a in its fo rm e r po sitio n

d)

s ta b le a n d w ill te n d to re g a in its fo rm er p o sition

In a sa tu ra te d a tm o sp h e re a ir w h ic h is fo rced to rise w ill:


a)

5.

u n s ta b le a n d w ill c a rry o n risin g

b)

ten d to re g a in its fo rm e r p o sitio n i f th e E L R is less than th e S A L R

b)

ten d to re g a in its fo rm e r p o sitio n i f th e E L R is g re a te r th a n th e S A L R

c)

c a rry o n risin g i f th e E L R is le s s th a n th e S A L R

d)

c la s sifie d a s s ta b le a ir w h e n th e E L R is g re a te r th a n th e S A L R

T h e D A L R is g re a te r th a n th e S A L R b e c ause:
a)

sa tu ra te d v a p o u r p re s s u re in c re a se s w ith in cre asin g tem p era tu re

b)

c o n v e c tio n is m o re a c tiv e in d r y a ir th a n in m o ist a ir

c)

th e ra te o f c o o lin g o f sa tu ra te d a ir is re d u c e d b y

th e re le a se o f la te n t h e a t o f

co n d e n sa tio n
d)

b e c a u se o f th e re le a s e o f la te n t h e a t o f ev a p o ratio n

9-11

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
6.

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

S tu d y th e in fo rm a tio n g iv e n in th e ta b le b elow .

I f th e a ir is fo rce d t o rise , th e c o n d itio n s m o st

lik ely to le a d to in sta b ility a re g iv e n in w h ich line?

7.

T e m p e ra tu re

T e m p e r a tu r e

a t 2 0 0 0 ft

a t 5000 ft

R e la tiv e H u m id ity

a )+ !5 C

+ 9C

50%

b)+ 1 5 C

+ioc

100%

c)+ 1 5 C

+ ir c

100%

d)+ 1 5 C

+ 12C

50%

I f th e d ry b u lb te m p e ra tu re a t th e s u rfa c e is + 7.5 C a n d th e o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re a t 4 0 0 0 ft is
i 5.5 C, th e a ir c o u ld b e b e s t d e sc rib e d as:
a)

A b s o lu te ly stab le.

b)

C o n d itio n a lly u n stab le.

c)

U nstab le.

d)

A b so lu te ly u n stab le.
in sta b ility e x ists w h e n t h e ....................... i s .......................... th a n th e D A L R :

8.

C o m p le te th e se n te n c e a b o v e u s in g th e c o rre c t w o rd s fro m th e 4 se ts g iven:

9.

a)

c o n d itio n a l

b)

c o n d itio n a l

ELR

g re ater

c)

a b so lu te

SA LR
SA LR

le ss

less

d)

a b so lu te

ELR

g re a te r

A la rg e c u m u lu s c lo u d b a s e 2 0 0 0 f t is r e p o rte d a t a n a irfield . I f th e su rfa c e tem p e ra tu re is 21 C'


th e h e ig h t o f th e fre e z in g lev el in th e c lo u d is lik e ly to b e:
a)
b)

1 0 3 3 0 ft
7000

ft

c)

10500 ft

d)

180 0 0 ft

9 - 1 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

AD IABATIC S AND STABILITY

I f th e te m p e ra tu re n e a r th e s u rfa c e in H o n g K o n g is +31 C th e n risin g sa tu ra te d a ir w ill c ool at


a rate of:

ft
ft
io o o ft

a)

3 C /1 0 0 0

b)

2 .5 C /1 0 0 0

c)

i.5 a i o o o f t

d)

i a

N e u tra l e q u ilib riu m in th e a tm o sp h e re o c c u rs w hen:


a)

a n y a ir w h ic h is d is p la c e d u p w a rd s re m a in s in its ne w p o sitio n , o n c e th e d isp la c in g force

b)

th e re is a th in s ta b le la y e r a t lo w levels b u t a m u c h th ic k e r u n sta b le la y e r alo ft

c)

th e re is a s ta te in w h ic h th e re is high re la tiv e h u m id ity a t low le v els a n d a low re lative

d)

th e re is a s ta te in w h ic h th e re is low re la tiv e hu m id ity a t lo w lev e ls a n d a high relativ e

is re m o v e d . T h is d is p la c e d a ir h a v in g n o te n d e n c y to r ise f u rth e r o r to s in k b a ck d ow n

h u m id ity a t h ig h le v e ls
h u m id ity a t h ig h le v e ls
W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts is tru e?
a)

th e tro p o p a u se is th e d iv id in g line b etw e en th e strato sp h ere a n d th e tro p o p a u se

b)

s ta b ility in c re a se s a s th e e n v iro n m e n ta l la p se r a te d e cre ases

c)
d)

h e a t is a d d e d to th e e n v iro n m e n t b y th e e v a p o ra tio n o f rain d ro p s


h ig h s u rfa c e te m p e ra tu re s a n d a p le n tifu l su p p ly o f m o istu re a re th e o n ly co n d itio n s
r e q u ire d f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th u n d e rsto rm s

W h en co n d e n sa tio n ta k e s p la c e , t h e h ig h e r th e te m p e ra tu re th e
th e a m o u n t o f laten t h e a t,
a)

L e sse r, re leased .

b)

G rea te r, ab so rb e d .

c)

G rea te r, re le a se d ,

d)

L e sse r, ab so rb e d .

T h e a ir is s ta b le if:
a)

It m o v e s v e ry little.

b)

T h e re a re fe w c h a n g e s in p ressu re.

c)

W h e n a liftin g fo rc e is re m o v e d th e a ir trie s to r e tu rn to its o rig in al p o sition.

d)

W h en a liftin g fo rc e is re m o v e d th e a ir c o n tin u e s to rise.

9-13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ADIABATIC S AND STABILITY

M ETEOROLOGY
15.

A b so lu te in sta b ility o c c u rs w hen:


a)

D A LR > ELR

b)

ELR > DALR

c)

SA LR > ELR

d)

S A L R < EL R

ANSW ERS

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

14

15

9-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CH A PTER TEN - TURBULENCE


C o n te n ts
Page
10.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................ 1 0 - 1

10.2

CA U SES

10. 3

G U STS A N D SQUALLS

..........................................................................................................................................1 0 - 1
.........................................................................................................1 0 - 1

1 0 .4

AREAS

1 0 .5

IN T H E F R IC T IO N L A Y E R .................................................................................................... 1 0 - 2

............................................................................................................................................ 1 0 - 1

1 0 .6

T H E R M A L T U R B U L E N C E .................................................................................................... 1 0 - 2

1 0 .7

M E C H A N IC A L T U R B U L E N C E .......................................................................................... 1 0 - 2

1 0 .8

IN C L O U D S

1 0 .9

IN C L E A R A I R ..............................................................................................................................1 0 - 3

10. 10

S T A N D IN G (O R M O U N T A IN ) W A V E S (M T W )

10. 11

C O N D IT IO N S N E C E S S A R Y F O R F O R M A T IO N O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S . 1 0 - 4

10.

12

10.13

V IS U A L R E C O G N IT IO N F E A T U R E S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S .........................1 0 - 4

10.14

A C T IO N T O A V O ID T H E W O R S T E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S

10.15

R O T O R S T R E A M IN G ................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 5

10.16

JET STR E A M S

10.17

A IR S U R R O U N D IN G C U M U L O N IM B U S C L O U D S ..................................................1 0 - 7

10.18

TURBULENCE AROUND UPPER LEVEL TROUGHS AND R ID G E S

.................................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 3

.................................................... 1 0 - 3

T U R B U L E N C E E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S ................................... 1 0 - 4

. . . 10 - 5

..............................................................................................................................1 0 - 6

1 0 -7

10.19

T U R B U L E N C E R E P O R T IN G C R IT E R IA

10.20

L O W A L T IT U D E W I N D S H E A R .......................................................................................... 1 0 - 9

......................................................................1 0 - 8

T U R B U L E N C E Q U E S T IO N S ................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 1 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

TU R BULENC E

METEOROLOGY
10.1

I N T R O D U C T IO N
A d ic tio n a ry d e fin itio n o f tu rb u le n c e is a d istu rb e d s ta te a n d so fro m th e av ia tio n p o in t o f v iew
th is w o u ld m e a n d is tu rb e d o r ro u g h air. T h e re a re d iffe re n t w a y s in w h ic h th is tu rb u le n c e is
c a u s e d a n d also d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e a tm o sp h ere w h e re it o ccurs.

10.2

CAUSES
T u rb u le n c e is c a u s e d b y u p a n d d o w n c u rre n ts w h ic h in te rfe re w ith th e n o rm al h o riz o n tal flow
o f air. T h e tw o ty p e s o f tu rb u le n c e are:

1 0 .3

a)

T h e rm a l

b)

F ric tio n a l o r m e c h a n ic a l

G U STS A N D SQ U A LLS
A g u s t is a ra p id in c re a se in w in d s tre n g th , o f sh o rt d u ra tio n (le ss th a n 1 m inute).
G u stin e ss is a n in d ic a tio n o f th e ra te o f c h a n g e o f w in d sp e ed a n d is fo u n d b y u sin g th e form ula:

range o f fluctuation x m % = ^

pACTOR

mean wind speed


eg

G u st t o 4 5 k ts, lu lls to 15 kt
M e a n w in d s p e e d 3 0 k t
G u st fa c to r 100%

(p le a s e n o te th a t th e g u s ts m a y r e la te to m e an w /v o n ly w ith o u t a n y a p p a re n t lulls)
A sq u a ll is a s u d d e n in c re a se o f w in d s p e e d o f a t le a st 16 k t risin g to 2 2 k t o r m o re a n d la stin g
a t L E A S T 1 m in u te . A s q u a ll m a y b e a c c o m p an ied b y a m ark e d d ro p in tem p e ratu re, c lo u d an d
p re c ip ita tio n .
1 0 .4

AREAS
T u rb u le n c e o ccu rs:
a)

In th e F r ic tio n L a y er.

b)

In C lo u d s.

c)

In C le a r A ir.

10-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO GY
10.

TURBULENCE

IN T H E F R IC T IO N L A Y E R

T h e f ric tio n la y e r is a la y e r o f a ir o n th e e arth 's surfac e 2 0 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 ft(w h ich m a y b e w ritte n as


u p to lK m ) th ic k w h e re b o th t h e r m a l a n d m e c h a n ic a l tu rb u le n c e o ccur.
1 0 .6

THERM AL TURBULENCE
T h is is c a u se d b y c o n v e c tio n
c u rre n ts

re s u ltin g

fro m

in s o la tio n . T h e c o n v e c tio n w ill


o b s tru c t th e n o rm al flow o f a ir
an d th is e ffe c t c a n b e in c re a se d
b y v a ria b le c o n v e c tio n .
T h e rm a l tu rb u le n c e is g re a te st
a ro u n d 1500 h rs o n c le a r s u n n y
d ay s.

T h e re is n o therm al

tu rb u le n c e o v e r th e sea.

Figure 10.1. Thermal Turbulence.

10.

M E C H A N IC A L T U R B U L E N C E
T h is is c a u s e d b y p h y sic a l o b stru c tio n s to th e no rm al flo w o f a ir su c h a s h ills, m o u n ta in s ,
c o a s ts , tr e e s a n d b u ild in g s .

Figure 10.2. Mechanical Turbulence.

1 0 - 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

TURBULENCE

T h e re w ill b e tu rb u le n c e
in c lo u d s d u e to th e u p
and

dow n

a s s o c ia te d

c u rre n ts
w ith

th e

fo rm a tio n o f c lo u d s. T h e
STRONG

g re a te st e ffe c t w ill b e in
hea p c lo u d s fo rm e d in
u n sta b le c o n d itio n s.

I STABLE CONDITIONS
1 LITTLE TURBULENCE

IN C LE AR A IR

UNSTABLE CONDITIONS
STRONG TURBULENCE

Figure 10.3. Turbulence in Cloud

T u rb u le n c e c a n o c c u r in c le a r a ir, p a rtic u la rly n e a r th e T r o p o p a u se . C le a r A ir T u rb u le n c e


(C A T ) is a s s o c ia te d w ith J e t S tr e a m s, S ta n d in g W a v es, a ir s u rro u n d in g C u m u lo N im b u s (CB)
c lo u d , U p p e r L e v e l T r o u g h s, a n d s o m e tim e s U p p er L ev e l R id ges.
It is c a u s e d b y h o riz o n ta l o r v e rtic a l w in d sh e a r a n d can lead to S ta llin g , L o ss o f C o n tro l and
A ir fr a m e D a m a g e.

10.

10 S T A N D IN G (O R M O U N T A IN ) W A V E S (M T W )
T h e s e a re tu rb u le n t w av es
of

a ir

w h ic h

can

S T R A T O S P H E R E : Occasional disturburbances

fo rm

(I.e. tu rbulence, sudden


w ind
tem perature cnangesj

a b o v e a n d d o w n w in d o f a .
m o u n ta in

ra n g e

to

an [

a v e ra g e d ista n c e o f 5 0 to
100 n m a t all h e ig h ts u p to ,
and

even

above,

TURBU-e * < i
JET STREAM a n d

TRCff0 ^

th e j

tro p o p a u se .

'

V ertic a l c u rre n ts m a y b e :
q u ite stro n g : u p to 2 0 0 0

r-AP

S b

. -

f.p .m . h a v e o c c u re d in th e
U K , w h ilst in w e ste rn U S A ,
c u rre n ts

o f 5 ,0 0 0 f.p .m .

h a v e b e e n re co rd ed .

Figure 10.4. A W ell Developed Mountain W ave Showing


Typical Features.

>Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

TU R BULEN CE

10. 11 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FORMATION OF STANDING WAVES


a)

W in d s p e e d a t m o u n ta in h e ig h t m u st b e a t le a st 15 kts, in cre asin g w ith h eight.

b)

T h e w in d

m u st

b lo w w ith in 3 0 d e g re e s o f th e p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e ra n g e o f

h ills/m o u n ta in s.
c)

T h e re m u st b e a re g io n o f m a rk e d sta b ility su c h as a n in v ersio n o r iso th e rm a l lay e r a t


m o u n ta in t o p h e ig h t w ith le s s s ta b le a ir a b o v e a n d b elow .

10.

12

T U R B U L E N C E E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S

M o s t se v e re tu rb u le n c e c a n o c c u r in th e R o to r Z o n e ly in g b e n e ath th e c re sts o f le e w a v es
a n d is o fte n m a rk e d b y R o ll C lo u d s. T h e m o st p o w e rfu l r o to r lies b e n e ath th e first w av e crest.
F lig h t in w a v e s c a n b e sm o o th , b u t s e v e re tu rb u le n c e m a y o cc u r. O c ca sio n a lly v io le n t tu rb u le n ce
w ill o c c u r, d u e to w a v e 'b reak in g '.
N o rm a l tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith flig h t a c ro ss je t stre a m s is fre q u e n tly g re a tly inc rea se d
w h e n th e j e t p a s se s o v e r m o u n ta in o u s are as, p a rtic u la rly w h e n m o u n ta in w a v e s a re p resent.
It h a s b e e n fo u n d th a t tu rb u le n c e c a u se d in

th e tro p o sp h e re d u e to m o u n ta in w a v e s m ay

c o n tin u e w ell in to th e s tra to sp h e re . A n a irc ra ft f ly in g c lo se to its c e ilin g o n th e se o c ca sio n s


m ig h t f in d its e lf in se rio u s d iffic u lty .
10.13

V IS U A L R E C O G N IT IO N F E A T U R E S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
P ro v id in g th e re is s u ffic ie n t m o istu re in t h e a tm o sp h e re, d istin c tiv e c lo u d s a re fo rm ed w ith
m o u n ta in w a v e s a n d th e s e p ro v id e u se fu l w a rn in g o f th e p re se n c e o f su ch w a v e s. T h e c lo u d s

a)

L e n tic u la r , o r le n s s h a p e d c lo u d s w h ic h fo rm o n th e c re sts o f sta n d in g w aves.


T h e y a p p e a r a fe w th o u sa n d fe e t a b o v e th e m o u n ta in to p s a n d a t a n y level u p to th e
tro p o p a u se , a n d s o m e tim e s a b o v e. R agged e d g es in d ic ate tu rb u len ce.

b)

R o to r , o r ro ll-c lo u d s o c c u r u n d e r th e c re sts o f stro n g w av e s d o w n w in d o f th e


rid g e . T h e s tro n g e s t ro to r is n o rm a lly fo rm ed in th e f ir s t w a v e d o w n w in d a n d w ill
b e lev el o r s lig h tly a b o v e th e rid g e c rest.

c)

C a p c lo u d s fo rm o n th e rid g e a n d stro n g w in d s m a y sw e e p t h e c lo u d d o w n th e lee


slo p es.

N o te:

1.

T h e c h a ra c te ris tic c lo u d s a b o v e m a y b e o b sc u re d b y o th e r c lo u d s an d th e
p re s e n c e o f sta n d in g w a v e s m a y th u s n o t b e e vid en ced .

2.

I f th e a ir is d ry , c lo u d s m a y n o t fo rm a t a ll, ev e n th o u g h sta n d in g w a v e s are


p resen t.

10-4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
10.14

TURBULENCE

A C T IO N T O A V O ID T H E W O R S T E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
a)

R e a d th e M e t. F o re c a st

b)

A rra n g e to c ro s s m o u n ta in ra n g e s a t 9 0 d egrees.

c)

F ly a t th e re c o m m e n d e d tu rb u le n ce speed.

d)

D o n o t fly p a ra lle l to a n d j u s t d o w n w in d o f th e range.

e)

A v o id flig h t th ro u g h o r n e a r th e ro to r zo n e .

f)

A v o id f lig h t le v e ls w ith in 5 0 0 0 f t o f s ta b le la y e r w h e re se v ere tu rb u le n c e is m o st likely.

g)

A llo w a h e ig h t c le a ra n c e a b o v e h ig h e st g ro u n d a t le a st e q u al to th e h e ig h t o f th a t g ro u n d
a b o v e lo c a l te rrain .

h)

A v o id lo w a ltitu d e f lig h t to w a rd s th e m o u n ta in ran g e fr o m t h e L ee sid e. A irc raft

i)

A v o id h ig h a ltitu d e flig h t o n th e le e s id e o f th e m o u n ta in ran g e d o w n w in d . B u ffe t

h e ig h t v a ria tio n s w ill b e o u t o f p h a se w ith w a v e s a n d d o w n d rau g h ts w ill b e h az ard o u s.

m a rg in a t h ig h lev el m a y be s m a ll, an d sp e e d o f a p p ro a c h in g sta n d in g w a v es w ill be


h ig h , w ith s u b se q u e n tly g re a te r lo ad s a p p lie d to th e a irfram e.
j)
10.15

B e p re p a re d fo r ic in g in c lo u d .

R O T O R S T R E A M IN G
I f th e

w in d s a p p ro a c h in g a m o u n ta in

LIGHT

ra n g e are stro n g o n ly a t lo w e r le v e ls a n d
fall o f f o r re v e rse d ire c tio n a t h ig h e r
le v e ls, R o to r S tr e a m in g m a y resu lt.
T h is c o m p rise s v io le n t ro to rs m o v in g
d o w n w in d fro m th e rid g e .

U n lik e th e

s ta tio n a ry ro to rs d e s c rib e d a b o v e , th e s e
ro to rs tra v e l d o w n w in d a fte r fo rm in g on
th e le e slo p e s, F ig u re 10.5. sh o w s R o to r
S tream in g .

Figure 10.5. Rotor Streaming.

10-5

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METEOROLOGY

TURBULENCE

T u rb u le n c e a t j e t stre a m s is c a u se d b y th e m ark ed w in d sh e a rs w h ic h o c c u r w hen c ro ssin g a je t


a s is illu stra te d in F ig u re 10.6.
a)

W ith stro n g e r w in d s.

b)

W ith c u rv e d je ts .

T u rb u le n c e in j e t stre am s is m o st severe:

c)

A b o v e a n d to th e le e o f m o u n ta in ranges.

d)

T h e p rim a ry a re a f o r M a x im u m C A T asso c ia te d w ith a j e t stre am is n e a r to o r b e lo w the


j e t a x is o n th e c o ld a ir (lo w p re s su re ) sid e . In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th is w ill b e
fo u n d b y lo o k in g d o w n s tre a m to th e le ft h a n d sid e; in th e S o u th e rn H em isp h e re lo o k in g
d o w n stre a m to th e rig h t h a n d sid e o f th e j e t c ore.

e)

W ith d ev e lo p in g a n d ra p id ly m o v in g je ts.

Figure 10.6 A Vertical Cross Section Through a Jetstream.

1 0 - 6

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M ETEO RO LO G Y

TURBULENCE

10.17 AIR SURROUNDING CUMULO NIMBUS CLOUDS


C u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d s, b y th e ir
n a tu re , c o n s is t o f p o w e rfu l u p c u rre n ts o f air.

A co n sid e ra b le

a m o u n t o f a ir o u tsid e th e c lo u d
w ill b e d ra w n in b y
c u rre n ts

and

th e se

th e re

upw ill

c o n se q u e n tly b e v e ry stro n g u p
c u rre n ts

in th e c le a r a ir b o th

b e sid e , u n d e r an d to a lesser
e x te n t a b o v e th e c lo u d .

T h is

e ffe c t is sh o w n in F ig u re 10.7.

Figure 10.7. Clear A ir Turbulence Surrounding


Cumulo Nim bus Clouds.

10.18

T U R B U L E N C E A R O U N D U P P E R L E V E L T R O U G H S A N D R ID G E S
S in c e u p p e r lev el w in d s a re s tro n g e r th a n th o se a t th e surfac e, th e sh a rp ch a n g e s in w ind
d ire c tio n a t u p p e r lev el tro u g h s a re lik ely to p ro d u c e c o n sid e ra b le h o rizo n ta l w in d sh ea r and
c o n s e q u e n t d is tu rb a n c e w h ic h m a y b e e x p e rie n c e d a s C le a r A ir T u rb u le n c e (C A T )..
A s u p p e r le v e l rid g e s te n d to b e m o re g e n tly c u rv ed th a n tro u g h s, th e d ire c tio n c h an g e s and
c o n s e q u e n t tu rb u le n c e w ill b e le s s severe.

Figure 10.8. Turbulence Produced at Upper


Troughs and Ridges.

10-7

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METEOROLOGY
10.19

TURBULENCE

T U R B U L E N C E R E P O R T IN G C R IT E R IA
C le a r A ir T u r b u le n c e (T U R B )
T U R B re m a in s a n im p o rta n t o p e ra tio n a l fa c to r a t all lev e ls b u t p artic u la rly a b o v e F L 150. T h e
b e s t in fo rm a tio n o n T U R B is o b ta in e d fro m p ilo ts S p e cial A irc ra ft O b se rv a tio n s; all pilo ts
e n c o u n te rin g T U R B a re re q u e ste d t o re p o rt tim e , lo ca tio n , lev el, in te n sity a n d a ircraft ty p e to
th e A T S U n it w ith w h o m th e y a re in ra d io c o n ta c t. H ig h level tu rb u le n c e ( n o rm a lly a b o v e FL
150 n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith c u m u lifo rm c lo u d , in c lu d in g th u n d e rsto rm s) sh o u ld b e re p o rte d as
T U R B , p re c e d e d b y th e a p p ro p ria te in te n sity o r p re c e d e d b y L ig h t o r M o d e ra te C hop.

Table 3.5.6.1 - TURB and other Turbulence Criteria Table


Incidence:
Intensity

Occasional - less than 1/3 to 2/3

Interm ittent -1/3 to 2/3

Aircraft Reaction (transport size aircraft)

Continuous - more than 2/3


Reaction Inside Aircraft

Light
(not shown on
Sig. W X charts)

Turbulence that momentarily causes slight, erratic changes


in atitude and/or attitude (pitch, roll, yaw).
IAS fluctuates 5 -1 5 kt. (<0.5 g at the aircrafts centre of
gravity)
Report as Light Turbulence, or;
turbulence that causes slight, rapid and somewhat rhythmic
bumpiness without appreciable changes in altitude or
attitude.
No IAS fluctuations. Report as Light Chop.

Occupants may feel a slight strain


against seat belts or shoulder straps.
Unsecured objects may be displaced
slightly. Food service may be
conducted and little or no difficulty is
encountered in walking.

Moderate

Turbulence that is similar to light Turbulence but of greater


intensity. Changes in altitude and/or attitude occur but the
aircraft remains in positive control at all times.
IAS fluctuates 1 5 -2 5 kt. (0.5-1.0g at the aircrafts centre of
gravity). Report as Moderate Turbulence', or;
turbulence that is similar to Light Chop but of greater
intensity. It causes rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable
changes in altitide or attitude. IAS may fluctuate slightly.
Report as Moderate Chop.

Occupants feel definite strains against


seat belts or shoulder straps.
Unsecured objects are dislodged.
Food service and walking are difficult.

Severe

Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude


and/or attitude. Aircraft may be momentarily out of control.
IAS fluctuates more than 25 kt. (>1.0 g at the aircrafts
centre of gravity). Report as 'Severe Turbulence.

Occupants are forced violently against


seat belts or shoulder straps.
Unsecured objects are tossed about.
Food service and walking impossible.

Note 1:

Note 2:

Pilots should report location(s), time(s) (UTC), incidence, intensity, whether in or near clouds,
altitude(s) and type of aircraft. All locations should be readily identifiable. Turbulence reports should
be made on request, or in accordance with paragraph 2.
Example:
(a)
Over Pole hill 1230 intermittent Severe Turbulence in cloud, FL 310, B747.
(b)
From SO miles north of Glasgow to 30 miles west of Heathrow 1210, occasional moderate
Chop TURB, FL 330, MD80.
The UK does not use the term 'Extreme' in relation to turbulence.

10-8

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METEOROLOGY
10.20

TURBULENCE

L O W A L T IT U D E W IN D S H E A R
T h e re m a in d e r o f th is c h a p te r c o n s is ts o f a U K C iv il A v iatio n A u th o rity A ero n au tic al
In fo rm a tio n C irc u la r c o v e rin g lo w a ltitu d e w in d sh e ar. S o m e o f th is m ate ria l h a s a lre a d y b ee n
c o v e re d , b u t th o se p a rts w h ic h are n e w s h o u ld b e h ig hlighted.

1 0 - 9

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UNITED KIN G D O M

AIC 33/1997
(Pink 140)

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION CIRCULAR


Civil Aviation A u th ority
Aeronautical Information Service
Control Tower Building, London Heathrow Airport
Hounslow, Middlesex TW6 1JJ
Editorial: 0181-745 3456
Distribution: 01242-235151
Content: 01293-573486

Flight Ops Policy

25 M arch

Cancels AIC 48/1992 (Pink 42)

LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR


1

Introd uctio n

1.1
Research and experiment into windshear has continued in several countries, w ith th e USA leading the field. Despite their
efforts and a greater understanding o f the threat, together w ith training to meet it, accidents still occur in which windshear is cited
as a primary o r contributory cause. These accidents are a potent reminder o f the windshear hazard and th e need fo r pilots to be
aware o f th e dangers. Although the United Kingdom is in no sense affected by windshears o f the intensity and frequency that may
be met in some areas abroad, a lesser risk does exist here and in any event, many pilots fly overseas and may encounter the storms
w ith which th e most dangerous forms o f windshear te nd to be associated. The aim o f this Circular is to provide an understanding of
th e nature o f windshear, an appreciation of its dangers and guidance on how best to avoid windshear, or how th e aircraft m ight be
handled if it is encountered. This w ill be covered in the following Sections:

Definitions and the meteorological background;

The effects o f windshear on an aircraft in flight;

Techniques to counter th e effect of windshear;

Windshear warning and reporting;

Conclusions.

Definitions and th e M eteorological Background

2.1 In discussing windshear it is not easy to find a definition which w ill satisfy both meteorologist and pilot. A t its simplest
it can
be described as a change in wind direction and/or speed in space, including updraughts and downdraughts. Despite the emphasis
on the windshear hazard in recent years, there are still some who w ould argue that we have been living w ith windshear since the
dawn o f aviation, seeing it as an extreme form o f w ind gradient, which would itself fill this definition.
2.2

The definition which w ill describe windshear in this Circular is as follows:


(a) Variations in vector wind along the aircraft flight path of a pattern,intensity and duration to displace anaircraft abruptly
from its intended path such that substantial control action is required;
(b)

Low Altitude Windshear is:

Windshear along the final approach path or along th e runway and along the take-off and initial climb-out fligh t path;
(c)

Further refinement offers:


(i)

Vertical windshear as th e change o f horizontal w ind vector w ith height, as m ight be determined by 2 or more
anemometers at different heights on a mast;

(ii)

Horizontal windshear as the change o f horizontal wind vector w ith horizontal distance as m ight be determined by 2
or more anemometers mounted at the same height at different points along a runway;

(iii) Updraught/downdraught shear as changes in the vertical component o f wind w ith horizontal distance.
2.3 Setting aside the basic windshear definition in paragraph 2.2, th e others allow fo r changes o f vector w ind from the relatively
minor event upwards. The essence o f th e windshear w ith which this Circular is concerned is spelt out by the basic definition w ith its
emphasis on abrupt displacement from the flight path and the need fo r substantial control action to counteract it. A windshear
encounter is a highly dynamic event which can be extremely uncomfortable; to think o f windshear as an aggravated form o f wind
gradient is unwise, as it can strike suddenly and w ith devastating effect which has been beyond th e recovery powers of experienced
pilots flying modern and powerful aircraft. An encounter may cause alarm, a damaged landing gear, or a total catastrophe. The
first and most vital defence is avoidance and this w ill be th e recurrent theme o f this Circular.
2.4

M eteorological Features

2.4.1
The most potent examples of windshear are associated w ith thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds), but windshear can also be
experienced in association w ith other meteorological features such as th e passage o f a front, a marked temperature inversion, a
low-level wind maximum or a turbulent boundary layer. Topography or buildings can exacerbate th e situation, particularly when
there is a strong wind.

Thunderstorms
This is no place fo r discussion on thunderstorm formation, which is described in AIC 124/1996 (Pink 129) on thunderstorms,
ather to describe the wind flows in and around them which cause th e most severe windshears (see figure 1). Diagrams can do
stice to the violence of thunderstorms; which are to tally dynamic and unpredictable, w ith turbulence, hail, windshear and
ling as separate or join t hazards. Shears and draughts may strike from all angles and are certainly not limited to th e horizontal
rtical; an assessment of the aircraft's actual angle o f attack relative to some thunderstorm w ind flows is d ifficult to make, which
rn makes the risk o f a stall harder to gauge. This can be significant i f a thunderstorm is encountered on th e approach or
ving take-off. There are features of thunderstorms (in this discussion cumulonimbus and thunderstorms are considered as synonymous)
n merit separate description;
(a)

Gust Front. Some thunderstorms may have a well defined area of cold air flow ing out from a downdraught in all
directions, but tending to lead the storm along its line of movement At its worst, a gust front might stretch out 24 to 32 km
from the storm centre or even further from an organised line o f storms and affect the area from the surface up to about
6000 ft. It w ill be a region o f great turbulence w ith a potential fo r vertical shear between th e outflowing cold air
undercutting inflowing warm air. The leading edge is often an area w ithout precipitation so w ill not be detectable on
aircraft weather radars and could be encountered w ithout much warning, but there can be a roll cloud effect w hich may
be associated with the onset of precipitation. Less well developed storms usually have a period o f strong gusts before th e
onset of heavy rain, which is a gust front in miniature and can be very unpleasant to fly through;

(b)

M icrobursts. In accident reports which give windshear as a likely or contributory cause, there is often mention o f a
microburst. This is a highly concentrated powerful dow ndraught of air, typically less than 5 km across, lasting from
C l to 5 minutes. These have proved to be the most lethal form o f thunderstorm windshear giving downdraught speeds as
high as 60 kt. possibly more. It w ill be obvious that a vertical shaft o f air, as it approaches the ground must splay ou t in
all directions w ith some reduction of speed, but vertical components have been recorded, albeit very rarely, at heights as
low as 300 f t and wind speed differences a t th e surface as high as 90 kt have been known. These are probably extreme
values but they do show how it is possible fo r large and powerful aircraft to come to grief when they meet such examples
o f th e microburst. These values were admittedly measured in the USA where microbursts are all to o common in Central
and Mid-Western States and also Eastern States in their season. Less is known o f the European microburst, but it would
be most unwise to assume they do not exist because they are less prevalent. Undoubtedly violent downbursts o f rain and
w ind do occur and may give little warning o f onset. Microbursts can be either wet1or 'dry1, that is w ith or w ithout rain
and/or hail, which again poses a radar identification problem if there is no precipitation. The *wet' microburst is
associated with intense precipitation which falls in shafts below a cumulonimbus cloud. 'Dry" microbursts, on the other
hand, are linked w ith high-based cumulus clouds or altocumulus clouds, and also the cirrus cloud overhang from a
cumulonimbus cloud (anvil). In each case when precipitation falls from these clouds (indicated by 'virga') and evaporates
in th e dry air beneath the cloud th e process o f evaporative cooling enhances the downdraught.

Frontal Passage
I Fronts, whether warm, cold or occluded, vary in strength. It is only well developed active fronts, with narrow surface frontal
is and w ith marked temperature differences between th e tw o air masses, which are likely to carry a risk o f windshear. Warning
s to look out fo r include sharp changes in wind direction indicated on the weather charts by an acute angle of th e isobars as
cross the front. Equally a temperature difference o f 5 degrees C or more across th e frontal zone and the speed of movement of
front, especially if 30 kt or more, should alert to possible marked windshear. Having said this, it should be mentioned that
Ishear has been known in fronts which are slow moving, stationary or even reversing direction. In the United Kingdom, it is
lably the passage o f a vigorous cold fro n t w hich poses th e greater risk, though, relative to a warm fron t, th e period of
Ishear probability is likely to be much shorter and w ill occur just after the surface passage of th e front. W ith a warm front, the
rt w ill precede th e passage and be more prolonged. To illustrate the potential severity o f frontal windshear, even in the United
dom there is the case o f a tw in je t aircraft w hich was caught by the passage o f a cold fron t while flaring to land; w ithin about
econds the wind shifted from 230710 kt to 340716 kt, so that a 10 kt crosswind from the left and slight tail wind, changed to
kt crosswind from the right w ith 14 kt headwind. The pilot, finding directional control for landing to be difficult, wisely carried
a missed approach from very low level. This is a classic case o f horizontal windshear. A sea-breeze fron t may occasionally
ent a hazard; fo r example if it impinges on a thunderstorm i t may significantly alter th e o utflow from the storm; a catastrophic
lent in th e USA in 1975 contained such a feature.
2

2.7

Inversions

2.7.1 Vertical windshear is nearly always present in th e boundary layer, but this normally involves a gradual change in th e w ind w ith
which pilots are well familiar. A hazard can exist, however, when an unexpectedly strong vertical shear develops and this can occur
broadly in tw o situations:
(a)

A low level je t (more accurately referred to as a low level wind maximum) can form just below the to p of, o r sometimes
within, a strong radiation inversion, which may develop at night under clear skies. Other low level jets may develop in
association w ith a surface front, particularly ahead of cold fronts;

(b) On occasions low level inversions may develop and decouple a relatively strong upper flow from layers o f stagnant or
slow moving air near the surface. Windshear may be pronounced across the interface.
2.8

Turbulent Boundary Layer

2.8.1 Within th e boundary layer, turbulence can become a windshear hazard in tw o different situations:
(a)

Strong surface winds are generally accompanied by large gusts and lulls (horizontal windshear). Roughly speaking, the
stronger th e mean wind, th e greater th e gust or lull;

(b) Thermal turbulence (updraughts and downdraughts) is caused by intense solar heating o f th e ground, which o f course is
more common in hot countries, but can occur anywhere on a hot sunny day.
2.9

Topographical Windshears

2.9.1 Either natural or man made features can affect the steady state wind flow and cause windshears o f varying severity. The
strength and direction o f the wind relative to the obstacle are significant and a change o f direction o f relatively few degrees may
appreciably alter the residual effect. The flow o f w ind across a mountain range is a simple large scale example, with waves and
possibly a rotor forming on the leeside. Wind blowing between tw o hills or along a valley, or even between tw o large buildings may
be funnelled, change direction and increase in speed, or a strong flow may be heavily damped. Either way, th e possibility fo r shear
is created, w ith sudden changes o f wind vector becoming a hazard. Usually such local effects become well known and predictable,
w ith warnings given on aerodrome approach plates, eg Gibraltar. Large airport buildings adjacent to busy runways can create
hazardous local effects and typical windshear problems, such as loss o f airspeed and abrupt crosswind changes, so causing upsets to
airliner-size aircraft which have been near to major accidents. On smaller aerodromes, lines o f trees can mask o ff the w ind and
cause problems at a late stage on the approach. These incidents usually contribute to a pilot's stock o f experience, but damaged
landing gear can be the result o f wind effects o f greater significance than a steep wind gradient or low level turbulence alone.
3

The Effects o f Windshear on an A ircraft in Flight

3.1
Windshear w ill affect aircraft in many different ways and during an encounter the situation w ill be constantly changing,
especially during the more dynamic thunderstorm windshears. Particular types o f aircraft w ill vary in their reaction to a given shear;
a ligh t high-wing piston-engined aircraft may react in a totally different way to a swept-wing four-engined jet. It is not easy to
describe th e effects in general terms, as they do not apply universally. The notes which follow can only hope to describe stylised
windshears and th e progressive effects which can occur. Windshear can, of course, be encountered at any height and the effects
w ill be similar. It w ill be obvious th a t it is the windshear encounter at low level which is a great hazard; it is this which m ust be
borne in mind when th e effects are described.
3.2
An understanding o f windshear is difficult, unless the relationship of an aeroplane in a moving air mass to its two reference
points is appreciated. One reference is the air mass itself and th e other is the ground. In a windshear encounter it is not only the
magnitude of the change of wind vector that counts but th e rate at which it happens. An aeroplane at 1000 f t agl may have a
headwind component o f 30 kt, but th e surface wind report shows that th e headwind is only 10 kt on the runway. That 20 kt
difference may taper off evenly and the effect w ill be that of a reasonable wind gradient. Or, it may be noticed that th e 20 kt
differential still exists a t 300 f t and it w ill be obvious that th e change, when it comes, is going to be far more sudden and its effects
more marked. Shear implies a narrow borderline and th e 20 kt o f w ind speed may well be lost over a vertical distance o f 100 ft, say,
as th e aircraft descends from 300 to 200 ft. This w ill be th e effect:

Figure 2 : Effect of loss of headwind - Energy Loss


3

.1 If th e pilot wanted a stabilised approach speed of 130 kt, he would have set his power according to conditions to give him his
luired airspeed and rate o f descent.
.2 On passing through the shear line, th e loss o f airspeed w ill be sudden, but the inertia of the aircraft w ill at first keep it at its
ginal ground speed of 100 kt and power w ill be needed to accelerate th e aircraft back to its original air speed when th e ground
*ed w ill be 120 kt. This w ill take time; meanwhile the aircraft having lost 20 kt o f airspeed, will be sinking faster as a substantial
iount o f lift w ill also have been lost. The headwind was a form or energy and when it dropped 20 kt an equivalent am ount of
>rgy loss occurred. One source available to balance th a t loss would be engine power, this would arrest the increased rate of
;cent and start th e process o f accelerating back to th e approach reference speed.

The opposite effect can be illustrated using similar conditions, but seen from the p oint of view o f an aeroplane taking off,
ially along the runway and into th e second segment of the climb, w ith a 10 kt headwind, becoming a 30 kt headwind after
:ountering th e shear between 200 and 300 ft. Assuming a target climbing speed o f 120 kt, th e effect o f a sudden transition
ough th e shear line, into a 20 kt increase of headwind, w ill increase th e IAS by th e same amount until th e momentum of the
lund speed is lost. This is a case o f temporary energy gain, lift w ill be added and the aircraft w ill climb more rapidly. This
imple shows the windshear as being positively beneficial and it is true to say th at a rapid increase in headwind (or loss of
wind), because they are 'energy gains', w ill temporarily enhance performance, It may help the understanding o f windshear to see
i terms of energy changes, when it w ill be readily apparent that th e windshear which causes temporary loss o f energy (sudden
p o f headwind or increase in tailwind, and downdraughts) is th e main danger at low altitude.
The effect of a downdraught is not always easy to visualise, as we normally think o f the aeroplane in relation to an airflow
ng the flight path even when climbing or descending. It is now necessary to envisage flying suddenly from a horizontal flow into
w ith a vertical component. In turbulent conditions air in motion may strike the aeroplane from an angle and th e situation may
constantly changing, but in thunderstorms substantial shafts of air may be encountered, w ith no warning, which can be moving
ler vertically up or down; such shafts may be virtually side by side and the shear then w ill be very marked and violent. Entering a
tical updraught or downdraught from a horizontal airflow, the aeroplane's momentum w ill at first keep it on its original path
itive to th e new direction of flow . In addition to a loss o f airspeed, it will also be realised that the shift o f relative airflow w ill
?ct the angle o f attack o f th e wing, which may result in either an increase or a decrease. Although a slight increase o f angle may
cause much concern, if the aircraft is already on the approach w ith a high angle o f attack, an increase might put the w ing near
stall and any decrease w ill bring about a loss o f lift, neither result being desirable when near the ground. Normally the risk o f a
vndraught will be more likely than an updraught when below 1000 ft.

3.5
Having described th e basic effects, the com bination o f increasing headwind, follow ed by dow ndraught, follow ed by
increasing tailwind should be considered, as this is the sequence which might be encountered in a microburst on th e approach, or
following take-off. This may be a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom or Europe, but i t needs to be appreciated by those flying to
th e USA. Even on this side o f th e Atlantic an encounter w ith a downburst is possible, then a headwind followed by downdraught,
or a downdraught followed by tailw ind may cause problems.

3.5.1
An aircraft, approaching on a 3* ILS glidepath m ight see ahead an area of heavy rain; ideally this might alert the pilot to the
possible danger, and he could then carry out a missed approach in good time, though even this might take him into the microburst;
he would then, however, have gained precious extra height. Given that the approach is continued towards th e microburst, the
leading edge can produce a rapidly increasing headwind; the airspeed increases and th e aircraft goes high on th e glidepath. The
likely reaction is to reduce pow er to increase th e rate o f descent and adjust a ttitud e to reduce airspeed. Then comes th e
downdraught. The rate of descent increases rapidly, th e aircraft passes through and below th e glidepath, still possibly w ith th e nose
high and th e power low. Power is re-applied, but it takes tim e to spool up th e engines, meanwhile th e aircraft passes from
downdraughts to increasing ta il w ind and th e airspeed is dropping, th e rate o f descent has not been checked and the nose is high;
power is increasing. No figures have been attached to this description, merely th e likely sequence o f events that w ill be noticed. A
very strong microburst w ill have a more pronounced effect on th e rise and fall o f airspeed and extremes o f rate o f descent. The
power reserves available and the rate at which they can be applied and built up to give maximum thrust, w ill determine the aircraft's
a b ility to counteract th e energy loss o f do w ndraught and increasing ta ilw in d . This dynamic sequence o f events may be
accompanied by strong w ind buffeting, th e lashing o f rain and possibly relieved by blinding flashes o f lightning. If this is a black
picture, it matches th e descriptions of those w ho have flow n through a microburst and would probably be echoed by some who
have tried but failed to fly through one. The aim must be to avoid severe windshear a t all costs; that is the prime messaqe o f this
Circular.
3.6
It might be thought th at an encounter w ith windshear from a microburst after take-off is likely to be less hazardous than
when approaching to land. The aircraft is at high power and is not constrained by th e need to hold a precise glide path. The
temporary energy gain from meeting the increasing headwind, w ith a burst o f higher air-speed and rate o f clim b may seem
positively beneficial. The transition to downdraught will soon kill any rise in airspeed, which may even drop. The rate o f climb may
lessen or even show a rate of descent which will be enhanced by the shift to increasing tailwind, when the airspeed (with the aircraft dose to
the ground) may drop further. Any benefits o f high power may be balanced by higher aircraft weight. There may be a small power
reserve in hand and this may, or may not, be sufficient to enable th e aircraft to fly through th e microburst or downburst, together
w ith other measures described later.
4

Techniques t o Counter th e Effects o f Windshear

4.1
By now it w ill be apparent that windshear can vary enormously in its impact and effect. There is as yet no international
agreement on definitions fo r grading windshear, but clearly some shears w ill be more severe and consequently more dangerous than
others. In discussing guidance on countering th e effects o f windshear, one must inevitably deal w ith th e "worse case1situation. If
the golden rule o f Avoidance has failed fo r whatever reason, it is impossible to predict at th e first stages of a windshear encounter
how severe it w ill be and it is not bad advice to suggest th a t recovery action should anticipate th e worst.
4.2
No pilot who studies the meteorological situation carefully in advance and updates his knowledge w ith th e latest reports
during flig h t should be taken to tally by surprise by windshear. He should know in broad terms w hat m ight be expected. If
thunderstorms are forecast in th e vicinity o f th e planned destination and then are reported as being active and are seen on the
weather radar or visually, then a mental Windshear Alert1 should register. At this stage, depending on th e evidence, a diversion
m ight be considered, as windshear avoidance is th e safest course.

If it is decided to continue to the destination, then the crew should consider a few basic measures to anticipate a possible
shear encounter. One o f these is to increase the airspeed o n th e approach. The am ount o f airspeed increase to be
nmended is less easy to assess, as w hat m ight be suitable fo r a ligh t tw in -p is to n engined aeroplane m ig ht be qu ite
>ropriate fo r a swept-wing jet. Rule-of-thumb guidance include adding half th e headwind component o f th e reported surface
to VAT, or, half th e mean wind speed plus half th e gust factor, in each case up to a maximum o f 20 kt. This may be
actory fo r a strong but turbulent wind, but may not meet th e thunderstorm case, where i t is not uncommon fo r light and
ble winds to precede th e onslaught of a gust front or downburst. The unpredictability o f windshear is such that, if it does not
rialise, th e aircraft can arrive at threshold w ith excessive speed to be shed and that could be embarrassing on a short runway,
jseth e amount of airspeed 'margin' is related to the aircraft's acceleration potential, th e relatively slow propeller driven aircraft
ibably at an advantage over a faster je t aircraft. Remember th a t th e rate of shear is important and the aircraft which penetrates
hear zone more slowly will experience a lower rate o f shear; the rapid response o f propeller driven airflow over a wing w ill also
The windshear encounter which produces a sudden increase in airspeed (temporary energy gain) on the approach w ill
abilise it to a greater or lesser extent, which w ill call fo r some control adjustment. The normal reaction to th e rise above the
path w ill be to reduce power to regain th e glidepath and as th e deviation w ill have been sudden th e power reduction w ill
ably be more than just a slight one. The pilot must then be alert to th e need to re-apply power in good tim e to avoid dropping
v th e glidepath. If the wind component then stabilises, leaving th e aircraft merely w ith a stronger headwind, a further power
tm ent w ill be needed to a higher setting than the initial one which had given a stable airspeed and rate of descent.
When an aircraft on the glidepath in the later stages o f an approach runs into an 'energy loss' windshear, it can be much more
rdous. The shear might be caused by a building or line o f trees obstructing th e w indflow and the resulting drop in the wind
i might bring about a very sudden drop in airspeed w ith a consequent increase in th e rate o f descent. If a heavy and premature
ng is to be avoided, a rapid and positive increase in power is needed. Another likely effect is fo r the nose to drop initially and
vill need to be checked w ith an increase in pitch attitude - b ut n o t so much that this causes a further loss o f airspeed; as always
*r and attitude adjustments must be co-ordinated. These actions may enable the aircraft to regain th e glidepath and continue
pproach; anticipate the power reduction to avoid flying through th e glidepath and expect to set slightly less power than that
-tally used, if th e approach is to be continued. If the approach has been badly de-stabilised, fu ll missed approach action may be
/iser and safer option, w ith a second approach made w ith an airspeed 'margin' to counter th e anticipated windshear effect.
Vital Actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground;
(a)

Briskly increase power (full 'go-around' power i f necessary);

(b) Raise th e nose to check descent;


(c) Co-ordinate power and pitch;
(d) Be prepared to carry ou t a missed approach rather than risk landing from a de-stabilised approach.

To counter th e effect of a downburst or microburst on an approach or take-off w ill call fo r more stringent measures. It must
ressed th at any well-founded report of either phenomenon must be treated seriously and th e approach or take-off delayed until
langer has passed. If there is an inadvertent encounter, th e aircraft may be affected by wind from any flank by th e descending
jutflo w ing column o f air, but again th e worst case will be considered - entry on one side, through th e centre and exit through
ther side. It w ill be a turbulent and unpleasant experience which w ill tax th e abilities o f the m ost skillful pilots to their limits.
The effect o f a microburst is described in paragraph 3.5. The technique for dealing w ith it is as follows:
(a) The presence o f thunderstorms should be known and obvious, so the increase in speed caused by the rising headwind
should be seen as the forerunner o f a downburst or microburst; any hope o f a stabilised approach is abandoned and a
missed approach is th e only safe course o f action - th e technique is to make it as safe as possible;
(b) th e initial rise in airspeed and rise above th e approach path should be seen as a bonus and capitalised. W ithout
hesitation, increase to go-around power, being prepared to go to maximum power if necessary, select a pitch angle
consistent w ith a missed approach, typically about 15' and hold it against turbulence and buffeting;
(c)

th e next phase may well see the initial advantages of increased airspeed and rate o f climb being rapidly eroded. The
downdraught now strikes, airspeed may be lost and th e aircraft may start to descend despite th e high power and pitch
angle. It w ill be impossible to gauge the true angle o f attack, so there is a possibility th at the stick shaker ( if fitted) may
be triggered; only then should the attempt to hold the pitch angle normally be relaxed;

(d) th e point at which downdraught begins to change to increasing tailwind may well be th e most critical period. The rate of
descent may lessen, but the airspeed may still continue to fall; the height loss may have cut seriously into ground obstacle
clearance margins. Given th a t maximum th rust is already applied, as an extreme measure if th e risk o f striking the
ground or an obstacle still exists, it may be necessary to increase the pitch angle further and deliberately raise the nose
until stick shaker is felt, when an easing forward o f the control column to try and hold this higher pitch angle should be
made, until the situation eases w ith th e aircraft beginning to escape from the effects o f th e microburst.
The effect o f a downburst/microburst encounter during or ju s t after take-off has been described in paragraph 3.6. When
* is an indefinite risk of shear, it may be possible to use a longer runway, or one that points away from an area o f potential
it. It may also be an option to rotate at a slightly higher speed, provided this does no t cause undue tyre stress or any handling
lems. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotate, already put th e aircraft into a good configuration should a
aburst then be encountered. The aircraft is however very low, there is little safety margin and th e ride can be rough. If there is
:xtra power available, it should be used w ithout hesitation. Ignore noise abatement procedures and maintain th e high pitch
ss, watching out fo r stick shaker indications as a signal to ease th e controls forward.
In both approach and take-off cases, Vital Actions are:
(a) Use th e maximum power available as soon as possible;
(b) Adopt a pitch angle o f around 15 and try and hold th at attitude. Do not chase airspeed;
(c)

Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude, easing th e back pressure as required to
attain and hold a slightly lower attitude.
6

4.10 The best techniques to use w ill vary between aircraft w ithin the broad guide lines suggested. The response required of the
pilot may not seem natural, nor may th e aircraft's attitude o r trim forces. In this respect, if a windshear programme can be used in a
simulator, there is no better training to practice the techniques needed. There are realistic windshear programmes available and
their value cannot be over-estimated. Such training is NOT designed to encourage pilots to think that they can tackle windshears
w ith impunity - windshears are to be avoided. The object o f th e training is to enable th e recommended techniques to be learnt and
practised so that an inadvertent encounter is less likely to end in disaster.
4.11 It is d iffic u lt to be specific on the use o f auto-pilots, auto-throttles and flig h t directors. Most airline auto-pilots and
auto-throttles should be able to cope w ith holding attitude in moderate windshear encounters, but w ill need close m onitoring. Use
o f speed, height or rate o f climb/descent locks is not recommended. Auto-throttles respond quickly b ut they are not paid to think,
so a rapid windshear-induced rise in airspeed may lead to an undesirably low throttle setting leading in turn to slow power recovery
when it is needed. In a severe encounter it is probably best to revert t o manual handling linked w ith a high level o f crew
co-operation and instrument monitoring. On th e latter point, flight directors should be switched off, unless they are specifically
designed to provide guidance during windshear.
5
5.1

Windshear W arning and Reporting


Windshear warning can be provided in several ways:
(a)

Meteorological warning;

(b) ATS warning;


(c)

Pilot warning;

(d) On board pre-encounter warning;


(e) On board encounter warning and/or guidance.
5.2 Warning of windshear from meteorological sources may start at the pre-flight briefing stage and pin-point th e possibility
frontal shear or inversion shear. Any mention o f an area o f thunderstorms should alert a pilot to think o f th e risk o f windshear.
th e United Kingdom a more positive, albeit subjective, fo rm o f windshear warning is provided at London H eathrow and
Belfast/Aldergrove. A Windshear Alert" is issued on ATIS broadcasts at London Heathrow and on RTF at Belfast/Aldergrove if any
th e following criteria are met:

of
In
at
of

(a) The mean surface wind exceeds 20 kt;


(b) The vector difference between th e mean surface wind and th e gradient wind a t about 2000 f t exceeds 40 kt;
(c)

Thunderstorms or heavy showers are within about 5 nm o f th e Airport.

5.2.1
From Section 2, it w ill be evident that such conditions can produce windshear, so, if they exist the alert is given as Windshear forecast.
If this forecast is verified by an aircraft report, th e alert becomes W indshear forecast and reported', this being much more
meaningful. It may happen th a t an aircraft reports windshear, although th e forecast conditions are not met; th e alert is then
Windshear reported'. This alerting system is purely qualitative and no attem pt is made to indicate th e whereabouts o r magnitude of
th e shear; sufficient that it does, or may exist and pilots are on their guard. If there is a Windshear forecast' but a pilot does not
have a windshear encounter, this should not undermine his opinion o f th e value of the system; he was merely fortunate enough to
avoid an encounter.
5.3
In th e United Kingdom, ATS warnings of windshear w ill be derived almost entirely from pilot reports, which w ill be passed on
as and when they occur; there is no other positive method o f detecting windshear. Routine wind velocity reports from controllers
should alert pilots to th e risk o f windshear if th e mean w ind is high and gusting - anything over 20 kt contains a threat of
windshear. Crews flying to many major aerodromes in th e USA may be passed windshear warnings based on th e Low Level
Windshear Alerting system (LLWAS). The system consists o f a centre field anemometer and a number (usually around 6) outfield
anemometers. Continuous computerised monitoring o f the output from these anemometers is geared to detecting a 15 kt vector
differential between the centre field instrument and any other outer ring sensors; when this threshold is met or exceeded, a warning
flashes on the display and th e information is broadcast. This system can really only detect horizontal windshear and its limitations
fo r detecting microburst type windshears have been recognised, so research continues to perfect a system which can detect shears
of any kind which lie along the approach and climb-out areas.
5.4 From the previous paragraphs, pilots reports of windshear encounters are seen as important fo r warning other pilots o f the
danger. The practice of reporting hazards fo r th e benefit o f others is well established in flying, so any information from a pilot who
may have just experienced a windshear encounter, possibly quite an alarming one, o f which he had no prior warning, is going to be
well appreciated by another pilot. Equally, a pilot who sees evidence of possible windshear, from th e air or while on th e ground,
should report it. Guidance on what is required fo r reporting windshear is given in th e AIP at MET 0-10. Because fligh t through
windshear may be short, sharp and violent, a pilot may not have a clear picture o f what happened, nevertheless something is better
than nothing; for convenience th e AIP entry is repeated here:
Windshear Reporting'
'Pilots using navigation systems providing direct wind velocity read out should report th e w ind and altitude/height above and
below the shear layer and its location. Other pilots should report th e loss or gain of airspeed and/or th e presence of up-or-down
draughts or a significant change in crosswind effect, th e altitude/height and location, their phase of flight and aircraft type.
Pilots not able to report windshear in these specific terms should do so in terms o f its effect on th e aircraft, th e altitude/height
and location and aircraft type, fo r example, 'abrupt windshear at 500 ft QFE on finals, maximum thrust required, B747'. Pilots
encountering windshear are requested to make a report even if windshear has previously been forecast o r reported'.

If a pilo t can be warned in advance of the presence of windshear, he is obviously in a better position to avoid it altogether by
diversion, delay or trying to discover th e nature o f the particular shear. Equipment which w ill help tends to be relatively
sophisticated and therefore expensive. None o f these symptoms can be guaranteed to give positive indications of windshear
in all situations, but certain equipment can point to a probability. Modern digital/colour weather radars can display levels or
precipitation and it is not to o difficult to detect thunderstorms and areas of very heavy rain or hail which will be linked with
th e probability of strong downdraughts. A doppler capability is incorporated in some o f the most modern sets which can
detect turbulence and windshear effects to a certain extent. W ith all weather radars, their successful use depends on the skill
and experience o f th e operator and th e tim e he has available to get the best out o f th e set, particularly to scan w ith th e tilt
mechanism. Radar does suffer from attenuation and shielding problems and w ill not detect 'dry* windshear associated w ith
gust fronts and some microbursts; despite this it is a useful tool. INS-equipped aircraft have th e ability to compare wind
velocity at the start o f an approach w ith th e surface velocity, and a marked difference may indicate shear as mentioned earlier.
The human eye has an important role: it can see thunderstorms and hence give a mental trigger to th in k windshear*. Once
alerted, lookout fo r tell-tale signs such as:
(a)

Divergent windsleeves or smoke;

(b) Strong shafts o f rain or hail, also Virga1; (see paragraph 2.5.1(b));
(c)

Divergent w ind patterns indicated by grass, crops or trees being beaten down or lashed;

(d) Rising dust or sand.


observe and recognise any o f the above w ill suggest that windshear danger is very close, if not imminent; nevertheless a few
:onds of advance w arning may make all the difference, if the w arning is heeded and those seconds put to good use. A Laser True
Speed system was developed experimentally by the Royal Aircraft Establishment; this only gave about 3 seconds warning of
;ar, but this was enough to make it an efficient and safe research to ol when installed in a HS 125.
i Warning that an aircraft is being affected by windshear will come from a range o f instruments, some o f which, possibly
cause o f lag, it may be best to ignore. Disregard physiological sensations also. Of th e basic instruments, th e airspeed and vertical
sed indicators are likely to give the first hints. Depending on whether the windshear confers gain or loss of energy, so w ill the
speed rise or fall and the vertical speed increase or decrease. There are specially designed windshear w arning devices available,
lich sense windshear induced accelerations and if they exceed predetermined thresholds linked w ith recovery power available,
dio or visual warnings w ill be triggered. With purely basic instrumentation there is no recovery guidance; it is worth mentioning
it a standard engaged flig h t director could be very misleading in a windshear encounter, if the pilot tries to follow th e guidelines
en in Section 4; flight directors should be disengaged and the basic ADI used fo r pitch angle assessment. Modified flight directors
1 being developed and installed in some production airliners, which, linked w ith windshear warning devices, will provide th e
:essary guidance in pitch control; such guidance should enable aircraft to escape, given that power available is used to the
ximum and exceeds th e energy loss imparted by th e shear.
Conclusions
Most pilots w ill experience windshear in some fo rm o r other; fo r most it may be no more than a very firm landing or a swing
take-off or landing requiring momentary use of, perhaps, full rudder fo r correction; they w ill probably put it down to 'gusts',
ne few pilots w ill experience more authentic examples of windshear which w ill stretch their skills to th e lim it. A very small
Tiber may find their skills inadequate. There is no sure way o f knowing in advance th e severity of windshear which w ill be
:ountered, so it is better not to put one's skills to the test, rather than find them inadequate. Windshear, particularly when linked
h thunderstorms, has caused disaster in the past and may well cause disaster again, but i t w ill not harm those who understand its
A/er and have th e good sense to avoid it. An inadvertent encounter on th e approach is most likely to de-stabilise it to such an
ent th at a missed approach is the only safe course and th e sooner that decision is made, th e safer it is likely to be. Other
:ounters must be treated on their merits, but any hint o f 'energy loss should be met w ith a firm and positive response in line w ith
guidance put forward in this Circular.
Recognise

th at windshear is a hazard.

Recognise

the signs which may indicate its presence.

Avoid

windshear by delay or diversion.

Prepare

fo r th e inadvertent encounter by a speed 'margin'if 'energy loss' windshear is suspected.

Recover

know th e techniques recommended fo r your aircraft

and

and use th em w ith o u t hesitation if windshear is

This Circular is issued fo r information, guidance and necessary action.

M ETEOROLOGY

TURBULENCE
T U R B U L E N C E Q U E S T IO N S

1.

M a x im u m tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s ta n d in g w av e s is lik e ly to b e;
a)

T w o w a v e le n g th s d o w n w in d a n d ju s t a b o v e th e surface.

b)

A p p ro x im a te ly o n e w a v e le n g th d o w n w in d o f, a n d ap p ro x im ately level w ith , th e top

c)

J u s t b e lo w th e tro p o p a u se a b o v e th e ridge.

d)

D o w n th e le e sid e o f th e rid g e a n d a lo n g th e surface.

o f th e ridge.

F o r th e f o rm a tio n o f m o u n ta in w a v e s, th e w in d a b o v e th e lev el o f th e rid g e should:


a)

D e c re a se o r e v e n re v e rse d ire c tio n .

bi

In cre a se in itia lly th e n d e c rease.

c)

In cre a se w ith little c h a n g e in d ire c tio n .

dl

In cre a se a n d th e n re v e rse in d ire c tio n .

W h e n fly in g in IM C in a re g io n c lo s e to a ra n g e o f h ills 2 0 0 0 ft. h ig h , in stab le a ir an d w ith w in d


d ire c tio n a t rig h t a n g le s to th e a x is o f th e ra n g e o f h ills, w h ic h o f th e f o llo w in g is p ro b ab ly th e
m o st d a n g e ro u s p ractice:
a)

F ly in g to w a rd s th e h ills, in to th e w in d , a t f lig h t level 65 .

b)

F ly in g p a ra lle l to th e h ills o n th e d o w n w in d s id e a t flig h t level 4 0.

c)

F ly in g to w a rd s th e h ills d o w n w in d a t f lig h t level 55.

d)

F ly in g p a ra lle l to th e h ills o n th e u p w in d sid e a t f lig h t level 40.

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts re fe rrin g to J e t S tream s is c orrect:


a)

C A T a s s o c ia te d w ith J e t S tre a m s is p ro b a b ly asso c ia te d w ith th e rap id w in d s h e a r in th e


v ic in ity o f th e je t.

b)

T h e m a x im u m w in d sp e e d in a J e t S trea m in c re a se s w ith in cre ase o f h e ig h t u p to th e

c)

T h e c o re o f a J e t S tream is u su a lly lo c ated j u s t b e lo w th e tro p o p a u se in th e c o ld e r a ir

d)

T h e ra te o f c h a n g e o f w in d s p e e d a t a n y g iv e n level is u s u a lly g re a te st o n th e w a rm e r

tro p o p a u se a n d re m a in s c o n s ta n t th e reafter.
m ass.
sid e o f th e je t.

10 - 11

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M ETEORO LOG Y

TU R BU LEN C E

R e fe r to th e d ia g ra m (A p p e n d ix A ) b e lo w f o r q u e stio n s 5-8

40,000'

30,000'

20,000'

10,00 0'

M.S.L.

5.

6.

T h e w in d a t s q u a re A 3 is lik e ly to be:
a)

35 kt

b)

50 kt

c)

2 5 kt

d)

lig h t

T h e w in d a t A B C 4 is lik e ly to be:
a)

7.

50 kt

b)

4 0 kt

c)

35 kt

d)

a j e t stream

F lig h t c o n d itio n s a t B 1 a re lik e ly to b e:


a)

S m o o th

b)

T u rb u le n t

c)

T u rb u le n t in b re a k in g w a v e

d)

T u rb u le n t d u e to m a rk e d u p a n d d o w n cu rre n ts

c re sts

10-12

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
8.

9.

10.

TURBULENCE

T h e m o st ex tre m e tu rb u le n c e c a n occur:
a)

A t B1

b)

A t A2

c)

At ABC 4

d)

A t B 2, 3 , 4 a n d a t C 2 , 3 , 4

T h e sig n ific a n c e o f le n tic u la r c lo u d is:


a)

T h e re m ay b e m o u n ta in w a v e s p re se n t a n d th e re w ill b e se v ere turb u len c e.

b)

T h e re a re m o u n ta in w a v e s p re se n t b u t th e y m ay n ot g iv e s ev e re tu rb u le n ce .

c)

A F o h n w in d c a n b e e x p e c te d w ith n o turb u le n ce .

d)

A K a ta b a tic w in d is p re s e n t w h ic h m a y le a d to fog in th e v a lleys.

A m o u n ta in ra n g e is alig n e d in a n E a s t/W e st d irec tio n . S e le c t th e c o n d itio n s fro m th e tab le


b e lo w th a t w ill g iv e rise to S ta n d in g W av es:
2000

11.

ft

5 0 0 0 ft

10 0 0 0

0 2 0 /3 0

0 2 0 /5 0

a)
b)

0 2 0 /4 0
170/20

190/40

2 1 0 /6 0

c)
d)

2 7 0 /1 5

2 7 0 /2 0

2 7 0 /4 0

0 9 0 /2 0

0 9 0 /4 0

0 9 0 /6 0

ft

F o r s ta n d in g w a v e s to fo rm , th e w in d d ire c tio n m u st be n e a r p e rp e n d ic u la r to a rid g e o r ran g e


o f m o u n ta in s a n d th e sp e e d m ust:

12.

a)

D e c re a se w ith h e ig h t w ith in a s ta b le la y er a b o v e th e hill.

b)

In cre a se w ith h e ig h t w ith in a n u n stab le la y e r a b o v e th e h ill.

c)

D e c rea se w ith h e ig h t w ith in a n u n sta b le la y er a b o v e th e hill.

d)

In cre a se w ith h e ig h t w ith in a sta b le la y e r a b o v e th e hill.

A n o rth /so u th m o u n ta in ra n g e , h e ig h t 1 0,000 ft is p ro d u c in g m ark e d m o u n tain w av e s. T h e


g re a te s t p o te n tia l d a n g e r e x ists fo r a n a irc ra ft flying:
a)

o n th e w in d w a rd sid e o f th e rid g e

b)

a t F L 3 5 0 o v e r a n d p a ra lle l to th e ridge

c)

to w a rd s th e rid g e fro m th e lee s id e a t F L 140

d)

a b o v e a lin e o f c lo u d s p a ra lle l to th e rid g e o n th e le e sid e a t F L 2 5

10-13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
13.

TU R BULEN CE

C le a r a ir tu rb u le n c e , in a sso c ia tio n w ith a p o la r fro n t j e t stream in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h ere , is


m o re severe:
a)

14.

U n d e m e a th th e j et c o re

b)

In th e c e n tre o f th e j e t c o re

c)

L o o k in g d o w n s tre a m o n th e r ig h t h an d side

d)

L o o k in g d o w n s tre a m o n th e le ft h a n d side

M o u n ta in w a v e s c a n o ccu r:
a)

U p to a m ax im u m o f 5 0 0 0 f t a b o v e th e m o u n ta in s a n d 5 0 n m to 100 n m d ow n w in d .

b)

U p to m o u n ta in h e ig h t o n ly a n d 5 0 n m to 100 n m dow n w in d .

c)

A b o v e th e m o u n ta in a n d d o w n w in d u p to a m ax im u m h e ig h t a t th e tro p o p a u se a n d 50

d)

In th e stra to sp h e re .

n m to 100 n m d o w n w in d .

15.

C A T sh o u ld b e re p o rte d w h e n e v e r it is e x p e rie n ce d . W h a t sh o u ld b e re p o rted i f c re w an d


p a sse n g e rs feel a d e fin ite stra in a g a in s t th e ir s e a t o r s h o u ld e r s tra p s, f o o d serv ic e a n d w alk in g
is d iffic u lt a n d lo o se o b je c ts b e c o m e d islo d g ed :
a)

L ig h t C A T

b)

E x tre m e C A T

c)

S e v e re C A T

d)

M o d e ra te C A T

ANSW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

10

11

12

13

14

15

10-14

A n sw er

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R E L E V E N - W IN D S
C o n te n ts
Page
11.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................1 1 - 1

1 1 .2

G U S T S A N D L U L L S ................................................................................................................ 1 1 - 2

1 1 .3

S Q U A L L S ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1 - 2

1 1 .4

G A L E S ............................................................

1 1 .5

H U R R IC A N E S ............................................................................................................................. 1 1 - 2

1 1 -2

1 1 .6

M E A S U R E M E N T O F W IN D S ................................................................................................. 1 1 - 3

1 1 .7

P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T F O R C E (P G F )..............................................................................1 1 - 4

1 1 .8

G E O S T R O P H IC F O R C E .(G F )................................................................................................. 1 1 - 4

1 1 .9

G E O S T R O P H IC W IN D ............................................................................................................... 1 1 - 5

11.10

M E A S U R IN G G E O S T R O P H IC W I N D ............................................................................. 1 1 - 5

11.11

T H E E F F E C T O F L A T IT U D E O N G E O S T R O P H IC W IN D S P E E D ......................1 1 - 7

11.12

C O N D IT IO N S N E C E S S A R Y F O R T H E W IN D T O B E G E O S T R O P H IC

11.13

T H E G R A D IE N T W I N D ............................................................................................................1 1 - 7

1 1 -7

11.14

C Y C L O S T R O P H IC F O R C E ......................................................................................................1 1 - 8

11.15

G R A D IE N T W IN D IN A D E P R E S S IO N ............................................................................. 1 1 - 8

1 1.16

G R A D IE N T W IN D IN A H IG H ............................................................................................... 1 1 - 9

11.17

T H E C Y C L O S T R O P H IC W IN D ..............................................................................................1 1 - 9

11.18

W IN D S B E L O W 2 0 0 0 F E E T .....................................................................................................1 1 - 9

11.19

R O U G H R U L E S ........................................................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 0

11.20

D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F T H E S U R F A C E W IN D

11.21

D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F 1500 F T A N D S U R F A C E W IN D V E L O C IT Y

.............................................1 1 - 1 4

11.22

L A N D A N D S E A B R E E Z E S ............................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 7

11.23

P R A C T IC A L C O A S T A L E F F E C T S ................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 8

11.24

V A L L E Y O R R A V IN E W I N D S .......................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 9

11.25

K A T A B A T IC W IN D S

......................................................................................................... 11

- 20

11.26

A N A B A T IC W IN D S ................................................................................................................ 11

- 20

11.27

F O H N W IN D S ...............................................................................................................................1 1 - 2 1

1 1 -1 5

L O W L E V E L W IN D Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................11

- 23

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY
11.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N
W in d is a ir in h o riz o n ta l m o tio n . W in d V e lo c ity (W /V ) h a s b o th d ire c tio n an d speed.
W in d d ir e c tio n is a lw a y s g iv e n a s th e d ire c tio n from w h ic h th e w in d is b lo w in g ; th is is
illu stra te d in F ig u re 11.1. It is n o rm a lly g iv e n in d e g re e s tr u e , b u t w in d d ire c tio n g iv e n to a p ilo t
b y A T C w ill b e g iv e n in d e g re e s m a g n etic.

Figure 11.1. Wind Direction.

W in d

sp e e d

is

u su a lly

g iv e n in k n o ts, b u t so m e
c o u n trie s g iv e th e sp e e d in
m e tr e s p e r se c o n d an d
th e

M e t.

w o rk
show n

O ffic e

o fte n

in te rn a lly

k ilo m e tr e s
as

per
KMH

in

h o u r,
if

it

re a c h e s a T A F /M E T A R .

Figure 11.2. Surface W ind Indications on the Station


Circle.

11 - 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEORO LO G Y

WINDS

A v e e r is a c h a n g e in w in d d ire c tio n in a
c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n .
A b a c k is a c h a n g e in w in d d ire c tio n in an
a n ti-c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n . T h is a p p lie s in
b o th hem isp h e re s.

Figure 11.3. The Wind Veering and


Backing.
11.

GUSTS AND LULLS


A g u s t is a s u d d e n in c re a se in w in d sp e e d , o fte n w ith a c h a n g e in d irec tio n . It lasts o n ly fo r a
fe w s e c o n d s a n d is v e ry local.
A lu ll is a su d d e n d e c re a se in w in d sp e e d .
A g u st fa c to r is s o m e tim e s u se d to in d ic a te th e a m o u n t o f g u stiness.

G F = R a ng e o f C h a n g e s x 10Q%

MeanWindspeed

e.g. W ith g u sts u p to 6 0 lets a n d lu lls o f 3 0 k ts; th e m ean w in d sp e e d m u st b e 4 5 kts

G F = * 1 0 0 % = 6 6.7 %
45
1 1 .3

SQ U A LLS
A sq u a ll is a su d d e n in c re a se in w in d sp e e d , o fte n w ith a c h a n g e in d ire c tio n . It la sts f o r so m e
m in u te s a n d c a n c o v e r a w id e are a . It is a s so ciated w ith c u m u lo n im b u s clo u d a n d co ld fron ts.

1 1 .4

GALES
A g a le is a c o n d itio n w h e re th e w in d sp e e d e x c e e d s 3 3 k ts, o r i f th e w in d g u sts e x c e e d 4 2 kts.

1 1 .5

H U R R IC A N E S
A H u rric a n e (T y p h o o n , C y c lo n e ) m ean s a w in d s p e e d ex ce ed in g 6 3 kts.

11 - 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

11. 6

WINDS

MEASUREMENT OF WINDS
S u rfa c e w in d is m e a su re d b y a w in d v a n e w h ic h a lig n s its e lf w ith th e w in d d irec tio n , a n d an
a n e m o m e te r w h ic h m ea su re s th e sp e e d . A n an e m o m e te r is a s e t o f 3 hem isp h e ric al c u p s w h ic h
ro ta te o n a sh a ft w ith th e e ffe c t o f th e w in d . T h e sp e e d o f r o ta tio n o f th e sh a ft is d ire c tly
p ro p o rtio n a l to th e w in d s p e e d . T h e ro ta tio n is u sed to d riv e a sm a ll g en e rato r, th e o u tp u t o f
w h ic h is th e n d isp la y e d o n a g a u g e w h ic h is c alib ra te d in knots.
B o th v a n e a n d a n e m o m e te r a re p o s itio n e d 3 3 f t (1 0 m ) A G L a n d th e y a re lo c a te d c le a r o f
b u ild in g s a n d o b stru c tio n s w h ic h c o u ld a ffe c t th e a irflo w a n d h en c e a c c u rac y . A n a n e m o g r a p h
re c o rd s w in d s p e e d a n d so m e tim e s d ire c tio n .

Figure 11.4 A W ind Vane and A nemometer

U p p e r w in d s a re m e a su re d b y r a d a r tra c k in g o f a r a d io s o n d e a n d b y a i r c r a f t r e p o r ts .

11 - 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y

11.7

WINDS

PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGF)


P re ssu re G ra d ie n t Fo rce,
(P G F ),

is

th e

fo rc e

c a u se d b y th e p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t w h ic h
m ove

trie s to

th e a ir fro m h ig h

p re s s u re to lo w p re ssu re .

Figure 11.5. Pressure Gradient Force (P.G.F.).


1 1 .8

G E O S T R O P H I C F O R C E (G F )
G e o stro p h ic F o rc e ,(G F ),
is th e

fo rc e

caused by

th e ro ta tio n o f th e e arth .
It

w ill m a k e a m o v in g

m a s s o f a ir tu rn to th e
rig h t

in

th e

n o rth e rn

h e m is p h e r e a n d to th e
le f t

in

th e

S o u th e r n

h e m is p h e re .
G F is m a x im u m a t t h e
p o le s a n d m in im u m a t
th e e q u a to r .

G F = 2 Q p F s in 0
w h e re Q = a n g u la r ro tatio n o f th e e a rth
p

= d e n sity

= w in d sp eed

= la titu d e

11 - 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO GY

11.9

WINDS

G EOSTROPHIC W IN D
T h e g e o stro p h ic w in d is th e w in d w h ic h b lo w s w h en th e G F is b a la n c e d b y th e P G F . T h is
b a la n c e c a n o n ly o c c u r w h e n it is n o t a ffe c te d b y o th e r fo rce s an d th e re fo re th e geo stro p h ic
w in d c a n o n ly b lo w a b o v e t h e F r i c t i o n L a y e r a t a b o u t 2 - 3 0 0 0 ft(l K m ) an d above.

T h e b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e
tw o fo rc e s is s u c h th a t th e
w in d d ire c tio n is p a r a lle l
to

th e

ac c o rd a n c e

Iso b ars
w ith

in
Buys

B a llo ts la w , w h ic h states
th a t i f y o u s ta n d w ith y o u r
b a c k to th e w in d in th e
n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , th e
lo w p re s s u re is o n y o u r
left.

Figure 11.7. The Geostrophic Wind.

11.10

MEASU RING G EOSTROPHIC W IN D


As

G F = 2 O p F sin 0 ............................................................... 1

2 O p sin 0
G F = PG F

if

th en

r -

P F
2 Q p s in 0

T h e G e o s tro p h ic w in d sp e e d is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e P G F a n d w h e re th e d e n sity (i.e.


h e ig h t) a n d la titu d e are m o re o r le s s c o n sta n t, a s c a le c a n b e d raw n to e n a b le P G F (in th e
fo rm o f P G ) to b e c o n v e rte d to w in d sp e e d . S u ch a sc ale is c a lle d a G e o s tr o p h ic W in d S ca le
a n d is p rin te d o n s y n o p tic c h a rts an d m a y b e sh o w n a s in F ig u re 11.8b. i f th e c h a rt c o v e rs a w id e
la titu d e b an d .

11 - 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

WINDS

Crown Copyright

Figure 11.8a Geostrophic Wind Scale

1 1 - 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

11.11

TH E EFFECT O F L A T IT U D E ON G EOSTROPHIC W IN D SPEED


F o r a p a rtic u la r P G v a lu e , th e G e o s tro p h ic W in d S p e ed w ill in c r e a s e a s la titu d e r e d u c e s , (see
e q u a tio n 3 ab o v e).

PG F

V =

2 Q p sin0

W ith in 5 d e g re e s o f th e e q u a to r th e G F is zero.

W ith in 15 d e g re e s th e G F is v ery sm all,

so th a t th e g e o s tro p h ic f o rm u la n o lo n g e r a p plies.

11.12

CONDITIO NS NECESSARY FOR TH E W IN D TO BE G EOSTROPHIC


F o r th e w in d to b e g e o stro p h ic , it h a s t o o c c u r;a)

A b o v e th e f ric tio n layer.

b)

A t a la titu d e g re a te r th a n 15 d e g rees.

c)

W h e n th e p re s s u re situ a tio n is n o t c h an g in g rapidly.

d)

W ith th e is o b a rs s tra ig h t a n d p a rallel.

T h e g e o stro p h ic w in d c a n a p p ly a t all h e ig h ts a b o v e th e f ric tio n layer. H o w e v e r, w ith an


in c re a se in h e ig h t, th e w in d s p e e d sh o u ld in c rea se d u e to th e re d u c tio n in d ensity.

11.13

TH E G R A D IE N T W IN D
T h e g ra d ie n t w in d o c c u rs w h e n th e i s o b a r s a r e c u rv e d . T h is b rin g s in to p la y a fo rce w hich
m a k e s th e w in d fo llo w a c u rv e d p a th p a ra lle l to th e isobars.
T h e g ra d ie n t w in d th e n is th e w in d w h ic h b lo w s p a ra lle l to cu rv ed iso b ars d u e to a c o m b in atio n
o f 3 fo rces:
a)

PG F

b)

GF

c)

C y c lo stro p h ic F o rc e

11 - 7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

WINDS

11.14 CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE


C y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e is th e f o rc e a c tin g to w ard s th e ce n tre o f a p re ssu re sy ste m w h e n th e
iso b a rs a re cu rv e d . It is a ls o c a lle d c e n t r ip e ta l fo rc e .

Figure 11.9 Cyclostrophic Force


1 1.15

G R A D I E N T W IN D IN A D E P R E S S IO N
I f a ir is m o v in g s te a d ily a ro u n d a d e p re s s io n , th e n th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e is p ro v id e d fro m th e
PGF.
V g r a d ie n t = V g eo stro p h ic - c y c lo stro p h ic effe c t

Figure 11.10. Gradient W ind Speed Around a


Depression.

11 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y

WINDS

T h e g ra d ie n t w in d sp e e d a ro u n d a d e p re s s io n is le ss th a n th e g eo stro p h ic w in d fo r th e sam e
is o b a r in terv al. H e n c e i f th e G e o stro p h ic W in d S c ale (G W S ) is u se d , it w ill o v e rre a d .

11.16

G R A D IEN T W IN D IN A H IG H
I f a ir is m o v in g s te a d ily a ro u n d a
G F.

h ig h , th e n th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e is p ro v id e d fro m th e

V g ra d ie n t = V g eo stro p h ic + c y c lo stro p h ic effect


T h e g ra d ie n t w in d sp e e d a ro u n d a n a n tic y c lo n e is g r e a t e r th a n th e g eo stro p h ic w in d fo r th e
sa m e iso b a r interv al. H e n c e i f th e G e o stro p h ic W in d S ca le (G W S ) is u se d , it w ill u n d e r r e a d .

11.17

TH E CYCLO STR OPHIC W IN D


T h e w in d w h ic h b lo w s in lo w la titu d e s w h e re th e G F is v e ry sm all is calle d th e cy c lo stro p h ic
w ind.
It is a c o m b in a tio n o f P G F a n d c y c lo s tr o p h ic fo rc e . T h is w in d o c c u rs in tr o p ic a l re v o lv in g
s to r m s .

11.18

WINDS B ELO W 2000 - 3000ft(l Km).


F ric tio n b e tw e e n m o v in g a ir a n d th e la n d su rfa c e w ill red u c e w in d sp e e d n e a r th e g ro u n d . T h is
red u ctio n a lso r e d u c e s th e G F w h ic h c a n n o lo n g er b a la n ce th e P G F .
A s a re su lt th e s u rfa c e w in d s b lo w a cro ss th e iso b a rs a t a sm all a n g le to w ard s th e lo w e r p ressure.

11-9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

11.19

RO U G H RULES
a)

T h e s u rfa c e w in d o v e r la n d is b a c k e d b y 3 0 d e g re es fro m th e g e o stro p h ic w in d an d its


sp e e d is re d u c e d b y 5 0 % .

b)

O v e r th e s e a fric tio n is v e ry m u c h le ss a n d th e su rfa c e w in d s a re c lo s e r to g eo stro p h ic


v a lu e s. S u rfa c e w in d o v e r th e s e a is b ac k e d b y 10 d e g re e s fro m th e g e o stro p h ic w ind
an d sp e e d re d u c e d to 7 0 % (su rfa c e w in d s w ill v e e r in th e so u th e rn h em isp h ere).

Figure 11.13 An Example o f Rough Rules O verSea.

11 - 1 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

S U R F A C E A N D 2000 F T W I N D S O N

WINDS

C H A R T C A 8 5 /3 (p a g e 11-11)

W h a t is t h e 2 0 0 0 f t w in d a n d s u r f a c e w in d a t th e fo llo w in g p o s itio n s ?

P O S IT IO N
1.

2 0 0 0 f t.

W /V

SU RFA CE W /V

5 3 N 4 .5 W

2.

5 6 N 13W

3.

5 2 .5 N 6 .5 W

4.

5 3 .5 N 1 3 .5 W

5.

4 9 N 0 2 W

1 1 - 11

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEO RO LO G Y

WINDS

11 - 1 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

S U R F A C E A N D 2 0 0 0 F T W IN D S O N

C H A R T C A 8 5 /3 (p a g e 11-11)
A N SW ERS

W h a t is t h e 2 0 0 0 f t w in d a t th e fo llo w in g p o s itio n s ? :

P O S IT IO N

2 0 0 0 f t.

W /V

SU R FA C E W / V

5 3 N 4 .5 W

18 0/27kt

2.

5 6 N 1 3 W

08 5 /1 7 k t

0 7 5 /l l k t

3.

5 2 .5 N 6 .5 W

28 0 /3 7 k t

2 5 0 /1 8 k t

1.

1 50/13kt

4.

53 .5 N 1 3 .5 W

3 0 1 /3 0 k t

2 9 1 /2 0 k t

5.

4 9 N 0 2 W

21 0 /4 2 k t

2 0 0 /2 8 k t

N o te:
T h e s u rfa c e w in d v e lo c itie s h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d b y u s in g th e ap p ro x im a te fig u re s o f
10 (sea) a n d 3 0 (la n d ) b u t th e se fig u re s c o u ld b e m o d ifie d d ram a tic a lly b y local
to p o g ra p h y .

11 - 13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

WINDS

11.20 DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WIND


T h e re c a n b e a re g u la r c h a n g e in th e su rfa c e w in d in e a c h 2 4 h r perio d . It v e ers a n d in c rea se s
b y d a y re a c h in g m a x im u m stre n g th a b o u t 1500 h rs. It b a c k s a n d d e c re a se s th e re a fte r w ith
m in im u m stre n g th a ro u n d daw n .
T h is d iu rn a l v a ria tio n is d u e to th e rm a l tu rb u le n ce w h ic h m ix es th e a ir a t th e su rface w ith a ir
m o v in g fre e ly a b o v e. I t is th e re fo re m o st m arked o n c le a r su n n y d ay s, a n d p a rtic u la rly in p o la r
m a ritim e air, w ith s u n n y d a y s , c le a r n ig h ts a n d u n stab le air.

TOP OF FRICTION LAYER


FASTER MOVING AIR-

SLOW MOVING AIR MIXED


-------------------
WITH THE FASTEB AIR ALOFT
S urface W A / increased by m ixing & veered.

N
I

G
H
T
Surface W A / decreased (No m ixing) & backed.

Figure 11.14 Diurnal variation of the surface wind

11-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y
11.21

WINDS

D IU R N A L V A R I A T I O N O F 1500 F T A N D S U R F A C E W IN D V E L O C I T Y
a)

F ig 11.15 s h o w s th e e ffe c t o f d iu m a l te m p e ra tu re v a ria tio n o n b o th th e 1500 ft W /V an d


th e s u rfa c e W /V .

b)

B y D a y . T h e rm a l C u rre n ts a re g re a te r o n s u n n y d a y s a n d a t 1500 h ours. T h e y w ill cau se


in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n th e su rfa c e a n d th e to p o f th e fric tio n layer. T h e 2 0 0 0 f t W /V w ill
w ith d e s c e n t b e in cre a sin g ly a ffe c te d b y th e s u rfac e frictio n a n d w ill th e re fo re s te ad ily
re d u c e in sp e e d a n d tu rn to w a rd s th e lo w pre ssu re. (B a c k in N o rth e rn H e m isp h ere o r
v e e r in S o u th e rn H e m isp h ere).

11 - 15

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
c)

B y N ig h t.

WINDS
T h e rm a l c u rre n ts c e a s e .

T h e to p o f th e frictio n la y e r effe ctiv e ly dro p s

b e lo w 1 5 0 0 f t w h e r e th e W /V w ill a s s u m e 2 000 f t d ir e c tio n a n d sp e e d th u s b e c o m in g


f a s te r a n d v e e r in g (N H ).

T h e s u r f a c e W /V n o lo n g e r h a s in te r a c tio n w ith th e

s tr o n g e r w in d a b o v e a n d w ill th e re fo re d e c re a s e a n d b a c k (N H ). T h u s a m a rk ed w ind
s h e a r c a n o c c u r b e tw e e n 1500 ft a n d th e surfa ce, a ffe c tin g h a n d lin g f o r ex a m p le o n an
a p p ro ach .

DAY
2000ft

..

__80 / 40

N IG H T
285 / 45

1500ft

270 1 35

280 / 40

SURFACE

255 1 20

240 / 08

F r ic t io n L a y e r e f f e c t iv e ly lo w e r s f r o m 2 0 0 0 f t to b e lo w
1 5 0 0 f t a s t h e C o n v e c t io n C u r r e n t s D e c r e a s e .

Figure 11.16. Diurnal Variation o f 1500' And Surface W ind Velocities.


d)

D V o f su rfa c e w in d a id s th e f o rm a tio n o f r a d ia tio n fo g a t n ig h t a n d e a rly m o rn in g , and


its d isp e rsa l b y day.

e)

D iu m a l e f f e c t o v e r t h e s e a is s m a ll b e c a u se D V o f se a tem p e ra tu re is sm all.

DA Y

NIG H T

SU RFA CE

IN CREASES
VEERS

DECREA SES
BACKS

1500ft

D ECREA SES
BACKS

INCREASES
VEERS

Figure 11.16a. Summary o f Diurnal


Variation and Surface W ind Velocities

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WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

11.22 LAND AND SEA BREEZES


S e a b re e z e s . O n a s u n n y d a y , p a rtic u la rly in a n a n tic y c lo n e w ith a lig h t P G , th e la n d w ill h e a t
qu ick ly .
T h e a ir in c o n ta c t w ill b e w a rm e d a n d w ill r ise a n d e x p a n d so th a t p re ssu re a t a b o u t 1000 ft w ill
b e h ig h e r th a n p re ssu re a t th e s a m e lev el o v e r th e sea . T h is w ill c a u se a d rift o f a ir fro m o v e r
th e la n d to o v e r th e s e a a t a b o u t 1000 ft. T h e d rift o f a ir w ill c a u se th e su rfa c e p ressu re o v e r th e
la n d t o fa ll, a n d th e su rfa c e p re s s u re o v e r th e se a to rise.
A s a r e s u lt th e re w ill b e a f lo w o f a ir fro m se a to land - a se a b re e z e .
On

a v e ra g e ,

sea

b reezes

e x te n d 8 to 14 n m e ith e r sid e
o f th e c o a s t a n d th e sp e e d is
a b o u t 10 k ts. In th e tro p ic s
sp e e d is 15 k ts o r m o re and
th e in la n d e x te n t is g reater.
T h e d ire c tio n

o f th e

sea

b re e z e is m o re o r le ss a t rig h t
a n g le s to th e co a st, b u t afte r
so m e tim e it w ill v e e r u n d e r
th e in flu e n c e o f G F .
It w ill b a c k in th e so u th e rn
h em isp h e re . A n illu stra tio n

Figure 11.17. The Sea Breeze.

o f th e fo rm a tio n o f a sea
b re e z e is sh o w n in F ig u re
11.17.
L a n d b re e z e s .

A fte r su n se t

th e situ a tio n w ill rev e rse . T h e


lan d w ill c o o l ra p id ly w h ilst
th e s e a w ill re ta in its heat.
T h e re w ill b e a n in c re a se in
p re s s u re a t th e s u rfa c e o v e r
th e la n d w h ils t th e p re ssu re
o v e r th e s e a w ill fall - th e re
w ill b e a la n d b re e z e .

The

sp e e d w ill b e a b o u t 5 k ts an d
th e b re e z e w ill e x te n d a b o u t
5 n m s o u t t o sea. T h is e ffe c t
is sh o w n in F ig u re 11.18.

Figure 11.18. The Influence o f the Geostrophic


Force on Sea Breezes over time.

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WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

Figure 11.19. The Land Breeze.

1 1.23

P R A C T IC A L C O A S T A L E F F E C T S

a)

T h e d ire c tio n o f ta k e -o ff a n d
la n d in g c a n b e re v e rse d w ith the
c h a n g e fro m s e a to la n d breeze.
T h is is sh o w n in F ig u re 11.20.

Figure 11.21. Fog Being Blown Inland by


the Sea Breeze.

11 - 18

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WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY
c)

T h e liftin g o f a ir o v e r la n d w ith
th e s e a b re e z e c a n c a u s e sm all
c lo u d s to fo rm a s sh o w n in F ig u re
1 1 .2 2 .

T hese

a re

good

n a v ig a tio n a l fe a tu re o f c o astlin e.

Figure 11.22 Cloud Formation O ver a


Coastline.
11.24

V A L L E Y O R R A V IN E W IN D S
A

w in d

b lo w in g

a g a in s t

m o u n ta in is im p e d e d . I f th e b a rrie r
is b ro k e n b y a g a p o r v a lle y , th e
w in d w ill b lo w a lo n g th e v a lle y a t
a n in c re a se d sp e e d d u e to th e
r e stric tio n . T h is is illu stra te d in
F ig u re 11.23.

Figure 11.23. A Valley o r Ravine Wind.


W ith a v a lle y w in d , i f th e re is a
re la tiv e ly

sm all c h a n g e

in th e

g e n e ra l d ire c tio n , i t is p o ssib le fo r


th e

v a lle y

w in d

to

re v e rs e

c o m p le te ly a s s h o w n in F ig u re
11.24. T h e c o m b in a tio n o f h ig h
w in d sp e e d a n d ro u g h te rra in is
lik e ly to g iv e rise to c o n sid e ra b le
tu rb u le n c e a t lo w lev el, la n d in g a t
a irfie ld s in su c h a re a s m a y be
d iffic u lt.

Figure 11.24. W ind Direction Reversal in A Valley


o r Ravine.

11 - 1 9

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METEOROLOGY

WINDS

E x a m p le s o f v a lle y w in d s a re th e M i s t r a l (R h o n e V a lle y ), (see C h a p te r 2 4 ) G e n o v e se (P o


V a lle y ), K o sa v a (D a n u b e ) an d V a r d a r a c ( T h e ssa lo n ik a). V a lle y w in d s a lso o c c u r in fjo rd s.
11.25

K A T A B A T IC W IN D S
A K a t a b a t ic w in d is c a u se d b y a flo w o f c o ld a ir d o w n a h ill o r m o u n ta in sid e a t n ight.
I f th e s id e o f th e m o u n ta in is c o o le d b y ra d ia tio n , th e a ir in c o n ta c t is a lso c o o le d , it w ill th u s be
d e n s e r a n d h e a v ie r th a n th e su rro u n d in g a ir a n d it w ill th e re fo re flo w d o w n th e m o u n tain side.
T h e K ata b a tic e ffe c t is
m o st

m a rk e d

if

th e

m o u n ta in sid e is sn o w
c o v e re d , i f th e sk y is c le a r
to a s s is t ra d ia tio n a n d i f
th e P G is slack . S p e e d s
a v e ra g e 10 k ts a n d th e
f lo w o f c o ld a ir in to th e
v a lle y h e lp s f r o s t a n d fo g
to fo rm . A n o th e r e ffe c t is
th a t w ith th e s in k in g o f
co ld a ir d o w n th e slo p e ,
th e a ir a t h ig h e r lev els
w ill b e w a rm e r an d an
in v e r s io n

r e s u lt s .

K a ta b a tic w in d is sh o w n
in F ig u re 11.25.
A n e x a m p le o f a K a ta b a tic w in d is th e B o r a (se e c h a p te r 2 4).
1 1.26

A N A B A T IC W IN D S
O n a w a rm s u n n y d a y , th e s lo p e o f a h ill w ill b e c o m e h e a te d b y in so latio n , p a rtic u la rly i f it is
a s o u th fa c in g slo p e.
T h e a ir in c o n ta c t w ith th e g ro u n d w ill b e h e a te d b y c o n d u c tio n a n d w ill rise u p th e hill. F ree
c o ld a ir w ill re p la c e th e lifte d a ir a n d s o a lig h t w in d w ill b lo w u p th e h illsid e. A n an a b atic
w in d is a lig h t w in d o f a ro u n d 5 k ts w h ic h b lo w s u p a h ill o r m o u n tain b y d a y a s illu strated in
F ig u re 11.26.

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M ETEOROLOGY

WINDS

CLOUDS

Figure 11.26. Anabatic W ind Formation.


1 1.27

F O H N W IN D S
T h e F o h n W i n d is a w a rm d ry w in d w h ic h b lo w s o n th e d o w n w in d s id e o f a m o u n ta in range.
It is a lo c a l w in d in th e A lp s. A s im ila r w in d o n th e e a s t o f th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s in C a n a d a
is c a lle d th e C h in o o k . (S e e C h a p te r 2 4 ) T h e re is a lso th e S a n ta A n n a to th e e a s t o f th e A n d es
in S o u th A m e ric a , a n d to th e e a s t o f th e H ig h S ie rras in C alifo rn ia.
I f m o ist a ir is fo rc e d to ris e u p a m o u n ta in s id e , it w ill q u ic k ly b ec o m e sa tu ra te d a n d w ill c ool
a d ia b a tic a lly a s it rises. A fte r re a c h in g th e c o n d e n sa tio n lev el, c lo u d w ill form a n d th e a ir w ill
c o o l at th e SA L R .
I f th e a ir is sta b le , it w ill fo llo w th e lin e o f th e m o u n ta in o n th e d o w n w in d sid e an d d escend.
S o m e m o istu re m a y b e lo st a t th e to p o f th e c lim b th ro u g h p re c ip ita tio n (th is is n o w th o u g h t to
b e a s e c o n d a ry e ffe c t) a n d a ir d e s c e n d in g th e lee slo p e w ill w a rm a t th e D A L R .
T h e re s u lt is a w a rm , d r y w in d b lo w in g o n th e d o w n w in d sid e o f th e m o u n ta in . T e m p era tu re
in c re a se s o f 10 d e g re e s c a n o ccu r.
F o h n w in d s c a n o c c u r o v e r th e e a st c o a s t o f S co tla n d w ith a so u th w e st w in d o v e r th e H ighlands.

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WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

Figure 11.27. The Fohn Effect.

11-22

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

WINDS

L o w L e v e l W in d Q u e s tio n s
1.

F o r a c o n s ta n t d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e iso b a rs th e g eo stro p h ic w in d w ill b e g re atest a t a latitu d e


o f:
a)

2.

45

b)

60

c)

35

d)

20

A c y c lo n e a n d a n a n tic y c lo n e h a v e th e sa m e p re ssu re g ra d ien t a n d th e sa m e 2 0 0 0 ft w in d speed.


T h is c a n o n ly h a p p e n w hen:
a)

T h e y a re in th e s a m e h e m isp h e re b u t th e c y c lo n e is a t a lo w e r latitude.

c)

T h e y a re in th e sa m e h e m isp h e re b u t th e an tic y c lo n e is a t a lo w e r latitu d e.

d)
3.

T h e y a re a t id e n tical la titu d e s in o p p o site h em ispheres.

b)

T h e cy c lo n e is d u e n o rth o f th e a n ticy c lo n e in th e n o rth e rn h e m isphere.

D u rin g th e d a y th e su rfa c e w in d in w e ste rn A u stralia is 2 7 0 /3 0 k t. A fte r d u sk th e w in d is m ost


lik e ly to be:

4.

a)

2 5 5 /4 0

b)

2 6 0 /2 0

c)

290 /2 0

d)

2 9 0 /4 0

O n a d a y in su m m e r w ith a sla c k p re ss u re g rad ien t, a n a irfie ld o n th e so u th c o a st o f E n g lan d h as


a s u rfa c e W /V o f 0 8 0 /0 6 a t d aw n . T h e c o a st/lin e is in a n E ast/W e st d ire ctio n . T h e m ost p ro b a b le
W /V a t n o o n w o u ld be:

5.

a)

3 6 0 /1 2

b)

0 8 0/18

c)

180/18

d)

0 8 0 /0 6

A g u s t o f w in d o fte n c a u se s a v e e r in th e su rfa c e w in d (N o rth e rn H e m isp h ere ) b ecause:


a)

It s tre n g th e n s p re ssu re g ra d ie n t fo rce.

b)

It in c re a se s g eo stro p h ic force.

c)

It in c re a se s c y c lo stro p h ic fo rce.

d)

It lifts th e a ir a b o v e th e fric tio n layer.

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M ETEOROLOGY

T h e su rfa c e w in d d ire c tio n in th e N o rth e rn H em isp h e re is b a c k e d fro m th e 2 0 0 0 ft w in d b y an


a v e ra g e o f 3 0 o v e r la n d d u e to:

a)

F ric tio n re d u c in g th e w in d sp e e d , th u s red u cin g th e g eo stro p h ic fo rce , a llo w in g the

b)

T h e fric tio n a l e ffe c t a t th e su rfa c e , c a u sin g th e su rfa c e iso b ars to c u rv e m o re th a n th o se

c)

a t 2 0 0 0 ft.
T h e g e o stro p h ic w in d o n ly f lo w in g b etw e en stra ig h t a n d p a ra lle l iso b a rs w ith an

p re ssu re g ra d ie n t fo rc e to p u ll th e w in d a c ro ss th e iso b a rs to w a rd s lo w p ressure.

u n c h a n g in g p re s su re g ra d ie n t w ith tim e , w h ere as th e su rfa c e p re ssu re g ra d ie n t c h an g e s


d iu m a lly w ith su rfa c e h eatin g .
d)

T h e e ffe c t o f th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e , w h ic h is s tro n g e st a t th e s u rfac e d u e to incre ased


cu rv a tu re .

W h en a F o h n w in d o c c u rs:
a)

T h e re a re u n sta b le c o n d itio n s o n th e d o w n w in d s id e o f th e m ountain.

b)

A ir is c o o le d m a in ly a t th e D A L R o n th e u p w in d s id e o f th e m o u n ta in a n d is h e a te d at

c)

th e S A L R o n th e d o w n w in d s id e .
W in d sp e e d m u st b e a t le a st 15 k t a t th e s u rfa c e in c rea sin g w ith h e ig h t a n d m a in tain in g

d)

d ire c tio n .
A ir is c o o le d m a in ly a t th e S A L R o n th e u p w in d sid e o f th e m o u n ta in a n d is h e ated
m a in ly a t th e D A L R o n th e d o w n w in d sid e .

T h e g eo stro p h ic w in d b lo w s:
a)

P ara lle l to c u rv e d iso b ars.

b)

W h e n p re ssu re v a lu e s a re ch a n g in g rapidly.

c)

In a tro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm .
W h e n g eo stro p h ic fo rc e a n d p re ssu re g rad ien t fo rc e a re e q ual.

d)

A K a ta b a tic w in d c a n re s u lt in:
a)

A n in c re a se in te m p e ra tu re .

b)

F o g in th e v a lle y a t n ig h t.

c)

T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m er.

d)

S tra tu s c lo u d .

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WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY
10.

S u rfa c e w in d

1500 ft w ind

2 5 0 /1 6

2 7 5 /2 5

T h e ta b le a b o v e sh o w s th e w in d s a t th e su rfa c e an d a t 1500 f t fo r m id -d ay a t a n a irfie ld in ce n tra l


E n g lan d . T h e 2 0 0 0 ft w in d w a s 29 0 /3 0 .
A ssu m in g th e 2 0 0 0 ft w in d re m a in s th e sa m e , th e m o st lik ely co m b in a tio n o f th e su rfa ce and
1500 f t w in d s a t m id n ig h t is:
S u rfa c e w in d
a)

11.

1500 ft w in d

2 5 0 /8

2 6 0 /2 5

b)

2 4 0 /8

2 9 0 /3 0

c)

2 5 0 /1 0

2 9 0 /3 0

d)

2 4 0 /1 0

2 7 5 /3 0

A stro n g w in d th a t ris e s s u d d e n ly , la st f o r s o m e m in u tes an d d ie s c o m p a ra tiv e ly s u d d en ly


a w a y is c alle d :

12.

a)

a gust

b)

a sq u all

c)

a g ale

d)

a b last

T h e fo rc e w h ic h c a u s e s th e a ir to f lo w p a ra lle l to th e c u rv ed iso b a rs is called:


a)
b)

13.

c y c lo stro p h ic fo rce
g e o s tro p h ic fo rc e

d)

g r a d ie n t fo rc e

T h e d e fle c tio n o f th e su rfa c e w in d d ire c tio n fro m th e g eo stro p h ic is, o n average:


a)

14.

c e n trifu g a l fo rce

c)

o v e r th e la n d b y n ig h t - 3 5 in c lo u d y c o n d itio n s

b)

o v e r th e lan d b y d a y - 35 in c lo u d y c o n d itio n s

c)

o v e r th e s e a - 3 0

d)

o v e r th e sea - 1 0 , v e e re d in th e so u th e rn h em isp h ere

A ra v in e o r v a lle y w in d :
a)

Is a w in d b lo w in g a t in c re a se d sp e e d a lo n g a valley.

b)

Is a w in d b lo w in g fro m a h ill to a v a lle y b elow .

c)

Is a w in d b lo w in g u p a h ill fro m a v alley.

d)

Is a w in d b lo w in g a t r e d u c e d sp e e d a lo n g a v alley.

11 - 2 5

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M ETEOROLOGY
15.

WINDS

In an a n tic y c lo n e a t 2 0 0 0 ft, in th e n o rth e rn h em isp h e re, th e w in d w a s 0 6 0 /2 0 kt. T h e likely


su rfa c e w /v o v e r la n d is:

a)
b)
c)
d)

070/15 kt
050/10 kt
030/10 kt
030/15 kt

A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n sw e r

Q u es

A n sw e r

10

11

12

13

14

15

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C H A P T E R T W E L V E - U P P E R W IN D S

C o n te n ts

Page
12.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................1 2 - 1

12.2

C O N T O U R C H A R T S - C O N S T A N T P R E S S U R E C H A R T S .................................. 1 2 - 1

12.3

IS O T A C H S ..................................................................................................................................... 1 2 - 3

12.4

T H E R M A L W IN D

12.5

T H IC K N E S S C H A R T S ..............................................................................................................1 2 - 4

12.6

T H E R M A L W IN D L A W S ..........................................................................................................1 2 - 8

12.7

A D D IT IO N A L R U L E S .................................................................................................................1 2 - 9

12.8

JE TST R E A M S

12.9

C A U S E S ....................................................................................................................................... 1 2 - 1 0

12.10

L O C A T I O N S ................................................................................................................................1 2 - 1 0

......................................................................................................................1 2 - 3

............................................................................................................................. 1 2 - 9

12.11

D IR E C T IO N A N D S P E E D .......................................................................................................1 2 - 1 3

12.12

C L E A R A IR T U R B U L E N C E (T U R B )...............................................................................1 2 - 1 3

12.13

M OVEM ENT

12.14

R E C O G N IT IO N

12.15

F O R E C A S T IN G ........................................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 4

............................................................................................................................. 1 2 - 1 3
........................................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 3

U P P E R W IN D Q U E S T IO N S

................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 7

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UPPER WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY
12.1

IN T R O D U C T I O N
U p p e r w in d s are c a u s e d b y P re ssu re G ra d ie n t F o rc e (P G F ), G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (G F ) an d
C y c lo s tro p h ic F o rc e s in th e sa m e w a y a s th e w in d im m ed iate ly a b o v e th e frictio n layer.
T h e w in d s are s tro n g e r b e c a u s e th e d e n s ity is le ss -

s in tp

A t 2 0 ,0 0 0 ft, f o r th e sa m e P G F , th e w in d s p e e d is d o u b le th e su rface w in d sp e e d , sin c e d e n sity


is h a lf th a t a t th e su rface.
P re ss u re c h a rts f o r h e ig h ts a b o v e m e a n s e a lev el c o u ld b e d ra w n to fin d th e u p p e r w in d s, b u t it
w o u ld b e a la b o u rio u s ta s k a n d th e re a re a d v a n ta g e s in u sin g a d iffe re n t system .
12.2

CO N TO U R C H A R TS - CONSTANT PRESSU RE CHARTS


A

C o n sta n t

P re ssu re

or

C o n to u r C h a rt is a c h a rt w h e re
th e

p re s s u re

is

c o n s ta n t

ev e ry w h e re . F o r e x a m p le , a s
s h o w n in F ig u re 12.1 w e c a n
s e e th a t th e 1000 m b p re ssu re
le v e l

v a rie s

w ith

h e ig h t.

T h e s e h e ig h ts a re p lo tte d a s
c o n to u r

lin e s

w ith

th e

re fe re n c e b e in g M S L .

The

h e ig h ts g iv e u s a n in d ic a tio n
o f th e d is ta n c e th a t a p re ssu re
lev el is fro m M S L .

I f th e

c o n to u rs a re h ig h v a lu e s (in
co m p a riso n to o th e r v a lu e s o n
th e c h a rt) th e n w e c a n a ssu m e
a

h ig h

p ressu re

e x is ts .

C o n v e rse ly i f th e c o n to u rs are
lo w e r v a lu e s th e n w e c a n
a ssu m e a lo w p re ssu re .

Figure 12.1.
12-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y

UPPER WINDS

T h e s e c h a rts p ro v id e v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n to u s a b o u t h o w th e p re ssu re is c h a n g in g o v e r a


dista n c e . I f th e c o n to u rs a re c lo s e ly s p a c e d w e c an a ssu m e a h ig h p re ssu re g ra d ie n t e x ists. I f
w e c a n id e n tify w h e re th e lo w p re s s u re is w e c a n th e n d isc o v e r w h a t th e s tre n g th a n d d ire ctio n
o f th e re s u ltin g w in d w ill b e. A g a in w e c a n u s e b u y s b a llo ts law so th a t w ith o u r b a c k to th e
w in d in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th e lo w e r v a lu e c o n to u r is o n th e left, w h ic h is e ffe c tiv e ly a
lo w e r p ressu re . T h e u p p e r w in d s w ill b lo w p a ra lle l to th e c o n to u r lin e s ( ju s t lik e su rfac e w in d s
a n d iso b ars).
T h is w in d sp e e d is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d ista n ce b etw ee n th e c o n to u r lin e s. T h e w in d th a t w e fin d
fro m t h is a re fo r th e h e ig h t o f th e c o n s ta n t p re ssu re c h art, e g 5 00 m b s c h a rt is a b o u t 18,000 ft
in ISA .

F ig u re 12.2 a b o v e s h o w s c o n to u rs o f th e 3 0 0 m b p re ssu re level a s b la c k lin es. T h e c o n to u r lin es


a re 4 0 0 ft a p a r t a n d w e c a n s e e h ig h v a lu e c o n to u rs in th e b o tto m o f th e d iagram . T h e v a lu e o f
th e h ig h e s t c o n to u r is 3 0 8 w h ic h is 3 0 ,8 0 0 ft A M S L . M o v in g u p th e c h a rt w e se e th e v alues
d e c re a se to 2 7 6 (2 7 ,6 0 0 ft) w h ic h is in th e to p le ft h a n d s id e. W e said th a t lo w v a lu e s in d icate
lo w e r p re s s u re a n d a s s u c h th e a re a h a s b e e n la b elle d w ith a n L o r M IN . W e also said w e c a n
a ssu m e th e d ire c tio n o f w in d s b e c a u se th e y b lo w p a ra lle l to th e co n to u r lin e s w ith th e low
p re ssu re t o th e le ft in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re. T h e b lu e lin e s re p re se n t s tro n g w in d s a n d are
fo u n d w h e re th e c o n to u r lin e s a re c lo s e ly sp ac ed . T h e d a sh e d re d lin e s a re I s o ta c h s w h ic h jo in
p la c e s o f e q u a l w in d sp e e d . A g a in , th e s e w ill b e h ig h v a lu e s w h en th e c o n to u rs a re clo se
to g eth er.

12-2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

UPPER WINDS

T h e h e ig h ts sh o w n o n c o n to u r c h a rts a re h e ig h ts A M S L .
C h a rts a re d ra w n for:

ft
3 0 0 m b s - 30,000 ft
2 5 0 m b s -3 4 ,0 0 0 ft
2 0 0 m b s -3 9 ,0 0 0 ft
100 m b s -5 3 ,0 0 0 ft
7 0 0 m b s -10,000

5 0 0 m b s 18,000 ft

12.3

IS O T A C H S
Iso ta c h s a re lin e s jo in in g p la c e s o f e q u a l w in d sp e ed .

12.4

T H E R M A L W IN D
T h e p re s s u re c h a n g e s th a t e x is t in th e u p p e r atm o sp h e re th a t c o n tro l o u r u p p e r w in d s are dire ctly
re la te d to th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n a ir m a sse s.

F ig u re 12.3 sh o w s th a t th e

te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n tw o a ir m a sse s d ic ta te s th e p re ssu re w e f in d in th e u p p e r


atm o sp h e re .

500 m b
" w

\ i

L y

8 0 0 mb
/

>

'

O
-1 'Oo^

Thickness between
isobars in tens of
metres = decametres

---------- ------

MSL

: ;

Figure 12.3. Pressure Changes at Height in Airmasses o f Different


Temperature

12-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

T h e p re s s u re d iffe re n c e c re a te d b y d iffe re n t te m p e ra tu re s w ill c a u se w in d s. In th e n o rth e rn


h e m is p h e re w ith y o u r b a c k to th e w in d th e c o ld a ir w ill b e o n th e left, (b eca u se th is c o ld giv es
u s a lo w p re ssu re in th e u p p e r a tm o sp h e re ). T h is w in d is k n o w n a s th e th e r m a l w in d .
T h e t h e r m a l w in d is th e c o m p o n e n t w h ic h w h e n a d d e d v e c to ria lly to t h e g e o s tro p h ic w in d
n e a r th e s u r f a c e w ill p r o v id e th e u p p e r w in d .

Iso th e rm s c a n h e lp in fo rm u s w h e re th e c o ld a n d w a rm a ir is. O n c e th is is id e n tifie d w e can


p re su m e th e d ire c tio n o f th e th e rm a l w in d . In th e n o rth e rn h em isp h e re it w ill b lo w p a ra lle l to
th e iso th e rm s w ith th e lo w te m p e ra tu re s to th e le ft o f th e w ind. T h e sp e e d o f th e the rm a l w ind
is in v e rse ly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n t h e isotherm s.
12.5

T H IC K N E S S C H A R T S
R a th e r th a n d ra w in g iso th e rm s o f m e a n te m p eratu re, t h e m e te o ro lo g ist h a s tra d itio n a lly draw n
I s o p le th s /I s o h y p s e th a t p ro d u c e t h ic k n e s s c h a r ts . T h e s e sh o w th e d iffe ren ce in h e ig h t be tw ee n
tw o p re s s u re le v e ls u su a lly th e 5 0 0 m b a n d lOOOmb levels. I f y o u lo o k a t F ig u re 12.3 y o u can
s e e th a t in c o ld a ir th e th ic k n e s s o r d ista n c e b etw e en th e iso b ars is m u c h le ss th a n in w a rm a ir.
I f w e p lo t th e se v a lu e s o n a c h a rt w e w ill b e a b le to se e d iffe re n t th ic k n e ss valu es.

Low

th ic k n e ss v a lu e o r d e c a m e te rs sh o w w e h a v e v e ry c o ld air, a n d la rg e th ic k n e ss v a lu e s sh o w w arm
air. T h e s e a re re sp e c tiv e ly c a lle d c o ld p o o ls a n d w a r m d o m e s . F ig u re 12.5 sh o w s a ty p ic al
th ic k n e ss c h a rts b y p lo ttin g iso h y p se s/iso p leth s.

12-4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

METEORO LO G Y

L o o k in g a t F ig u re 12.5 w e c a n id e n tify h ig h v alu e e n clo sed iso p le th s w o u ld th e re fo re in d ic ate


a w a rm d o m e (a s sh o w n in a re a B ) o r co n v erse ly , w e c a n se e lo w v a lu e d e n c lo se d iso p leth s
in d ic a tin g a c o ld p o o l ( a s s h o w n in a re a A ).
Iso p leth s th a t a re v e ry c lo s e to g e th e r sh o w v ery ste e p h o riz o n tal tem p e ra tu re g rad ien ts (a s show n
in a re a s E). T h is s u g g e sts th a t th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n th e a ir m a sse s is steep
in d ic a tin g th e p o ssib ility o f stro n g u p p e r w inds. S im ilarly w ith iso b a rs a n d co n to u rs, th e u p p e r
w in d w ill b lo w p a ra lle l to t h e iso h y p se /iso p le th s.
T h e m o st im p o rta n t fe a tu re a b o u t th ic k n e s s c h a rts is th e sh a p e o f th e iso p leth s. L ik e p re ssu re
c h a rts w ith tro u g h s a n d rid g es, w e c a n a ls o fin d to n g u es o f c o ld o r w arm a ir. I f w e h a v e co ld a ir
ad v e c tio n (h o riz o n ta l m o v e m e n t) u n d e rc u ttin g th e w a rm e r a ir (a s sh o w n in F ig u re 12.5 b etw e en
A re a s C a n d D ), th is w o u ld fo rc e th e w a rm e r a ir to rise a n d th u s c re a te th e p o ten tia l fo r
sig n ific a n t c lo u d d e v e lo p m e n t i f th e re is s u ffic ie n t m o istu re. T h is is e sse n tia l fro n tal w e a th e r
w h e re w e h a v e c o ld a ir u n d e rc u ttin g w a rm , a s see n o n th e co ld fro n t. W h e n e v e r th e c o ld a ir
m o v e s a n d u n d e rc u ts w a rm a ir th e c h a rt w ill sh o w a front.
In a d d itio n to th e a s s e ss m e n t o f c lo u d a n d w e a th e r a ro u g h e stim a te o f th e th e rm a l w in d sp ee d
c a n b e m a d e b y u s in g th e fo llo w in g :

'

. . .
.
...
altitude diff (ft)
Thermal wind speed = temp gradient per 100 nm x ------- ^

e g , i f th e te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t th ro u g h 4 0 ,0 0 0 ft is 3 d e g r e e s /100 n m , th e n th e therm al W /S w ill


b e 120 kts.
T h is ro u g h in d ic a tio n o f th e th e rm a l w in d sp e e d w h ich is u su a lly a sse sse d b y th e m eteo ro lo g ist
in n a rro w h e ig h t b a n d s is v a lid f o r 5 0 d e g re e s la titu d e o nly. H o w e v er, it is q u ite p o ssib le by
u s in g th e b a s ic tria n g le o f fo rc e s p rin c ip le to id e n tify p o sitio n s o f iso th e rm s a n d th e o re tic a lly
d e te rm in e th e rm a l w in d velo city .

12-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

U P P E R W IN D S

hr PROG V T "

Figure 12.5 Thickness Chart 500-1 OOOmb


KEY
A:

C O L D P O O L ( Q U A S I-S T A T IO N A R Y , L O N G -L A S T I N G T Y P E )

B:

WARM DOME

C:

C O L D P O O L ( T R A N S I T O R Y /M O B I L E T Y P E )

C :

C O L D P O O L (T R A N S I T O R Y /S L O W - M O V IN G T Y P E )

D:

C O L D P O O L (L O W - L A T I T U D E T Y P E )

E:

B A R O C L IN IC Z O N E S

12-6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO G Y

UPPER WINDS

Q u e s tio n 1.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th e w in d a t 2 ,0 0 0 ft is 2 1 0 / 60. T h e therm al w in d is 2 0 k n ots.
W ith th e lo w e st m ean te m p e ra tu re in th e N o rth W est.
T h e u p p e r w in d is;
a)

2 1 0 / 4 0 k ts.

c)

3 0 0 / 4 0 kts.

b)

2 1 0 / 8 0 k ts.

d)

0 3 0 / 8 0 kts.

Q u e s tio n 2.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th e w in d a t 2 ,0 0 0 ft is 2 7 0 / 20. T h e w in d a t 8 ,000 ft is 3 25 / 35
k ts. In th e s e c o n d itio n s th e iso th e rm s o f m e an tem p e ratu re w ill incre ase from ;
a)

N o rth to S o u th .

c)

S o u th to N orth.

b)

E a st to W e st.

d)

W est to East.

Q u e s tio n 3.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re , i f th e 2 ,0 0 0 ft w in d velo city is 3 6 0 / 3 0 k ts. an d th e therm al w in d
sp e e d is 3 0 k ts. b e in g g e n e ra te d b y lo w e r te m p e ratu re in th e N o rth . W h a t w ill b e th e resu lta n t
u p p e r w in d ;
a)

1 3 5 / 3 0 k ts.

c)

3 1 5 /'4 2 kts.

b)

0 4 5 / 4 2 k ts.

d)

2 2 5 / 3 0 kts.

Q u e s tio n 4.
A t 5 0 N th e th e rm a l co m p o n e n t o f th e u p p e r W /V p ro d u c e d b y a 4 te m p era tu re differe n ce
b e tw e e n tw o c o lu m n s o f a ir 2 0 0 n m a p a rt b etw e en th e 7 00 m b level a n d th e 3 0 0 m b level is
lik e ly to be:
a)

80 k n o ts

c)

4 0 knots

b)

4 8 k n o ts

d)

2 8 knots

12-7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER W INDS

M ETEOROLOGY

12.6

THERMAL WIND LAWS


T e m p e ra tu re in th e tro p o sp h e re d e c re a se s from th e e q u a to r to th e p o le s so iso th e rm s o f m ean
te m p e ra tu re a re ro u g h ly p a ra lle l to p a ra lle ls o f latitude.
H en ce th e a v e ra g e th e rm a l w in d m u st b e w e ste rly o u tsid e th e tro p ic s.
T h is le a d s to th e fo llo w in g ro u g h ru les:

U P P E R W IN D

W IN D N E A R S U R F A C E

W ill b a c k to w a rd s w esterly

N o rth e rly
(S e e F ig u re 12.6.)
S o u th erly

W ill v e e r to w a rd s w e sterly

(S e e F ig u re 12.7)
W e ste rly

W ill in c re a s e in sp ee d b u t m a in tain

(S e e F ig u re 12.8)

d irec tio n

E a ste rly

W ill d e c re a s e in sp e e d an d then v e e r o r b a c k

(S e e F ig u re 12.9)

to b e co m e lig h t w e s te rly

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.6

T
Figure 12.9

Figure 12.8

1 2 - 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

UPPER WINDS

In th e tro p ic s ( 0 to 2 0 d e g re e s, b u t v a ry in g w ith se aso n ) th e w in d s u p to 4 0 ,0 0 0 f t a re g en era lly


e a s te r ly .
12.7

A D D IT I O N A L R U L E S
I f lo w p re s su re is a ss o c ia te d w ith lo w m ean te m p era tu re in th e a ir a b o v e , th e u p p e r w in d
d ire c tio n w ill n o t c h a n g e fro m th e g e o s tro p h ic n e a r th e surfac e, b u t w in d sp e ed w ill in crease.
I f h ig h p re ss u re is a s s o c ia te d w ith lo w m e a n te m p era tu re in th e a ir a b o v e, th e n th e u p p e r w in d
w ill d e c re a se in sp e e d a n d m ay re v e rse in d irec tio n .
I f th e G e o s tro p h ic W in d n e a r th e s u rfa c e b lo w s a c ro ss th e iso th erm s o f m ea n te m p e ra tu re from
w a r m to c o ld , th e w in d w ill v e e r w ith in c re ase in h eig h t (b a c k s in th e so u th e rn h em isphere).
I f th e G e o s tro p h ic W in d n e a r th e s u rfa c e b lo w s a c ro ss th e iso th erm s fro m c o ld to w a r m , th e
w in d b a c k s w ith h e ig h t (v e e rs in th e so u th e rn h em isp h e re).

12.8

JE T S T R E A M S
J e tstre a m s a re stro n g n a rro w c u rre n ts o f a ir w ith sp e e d s g re a te r th a n 6 0 kts.

T h e y are

c o n c e n tra te d a lo n g q u a si-h o riz o n ta l a x e s in th e u p p e r tro p o sp h e re o r stra to sp h ere a n d are


c h a ra c te rise d b y stro n g v e rtic a l a n d lateral w in d she ars. J e ts tre a m s m a y h a v e m o re th a n one
v e lo c ity m ax im u m .
T h e y a re u su a lly a b o u t 1500 n m lo n g , 2 0 0 n m w id e 12,000 ft d eep.

1 2 - 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY
12.9

CAUSES
J e tstre a m s are c a u s e d b y la rg e m e a n te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s in th e h o rizo n ta l, i.e. large therm al
co m p o n e n ts.

12.10

L O C A T IO N S
T h e re a re tw o m a in locatio n s:
a)

S u b tr o p ic a l jc t s t e a m s fo rm in th e a re a o f th e su b -tro p ic al anti-c y clo n es. T h e y are


m o re o r less p e rm a n e n t b u t m o v e se a so n a lly w ith th e su b -tro p ica l h ig h s.T h ey o c c u r in
th e la titu d e b a n d s 2 5 to 4 0 in w in te r a n d 4 0 to 4 5 in su m m e r. T h e j e t c o re is a t th e
2 0 0 m b level.

TROPICAL T ROPOPAUSE

*
*

HADLEY CELLS

wA

ft

'S

t t
t t

wA

t t

t t

i*

c
o

F ig u re 12.11 S u b -T ro p ic a l J e ts tre a m s .

SOUTHERN
HEMISPHERE

F ig u re 12 .1 2. S u b -T ro p ic a l J e ts tre a m s .
1 2 - 1 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
b)

UPPER WINDS

P o l a r f r o n t j e t s t r e a m s fo rm in th e p o la r fro n t re g io n in b o th h e m isp h e re s 4 0 to 6 5
N a n d a ro u n d 5 0 S a n d n e a r a n y fro n t w h ic h is sep ara te fro m th e p o la r f ro n t. T h e
je ts tre a m s in a p o la r fro n t d e p re s s io n lie p ara llel to th e fro n ts. T h e y a re lo ca ted in th e
w a r m air.

c)

P o l a r N ig h t J e t s o c c u r in h ig h e r m id d le la titu d e s in m id -w in te r n e a r th e to p o f th e
s tra to sp h e re (5 0 m b le v e l). D ire c tio n is w e s te r ly a n d sp e e d s a v era g e 150 k ts . S peeds
o f 3 5 0 k ts h av e b e e n n o ted .

d)

T r o p ic a l E a s te r ly J e t ( E q u a t o r i a l E a s te rly J e t) . S tro n g e a ste rlie s th a t o c c u r in the


n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re s su m m e r b e tw e e n 10 a n d 2 0 n o rth , w h e re th e c o n tra st be tw ee n
in te n se ly h e a te d c e n tra l A sia n p la te a u x a n d u p p e r a ir fu rth er s o u th is g re atest. It runs
fro m S o u th C h in a S e a w e stw a rd s a c ro ss S o u th e rn India, E th io p ia an d th e su b Sahara.
T y p ic a lly h e ig h ts c irc a 150 h P a (1 3 -1 4 km ; 4 5 ,0 0 0 ft).

e)

A r c tic J e t S tr e a m fo u n d b e tw e e n th e b o u n d a ry o f a rc tic a ir a n d p o la r air. T y p ic a lly in


w in te r a t a ro u n d 6 0 n o rth b u t in th e U S A a ro u n d 4 5 to 5 0 n o rth . T h e c o re v aries
b e tw e e n 3 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 h P a . It is a tra n sie n t f e a tu re fo u n d o v e r la rg e c o n tin e n ts d u rin g
a rc tic a ir o u tb re a k s.

1 2 - 11

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

METEOROLOGY

F ig u re 1 2.1 4 . A V e rtic a l C ro s s S e c tio n T h ro u g h a J e tstre a m .

F ig u re 1 2 .1 5. A v e ra g e U p p e r W in d s - 3 0 0 m b s to 2 0 0 m bs
N o te : T h is g e n e ra l d is p o s itio n o f w in d s w ill m o v e s o m e 15 S o u th in J a n u a ry and
s o m e 15 N o rth in Ju ly.
d)

L o cal J e ts m a y a rise d u e to lo cal th erm a l o r d y n a m ic circ u m sta n c e s e .g. th e S o m ali, o r

e)

O th e r Je ts. J e ts a s o p p o s e d to J e t S trea m s m a y e x ist a s n a rro w , f a s t c u rre n ts o f a ir at

F in d la te r j e t o f f E a st A frica.

l$ w level.

12- 12

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
12.11

UPPER WINDS

D IR E C T IO N A N D S PE E D
T h e d ire c tio n o f je ts tre a m s is g e n e ra lly w e s te rly , m a x im u m sp e e d s o c c u r n e a r th e tro p o p a u se,
2 0 0 k ts h a v e b e e n r e c o rd e d in E u ro p e /N A tla n tic a n d 3 0 0 k ts in A sia.
In e q u a to ria l re g io n s th e re a re h o w e v e r s o m e e a ste rly je ts .

12.12

C L E A R A IR T U R B U L E N C E (T U R B )
C le a r a ir tu rb u le n c e (T U R B ) o c c u rs a ro u n d th e b o u n d a rie s o f je ts tre a m s b e c a u se o f th e la rg e
h o riz o n ta l a n d v e rtic a l w in d sh e a rs.
It is s tro n g e s t n e a r to , o r j u s t b e lo w , th e j e t ax is o n th e c o ld a ir (lo w p re ssu re ) sid e w ith a
se c o n d a ry a re a a b o v e th e ax is.

12.13

MOVEMENT
A s w ith m o s t o th e r w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a , J e tstre a m s m o v e w ith th e sun.
S u b -tro p ic a l j e ts , b a se d o n H a d le y C e lls , w ill m o v e n o rth in th e n o rth e rn su m m e r a s th e h e a t
e q u a to r m o v e s n o rth a n d th e n s o u th in th e n o rth e rn w in te r.
P o la r F ro n t J e ts in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re w ill m o v e n o rth ( a n d d e c re a se in s p ee d ) a s th e P o la r
F ro n t m o v e s n o rth in su m m er. D u rin g th e w in te r th e P o la r F ro n t m o v e s so u th a n d b e c a u se o f
th e g re a te r te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e , th e sp e e d w ill in c rea se.

12.14

R E C O G N IT IO N
F ro m th e g ro u n d , w h e n th e
c lo u d a m o u n ts allo w , j e t s m ay
b e re c o g n ise d b y w in d b lo w n
w is p s o f C IR R U S c lo u d
b lo w in g a t rig h t a n g le s to th e
c lo u d s a t lo w e r lev els.

F ig u re 12.16 R e c o g n itio n b y C lo u d s

12-13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEO RO LO G Y

UPPER W INDS

b)

In th e A ir, th e p re s e n c e o f a j e t w ill b e d iffic u lt to S E E , b u t tem p era tu re d iffe re n c e s,


in c re a se s in w in d sp e e d , d rift a n d c le a r a ir tu rb u le n c e a re all e v id en c e o f j e t s tream s.

c)

O n C h a rts, je ts m a y b e p ic k e d o u t q u ite e a sily b y in sp e ctio n o f U p p e rw in d C h a rts an d


m o re g ra p h ic a lly p e rh a p s b y lo o k in g a t a S ig n ific a n t W e a th e r C hart.

Crown copyright

Figure 12.17
12.15

F O R E C A S T IN G
T h e fo re c a stin g o f j e t s tre a m s is la rg e ly a m atte r o f p ro d u cin g c h a rts f ro m u p p e r a ir s o u n d in g s
b y R a d io S o n d e . T h ic k n e ss c h a rts w e re m e n tio n e d e a rlie r a s a m ea n s o f e s ta b lish in g therm al
w in d p a tte rn s, b u t f o r fo re c a stin g , m e te o ro lo g ists u se c o n to u r c h arts.
In -flig h t re p o rts o f te m p e ra tu re a n d w in d v e lo c itie s are a usefu l c o n firm a tio n o f u p p e r a ir
s o u n d in g s a n d o v e r o c e a n s (a n d d e se rts) a re vital su pplem ents.

12-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

UPPER WINDS

Crown copyright

Figure 12.18. Jet Streams on Sig/Wx Chart

12-15

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

M ETEOROLOGY

UPPER WIND QUESTIONS


A n A irc ra ft o n a tra n sa tla n tic flig h t fro m N e w Y o rk to L o n d o n is fo re c a st to cro ss th e su rface
p o s itio n o f a c o ld fro n t at 1000 U T C .
w ith th e c o ld fro n t.
1.

2.

3.

4.

T h e c o ld fro n t je t is a lig n e d S W -N E a n d is asso ciate d

U s in g th e a b o v e in fo rm atio n an sw e r th e fo llo w in g th re e q u estio n s.

T h e d ire c tio n o f m a x im u m d rift a n d th e tim e i t is e n c o u n tere d


a)

R ig h t a n d a fte r 1000 U T C .

b)

L e ft an d b e fo re 1000 U T C .

c)

L e ft a n d a fte r 1000 U T C .

d)

R ig h t a n d b e fo re 1000 U T C .

J u s t a fte r 1000 U T C th e u p p e r w in d is m o st lik ely to be:


a)

B a c k in g a n d in creasin g .

b)

B a c k in g a n d d e c reasin g .

c)

V e e rin g a n d in c reasin g .

d)

V e e rin g an d d e c reasin g .

S tro n g w in d s h e a r is lik e ly to be found:


a)

A b o v e th e j e t c o re an d a ls o o n th e w a rm a ir sid e o f th e j e t core.

b)

D ire c tly b e lo w th e j e t c o re a n d a lso on th e c o ld a ir sid e o f th e j e t core.

c)

L ev el w ith th e a x is o n th e c o ld a ir s id e a n d a b o v e th e j e t c ore.

d)

A fte r th e j e t c o re h as b e e n p assed .

F lig h ts ea stb o u n d o v e r th e N o rth A tla n tic in w in ter a t th e 2 0 0 m b lev e l w ill o n a v e rag e


e x p e rie n c e a ta ilw in d of:

5.

a)

100 kt

b)

80 kt

c)

50 kt

d)

7 0 kt

T h e 2 0 0 0 ' w in d is 0 4 0 /2 0 k t in th e so u th e rn h e m isp h ere . T h e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n en t is 3 0 kt


w ith th e w a rm a ir to th e n o rth an d c o ld to so uth. W h a t is re su ltin g w in d aloft:
a)

0 7 0 /4 6

b)

315 /2 3

c)
d)

2 5 0 /4 6
135/23

12-17

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y
6.

UPPER WINDS

F ro m su m m e r to w in te r th e m o v e m e n t o f th e j e t s tre a m s o v e r th e N o rth A tla n tic a n d th e sp ee d


ch a n g e w ill be:
a)

7.

N o rth w ith a sp e e d in crease.

b)

N o rth w ith a sp e e d red u ctio n .

c)

S o u th w ith a

d)

S o u th w ith a sp e e d re d u c tio n .

sp e e d in crease.

In th e N . h e m isp h e re i f th e g eo stro p h ic w in d n e a r th e su rfa c e w a s 2 1 0 /6 0 kt. T h e the rm a l w ind


w a s 2 0 k t w ith th e lo w e s t m ean te m p e ra tu re in th e n o rthw est.
T h e u p p e r w in d w as:

8.

a)

2 10 /4 0 k t

b)

2 1 0 /8 0 k t

c)

3 0 0 /4 0 k t

d)

0 3 0 /8 0 k t

In m id d le la titu d e s th e w e ste rly c o m p o n e n t o f th e u p p e r w in d no rm ally inc rea se s w ith h eig h t


b e cau se:

9.

a)

T h e p re s s u re g ra d ie n t fo rc e in c reases.

b)

T h e g e o stro p h ic fo rc e in c reases.

c)

T h e d e n sity in c reases.

d)

T h e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t o n a v e rag e is w e sterly .

In th e N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re th e w in d a t 2 0 0 0 ft is 270 /2 0 . T h e w in d a t 8 0 0 0 ft is 3 25 /3 5 . In th ese


c o n d itio n s th e iso th e rm s o f m e a n te m p e ra tu re w ill inc rea se from :

10.

a)

N o rth to South.

b)

W e st to E ast.

c)

S o u th to N o rth .

d)

E a st to W est.

A c o n to u r c h a rt c a n n o t b e u sed:
a)
b)

T o fin d u p p e r w in d s.
T o f in d th e th e rm a l w in d .

c)

T o lo c a te j e t s tream s.

d)

T o lo c a te u p p e r rid g e s a n d tro u g h s.

12 -18

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
11.

UPPER WINDS

A lin e d ra w n o n a c h a rt jo in in g p la c e s h a v in g th e sa m e te m p e ra tu re a t th e sa m e level a n d a t the


sa m e tim e is:

12.

a)

an iso th e rm

b)

a n isa llo b a r

c)

a c o n to u r

d)

an iso b a r

In th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re th e sp e e d o f th e therm al w in d c o m p o n e n t in th e la y e r b etw e en 5000


ft a n d 14 0 0 0 f t is g iv e n a s 4 0 k ts a n d lo w te m p e ratu re lies to th e n o rth . T h e g eo stro p h ic w ind
a t 5 0 0 0 f t is 2 3 5 /3 5 .
a)

13.

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g is th e m o st lik e ly w in d a t 14000 ft:

2 7 0 /4 0

b)

2 5 5 /7 0

c)

330 /2 5

d)

305 /3 5

In th e so u th e rn h e m isp h e re th e 2 0 0 0 f t W /V is 0 0 0 /3 0 , th e w in d a t 8 0 0 0 ft is 3 2 5 /3 5 . In th ese
c o n d itio n s th e iso th e rm s o f m e a n te m p e ra tu re w ill in cre ase from :
a)

14.

S o u th to no rth .

c)

E a st to w est.

d)

W e s t to east.

T y p ic a lly a j e t s tre a m is:


a)

15.

N o rth to so u th .

b)

1000 n m o r m o re lo n g , 2 0 0 n m w id e a n d 5 nm d eep

b)

1000 n m o r m o re lo n g , 2 0 0 n m w id e a n d 5 0 0 0 ft to 10000 ft d eep

c)

1000 n m o r m o re lo n g , 5 0 0 0 f t to 10000 ft w id e a n d

d)

150 n m lo n g , 5 0 0 n m w id e a n d 5 0 0 0 ft d eep

1000 ft dee p

W h e n a ss o c ia te d w ith a ty p ic a l m id la titu d e fro n tal d e p re ssio n , a j e t stre a m c o re w o u ld b e


lo cated:
a)

in th e c o ld air, j u s t a b o v e th e p o la r tro p o p au se

b)

in th e w a rm a ir, j u s t a b o v e th e w a rm a ir tro p o p a u se

c)

in th e w a rm a ir, j u s t b e lo w th e tro p o p a u se

d)

o n t h e fro n ta l su rfa c e

12 -19

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

UPPER WINDS

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

14

15

10

11

12

13

1 2 -2 0

A n sw er

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C H A P T E R T H IR T E E N - C L O U D S

C o n ten ts

P age

13.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ...................................., .....................................................................................1 3 - 1

13.2

C L O U D A M O U N T .....................................................................................................................1 3 - 1

13.3

C L O U D B A S E ...............................................................................................................................1 3 - 1

13.4

C L O U D C E I L I N G ....................................................................................................................... 1 3 - 1

13.5

M E A S U R E M E N T O F C L O U D B A S E ............................................................................... 1 3 - 1

13.6

T H E C L O U D B A S E R E C O R D E R ......................................................................................... 1 3 - 3

13.7

M E A S U R E M E N T O F C L O U D T O P S ...............................................................................1 3 - 4

13.8

C L O U D M O V E M E N T ............................................................................................................. 1 3 - 4

13.9

C L O U D C L A S S IF IC A T IO N .................................................................................................... 1 3 - 5

1 3.10

B A S IC C L O U D S

1 3 -6

13.11

O T H E R C L O U D S ....................................................................................................................... 1 3 - 9

13.12

H E IG H T S F O R T E M P E R A T E L A T IT U D E S .................................................................1 3 - 1 0

13.13

S T A T IO N C IR C L E C L O U D D E C O D E ..........................................................................1 3 - 1 0

C L O U D Q U E S T I O N S .............................................................................................................................. 1 3 - 1 1

CLOUDS

M ETEOROLOGY
13.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N
C lo u d s a re s ig n p o sts in th e s k y w h ic h in d ic ate to th e p ilo t p o ssib le w e a th e r p ro b lem s, s u c h a s:-

13.2

a)

T u rb u len ce.

b)

P o o r V isib ility .

c)

P re c ip ita tio n .

d)

Icing.

CLOUD AMOUNT
C lo u d a m o u n ts a re re p o rte d in O K T A S (l/8 th s ). It is a ssu m e d th a t th e sky is d iv id e d into 8
e q u al p a rts a n d th e to ta l c lo u d a m o u n t is rep o rted b y a n a ssessm e n t o f th e n u m b e r o f eig h th s o f
th e sk y co v e re d b y c loud.

13.3

C L O U D B A SE
T h a t lo w e s t z o n e in w h ic h th e ty p e o f o b s c u ra tio n p e rc e p tib ly c h an g e s fro m th a t c o rre sp o n d in g
to c le a r a ir h a z e to th a t c o rre sp o n d in g to w a te r d ro p le ts o r ice c ry sta ls. T h e c lo u d b ase is the
h e ig h t o f th e b a se o f th e c lo u d a b o v e g ro u n d - a b o v e o fficia l ae ro d ro m e level.

13.4

C L O U D C E IL IN G
T h e h e ig h t a b o v e ae ro d ro m e lev el o f th e lo w e st la y e r o f c lo u d o f m o re th a n 4 o k ta s .

13.5

M E A SU R E M E N T O F C L O U D BA SE
a)

B y d a y : A s illu stra te d in
F ig u re
w ith

1 3.1., a b a llo o n
a

know n

ra te

of

a s c e n t is re le a se d a n d th e
tim e b e tw e e n re le a s e a n d
th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f th e
b a llo o n

in to

c lo u d

is

n o ted . F ro m th is c lo u d
b a s e c a n b e calc u la te d .

Figure 13.1. Finding the Cloudbase by Releasing a


Balloon with a Known Rate of Ascent.
13-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
b)

CLOUDS

By n ig h t: A n A lid a d e , sh o w n in F igure 13.2., is p o sitio n e d a k n o w n d ista n c e fro m a


se a rc h lig h t a n d is u s e d to m e a su re th e a n g le a b o v e th e horizo n tal o f th e se a rc h lig h t g lo w
o n th e b a se o f th e c lo u d .

T h e h eig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se is th e n c a lc u la te d b y

trig o n o m e try .

Figure 13.2 An Alidade

Figure 13.3 Finding the Height of the Cloud Base.

1 3 - 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

13.6

CLOUDS

THE CLOUD BASE RECORDER


T h e c lo u d b a se reco rd e r, w h ic h is illu stra te d in F ig u re 13.4., g iv e s a c o n tin u o u s re a d o u t o f c lo u d
b a s e b y d a y a n d n ig h t. It is u se d a t m a jo r a irp o rts. T h e s y stem h a s a tra n sm itte r w ith a n arrow
b e a m o f lig h t w h ic h sw in g s fro m 8 d e g re e s a b o v e th e horiz o n ta l to t h e v e rtica l an d b a c k a gain
c o n tin u o u sly .

CD CD CC CD CD CD CD CD. CD CD CD CD CD

CD CD

r I

Figure 13.4. The Cloud Base Recorder

1 3 - 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

CLOUDS

T h e r e c e iv e r is a s h ro u d e d p h o to -e le c tric c e ll w h ic h w ill o n ly a c c e p t lig h t fro m th e v ertic alJF o r


a n y c lo u d b a se th e re w ill b e o n ly o n e a n g le o f th e tra n sm itte r (T X ) b ea m w h ic h w ill p r o v id e
v e rtic a l lig h t in to th e re c e iv e r (R X ). T h e a n g le w ill b e k n o w n b e c a u se o f th e p o s itio n o f th e
b e a m a t th e tim e a n e le c tric a l c u rre n t is re c e iv e d a t th e R X . T h e in fo rm atio n is s e n t b y la n d line
to a re c o rd e r d isp la y in A T C .
13.7

M EA SU R EM EN T O F C L O U D T O PS
T h e h e ig h t o f c lo u d to p s is o b v io u sly n o t a s e a sy to m ea su re a s th at o f th e c lo u d base.
M e te o ro lo g ists m a y b e a b le t o m a k e a v isu al a sse ssm en t, i f co n d itio n s p e rm it, b u t m o re u su ally
th e y w ill u se R A D A R o r e m p lo y a irc ra ft o b se rv atio n .

13.8

CLOUD M OVEM ENT


M e te o ro lo g ic a l sta tio n s m e a su re th e m o v e m e n t o f c lo u d s b y m e a n s o f a N ep h o sco p e. T h is
m e a su re s th e a n g u la r sp e e d o f m o v e m e n t o f c lo u d a n d i f th e b a se h e ig h t is k n o w n , th e sp e e d o f
m o v e m e n t m a y b e c a lc u la te d . A B e sso n N e p h o sc o p e is s h o w n b elow .

13-4

Oxford Aviation Sen/ices Limited

METEORO LO G Y
13.9

CLOUDS

C L O U D C L A S S IF IC A T IO N
C lo u d s are c la ssifie d in th re e b a s ic form s:
a)

S tra tifo rm

A lev el s h e e t o f h o riz o n tal d e v e lo p m en t,

lay ere d a n d i f o f strato

c u m u lu s, w ith so m e d isc e rn a b le shape.


b)

C u m u lifo rm

V ertic a l d e v e lo p m e n t c lo u d , ro u n d ed a n d h e aped.

c)

C irrifo rm

F ib ro u s, fe a th e ry c lo u d - h ig h level.

F ig u re 1 3 .8 C u m uliform C lou d

Figure 13.9 Cirriform Cloud


13-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

13.10

BASIC CLOUDS

NAME &
SYMBOL

HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE)

COMPOSITION

TURBULENCE

ICING

VISIBILITY

SIGNIFICANCE

CIRRUS
Ci

16,500
to
45,000 FT
( 5 - 1 3Kms+)

Ice Crystals

NIL

NIL

QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)

400 to 600nm
Ahead of W arm Front

CIRROSTRATUS

16,500
to
45,000 FT
(5 - 13Kms+)

Ice Crystals

NIL

NIL

QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)

300 to 500nm
Ahead of W arm Front

16,500
to
45,000 FT
(5 - 13Kms+)

Ice Crystals

NIL

NIL

QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)

300 to 500nm
Ahead of W arm Front

Cs

CIRROCUMULUS
Cc
6)

Table 13.1

13-6

NAME &
SYMBOL

HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE
LATITUDE)

COMPOSITION

TURBULENCE

ICING

VISIBILITY

SIGNIFICANCE

ALTO
CUMULUS
Ac

6,500
to
23.000FT
(2 - 7kms)

W ater Droplets
and Ice Crystals

Light to Moderate

Light to Moderate

FAIR
(20 - 1000mtrs)

Sometimes
indicates the
approach o f a
Warm Front

ALTOSTRATUS
As

6,500
to
23,000 FT
(2 - 7kms)

W ater Droplets
and Ice Crystals

Light to Moderate

Light to Moderate

FAIR
(20 - 1000mtrs)

200nm ahead of
a W arm Front
often merges into
Nimbo-stratus
behind and below

NIMBOSTRATUS
Ns

Base Ground Level to


6,500 Ft - Maybe
10,000 to 15,000 Ft
Thick, Merging Into As
above

Mainly W ater
Droplets, but Ice
Crystals at
Medium Levels

Moderate to
Severe

Moderate to
Severe

POOR
(10 - 20mtrs )

Warm Front
adjacent

Table 13.1

13-7

NAME &
SYMBOL

HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE
LATITUDES)

COMPOSITION

TURBULENCE

ICING

VISIBILITY

SIGNIFICANCE

STRATOCUMULUS

Ground Level to
6,500 FT
(0 - 5Kms)

W ater
Droplets

Light to Moderate

Light to
Moderate

Moderate to
Poor
(1 0 30mtrs)

Turbulence Cloud.
Often Associated with
Cu Cloud

STRATUS

Ground Level to
6.500FT
(0 - 5Kms)

W ater
Droplets

Nil

Occasional
Light to
Moderate

Moderate to
Poor (10 30mtrs)

Turbulence Cloud.
Warm Sector, Risen
Fog. Light Pptn

CUMULUS
Cu

Ground Level
to
25.000FT
(0 - 7Kms+)

W ater
Droplets and
Ice Crystals

Moderate to Severe

Moderate to
Severe

Poor
(< 20mtrs,
Occ.
< 10mtrs)

Instability Cloud. Cold


Front, Large Cu
May develop Into Cb

Ground Level to
45,000 FT
( 0 - 13Kms+)

W ater
Droplets and
Ice Crystals

Moderate to Severe
Occ. Very Severe

Moderate to
Severe

Poor
(< 20mtrs,
Occ.
< 10mtrs)

Instability Cloud.
Thunderstorms,
Lightning, Hail

FAIR
WEATHER

&
CUMULO
NIMBUS
Cb

A
H

WITHOUTANVIL

WITHANVIL

13-8

13.11 OTHER CLOUDS

NAME & SYMBOL

HEIGHT RANGE

COMPOSITION

SIGNIFICANCE

ALTOCUMULUS
CASTELLANUS
Acc

6,500 to 23,000 FT
(2 - 7Kms)

W ater Droplets and


Ice Crystals

Indicate U nstable A ir At Higher Levels, possibly


developing Cb. Returning Polar Maritime Airmass

ALTOCUMULUS
LENTICULARIS

6,500 TO 23,000 FT
(2 - 7Kms)

W ater Droplets and


Ice Crystals

Indication of Standing (Mountain) Waves. May indicate


Severe Turbulence

NACREOUS CLOUD

70,000 TO 100,000FT

Probably Ice
Crystals and Dust

Otherwise known as Mother o f Pearl Cloud.


Occasionally seen in High Latitudes in W inter around
Sunset.

NOCTILUCENT CLOUD

75-90Km
(ABOVE 200,00 FT)

Probably Minute Ice


Crystals

Mostly observed between 50 & 65 Latitude during


Summer Months with the Sun between 6 & 10 below the
horizon. Looks Rather Like Ci Cloud.
A M esosphere Cloud

Table 13.2

13-9

METEOROLOGY

CLOUDS

13.12 HEIGHTS FOR TEMPERATE LATITUDES

CLQUD

STABLE AIR
LAYER CLOUDS
I
I
r
MED
HIGH
LOW
I

Ac

St

As

Sc
I

Ci
Cs

UNSTABLE AIR
HEAP CLOUDS
I

- I

LOW

MED
I

Cu

Acc

Cb

Ns

Cc
I

6,500
S U R FAC E

23,000

45,000

6,500

16,500

T.P. 25,00023,000
25,0(
SURFACE SU R FAC E

6,500

F ig u re 13 .1 0 C lo u d H e ig h ts fo r T e m p e ra te Latitu d e s.

13.13

S T A T IO N C I R C L E C L O U D D E C O D E
O v e r a ll c lo u d a m o u n t in o k ta s is sh o w n in th e c e n tre o f th e sta tio n c irc le .

A d d itio n ally

in d iv id u a l c lo u d a m o u n ts, b a s e s a n d ty p e s a re s h o w n a t th e 6 o clo c k a n d 12 o c lo c k p o sitio n s.


D e ta ile d d e c o d e is a t F ig u re 4.4.

13-10

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

CLOUDS

C lo u d Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h e s iz e o f ra in d ro p s fro m a c lo u d is g re a te r if:
a)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

A ir is s ta b le a n d c lo u d is la y e r type.

b)

A ir is u n s ta b le a n d c lo u d is h e a p ty p e .

c)

C lo u d ty p e is A C o r N S .

d)

T h e re la tiv e h u m id ity is h ig h .

W h ic h p ie c e o f eq u ip m e n t is u s e d t o m e a s u re c lo u d b ase:
a)

b a ro g ra p h

b)

h y g ro m e te r

c)

a lid a d e

d)

b a ro m e te r

In a e ro d ro m e r e p o rts an d fo re c a s ts th e h e ig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se re fe rs to:
a)

th e h e ig h t a b o v e m e a n s e a lev el

b)

th e h e ig h t a b o v e a e ro d ro m e e le v a tio n

c)

th e p re s s u re a ltitu d e o f th e c lo u d b ase

d)

th e h e ig h t a b o v e th e a v e ra g e g ro u n d level fo r th e a re a

C lo u d ty p e s a re c la s s ifie d u n d e r th r e e b a s ic fa m ily h e ad in g s, th e se a re:


a)

C irrifo rm , S tra tifo rm , C u m u lifo rm

b)

S tra tifo rm , H e a p , C irrifo rm

c)

C irru s, C u m u lu s a n d la y e r

d)

C u m u lu s, L a y e r a n d H eap

L o w c lo u d in te m p e ra te c lim a te s, e x c lu d in g h e a p a re th o se e x istin g from :


a)

th e s u rfa c e to 6 5 0 0 ft

b)

1000 ft to 6 5 0 0

c)

th e s u rfa c e to 7 5 0 0 ft

d)

th e s u rfa c e to 7 5 0 0 m e tre s

ft

L u m p y o r h e a p e d w h ite c lo u d is:
a)

a lto c irru s

b)

c u m u lu s

c)

c u m u lo n im b u s

d)

n im b o stra tu s

13-11

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEO RO LO G Y
7.

In te m p e ra te la titu d e s w h ic h sta te m e n t is c o rrect:


a)

8.

C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 15000 ft

b)

C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 16 5 0 0 ft

c)

C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 2 5 0 0 0 ft

d)

C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 3 0 0 0 0 ft

T y p ic a l b a s e h e ig h ts in te m p e ra te la titu d e s, o f a lto cu m u lu s c lo u d a re in th e r a n g e of:

c)

ft
ft
8 5 0 0 ft to 18 0 0 0 ft

d)

1000 ft to 6 5 0 0 ft

a)
b)

9.

CLOUDS

6 5 0 0 f t to 2 3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 ft to 15 0 0 0

C o n tin u o u s ty p e p re c ip ita tio n is e x p e c te d f ro m la y e r c lo u d s b e cause:


a ) T h e v e rtic a l e x te n t o f th e c lo u d is sm all.
b)

T h e u p c u rre n ts a re n o t v e ry strong.

c) T h e a ir is s ta b le .
d)

10.

T h e c lo u d is la rg e in h o riz o n ta l ex ten t.

T h e e x p e c te d a v e ra g e h e ig h t ra n g e s f o r lo w , m ed iu m a n d h ig h la y e r c lo u d s in te m p e ra te latitu d es
a re:
a)

L o w : S u rfa c e - 10 0 0 0 ': M e d iu m 10 0 0 0 ' - 2 0 000':

b)

L o w : S u rfa c e - 6 5 0 0 ': M e d iu m 6 5 0 0 ' - 2 3 00 0 '

H ig h 2 0 0 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0
H ig h 23 0 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0

c)

L o w : S u rfa c e - 8 0 0 0 ': M e d iu m 6 5 0 0 ' - 16 5 0 0 '

d)

L o w : S u rfa c e - 6 5 0 0 ': M e d iu m 6 5 0 0 ' - 2 3 00 0 '

H ig h 16 5 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0 '
H ig h 16 5 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0 '

11.

T h e tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith c u m u lu s c lo u d is:
a)

M o d e ra te .

b)

S lig h t to nil.

c)

N il.

d)

M o d e ra te p o ssib ly sev ere.

13-12

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
12.

13.

14.

CLOUDS

W h en th e m e t o b s e rv e r re p o rts th e a m o u n t o f clo u d p re se n t a t a sta tio n , it w ill b e g iv e n as:


a)

C le a r, sc a tte re d , b ro k e n o r o v e rc a st

b)

T h e a m o u n t o f c lo u d , in te n th s o f th e sky c o v e red , u sin g th e te rm o k tas

c)

T h e a m o u n t o f c lo u d , in q u a rte rs o f th e sk y cov ere d , u sin g th e te rm o k tas

d)

T h e a m o u n t o f c lo u d , in eig h th s o f th e sk y c ov ere d , u sin g th e te rm o ktas.

O n w e a th e r c h a rts, th e sta tio n circ le sh o w s th e h e ig h t o f th e c lo u d base:


a)

a b o v e g ro u n d level

b)

a b o v e m ean s e a level

c)

a t a p re ssu re a ltitu d e

d)

in m e tre s a b o v e su rfa c e level

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g c lo u d s is n e v e r a h a z a rd to aviation:
a)

N im b o stra tu s

b)

N o c tilu c e n t c lo u d

c)

C u m u lo n im b u s clo u d

d)

S tra tu s c lo u d

13-13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUDS

M ETEOROLOGY
ANSW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

14

13-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER FOURTEEN - CLOUD FORMATION AND PRECIPITATION

C o n te n ts

P ag e
14.1

V E R T IC A L M O T IO N ........................

1 4 -1

14.2

C O N D E N S A T IO N L E V E L .......................................................................................................1 4 - 1

14.3

T U R B U L E N C E C L O U D ............................................................................................................1 4 - 2

14.4

T H E S IT U A T IO N A T T H E S T A R T O F T U R B U L E N C E ........................................... 1 4 - 2

14.5

T H E S IT U A T IO N A F T E R F U L L T U R B U L E N C E ........................................................1 4 - 2

14.6

O R O G R A P H IC C L O U D ............................................................................................................ 1 4 - 3

14.7

C O N V E C T IO N C L O U D ............................................................................................................ 1 4 - 4

14. 8

W ID E S P R E A D A S C E N T (F R O N T A L U P L I F T ) ...........................................................1 4 - 6

14. 9

C O N V E R G E N C E C L O U D ......................................................................................................1 4 - 7

14.10

M O U N T A IN O U S A R E A S ........................................................................................................ 1 4 - 8

14.11

IN V E R S IO N S ...............................................................................................................................1 4 - 8

14.12

P R E C IP IT A T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 1 4 - 9

14.13

B E R G E R O N T H E O R Y ............................................................................................................. 1 4 - 9

14.14

C O A L E S C E N C E T H E O R Y ......................................................................................................1 4 - 9

14.15
14.16

P R E C IP IT A T IO N T Y P E S .......................................................................................................1 4 - 1 0
P R E C IP IT A T IO N S U M M A R Y

.........................................................................................14 - 11

14.17

R E C O R D IN G ................................................................................................................................1 4 - 1 2

14.18

C L O U D O N T H E S T A T IO N M O D E L ( S T A T IO N C I R C L E ) .............................. 1 4 - 1 2

C L O U D F O R M A T IO N Q U E S T I O N S ................................................................................................ 1 4 - 1 3

M ETEOROLOGY
14.1

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

V E R T I C A L M O T IO N
C lo u d is fo rm e d b y a ir b e in g lifte d a n d c o o le d ad ia b a tic a lly un til th e w a te r v a p o u r c o n d en se s
o u t a s w a te r d ro p le ts. T h e h e ig h t a t w h ic h th is o c c u rs is c a lle d th e c o n d e n s a tio n lev el. It is also
th e h e ig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se .
T h e m e a n s w h e re b y th e initial liftin g o f th e a ir o c c u rs a re as
a)
b)

follow s:

T u rb u le n c e .
O ro g ra p h ic U p lift.

c)

C o n v e c tio n .

d)

S lo w , w id e sp re a d a s c e n t (fro n ta l up lift).

e)

C o n v e rg e n c e

NOT E:

T h e liftin g p ro c e sse s a b o v e a re s tric tly a ll c o n v e c tio n ; p ro c e ss c ) is fr e e


c o n v e c tio n , th e re s t a re fo r c e d c o n v e c tio n .

14.2

C O N D E N S A T IO N L E V E L
F ig u re 14.1 sh o w s a te m p e ra tu re /h e ig h t d iag ra m to illu strate th e lo c a tio n o f th e c o n d e n satio n
level. In th e d ia g ra m ris in g a ir w ill c o o l a t th e D A L R u n til it re a c h e s th e E L R . I f a t th e sam e
tim e it re a c h e s th e D P lin e th e a ir w ill b e sa tu ra te d an d c lo u d w ill fo rm . T h is w ill b e the
c o n d e n s a tio n level.

Figure 14.1 Condensation Level

14-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY
14.3

TURBULENCE CLOUD
T h e c o n d itio n s w h ic h a re n e c e ssa ry fo r tu rb u le n c e c lo u d s to fo rm a re ;-

14.4

a)

S ta b le air.

b)

S u ffic ie n t tu rb u le n t m ix in g , to in c re ase th e la p se rate.

c)

S u ffic ie n t h u m id ity to p la c e th e c o n d e n sa tio n level w ith in th e tu rb u le n c e layer.

T H E S IT U A T IO N A T T H E S T A R T O F T U R B U L E N C E
A ir m ix e d w ith in th e tu rb u le n t
la y e r fo rc e s th e su rfa c e a ir to
ris e

to

th e

to p

of

th e

tu rb u le n c e , a n d th e a ir a t th e
to p o f th e tu rb u le n c e la y e r to
b e fo rc e d to th e su rfa c e . T h is
a d ia b a tic c o o lin g a n d h e a tin g
re sp e c tiv e ly w ill b e d o n e at
D A L R . A n e w e n v iro n m en tal
la p se
b ased

ra te

w ill

upon

be

fo rm e d

th e

m ean

te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n th e a ir
th a t is b e in g fo rc e d to r is e a nd
th e a ir th a t is b e in g fo rc e d to
sin k .

14.5

T H E S IT U A T IO N A F T E R
FU LL TURBULENCE
T h e c lo u d fo rm e d is S t o r Sc,
w h ic h w ill g iv e d r iz z le o r
li g h t

p re c ip ita tio n .

The

in v e rsio n a b o v e th e t o p o f th e
tu rb u le n c e g iv e s v ery sm o o th
a ir a n d a fla t to p to th e c lo u d .

14-2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

Figure 14.4 Tem perature/Height Diagram.


14.6

O R O G R A P H IC C L O U D
A ir m e e tin g a rid g e o f h ig h g ro u n d w ill be
fo rc e d to rise .

I f th e a ir is su ffic ie n tly

h u m id th e c o n d e n s a tio n lev el w ill a p p e a r


b e lo w th e c re s t o f th e rid g e & c lo u d w ill
form .

Figure14.5 O rographic Cloud - Stable


Conditions
I f th e a ir is s ta b le a n d p re c ip ita tio n o c cu rs,
th e a ir w ill d e sc e n d o n th e L E E sid e an d
th e c lo u d b a se w ill b e h ig h e r th an o n th e
w in d w a rd s id e a n d th is w ill g e n e ra te
w a rm e r su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re - th e F o e h n
effect.
I f th e a ir is d ry e r, th e n th e c lo u d b a se w ill
b e a b o v e th e rid g e a n d le n tic u la r
c lo u d w o u ld result.

Figure 14.6. O rographic Cloud - stable,


but dryer
14-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

M ETEOROLOGY
L iftin g in u n sta b le c o n d itio n s c a n p ro d u ce
C u o r C b c lo u d s an d a ls o th u n d e rsto rm s i f
th e re is e n o u g h w a te r v a p o u r p resen t.
S tro n g w in d s w ith m o is t a ir c a n c a u se
c o n v e c tiv e

in s ta b ility

and

Cb

and

th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e C b c a n b e e m b e d d e d in
o th e r c lo u d ty p e s, e g fro n ta l o r T u rb u le n c e
c lo u d .

Figure 14.7. O rographic Cloud Forming in


Unstable Conditions.

Figure 14.8. Tem perature/Height Diagram

14.7

C O N V E C T IO N C L O U D
C ritic a l T e m p e r a tu r e . B e fo re d e a lin g w ith th e fo rm a tio n o f c o n v e ctio n c lo u d w e m u st c o n sid e r
th e c ritic a l, o r c o n v e c tiv e te m p e ra tu re . F ig 14.9 sh o w s a ir risin g a n d c o o lin g a t th e D A L R a t
0 7 0 0 ,0 8 0 0 & 0 9 0 0 h rs. T h e firs t tw o a s c e n ts r e su lt in th e a ir fa llin g b a c k o n r e a c h in g th e E L R ,
b u t a t 0 9 0 0 th e risin g a ir re a c h e s th e D e w P o in t lin e , c lo u d fo rm s a n d t h e a ir n o w c o o ls at th e
S A L R & c o n tin u e s risin g .

1 4 -4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY

-10

-5

6 7 8 10
Rising temp

____________________________ Temperature
Figure 14.9 Critical Temperature

T h e re a re tw o p a rtic u la r c ases:
a)

f a ir w e a th e r C u , w h ic h
o fte n fo rm s e a rly in th e
m o rn in g ,

b)

la rg e C u /C b , w h ic h o fte n
o c c u r la te r in th e day.

Figure 14.10. The Formation o f Convection


Cloud
1 4 -5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY

C o n v e c tio n c lo u d is h e a p ty p e,C u o r C b .. It is iso late d , o fte n fo rm in g o v e r a p la c e , th e n b ein g


blo w n a w a y b y th e w in d a n d fu rth e r c lo u d s fo rm in g o v e r th e sa m e p lac e.
T h e su rfa c e a ir te m p e ra tu re re q u ire d f o r th e a ir to b e lifte d to th e co n d e n sa tio n level a n d for
c lo u d t o fo rm is c a lle d th e cr itic a l tem p e r a tu r e.
T h e c lo u d b a se w ill v a ry d u e to th e v a ry in g te m p e ra tu re s o n th e g ro u n d su rfa ce s. C lo u d to p s,
h o w e v e r, a re u su a lly lim ite d b y m ix in g w ith a n d ev a p o ra tin g into a d r ie r en v iro n m en t. T h e to p s
a re th e n lo w e r th a n th e lim it o f uplift.
I f th e re is tu rb u le n c e w ith th e c o n v e c tio n , th e n Sc c an fo rm , th e C u b e in g s p re ad o u t to form
th e la y e r c lo u d .
P ure c o n v e c tio n c lo u d c a n n o t fo rm o v e r th e s e a b u t w h e re th e re is c o ld a ir m o v in g o v e r a w arm
su rfa c e th e a ir w ill b e c o m e u n s ta b le an d co n v e c tio n ty p e c lo u d c a n fo rm . T h is m o v em en t is
ca lle d a d v e c tio n .
C o n v e c tio n c lo u d fo rm e d o v e r la n d b y su rfa c e h e a tin g so o n d issip a te s a t n ig h t b e cause
in so la tio n sto p s an d th e c lo u d d r o p le ts e v ap o rate.
14.

W I D E S P R E A D A S C E N T ( F R O N T A L U P L IF T )
A t a fro n t th e re is w id e sp re a d liftin g o f a ir a s w a rm a ir c o m es in to c o n ta c t w ith c o ld e r air. L ayer
ty p e c lo u d s fo rm in th e s ta b le a ir a t a w a r m fr o n t a n d h e a p c lo u d s in th e u n sta b le a ir a t a cold
front.

TROPOPAUSE

TROPOPAUSE

F ig u re 14 .11. T h e F o rm a tio n o f F ro n ta l C lo u d .

14-6

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

14. 9

C LOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

CONVERGENCE CLOUD
W h e n th e re is lo w p re ssu re th e re is a lw a y s
c o n v e rg e n c e a t th e su rfa c e w h ic h le a d s to a ir
b e in g lifted . T h u s in d e p re ss io n s a n d tro u g h s,
w h e re

th e re a re

no

a c tu a l

fro n ts, c lo u d

fo rm a tio n o c cu rs. S e e F ig u re 14.12.


W ith stro n g c o n v e rg e n c e a t a tro u g h , liftin g
c a n c a u s e in sta b ility to d e v e lo p s o th a t th e
c lo u d

ty p e is C u o r C b w ith p o ssib le

th u n d e rsto rm s.

T h is is p a rtic u la rly th e c a se w h e n s a tu ra tio n o c c u rs e arly , w ith a n a v e ra g e o r h ig h E L R .


N O T E : W ith c irc u la r iso b a rs a t a n o n -fro n tal low , n o rm a lly o n ly S t/S c c lo u d w ill b e fo rm ed b y
co n v e rg e n c e .

....,+ 2 -

F ig u re 14 .1 3. C lo u d F o rm a tio n th ro u g h C o n v e rg e n c e .

1 4 - 7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY

14.10 MOUNTAINOUS AREAS

We

have

seen

how

o ro g ra p h ic liftin g p ro d u c e s
c lo u d ;

in

m o u n ta in o u s

a re a s th is m ay b e
a c tiv e

and

e x te n s iv e

v ery

p ro d u ce

c lo u d

Unstable AirExtensive V ertical


Development

and

v e rtic a l d e v e lo p m e n t d u e to
C o n v e c tiv e

I n s t a b i li t y .

A d d itio n a lly ,

th is

m ay

in c re a se th e in te n sity o f
p re c ip ita tio n .

Figure 14.14 Mountainous terrain

14.11

IN V E R S IO N S
An

in v e rsio n

a tm o s p h e r e

in
is

th e

w h e re

te m p e ra tu re ris e s w ith an
in c re a se in h e ig h t.

T h is

p r o d u c e s ex tre m e sta b ility


and

in h ib it

th e

fo rm atio n o f c lo u d .

m u st

An

in v e rs io n a lw a y s e x is ts
a b o v e tu rb u le n c e c lo u d
and

in v e rsio n s

have

s im ila r e ff e c t a t

ANY

altitu d e.

F ig u re 14 .1 5

14-8

E ffe c t o f In v e rsio n s

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY
14.12

P R E C IP IT A T IO N
C lo u d s c o n s is t o f w a te r d r o p le ts a v e ra g in g 0 .0 2 m m in d ia m e te r a n d th e ra te o f fa ll is neg lig ib le.
B y c o llid in g w ith o th e r d ro p le ts th e y m a y in c re a se in siz e u n til th e y a re to o h e a v y to b e
su p p o rte d b y th e u p c u rre n ts in th e c lo u d a n d th e y d ro p o u t a s p rec ip ita tio n .
T h e re are c u rre n tly tw o th e o rie s g o v e rn in g th e fo rm a tio n o f th e se p re c ip ita tio n d rops.

Figure 14.16 Precipitation


14.13

BERGERON THEORY
T h e B e rg e ro n t h e o ry p re s u m e s th a t a t h ig h le v e ls i n th e c lo u d , s o m e o f th e w a te r d ro p le ts w ill
tu r n to ic e a n d w ill g ro w in s iz e b y s u b lim a tio n o f w a te r v a p o u r a n d c o llisio n w ith su p erc o o le d
w a te r d ro p le ts. T h e f ro z e n d ro p le ts w ill b e m u c h h e a v ie r th a n th e e x istin g w a te r d ro p le ts and
d ro p o u t a t th e b o tto m o f th e c lo u d , e ith e r a s S n o w o r R a in d r o p s , d ep e n d in g o n th e tem p era tu re .

1 4.14

COA LESCEN CE TH EO RY
It is d iffic u lt to s ee h o w th e a b o v e c a n a c c o u n t f o r su m m e r p r e c ip ita tio n w h e re th e w h o le o f th e
c lo u d is a t a te m p e ra tu re a b o v e z e ro a n d th e c o a le sc e n c e th e o ry m a y p r o v id e a b e tte r a nsw er.
T h is a ssu m e s t h e p re s e n c e o f a r a n g e o f d ro p le t size s, th e l a rg e r fa llin g f a s te r a n d u n itin g w ith
th e s m a lle r u n til e v e n tu a lly th e o v e rw e ig h t d ro p fa lls o u t a s d riz z le o r rain .

14-9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

M ETEOROLOGY

14.15

PRECIPITATION TYPES
D iam eter:

0 .2 to 0 .5 m m

V isib ility :

5 00 to 3,0 0 0 m

Im p e rc e p tib le im p act.
b)

R a in .

D iam eter:

0 .5 to 5.5m m

V isib ility :

3 ,0 0 0 to 5 .5 k m
(1 ,0 0 0 m in h e av y rain)

P e rc e p tib le im p act.
c)

Snow .
*

G rain s/N e e d le s:

D ia m e te r < 1m m

Pellets:

D ia m e te r 2 -5 m m
A c o lle c tio n o f c ry sta ls g re a te r th a n 4 m m in
d ia m e te r. (T h e lo w e r th e te m p e ra tu re , th e
s m a lle r th e size.)

d)

H a il:

D iam eter:

5 to 50m m +

W eig h t:

U p to 1 kg

G ro w th :

C o llisio n w ith su p erc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts an d


su b lim in a tio n / d e p o sitio n .

S o ft H a il

S m all ro u n d e d p e lle ts, o n ly a fe w m m in d iam eter,

o r G ra u p e l:

F all fro m w in try , sh o w e ry cloud.

Ic e P e lle ts

E a rly s ta g e o f h a il g row th.


T ra n sp a re n t p e lle ts, sp h erical o r irreg u lar. D iam ete r < 5 m m . F all from
la y e re d c lo u d .

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

M ETEOROLOGY
14.16

P R E C IP IT A T IO N SU M M A R Y
D U R A T IO N

D E S C R IP T IO N
A lw a y s a sso c ia te d w ith C O N V E C T IO N o r H E A P type

SHOW ERS

c lo u d . O f sh o rt d uration.

A s s o c ia te d w ith L A Y E R c lo u d . F a llin g fro m tim e to

IN T E R M IT T E N T

tim e , w ith n o m a rk e d c le ara n ce .


A s s o c ia te d w ith L A Y E R c loud. N o b re a k s fo r 6 0 m in u tes
+.

C O N T IN U O U S

IN T E N S I T Y

R A IN (m m /hr)

S n o w (C m /hr)

S h o w ers (m m /hr)

S L IG H T

< 0 .5

< 0 .5

<2

M ODERATE

0 .5 T O 4

0.5 T O 4

>4

>4

HEAVY

V
v

2 -1

1 0 -5 0

CLOUD

HEAP
(Instability)

LAYER C:
(stability)

Cu
Cb

TY PE

INTENSITY

Rain/Snow showers
Rain/Snow/Hail showers

Light to moderate
Moderate to heavy

Cc
Cs

As, St, A c, Sc
Ns

Rain/Snow

Slight

Rain/Snow

M oderate to heavy

14-11

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M ETEOROLOGY
1 4.17

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

R E C O R D IN G
R a in fa ll r e c o r d e r s a re u s e d a t s o m e M e t. O ffic es. T h e y w ill in d ic a te r a t e o f fa ll ( in te n sity ) o f
p re c ip ita tio n .

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H

C ollecting cham ber


Plastic float
Knife e dges
Double siphon tubes
Trigger
C ounterw eight
Rain trap
P en-lifting rod

i!
[P

Figure 14.17 Rainfall Recorder


R a in G A U G E S

m e re ly m e a su re th e

a m o u n t o f p re c ip ita tio n fa llin g a t th e statio n .

The

in te n sity w o u ld h av e to b e e stim a te d , a n d w h e re v isib ility is m ea su re d a ta b le m a y b e use d


(F ig u re 1 4.18.)
1 4.18

C L O U D O N T H E S T A T IO N M O D E L (S T A T IO N C IR C L E )
C h a p te r 4 d e a lt w ith S y n o p tic C h a rts a n d h o w w e a th e r in fo rm a tio n is p lo tte d o n them . A t th is
sta g e w e sh o u ld b e a b le to d e c o d e a ll th e in fo rm a tio n (in c lu d in g c lo u d a n d p re cip itatio n ) so
d ep ic te d . A n e x e rc ise in th e c o m p le te d e c o d in g o f in fo rm a tio n is in c lu d e d a s a n a n n e x to th is
ch ap ter.

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C LOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY
C lo u d F o r m a tio n Q u e s tio n s

T ro p ic a l M a ritim e A ir o v e r U K w h ic h o rig in a lly h a d a su rfa c e te m p era tu re o f 1 0 C a n d a la p se rate o f


2C per

1000 f t is s u b je c te d to fric tio n a l tu rb u le n c e fro m th e su rfa c e u p to 3 0 0 0 ft. U se th is

in fo rm a tio n to a n s w e r th e n e x t tw o q u e stio n s.
1.

2.

A fte r m ix in g a n d a s s u m in g th e a ir re m a in s d ry, th e su rfa c e tem p e ra tu re is lik e ly to b e:


a)

11.5 C

b)

1 6C

c)

7 C

d)

1 0C

T h e te m p e ra tu re a t 5 0 0 0 ft is lik e ly to be:
a)

3.

4.

0C

b)

-2 C

c)

+ 2C

d)

+ 3C

I f y o u o b se rv e d riz z le fa llin g , th e c lo u d a b o v e y ou is m o st likely to be:


a)

AS

b)

CU

c)

ST

d)

NS

T u rb u le n c e c lo u d is u su a lly a sh e e t o f S tra tu s, S trato C u m u lu s s om e 2 0 0 0 ft th ic k w ith a fla t to p


b e c au se:
a)

T h e a ir is u su a lly a t lo w te m p e ra tu re s c o n ta in in g little w a te r v apour.

b)

T u rb u le n c e ste e p e n s th e la p se ra te p ro d u c in g a n in v e rsio n a b o v e th e f ric tio n layer.

c)

A ir is n o t a llo w e d to re m a in in c o n ta c t w ith th e su rfa c e d u e to th e stro n g w in d th u s

d)

T h e la p s e ra te b e c o m e s sta b le in th e fric tio n lay e r, d u e to tu rb u le n t m ixing.

m a in ta in in g c o o l s u rfa c e a ir w ith w a rm a ir a b o v e

5.

C lo u d s fo rm e d b y c o n v e c tio n w ill a lw ay s:
a)

B e la y e r c lo u d s.

b)

B e C U C B o rN S .

c)

H a v e a ris in g c lo u d b a s e a n d m ay d ev e lo p in to C B a s th e d a y p ro g re sse s.

d)

F o rm o n ly in P o la r m a ritim e air.

14-13

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CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

METEOROLOGY
6.

W ith re fe re n c e t o a n tic y c lo n e s a ffe c tin g th e U K , w h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g statem en ts is c orrect:


a)

T h e p re ssu re g r a d ie n t is g re a te st to w a rd s th e c e n tre o f th e an ticy c lo n e .

b)

A n tic y c lo n e s a re m o re c o m m o n in w in te r th a n th e y a re in sum m er. T h is is w h y rad iatio n

c)

A p a rt fro m tu rb u le n c e c lo u d , th e fo rm a tio n

d)

W arm a n tic y c lo n e s a re th o se w h ic h are c a u se d b y th e ex tre m e a ir d e n sity asso c ia te d


w ith w a rm e r w e a th e r.

fo g is m u ch m o re fre q u e n t in th e w in ter.
o f all o th e r c lo u d ty p e s

is u n lik ely in

a n tic y c lo n ic c o n d itio n s.

7.

T h e ty p e o f c lo u d fro m w h ic h c o n tin u o u s m o d era te o r h eav y rain is lik ely to fa ll is:


a)
b)
c)
d)

8.

T h e m o v e m e n t o f c o o l m o is t a ir o v e r a w a rm e r s u rfa c e is lik e ly to cause:


a)
b)
c)
d)

9.

sta b ility
in sta b ility
p o te n tia l in sta b ility
n e u tra l sta b ility

In te n sity o f p re c ip ita tio n is d e s c rib e d a s either:


a)
b)
c)
d)

11.

c u m u lu s o r c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d
ad v e c tio n fo g
n im b o stra tu s c lo u d
a lto c u m u lu s le n tic u la r c lo u d

O v e r th e B ritish Isles, a p o la r m a ritim e re tu rn in g a irm ass w o u ld have:


a)
b)
c)
d)

10.

la rg e c u m u lu s
a lto s tra tu s
n im b o stra tu s
cu m u lo n im b u s

in te rm itte n t, c o n tin u o u s o r sh o w e ry
d riz z le , rain o r s n o w
slig h t, m o d e ra te o r h eav y
in te rm itte n t, m o d e ra te o r h eav y

T h e te rm "sh o w e r" im p lie s that:


a)
b)
c)
d)

p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n

is in th e fo rm o f ra in a n d is c o n tin u o u s
is fro m c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d a n d lasts f o r s h o rt p erio d s
is in te rm itte n t a n d is fro m stra to fo rm c lo u d
is c o n tin u o u s fo r lo n g p e rio d s fro m c u m u lo fo rm c lo u d

14-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEORO LO G Y
12.

a)
b)
c)
d)
13.

d riz z le
sn o w
lig h t rain
sle e t

T h e ty p e o f p re c ip ita tio n u su a lly a ss o c ia te d w ith sh a llo w strato c u m u lu s is:


a)
b)
c)
d)

15.

le ss t h a n + 4 C
le s s th a n 0 C
le s s th a n 4 5 F
less th a n 3 0 F

T h e ty p e o f p re c ip ita tio n in w h ic h v isib ility is lik e ly to b e m o st reduced:


a)
b)
c)
d)

14.

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

P re c ip ita tio n in th e fo rm o f sn o w w ill n o t re ac h th e su rfa c e u n le ss th e su rfac e tem p e ra tu re is:

M a in ly w a te r d ro p le ts w h ic h c a n b e su p erc o o led i f th e tem p e ra tu re is lo w enough.


Ice c ry stals.
S u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts only.
L a rg e w a te r d ro p le ts d u e to th e stro n g u p -c u rren ts a sso c ia te d w ith th is ty p e o f clo u d

I f th e re a re sm all c u m u lu s in th e m o rn in g in su m m e r, it is re a so n a b le to fo re c a st la te r in th e day:
a)
b)
c)
d)

C le a r skies.
S t a n d d rizzle.
C B C lo u d .
H aze.

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M ETEOROLOGY

C LOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION


A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

A nsw er
C

10

11

12

13

14

15

14 -16

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METEOROLOGY

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION


D E C O D E O F S T A T I O N S O N C H A R T C A 85/3

S T A T IO N

56N 004W

56N 013W

4730N 001W

53 3 0 N 0 1 3 3 0 W

LOW C LO U D
TYPE
AMOUNT
BA SE
M ED CLOUD
TYPE
AMOUNT
BASE
H IG H C L O U D
TYPE
QFF
TENDENCY

ife* I v

PAST W X
DP
V IS
PRESEN T W X
TEM P
CLOUD COVER
S U R F W /V
2 0 0 0 ' W /V

14 -17

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M ETEO RO LO G Y

CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION

14 -18

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C H A P T E R F IF T E E N - T H U N D E R S T O R M S

C o n te n ts

Page

15.1

C O N D IT IO N S ...........................................! ..................................................................................... 1 5 - 1

15.2

H E A T T Y P E T H U N D E R S T O R M S ........................................................................................1 5 - 1

15.3

F R O N T A L T Y P E T H U N D E R S T O R M S .............................................................................. 1 5 - 2

15.4

T H U N D E R S T O R M D E V E L O P M E N T ................................................................................ 1 5 - 2

15.5

M O V E M E N T O F T H U N D E R S T O R M S .............................................................................. 1 5 - 5

15.6

A L IG N M E N T ................................................................................................................................1 5 - 5

15.7

F O R E C A S T IN G ...........................................................................................................................1 5 - 6

15.8

S U P E R C E L L T H U N D E R S T O R M S (S ev e re local sto rm s) ....................................... 1 5 - 7

15.9

A V O ID A N C E ................................................................................................................................1 5 - 8

15.10

R E C O M M E N D E D T H U N D E R S T O R M A V O ID A N C E R A N G E S
U S IN G A IR B O R N E R A D A R ...................................................................................................1 5 - 9

15.11

R A D A R .............................................................................................................................................1 5 - 9

15.12

S U M M A R Y O F T H U N D E R S T O R M H A Z A R D S .......................................................1 5 - 1 0

T H U N D E R S T O R M Q U E S T I O N S ........................................................................................................1 5 - 1 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEORO LO G Y
15.1

THUNDERSTORM S

C O N D IT IO N S
T h u n d e rsto rm s o c c u r in w ell d e v e lo p e d C u m u lo N im b u s (C b ) c lo u d , tho u g h n o t all C b 's p ro d u ce
th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e y a re m o st lik e ly to o c c u r w hen th e re is:
a)

A la p se ra te g re a te r th a n th e S A L R th ro u g h a la y e r a t le a st 10,000' th ic k a n d e x ten d in g

b)

S u ffic ie n t w a te r v a p o u r to fo rm a n d m a in tain th e cloud.

c)

T rig g e r * a c tio n to p ro d u c e e a rly s a tu ra tio n , th u s

a b o v e th e fre e z in g level.

e n h a n c in g instability.

* T h e so -c a lle d trig g e rs o r liftin g fo rc e s are:


a)

C o n v e c tio n

b)

O ro g ra p h ic u p lift

c)

C o n v e rg e n c e

d)

F ro n ta l u p lift

T h u n d e rsto rm s a re c la s s ifie d as:

15.2

a)

H e a t, o r a i r m a s s ty p e (m o re c o m m o n in su m m e r tim e ).

b)

F r o n t a l ty p e (m o re c o m m o n in w in te r tim e).

H EA T T Y PE TH U N D ERSTO RM S
H e a t ty p e th u n d e rsto rm s a re;
a)

Iso la te d - a ll trig g e rs e x c e p t fro n tal.

b)

M o s t f re q u e n t o v e r la n d in su m m er.

c)

F o rm e d b y d a y , c le a r b y n ig h t.

d)

F o rm e d in c o ls o r w e a k lo w s.

N O T E : T h u n d e rsto rm s fo rm e d b y a d v e c tio n c a n o c c u r d a y o r nig h t, o v e r la n d o r s e a o r a t a n y


tim e o f th e y e a r.

15-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

THUNDERSTORM S

M ETEORO LO G Y
FRO N TA L TY PE TH U N D ERSTO RM S
F ro n ta l th u n d e rsto rm s are;

15.4

a)

m o st fre q u e n t in w in ter.

b)

fo rm e d o v e r lan d o r s e a , d a y o r n ight.

c)

u s u a lly fo rm e d in a lin e a t a c o ld f r o n t o r o c c lu sio n .

d)

fo u n d in a c tiv e d e p r e s s io n s o r t r o u g h s .

e)

o fte n a c c o m p a n ie d b y a lin e s q u a ll.

T H U N D E R S T O R M D E V E L O P M E N T ( S IN G L E C E L L )
a)

I n itia l s ta g e . S e v e ra l s m a ll C u c o m b in e to fo rm a la rg e C u c e ll a b o u t 5 n m a cro ss.


T h e re a re stro n g u p c u rre n ts o f 1000 to 2 0 0 0 fpm (e x c e p tio n a lly 6 ,0 0 0 ft). A ir fro m th e
sid e s a n d b e lo w is d ra w n in to re p la ce th e lifte d a ir, th u s c a u sin g tu rb u le n c e . T h e in itial
sta g e la sts a b o u t 15 to 2 0 m in u tes.

Figure 15.1. The Building Stage o f a


Thunderstorm.

r 14 d
b)

1 .1

(| v. >V C

M a tu r e s ta g e . W h e n p re c ip ita tio n o c c u rs, th e sto rm h a s re a c h e d th e m atu re stage. T he


ra in o r h a il w ill c a u s e s tro n g d o w n c u rre n ts o f u p to 2 4 0 0 fp m a n d w ill a lso b rin g c old
a ir to lo w e r le v e ls. T h e se d o w n d ra fts w ill w a rm in itia lly a t th e S A L R c a u sin g th e a ir
to w a rm v e ry slo w ly , th e re b y sta y in g c o ld e r th a n th e su rro u n d in g a ir c a u sin g it to sink
faster. A n o th e r f a c to r a id in g th e s e d o w n d ra fts is th a t s o m e o f th e rain w ill evap o ra te
w h ic h w ill a b s o rb la te n t h e a t fro m th e a ir m ak in g it e v e n c o ld e r a n d m o re d e n se. T h e
in te n sity o f th is c a n le a d t o th e fo rm atio n o f th e G U S T F R O N T .

1 5 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

THUNDERSTORMS

M ETEOROLOGY

U p c u rre n ts re m a in s tro n g a n d c a n b e u p to 10,000 fpm . T o p s m ay r ise a t 5 ,0 0 0 fp m o r


m o re. T h e re c a n b e e x tre m e tu rb u le n c e in, u n d e r a n d all a ro u n d th e c loud.
A t th e b o tto m le a d in g e d g e o f th e s to rm th e re c an b e a ro ll o f Sc a n d a stro n g g u st front
c a n b e e x p e rie n c e d u p to 13 to 17 n m (2 4 to 3 2 k m ) a h e a d o f th e sto rm a n d b e u p to 6 ,000
fe e t in d e p th . B e lo w th e c lo u d a s q u all a n d a sso c ia te d w in d sh e a r c an b e e x p ected .
M ic r o b u r sts a re p o ssib le w h e re th e d o w n c u rre n ts a re v e ry stro n g a n d a re c o n fin e d to
a r e g io n in th e clo u d n o m o re th a n 3 n m (5 k m ) a cro ss.
M a c r o b u r sts are slig h tly la rg e r in a re a th a n m ic ro b u rsts a n d a re s a id to a ffe c t a n area
b e tw e e n 3 a n d 5 m ile s a c ro ss a s th e e n tire co ld a ir o u tflo w lea v es th e th u n d e rsto rm o r
g ro u p o f th u n d e rsto rm s(c la ssific a tio n D r. T e d F ujita )
R isin g a n d fa llin g w a te r d ro p le ts w ill p ro d u c e a c o n sid e ra b le b u ild -u p o f sta tic
e le c tr ic ity , u su a lly o f p o sitiv e c h a rg e a t th e to p o f th e c lo u d a n d n e g a tiv e a t th e b ottom .
T h e b u ild -u p s e v e n tu a lly le a d to lig h tn in g disc h a rg e a n d th u n d er .
A c h a ra c te ris tic o f th e m a tu re sta g e is th e G U S T F R O N T in a d v an ce o f th e storm
p ro d u ce d b y th e fo rc e o f th e d e s c e n d in g air. T h e g u st fro n t m ay e x te n d 13 to 17 n m (24
to 3 2 k m ) a h e a d o f th e s to rm c en tre.
T h e m a tu re sta g e la s ts f o r a fu rth e r 15 to 2 0 m ins.

4 0 ,000 feet

Figure 15.2 The Mature Stage o f Thunderstorm Development.

1 5 -3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

THUNDERSTORMS

Figure 15.3 Electrostatic Charge on a Thundercloud

Figure 15.4 Gust Front


c)

D is s ip a tin g s ta g e . A t t h is sta g e th e re is p r e c ip ita tio n , w h ic h is h e av y , a n d e x tr e m e


t u r b u le n c e . T h u n d e r a n d lig h tn in g m a y p o ssib ly o c c u r a t th is stage.
T h e c lo u d e x te n d s t o th e tro p o p a u se , w h e re i t is sp re ad o u t b y th e u p p e r w in d to form
a n a n v il. A t th e s e le v e ls th e c lo u d th in s to fo rm C i.
L a rg e v a ria tio n s in s ta tic c h a rg e in a n d a ro u n d th e c lo u d ca u se d isc h a rg e in th e fo rm o f
lig h tn in g w h ic h c a n a p p e a r in th e c lo u d , from th e c lo u d to th e g ro u n d , o r fro m th e c loud
to th e a ir a lo n g sid e.
T h e d is s ip a tin g s ta g e la sts f o r a fu rth e r 1 1/2 to 2 1!2 hours.
15-4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEORO LO G Y

15.5

THUNDERSTORM S

M O V EM EN T O F TH U N D ERSTO RM S
T h u n d e rsto rm s u su a lly m o v e in th e d ire c tio n o f th e 10,000 ft (7 0 0 m b ) w in d , th o u g h large sto rm s
a n d n e w ly d e v e lo p e d o n e s m a y d iffe r fro m this.

15.6

A L IG N M E N T
F ro n ta l th u n d e rsto rm s w ill o fte n a p p e a r a lo n g a s q u a ll lin e . T h is is u su a lly a n in d ic a tio n o f
s e v e re w e a th e r. T h e th u n d e rsto rm c e lls w ill b e in v a ry in g stag e s o f d e v elo p m e n t.

15-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

THUNDERSTORM S

METEOROLOGY

Figure 15.6 Squall Line


15.7

F O R E C A S T IN G
F o re c a stin g th e o c c u rre n c e o f th u n d e rsto rm s w ill b e la rg e ly a m a tte r o f a sse m b lin g th e
co n d itio n s n e c e ssa ry f o r th e f o rm a tio n a n d th e trig g ers. A c o m b in a tio n o f th e se tw o g ro u p s w ill
in d ic a te th e p ro b a b ility o f th u n d e rsto rm s. S a te llite p h o to g r a p h y a n d c o m p u te r m o d e llin g are
u s e d to p re d ic t th is o ccu rre n c e .

1 5 -6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

THUNDERSTORM S

M ETEOROLOGY
15.8

S U P E R C E L L T H U N D E R S T O R M S (S e v e re lo ca l s to rm s )
a)

I n itia l S ta g e
C o n d itio n s n e c e ssa ry to in itia te th e se th u n d e rsto rm s a re:
i)

G re a t d e p th o f in sta b ility

ii)

S tro n g v e rtical w in d s h e a r

iii)

S ta b le la y e r b e tw e e n w a rm (lo w er) a n d co o l (u p p e r) a ir w h ic h is e v en tu ally


b ro k e n d o w n b y in so latio n .

400bPa cool, dry air

Figure 15.7 Conditions fo r Supercell Thunderstorm.

b)

M a t u r e S ta g e
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e m a tu re sta g e are:
i)

V e ry stro n g u p a n d d o w n d ra u g h ts p ro d u c e d in th e o n e la rg e (su p e r) cell g ive


ris e to v io le n t w e a th e r a n d e v e n t o r n a d o e s (a n a v era g e o f 33 to rn a d o e s p e r
y e a r h a v e o c c u rre d in B rita in o v e r re c e n t y e a rs r e m in d in g u s t h a t th e y a re n o t
a p h e n o m e n a r e s tric te d to th e U S A ).

ii)

T h e m a tu re sta g e m a y la st s e v e ra l h ours.

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METEOROLOGY
c)

THUNDERSTORM S

M ovem ent
In th e N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re m o v e m e n t is u s u a lly a b o u t 2 0 to th e r ig h t o f th e 18,000 ft
(5 0 0 m b ) W /V .

d)

L o c a tio n
S u p e rc e ll th u n d e rsto rm s a re m o re c o m m o n o v e r co n tin e n ta l la n d m a sse s th a n o v e r
m a ritim e are a s.

T h u n d e rs to rm s o v e r th e m id -w e st sta te s o f th e U S A p ro d u c in g

to rn a d o e s a re g o o d e x a m p le s.
15.9

A V O ID A N C E
T h e C A A h a s p ro d u c e d re c o m m e n d e d a v o id a n c e d ista n c e s w h e n u sin g w e a th e r ra d ar. T h e se are
sh o w n b e lo w in F ig u re 15.8. It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e sig n ific an c e o f a ra d a r re tu rn o f given
in te n sity u su a lly in c re a se s w ith a ltitu d e. T h e p rin c ip le u n d e rly in g u se o f a irb o rn e w e a th e r ra d ar
is th a t stro n g u p c u rre n ts (w h ic h w ill s u p p o rt stro n g tu rb u le n c e ) w ill su p p o rt la rg e w a ter
d ro p le ts, w h ic h w ill sh o w a s tro n g e r ra d a r re turn. T h e d iag ram a t F ig. 15.8 sh o w s a d isp la y that
c a n b e fo u n d o n a ty p ic a l /g e n e ric E F IS d isplay.

Figure 15.8. Typical W eather Mode Display

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METEORO LO G Y
15.10

THUNDERSTORMS

R E C O M M E N D E D T H U N D E R S T O R M A V O ID A N C E R A N G E S U S IN G A IR B O R N E
RADAR

F L IG H T L E V E L

A V O ID A N C E R AN GE

0 - 200

5nm (10 nm i f growing rapidly)

200 - 250

10 nm

250 - 300

15 nm

300 +

20 nm

Visually - avoid by 10 nm any storm that is T A L L , GROWING R APIDLY o r has an A N V IL TOP.


Clear tops by at least 5,000'.

15.11

RADAR
A iro m e W e a th e r R a d a r (C C W R ) is P la n P o sitio n In d ic ato r (P P I) ra d a r, b u t g ro u n d rad a r, th ough
m o stly P PI, m ay a lso u se R H I (ra n g e -h e ig h t in d ic ato r). C C W R is e x p la in e d e lse w h e re in this
c o u rs e , b u t fig u re 15.9 sh o w s h o w re tu rn s fro m m an y ra d a rs a re co m b in e d to p ro d u c e a n a re a
d is p la y w h ic h w ill b e m u ltic o lo u re d to id e n tify d iffe re n t p re c ip ita tio n in te n sitie s..

Figure 15.9 Radar Mosaic

A S to r m s c o p e is a h ig h ly s o p h istic a te d s y ste m th a t d e te c ts, lo c a te s a n d m a p s a re a s o f elec trica l


d is c h a rg e ac tiv ity c o n ta in e d w ith in th u n d e rsto rm s p e rm ittin g av o id a n ce o f th e a sso ciate d
h azard s.

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THUNDERSTORMS

M ETEOROLOGY

15.12

SUMMARY OF THUNDERSTORM HAZARDS


a)

T u r b u le n c e . T u rb u le n c e c a n b e v io le n t b o th w ith in c lo u d a n d a t th e ir sides. B e lo w th e
c lo u d , tu rb u le n c e c a n b e d a n g e ro u s d u rin g ta k e -o ff a n d la n d in g a n d th e re c an b e w ind
sh e a r. It is p o ssib le f o r a p ilo t to o v e rstre ss th e a irfra m e in th e se co n d itio n s.
L o o se a r tic le s b e in g th ro w n a b o u t in sid e th e a irc ra ft c a b in c a n in ju re passen g ers.
P re ssu re in stru m e n ts c a n b e in e r r o r d u e to lag.

Figure 15.10 Turbulence

b)

H a il. H ail c a n b e m e t a t
a n y h e ig h t in th e c lo u d ,
a ls o b e lo w th e c lo u d and
b e lo w th e a n v il. S ev ere
sk in

dam age

to

th e

a irfra m e c a n o c c u r w h en
th e

h a il

is

la r g e .

D a m a g in g h a il c a n o c c u r
u p to a h e ig h t o f 4 5 ,0 0 0
feet.

Figure 15.11 Thunderstorm Hazards

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THUNDERSTORM S

METEOROLOGY
c)

Ic in g . T h is c a n o c c u r a t all h e ig h ts in th e c lo u d w h e re th e te m p e ra tu re is b e tw ee n 0C
an d -4 5 C . H e a v y c o n c e n tra tio n s o f d ro p le ts an d la rg e d ro p le t size re su lt in sev e re c le ar
icing.
C a rb u re tto r ic in g c a n o c c u r a t te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n -1 0 C a n d + 3 0 C a n d it c a n b e
p a rtic u la rly s e v e re b e tw e e n -2 C a n d + 1 5 C .

Figure 15.12 Ice accretion on tailplane and underwing

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THUNDERSTORMS

M ETEOROLOGY
d)

L ig h tn in g .

L ig h tn in g is m o s t lik e ly to o c c u r w ith in 5 ,0 0 0 ft o f th e free zin g level.

T e m p e ra tu re b e tw e e n 2 0 a n d -10. T h e re a re 3 e ffe c ts w h ic h c a n b e e x p e c te d :
i)

It c a n c a u s e a p ilo t
to

be

tem p o ra rily

b lin d ed .
ii)

C o m p asses
becom e

can
to ta lly

u n re lia b le .
iii)

Som e
dam age

a irfra m e
can

be

cau se d .

F ig u re 15 .1 3 Lig h tn in g

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METEO RO LO GY
e)

THUNDERSTORM S

S ta tic . T h is c a u s e s in te rfe re n c e o n ra d io eq u ip m en t in th e L F , M F , H F a n d V H F
fre q u e n c ie s. S t E lm o 's fire c a n b e c a u se d b y s tatic a n d it re su lts in p u rp le rin g s o f light
a ro u n d th e n o se , w in g tip s a n d p ro p ellers.
T h is is n o t a h a z a rd , b u t it in d ic a te s th a t th e a ir is e le c tric a lly c h a rg ed a n d lig h tn in g is
p ro b ab le.

f)

P r e s s u r e v a r ia tio n s . L o c a l p re s s u re v a ria tio n s c o v e rin g o n ly a v e ry sm all reg io n , in


o r c lo s e to , a sto rm c a n o c c u r c a u s in g Q F E /Q N H to b e in e rro r, so th a t altim e ter
re a d in g s c a n b e in a c c u ra te b y a s m u ch a s 1 0 0 0 a t all heig h ts. T h e se, to g e th e r w ith
g u s t e ffe c ts, c a n c a u s e h e ig h t e rro rs a t low lev el w h ic h c a n b e d an g e ro u s.

Figure 15.14 Barogram during a Thunderstorm


Pressure Variations

V S Is w ill a ls o b e su b je c t to e rro rs. T h e a irc ra ft sh o u ld b e flow n f o r A T T IT U D E rath er


th a n a ltitu d e , th o u g h so m e a ttitu d e in d ica to rs m ay n o t b e a b le to c o p e w ith th e ch a n g e s
o f a ttitu d e p ro d u c e d b u th e se v e re tu rb u le n c e lik e ly to b e en c o u n tere d .

15-13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

THUNDERSTORMS

METEORO LO G Y

C b W ITH O R W ITH O U T LIGHTNING

Figure 15.15 Microbursts.

g)

M i c r o b u r s t s . T h e s e a re d o w n c u rre n ts in th e c lo u d w h ic h a lso m o v e o u tw a rd s b y
re a c tio n fro m th e g ro u n d , h a v in g sp e e d s c o n sid e ra b ly in e x c e ss o f 1000 fe e t p e r m inute
d o w n w a rd s ( u p to 6 0 0 0 fp m ) an d 5 0 k ts h o rizo n tally . T h e w in d sh e a r ( h e a d w in d to
ta ilw in d ) m a y b e b e tw e e n 5 0 & 9 0 k ts. T h e y a re larg ely c a u se d b y d e sc e n d in g rain d ro p s
w h ic h c o o l th e s u rro u n d in g a ir b y e v a p o ra tio n , th e h ig h e r d e n sity a c c e le ra tin g th e dow n
d ra u g h t still fu rth er.
T h e y are c o n c e n tra te d in a b u rs t w h ic h is u p to 3 nm (5 k m ) in ho rizo n tal len g th a n d h av e
a life tim e o f a b o u t 5 m in u te s. (A M a c ro b u rst is a s im ila r e v e n t b u t o v e r a b ig g e r a re a.)
M ic ro b u rsts a re m o st lik e ly to o c c u r in s u m m e r a irm a ss th u n d e r-sto rm s in low latitude
re g io n s w h e re su rfa c e c o n d itio n s a re d ry. T h e y c a u se ex trem e tu rb u le n c e a n d severe
w in d sh e a r co n d itio n s.
A w a rn in g sig n is v ir g a , w h ic h is s trea k s o f p recip itatio n fro m b e lo w th e c lo u d w h ic h
d o n o t r e a c h th e g ro u n d .

h)

W a t e r i n g e s tio n . I f u p d ra u g h t sp e e d ap p ro a c h e s o r e x c e e d s th e term in al velo city o f


th e fa llin g ra in d ro p s, th e r e su ltin g h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n s o f w a te r c an e x c e e d th e d esign
lim its f o r w a te r in g e stio n in s o m e tu rb in e e n g in e s. T h e re su lt c an b e e n g in e flam e-o u t
a n d /o r e n g in e stru c tu ra l fa ilu re. W a te r ing estio n m ay also a ffe c t p ito t h e a d s, even
th o u g h h e a te rs h a v e b e e n sw itc h e d on.

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M ETEOROLOGY
i)

T o rn a d o s.

THUNDERSTORMS
T h e s e a re u s u a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith sev e re th u n d e rsto rm s a n d T ro p ica l

R e v o lv in g S to rm s (T R S ), p a rtic u la rly in th e m id -w e st o f th e U n ite d S tate s o f A m erica.


T h e y ta k e th e fo rm o f a v io le n t w h irlw in d e x te n d in g u p fro m th e g ro u n d in to th e b ase
o f th e C u m u lo N im b u s cloud.
T h e sp e e d o f th e a ir in th e v o rte x h a s b e e n k n o w n to e x c e e d 2 0 0 k n ots.
T h e w id th o f th e v o rte x is ty p ic a lly less th a n 3 0 0 m e tre s h o riz o n tally , (av e ra g e d iam eter
100m ).
F u rth e r d isc u ssio n o n to rn a d o e s w ill b e g iv e n in th e sy lla b u s to p ic o f "O T H E R
D E P R E S S IO N S " la te r in th e M e te o ro lo g y T h e o ry lectures.

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THUNDERSTORM S

METEOROLOGY
T h u n d e r s to r m Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h e c o n d itio n s w h ic h m u st e x ist to a llo w th u n d e rsto rm s to d ev e lo p are:


a)
b)
c)
d)

a trig g e r a c tio n , a p le n tifu l su p p ly o f m o istu re an d a v e ry stab le a tm o sp h ere


a ste e p la p se ra te , a s ta b le a tm o sp h e re th ro u g h a larg e vertica l e x te n t a n d a ple n tifu l
su p p ly o f m o istu re
a p le n tifu l su p p ly o f m o istu re a n d a stee p la p se ra te th ro u g h a la rg e v ertical e x te n t a n d
a trig g e r ac tio n
a ste e p la p se ra te th ro u g h a la rg e v ertic al e x te n t, a low re la tiv e hu m id ity an d a trig g er
a c tio n

2.

W h e n m o ist a ir m o v e s a c ro ss F ra n c e in t h e .......................... T S a c tiv ity is c o m m o n in so u th e rn U K


in t h e .........................
C o m p le te th e a b o v e sta te m e n t c o rre c tly u s in g o n e o f th e follow ing:
a)
b)
c)
d)

3.

H a z a rd s o f th e m a tu re sta g e o f a T S c e ll in c lu d e lig h tn in g , tu rb u len c e and:


a)
b)
c)
d)

4.

m ic ro b u rst, w in d s h e a r a n d anvil
ic in g , m ic ro b u rst a n d w in d sh e a r
ic in g , d riz z le a n d m ic ro b u rs t
w in d sh e a r, h ail a n d fo g

O n a sig n ific a n t w e a th e r c h a rt th e th u n d e rsto rm sy m b o l signifies:


a)
b)
c)
d)

5.

w in te r/m o rn in g
s u m m e r/la te a fte rn o o n o r e v e n in g
w in te r/la te a fte rn o o n o r e v e n in g
su m m e r/m o rn in g

m o d e ra te tu rb u le n c e a n d m o d e ra te ic in g
s e v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d s e v e re icin g
m o d e ra te tu rb u le n c e a n d s e v e re icing
m o d e ra te /se v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d /o r m o d e rate/se v ere icing

T h u n d e rsto rm s re q u ire a trig g e r a c tio n to re le a se th e c o n d itio n a l in sta b ility .


fo llo w in g w o u ld b e th e le a s t s u ita b le a s a trig g er:
a)
b)
c)
d)

W h ic h o f the

c o n v e rg e n c e in te m p e ra te la titu d e s
c o n v e rg e n c e in tro p ic a l la titu d e s
su b sid e n c e in tro p ic a l la titu d e s
c o n v e c tio n in p o la r la titu d e s

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M ETEOROLOGY
6.

D u rin g t h e
sta g e o f a th u n d e rsto rm ce ll, th e c lo u d c o n ta in s ...................
C o m p le te th e a b o v e s ta te m e n t c o rre c tly u s in g o n e o f th e follow ing:
a)
b)
c)
d)

7.

c)
d)

F re e z in g a s it le a v e s th e c lo u d .
B y u p a n d d o w n p ro g re ss in C U c lo ud.
B y c o llisio n w ith su p e rc o o le d w a te r drops.
B y c o llisio n w ith ic e c ry stals.

H o w lo n g a p p ro x im a te ly d o e s a C u m u lo n im b u s ce ll ta k e to c o m p le te th e fu ll c y cle from th e
C u m u lu s (b u ild in g ) t o d is sip a tin g stag e:
a)
b)
c)
d)

11.

A ir is u n sta b le , th e re is s u ffic ie n t w a te r v a p o u r a n d th e re is trig g e r a ctio n .


A ir is c o m p le te ly s ta b le , th e re is su ffic ie n t w a te r v a p o u r a n d th e re is liftin g
o ro g ra p h ic a lly .
T h e re is a w a rm fro n t.
T h e re is a c o l in w in te r.

H ail g ro w s b y:
a)
b)
c)
d)

10.

S e v e re tu rb u le n c e .
S e v e re icing.
W in d sh e a r.
L a rg e v a ria tio n s in p re s s u re s e ttin g v alues.

T h u n d e rsto rm s a re lik e ly if:


a)
b)

9.

b u ild in g /u p c u rre n ts a n d d o w n cu rren ts


m a tu re /u p c u rre n ts a n d d o w n cu rre n ts
d is s ip a tin g /u p c u rre n ts a n d d o w n c u rre n ts
b u ild in g /d o w n c u rre n ts o n ly

T h e fo llo w in g is u n lik e ly to b e a h a z a rd b e lo w a th u n d e rsto rm :


a)
b)
c)
d)

8.

THUNDERSTORMS

2-3 h o u rs
1-2 h o u rs
4 -5 h o u rs
About 1 hour

W h e n a p p ro a c h in g a t flig h t lev el 3 0 0 a c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d w ith a n a n v il to p , p ilo ts sh o u ld aim


to a v o id th e c lo u d b y n m s h o riz o n ta lly i f av o id in g v isu ally , o r b y n m s h o riz o n ta lly if
u s in g c lo u d a v o id a n c e rad ar. S e le c t th e a p p ro p ria te re sp e c tiv e ra n g e s fro m th o se giv e n b elow :

a)
b)
c)
d)

10
15
10
5

20
10
15
10

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Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y
12.

a)
b)
c)
d)
13.

20 nm
5 km
lO n m
5 nm

la p s e ra te
a ir m a ss e s
c o ld fro n ts
a ir m a ss e s

a ir m a s s e s
la te sp rin g
fro n ta l a c tiv ity w in ter
a ir m a s s e s
autum n
fro n ta l a c tiv ity su m m er

W h e n fly in g th ro u g h a n a c tiv e C B c lo u d , lig h tn in g s trik e s a re m o st likely:


a)
b)
c)
d)

15.

2 0 m in u te s
5 m in u te s
3 0 m in u te s
4 5 m in u te s

T h u n d e rsto rm s c a u se d b y ___________a re m o st c o m m o n in th e s u m m e r and


by
in the____________
a)
b)
c)
d)

14.

THUNDERSTORM S

A m ic ro b u rs t u su a lly la sts f o r _

A b o v e 5 0 0 0 ' a n d u n d e rn e a th th e a n vil.
In th e c le a r a ir b e lo w th e c lo u d in rain.
In th e te m p e ra tu re b a n d b e tw e e n + 1 0 C a n d - 1 0 0C.
A t o r a b o u t 10 0 0 0 ft A M S L .

R e g a rd in g th u n d e rsto rm s, th e m o s t a c c u ra te sta te m e n t a m o n g st th e fo llo w in g is:


a)
b)
c)
d)

T h e re w ill a lw a y s b e w in d sh e a r u n d e r th e c loud.
T h e a v e ra g e m o v e m e n t is in a c c o rd w ith th e w in d a t 10 0 0 0 ft.
I f th e c lo u d b a s e h a s a te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 C th e n f re e z in g ra in w ill o ccur.
T h e n u m b e r o f lig h tn in g fla s h e s is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d e g re e o f tu rb u len c e.

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THUNDERSTORMS

M ETEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A nsw er

Q ues

A nsw er

10

11

12

13

14

15

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CHAPTER SIXTEEN - VISIBILITY

C o n te n ts

Page

16.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ....................................

1 6 -1

16.2

R A D IA T IO N F O G ........................................................................................................................ 1 6 - 1

16.3

H IL L F O G .......................................................................................................................................1 6 - 3

16.4

A D V E C T IO N F O G ....................................................................................................................... 1 6 - 3

16.5

S P E C IA L A R E A S ..........................................................................................................................1 6 - 4

16.6

S T E A M IN G F O G (A R C T IC S M O K E )................................................................................ 1 6 - 4

16.7

F R O N T A L F O G ............................................................................................................................. 1 6 - 6

16.8

V IS IB IL IT Y R E D U C E R S ........................................................................................................ 1 6 - 7

16.9

V IS IB IL IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T ..............................................................................................1 6 - 9

16.10

R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E ( R V R ) ...............................................................................1 6 - 1 0

16.11

T R A N S M IS S O M E T E R ............................................................................................................ 1 6 - 1 0

16.12

IN S T R U M E N T E D R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (IR V R )....................................... 1 6 - 1 1

16.13

V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , O B L IQ U E O R D O W N W A R D V IS IB IL IT Y . 1 6 - 1 2

16.14

V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , V IS IB IL IT Y W IT H IN A D E E P H A Z E
L A Y E R ...............................................................................................................................................1 6 - 1 3

16.15

V IS U A L IL L U S IO N S ................................................................................................................1 6 - 1 4

16.16

S U M M A R Y O F V IS IB IL IT Y E F F E C T S ..........................................................................1 6 - 1 5
V IS IB IL IT Y Q U E S T IO N S ..................................................................................................... 1 6 - 1 7

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VISIBILITY

M ETEO RO LO G Y
16.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N
M e te o ro lo g ic a l O p tic a l R a n g e (M O R ), o r m o re sim p ly m e t v is is th e g r e a te s t h o rizontal
d is ta n c e a t w h ic h a d a rk o b je c t c a n b e re c o g n ised b y a n o b se rv e r w ith no rm al ey e sig h t, o r at
w h ic h lig h ts o f sp e c ifie d c a n d le p o w e r c a n b e seen b y night.
G ro u n d v isib ility is th e v is ib ility o f a n a e ro d ro m e as rep o rte d b y a n a c c re d ite d observer.
In effe c t, v isib ility is a m e a su re o f a tm o s p h e r ic c la r ity , o r o b s c u rity . T h is can b e c au se d b y
w a t e r d r o p l e t s - c lo u d , fo g , rain , o r so lid p a rtic le s -s a n d , d u st o r sm o k e, o r b y a m ix tu re o f th e
tw o - s m o g (fo g a n d sm o k e). Ice, in th e fo rm o f c ry sta ls, h ail o r sn o w w ill a lso re d u c e v isibility.
P o o r v isib ility is u s u a lly a ss o c ia te d w ith s ta b le c o n d itio n s, a n in v e rsio n a n d light w inds.
V isib ility is g e n e ra lly b e tte r u p w in d o f to w n s a n d in d u stria l areas.
T h e v a rio u s ty p e s o f re d u c tio n in v is ib ility are:
a)

M is t. T h e re is m ist i f th e v isib ility is 1000m o r m o re a n d th e re la tiv e h u m id ity is g re ater


th an 9 5 % w ith v e ry sm a ll w a te r d ro p le ts. (E ffe c tiv e ly th e u p p e r lim it is 5,0 0 0 m , b u t th is
is d e a lt w ith u n d e r D o c u m e n ta tio n ).

b)

F o g . T h e re is f o g i f th e v is ib ility is le ss th a n 100 0 m a n d t h e o b sc u rin g a g en t is w a te r

c)

H a z e . T h e re is h a z e i f th e v is ib ility is re d u c e d b y ex tre m e ly sm all so lid p a rtic le s - sand,

d ro p lets. R e la tiv e H u m id ity (R H ) w ill b e n e a r 100% .

d u s t o r sm o k e. I f th e v is ib ility is re d u c e d b e lo w 1000m , it is sh o w n on sy n optic ch arts


as r u ~ G
1 6.2

.A g ain , h a z e is n o t re p o rted w h e n th e v isib ility is m o re th a n 5000m .

R A D IA T IO N F O G
R ad ia tio n f o g is c a u s e d b y ra d ia tio n o f th e e arth 's h e a t a t night, a n d th e c o n d u c tiv e c o o lin g o f
th e a ir in c o n ta c t w ith th e g ro u n d to b e lo w d e w p oint.
I f th e re is a lig h t w in d , th e n fo g w ill form , in c alm c o n d itio n s th e r e su lt w ill b e th e f o rm atio n o f
dew .
C o n d itio n s n e c e s s a r y f o r r a d i a t i o n fo g to fo rm .
a)

C le a r s k y - to in c re a se th e ra te o f te rre stria l radiation.

b)

H ig h r e la tiv e h u m id ity - so th a t a little c o o lin g w ill b e e n o u g h to c au se satu ratio n a n d

c)

L ig h t w in d - o f 2 - 8 k ts to m ix th e lay e rs o f a ir c a u sin g tu rb u len c e s o th a t d ro p le ts w ill

co n d e n sa tio n .

b e k e p t in su sp e n sio n a n d so th a t w a rm er a ir

from a b o v e c a n b e b ro u g h t in to c o n ta ct

w ith th e c o ld g ro u n d to th ic k e n th e fog.

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Figure 16.1. Radiation Fog.

A n a tu ra l re s u lt o f th e ra d ia tiv e c o o lin g a t th e su rfa c e w ill b e a n in v e rsio n a b o v e th e fo g lay e r


(u su a lly th e f ric tio n lay er).
T im e s o f o c c u r r e n c e .
a)

A u tu m n an d w in ter.

b)

N ig h t a n d e a r ly m o rn in g . T h e lo w e st te m p e ra tu re s a re early m o rn in g . A d d itio n a lly ,


th e first in so la tio n p ro v id e s th e rm a l tu rb u le n c e a n d lig h t w inds.

L oca tio n .
a)

O v e r la n d - n o t o v e r s ea b e c a u s e th ere is little D V o f tem p era tu re .

b)

F ir stly in v a lle y s b e c a u s e o f th e k a ta b a tic e ffe ct.

c)

In a n tic y c lo n e s, r id g e s an d co ls.

D is p e rs a l:
a)

B y in so la tio n c a u sin g c o n v e c tio n w h ic h w ill lift th e fog.

It w ill a lso h e lp to e v a p o ra te

th e lo w e r lay ers.
b)

B y a str o n g w in d liftin g th e fo g to fo rm stra tu s c loud.

N O T E : In th e U K , ra d ia tio n f o g u su a lly c le a rs b y 1000 - 1100 h ours.

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16.3

H ILL / OROGRAPHIC FOG


H ill fo g is c lo u d o n th e s id e s o f o r th e to p o f a h ill o r m o u n ta in w h ic h h a s b e e n g e n e ra te d b y th e
m o v e m e n t o f h u m id a ir u p th e h ills id e (o ro g ra p h ic liftin g ). V isib ility w ill b e 2 0 0 m etres o r less.

Figure 16.2 Hill Fog.


16.4

A D V E C T IO N F O G
A d v e c tio n fo g is fo rm e d b y th e m o v e m e n t o f w a r m , m o ist a ir o v e r a co ld su rfa c e. T h e surfac e
c a n b e la n d o r sea.

Figure 16.3. The Conditions Necessary fo r Advection Fog to


Form.
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METEOROLOGY
C o n d itio n s n ec e ssa r y fo r a d v e c tio n f o g to form :
a)

W in d s u p to 15 k ts to m o v e th e a ir. (M a y b e s tro n g e r o v e r se a areas)

b)

A h ig h R H so th a t re la tiv e ly little c o o lin g is re q u ire d to p ro d u c e sa tu ra tio n an d

c)

A c o ld su rfa c e w ith a te m p e ra tu re lo w e r th a n th e D e w P o in t (D P ) o f th e m o v in g a ir to

s u b s e q u e n t c o n d e n sa tio n .

e n s u re c o n d e n sa tio n .
T im e s o f o c c u r r e n c e a n d lo ca tio n :
a)

O v e r lan d a re a s in w in te r an d e a r ly sp r in g .

b)

O v e r se a a re a s in la te sp r in g a n d e a rly su m m er .

c)

O c c u rs p a rtic u la rly w h e n a S W w in d b rin g s tro p ica l m a r itim e a ir to th e U K .

D isp ersa l:

16.5

a)

B y a c h a n g e o f a ir m a ss. ( W in d c h an g e).

b)

B y a w in d s p e e d g r e a te r th a n 15 k ts w h ic h w ill lift th e fo g to fo rm stra tu s c loud.

S P E C IA L A R E A S
N e a rly a ll s e a fo g s are c a u s e d b y a d v e c tio n .

G o o d e x a m p le s a re t h e e x te n siv e a n d p e rsiste n t

sea fo g s w h ic h o c c u r in th e r e g io n o f th e G ra n d B a n k s o f N e w fo u n d la n d a n d a ro u n d th e
K a m c h a tk a P e n in su la in th e N o rth P a c ific.
In b o th c a s e s w a rm a ir fro m th e so u th m o v es o v e r a c o ld se a c u rre n t f lo w in g d o w n fro m th e
n o rth .
16.6

S T E A M IN G F O G (A R C T IC S M O K E )
S te a m in g fo g , o r a s it is s o m e tim e s c a lle d , A rc tic S m o k e, o c c u rs o v e r s e a in p o la r r e g io n s, eg
th e fjo rd s o f G re e n la n d , Ic e la n d a n d th e s ea a re a s o f h ig h la titu d es. It is c a u se d b y co ld a ir from
a lan d m a ss m o v in g o v e r a w a r m e r sea . T h e sm a ll a m o u n t o f e v a p o ra tio n fro m th e se a is
e n o u g h to c a u se sa tu ra tio n a n d c o n d e n s a tio n b u t th e a ir its e lf m u st b e v e r y stab le.
T h e fo g c a n b e p e rsis te n t a n d u p to 5 0 0 fe e t th ic k - m ay d rift inland. W ill b e d isp e rse d b y a n
in c re a se in w in d s p e e d o r c h a n g e o f d ire c tio n . U su a lly o n ly sig n ific a n t in A rc tic re g io n s, b u t th e
s te a m m ay b e s e e n a t a n y la titu d e w h en c o ld a ir m o v es o v e r a w e t surfa ce . S tea m risin g from
a w e t ro a d a fte r a v e ry h e a v y su m m e r s h o w e r is a g o o d e xam p le.

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Figure 16.6 Before Generation o f Steaming Fog

Figure 16.7 A fter Generation o f Steaming Fog


16.7

FR O N TA L FOG
F ro n ta l fo g o c c u rs a t a w a rm fro n t o r o c c lu sio n . T h e m a in c a u se is p rec ip ita tio n lo w e r in g the
clo u d b a se to th e g r oun d.
S u b s id ia ry c a u se s are:

a)

Evaporation o f standing water on the ground.

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METEOROLOGY
b)

V ISIBILITY

M ix in g o f s a tu ra te d a ir w ith n o n -s a tu ra te d a ir b elow .

T h e fo g c a n fo rm a lo n g a b e lt u p to 2 0 0 n m w id e w h ic h th e n tra v e ls w ith th e fro n t. C an be


in c re a s e d b y o ro g ra p h ic liftin g . W ill b e d isp e rse d b y th e p a ssin g o f th e front.

FOG B ELT U P !
TO 200 n m ~ H
W IDE
Figure 16.8 Frontal Fog.

16.8

V IS IB IL IT Y REDUCERS
A p a rt fro m v e ry sm all w a te r d ro p le ts , v isib ility m a y b e r e d u c e d b y so lid p a rtic le s o r
p re c ip ita tio n .
S m o k e: S m o k e c o n s is ts o f so lid p a rtic le s p r o d u c e d b y c o m b u stio n . C o n d itio n s w ill b e w o rse
u n d e r S T A B L E (su b sid in g a ir) c o n d itio n s . S m oke m a y c a u se w id e sp re a d re d u c tio n s, e .g. fo re st
fire s in In d o n esia.
T h e re d u c tio n w ill d e p e n d u p o n :
a)

R a te o f p ro d u c tio n

b)

R a te o f d isp e rsa l b y w in d

c)

D is ta n c e fro m th e sm o k e so u rce
T h e p a rtic le s p ro v id e a m p le H y g r o sc o p ic N u clei fo r v a p o u r to c o n d e n se o n to , th u s
in c re a s in g th e se v e rity o f R a d ia tio n Fog.

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D u s t: D u st is a p a rtic le le s s th a n 0 .0 8 m m in diam eter. B e cau se o f its lig h tn e ss, i t m a y b e ca rried


h ig h in to th e a tm o sp h e re . T h e s u rfa c e w in d sp e ed is lik ely to e x ce ed 15 k ts a n d a s th e speed
in c re a se s, so w ill th e h e ig h t to w h ic h th e d u st w ill rise.

Figure 16.9 Dust Storm Rising to 11,000 ft (75miles SSE o f Damascus)

D u s t s to rm s m a in ly o c c u r in d a y lig h t d u e to th e D V o f w in d , b u t s im p le d u s t is v ery sm a ll, it


m a y s ta y in su sp e n sio n a n d v is ib ility n o t im p ro v e fo r a d a y o r so . E x a m p le s a re th e K h am sin
a n d H a b o o b s, w h ic h w ill b e c o v e re d later.
S a n d : S a n d c o n s is ts o f p a rtic le s b e tw e e n 0 .0 8 a n d 0 .3 m m in d iam ete r. W in d sp e e d w ill b e 2 0 k ts
o r m o re. T h e g re a te r w e ig h t o f s a n d p a rtic le s m ea n s th a t th e y w ill o n ly b e c a rrie d a fe w feet
a b o v e th e su rfa c e . A g a in , m o re a d a y lig h t e v en t, d u e to th e D V o f w ind.
V isib ility : D u s t o r s a n d s to rm s im p ly a v is ib ility b e lo w 1000m .
P r e c ip ita tio n : R e d u c tio n s in v isib ility c a u s e d b y p rec ip ita tio n h a v e a lre a d y b e e n c o v ere d u n d er
C lo u d F o rm a tio n , b u t to re c a p , th e y are:
D riz z le
R ain

5 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 m
M o d e ra te :

3 ,0 0 0 m to 10km

H eav y : < 1,000 m


Snow

M o d e ra te

1,0 00m

H eav y :

5 0 to 2 0 0 m

D riftin g :

(< 2 m a b o v e th e su rfa c e )

w ill re d u c e th e a b ove.

B lo w in g :

(2 m a b o v e th e su rfa c e )

w ill G R E A T L Y red u c e th e

above.

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16.9

VISIBILITY MEASUREMENT
a)

B y day.

M e a su re m e n ts a re m a d e b y re fe re n c e to s u ita b le o b je c ts a t k n o w n d istan c es

fro m a n o b s e rv in g p o sitio n .

Figure 16.10 Visibility Measurement: Day


b)

B y n ig h t. I f a s u ita b le a rra n g e m e n t o f lig h ts o f k n o w n c a n d le p o w e r is n o t a v a ila b le th e


v is ib ility v a lu e o b ta in e d h a s to b e th e d a y tim e e q u iv a le n t in term s o f a tm o sp h e ric
o b sc u rity .

T h is is a c h ie v e d b y v ie w in g lig h ts o f k n o w n c a n d le p o w e r fro m a know n

d ista n c e th ro u g h a v a ria b le filte r in an in stru m e n t c a lle d a G o ld s V isibility' M ete r. T h e


filte r is v a rie d u n til th e lig h t is n o lo n g e r v isib le a n d th e re a d in g w ill g iv e a n e q u iv alen t
o f d a y lig h t v isib ility .

F ig u re 16.11 G o ld s V is ib ility M e te r
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M ETEORO LO G Y
16.10

VISIBILITY

R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (R V R )
R V R is th e m ax im u m d is ta n c e th a t a p ilo t 15 f t a b o v e th e ru n w a y in th e to u c h d o w n a re a c a n see
m a rk e r b o a rd s b y d a y o r ru n w a y lig h ts b y n ig h t w h e n lo o k in g in th e d ire c tio n o f ta k e -o f f o r
lan d in g . T h e R V R c a n b e a sse sse d b y p o s itio n in g a n o b se rv e r 7 6 m e tre s fro m th e c e n tre lin e o f
th e ru n w a y in th e to u c h d o w n a re a to sig h t th e n u m b e r o f m a rk e r b o a rd o r lig h ts in the
a p p ro p ria te d ire c tio n .

R V R is re p o rte d w h en no rm a l v isib ility is 1500 m o r le ss, o r w h en

s h a llo w fo g is re p o rte d o r fo re c a st.


T h e U n ite d K in g d o m sta n d a rd R V R re p o rtin g in c rem en tal s c a le is 2 5 m b e tw ee n 0 an d 200m ,
5 0 m b e tw e e n 2 0 0 a n d 8 0 0 m , a n d 100m a b o v e 800m .

I f tra ffic is m o re o r le ss con tin u o u s,

re a d in g s a re ta k e n e v e ry 3 0 m in u te s, o r w h e n a s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e in th e no rm a l v isib ility o c curs.


I f tra ffic is lig h t, re a d in g s a re ta k e n 15 m in u tes b e fo re a ta k e -o ff o r lan d in g . R V R is n e v er
fo recast. T h e re is n o c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n R V R a n d M e teo ro lo g ica l O b se rv a tio n s a n d R ep o rts
(M O R ), b u t th e re a re fa c to rs w h ic h m a y b e a p p lie d fo r re g u la to ry p u rp o se s (see A ir L a w N otes).
16.11

T R A N S M IS S O M E T E R
T h is is a n e le c tro n ic d e v ic e w h e re th e in te n sity o f a lig h t a d ista n ce fro m a p h o to E le c tric c ell
g iv e sa n in d ic a tio n o f th e e q u iv a le n t d a y tim e v isib ility . T h is h a s th e ad v a n ta g e o f a c o n sta n t
m e a su re m e n t o f v isib ility , b u t t h e d isa d v a n ta g e , a s w ith th e G o ld M eter, is th a t o n ly a sm all
p o rtio n o f th e a tm o s p h e re is b e in g s am p led .

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F ig u re 1 6.13 R u n w a y V isu a l Range


16.12

IN S T R U M E N T E D R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (IR V R )
T h re e T r a n sm isso m e te r s a re p o sitio n e d a lo n g sid e th e runw ay.
A tra n s m is s o m e te r c o m p ris e s a lig h t s o u rc e tra n sm itte r a n d p h o to -e le c tric c e ll re c e iv e r w hich
a re s e p a ra te d fro m e a c h o th er.
T h e s tre n g th o f c u rre n t in th e r e c e iv e r is d e p e n d a n t o n th e c la rity o f th e a ir b e tw e e n th e
tra n s m itte r a n d th e re c eiv er.
IR V R is re p o rte d w h e n th e
n o rm a l

v is ib ility

m e tre s

or

le ss,

is

1500

or

w hen

sh a llo w fo g is re p o rte d o r
fo re c a st.
R e a d in g s a re s e n t to A T C .
T h re e re a d in g s c a n b e g iv en ,
o n e e a c h f o r to u c h -d o w n z o n e ,
m id -p o in t a n d sto p -e n d , e .g ;R 2 8 L / 6 0 0 4 0 0 550.

Figure 16.14. Instrumented Runway Visual Range


(IRVR).
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M ETEORO LOG Y

VISIBILITY

I f o n ly 2 re a d in g s a re g iv e n , th e firs t re la te s to to u ch d o w n , a n d th e se co n d is p re fix e d as
fo llo w s:
a)

6 0 0 s to p e n d 550.

b)

6 0 0 m id p o in t 4 0 0 .

M id -p o in t a n d /o r sto p -e n d v a lu e s are su p p re sse d w h en ;a)

th e y h av e e q u a l o r h ig h e r v a lu e s th a n T /D a n d a v alu e a b o v e 4 0 0 m etres, ( 3 0 0 /4 5 0 /6 0 0
w o u ld b e re p o rte d R 300).

b)

i f th e v a lu e s are 8 0 0 m e tre s o r g re a ter, (1 0 0 0 /8 5 0 /9 0 0 w o u ld b e rep o rte d R 1000)

NOTE:

R V R v a lu e s less th a n 5 0 m e tre s are rep o rte d :- R B L W 5 0 o r M 0 0 5 0


R V R v a lu e s g re a te r th a n 1500 m e tre s a re r e p o rte d :-

P 1500

A tre n d o v e r th e p re c e d in g te n m in u te s m a y b e a d d e d g iv in g a n in d ic a tio n o f
in c re a sin g ( U ) o r d e c re a sin g ( D ) re a d in g s:- R 2 8 L / 1100D
I f th e re a re e x tre m e v a lu e s d u rin g th e p erio d a V m ay b e a d d e d
16.13

V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , O B L IQ U E O R D O W N W A R D V IS IB IL IT Y
O b liq u e v isib ility is th e d ista n c e a lo n g t h e g r o u n d fro m a p o in t d ire c tly b e n ea th th e a irc ra ft an d
th e m o st d is ta n t o b je c t th e p ilo t c a n see.

Figure 16.15. O blique or Downward Visibility.

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16.14

VISIBILITY

V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , V IS IB IL IT Y W IT H IN A D E E P H A Z E L A Y E R
In a d e e p h a z e la y e r v is ib ility w ill c h a n g e w ith a c h a n g e o f h e ig h t a s follow s:
a)

C h a n g e o f h eig h t w ith in th e la y er. A n in cre ase o f h eig h t in sid e th e la y e r w ill red u ce


o b liq u e v isib ility .

b)

C h a n g e o f h e ig h t a b o v e th e la y er. A n in crease o f h e ig h t w h en th e a ircraft is a lread y


a b o v e th e la y e r w ill in c r e a s e th e v isibility.

Figure 16.17. An Increase o f Oblique Visibility with an


Increase o f Height Above the Haze Layer.
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V isib ility w ith a sh a llo w fo g la y er.

F ro m d ire c tly a b o v e a n a irfield , th e p ilo t is

lo o k in g th ro u g h th e s h a llo w d e p th o f fo g a n d th e v isib ility m ay a p p e a r q u ite g ood. W hen


th e p ilo t t o m s o n to h is fin a l a p p ro a c h , h e is lo o k in g th ro u g h th e le n g th o f th e fog and
th e v isib ility m a y b e q u ite p o o r.

SHALLOW FOG

Figure 16.18 The Effect o f a Shallow Fog Layer on Visibility


16.15

V IS U A L IL L U S IO N S
a)

S h a llo w fo g . O n d e s c e n t in to s h a llo w fo g a fte r g o o d v isib ility o f lig h ts o n th e ap p ro ac h ,


an illu s io n th a t th e a irc ra ft h a s p itc h e d n o se u p c a n o c cu r. T h e re su ltin g c o rre c tiv e actio n
c a n b e d a n g ero u s.

b)

R a in s h o w e r s. A h e a v y ra in sto rm m o v in g to w a rd s a n a irc ra ft c a n su g g e st th a t th e
h o riz o n is m o v in g lo w er. A s a re su lt, th e p ilo t lo w e rs th e no se o r re d u c e s pow er.

c)

L a y e r clo u d h o r iz o n s. In t h e a b se n c e o f a p ro p e r h o riz o n , a p ilo t m a y u se th e level


in d ic a te d b y la y e r c lo u d s. T h is c a n g iv e an im p ressio n th a t th e a irc ra ft is fly in g o n e w in g
low .

d)

R a in e ffe c ts. R ain o n t h e w in d sc re e n c a n hav e t h e f o llo w in g effects:


i)

D ista n c e p e rc e p tio n c a n b e a ffe c te d b y h e av y ra in d iffu sin g th e g lo w fro m th e

i i)

R a in o n th e w in d sc re e n c a n m ake lig h ts b loom . A s a re su lt th e ru n w ay ap p e a rs

a p p ro a c h lig h ts o r ru n w a y lig h ts. A s a re su lt th e ru n w a y a p p ea r s fu r th e r a w ay.

clo ser.

1 6 -1 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
iii)

VISIBILITY
R a in o n th e w in d sc re e n c a n ca u se th e p ilo t to th in k th a t h e is in c o rre c t in h e ig h t
a n d a z im u th w ith r e s p e c t to th e c o rre c t a p p ro a ch p ath . A s a re su lt, th e a irc ra ft
c o u ld b e m isp la c e d b y u p to 2 0 0 ft a t 1 n m from to u c h d o w n .

16.16

S U M M A R Y O F V IS IB IL IT Y E F F E C T S
a)

B y d a y v is ib ility is g e n e ra lly p o o r lo o k in g u p sun.

b)

B y n ig h t v is ib ility is u s u a lly b e tte r lo o k in g u p m oon , b e c a u se o f lig h t re fle c tio n s from


w a te r su rfa c e s, ra ilw a y lin e s etc.

c)

In p re c ip ita tio n v is ib ility is u su a lly w o rst in d r iv in g sn o w an d v ery p o o r in d rizzle

d)

N ig h t v is ib ility is im p ro v e d i f th e p ilo t d o e s n o t lo o k a t b rig h t c o c k p it lights.

(b e c a u se o f th e la rg e n u m b e r o f sm all d ro p le ts).

16 -15

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

VISIBILITY

M ETEOROLOGY
V isib ility Q u estio n s
W h ich o f th e i
T em p era tu re

W in d :
7 kt
15 k t

8 /8 St

12C

11C

b)

N IL

1 5C

14C

c)

3 kt

1/8 Ci

d)

2 kt

N IL

a)

8 C

7 C

- 2 C

-3C

m o ist a ir p a sse s o v e r a su rfa c e w h ich i s _

W hen

_ th a n th e d e w p o in t o f th e air,

_ f o g c a n form . T h is o c c u rs o v e r _
E x a m in e th e sta te m e n t a b o v e ; th e lin e w h ic h c o n ta in s th e c o rre c t w o rd s in th e c o rre c t o rd e r to
co m p le te th e sta te m e n t is:
a)

cool

w a rm e r

b)

w arm

c o o le r

c)

cool

w a rm e r

d)

w a rm

c o o le r

ra d ia tio n
ra d iatio n
frontal
ad v e ctio n

th e sea
th e la n d o n ly
land
la n d a n d sea

R a d ia tio n fo g is m o st lik e ly a t a n in la n d a irfie ld in th e U K w ith a relativ e h u m id ity o f 8 0 % in


t h e _________ w i t h _____________ a n d a w in d o f _________
a)

A u tu m n

c le a r sk ies

2-8 k n o ts

b)

S p rin g

6 /8 S T & SC

2 -1 0 k n ots

c)

W in te r

c le a r sk ies

15/20 k nots

d)

Sum m er

c le a r sk ies

n o w ind
_ a ir m oves o v e r a _

A d v e c tio n fo g is fo rm e d w h e n

_ s u rfa c e a n d is

____________ its d e w p o in t:
h u m id

co ld

k e p t a bove

b)

W a rm m o ist

co o le r

co o le d b e lo w

c)

d ry

fro zen

w e ll b elo w

d)

w a rm m o ist

w a rm e r

k e p t a bove

a)

5.

O n a n ig h t w h e n r a d ia tio n fo g is fo rm in g o v e r m o st o f so u th e rn E n g la n d , th e a e ro d ro m e s likely
to b e first to e x p e rie n c e th e fo g w ill b e th o se situ ated :
a)

N e a r th e c o a s t w ith a lig h t o n s h o re w in d a n d c le a r skies.

b)

A t th e b o tto m o f th e h ill w ith a lig h t k a ta b atic w in d b lo w in g .

c)

N e a r th e c o a s t w ith a la n d b re e z e a n d c lo u d y skies.

d)

A t th e t o p o f a h ill w ith c le a r s k ie s a n d n o w ind.

16-17

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METEOROLOGY
6.

VISIBILITY

R a d ia tio n fo g is m o st lik ely :


a)

W ith a w in d s p e e d u p to 15 k t, a c le a r sk y a n d a h ig h re la tiv e h um idity.

b)

W ith a w in d o f 2 -8 kt, a h ig h d e n s ity a n d th e su m m e r season.

c)

In a n a n tic y c lo n e in w in te r.

d)

O n a h ill in au tu m n .

7.I f a s ta tio n eq u ip p e d w ith IR V R e q u ip m e n t r e p o rts R V R 1000, th is m eans:


a)
b)

R V R a t to u c h d o w n is 1 0 0 0 m etres.
R V R a t to u c h d o w n is 1000 m e tre s a n d a t 'm id p o in t' a n d 'sto p e n d ' th e R V R is 800
m e tre s o r m ore.

c)

R V R a t to u c h d o w n is 1000 m e tre s a n d 'm id p o in t' a n d 'sto p e n d ' e q u ip m e n t is


u n se rv ic e a b le .

d)

R V R a ll a lo n g th e ru n w a y is 1000 m e tre s o r m ore.

C h a n g e s o f R V R a re re p o rte d fo r in c re m e n ts of:
a)

25 m u p t o 2 5 0 m

b)

25 m up to 2 00 m

c)

5 0 m b e tw e e n 3 0 0 m a n d 8 0 0 m

d)

50 m b e tw e e n 5 0 0 m a n d 8 0 0 m

F ro n ta l fo g is m o s t lik e ly to:
a)

fo rm a h e a d o f a v ig o ro u s f a s t m o v in g c o ld fro n t

b)

fo rm a h e a d o f a w a rm fro n t

c)

fo rm o n a v ig o ro u s c o ld fro n t an d la st fo r m an y h o u rs

d)

fo rm to th e r e a r o f a w a rm fro n t b u t o n ly la st f o r 1 to 2 h o u rs

F o g m a y b e d e fin e d as:
a)

a re d u c tio n o f v isib ility to le s s th a n 1000 m e tre s d u e to th e p re se n c e o f w a te r v a p o u r in

bi

a re d u c tio n o f v isib ility to less th a n 1000 m e tre s d u e t o th e p re se n ce o f w a te r d ro p lets

cl

a re d u c tio n o f v is ib ility to le s s th a n 1500 m etres d u e to th e p re se n c e o f w a te r d ro p le ts

dl

a re d u c tio n o f v is ib ility to le s s th a n 1000 ft d u e to th e p re se n c e o f w a te r v a p o u r in

th e a tm o sp h e re
in su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re
in su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re
su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re

1 6 -1 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

VISIBILITY

METEO RO LO GY
11.

S e v e ra l ty p e s o f p re ssu re d istrib u tio n m a y b e a sso c ia te d w ith rad iatio n fo g b u t all h a v e one


fe a tu re in c o m m o n w h ic h is:
a)

c lo s e ly s p a c e d iso b ars

b)

a tig h t p re ssu re g ra d ie n t

c)

a sla c k p re s s u re g ra d ie n t

d)

a ra p id ly fa llin g p re ssu re

12............................................ fo rm s w h e n m o is t a i r ...................... o v e r a su rfa c e w h ic h i s ....................... th a n th e


d e w p o in t o f th e a ir. Fill in th e m is sin g 3 w o rd s fro m th e list g iv e n below :
a)

13.

ad v e c tio n fo g , se ttle s, c o o le r
ad v e c tio n fo g , p a sse s, c o o le r

d)

ra d ia tio n fo g , se ttle s, w a rm e r

A d v e c tio n fog:
a)

Is m o st lik e ly w ith P o la r M a ritim e air.

c)

W ill o n ly c le a r b y in so latio n .
C a n s o m e tim e s la s t f o r 2 4 h o u rs o r m o re in w inter.

In c irc u m sta n c e s w h e re th e re is a c le a r sk y , c alm w in d a n d a high re la tiv e h u m id ity in A utum n:


a)

15.

O n ly o c c u rs at n ig h t a n d ea rly m orning.

b)
d)
14.

ra d ia tio n fo g , p a sse s, w a rm e r

b)
c)

R a d ia tio n fo g is lik e ly o v e r n ight.

b)

A d v e c tio n fo g w ill form .

c)

R a d ia tio n fo g is lik e ly a t s u n ris e a fte r p re v io u s m ist.

d)

H ill fo g can b e ex p ected .

A t a sta tio n e q u ip p e d w ith ERVR, re p o rts are given:


a)

E v ery Vi hour.

b)

W h e n th e n o rm a l v isib ility is 1500 m o r less.

c)

W h e n th e re is m ist.

d)

W h e n th e re is h aze.

16-19

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

VISIBILITY

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

Q ues

A n sw e

10

rs

11

12

c:

13

14

15

15

16- 20

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - ICING

C o n te n ts

Page
17.1

A N IN T R O D U C T IO N T O IC IN G A N D IT S B A S IC C A U S E S ..................................... 1 7 - 1

17.2

S U P E R C O O L E D W A T E R D R O P L E T S (S W D ).................................................................. 1 7 - 1

17.3

T H E E F F E C T S O F IC IN G ............................................................................................................. 1 7 - 1

17.4

C L E A R ( O R G L A Z E ) IC E ..........................................................................................................1 7 - 2

17.5

R IM E IC E ..........................................................................................................................................1 7 - 3

17.6

R A IN IC E .......................................................................................................................................... 1 7 - 4

17.7

P A C K S N O W ..................................................................................................................................1 7 - 4

17.8

H O A R F R O S T .................................................................................................................................1 7 - 4

17.9

F A C T O R S A F F E C T IN G T H E S E V E R IT Y O F IC IN G .................................................1 7 - 5

17.10

IC IN G F O R E C A S T S .................................................................................................................. 1 7 - 8

17.11

F R E E Z IN G L E V E L ...................................................................................................................... 1 7 - 9

17.12

R E P O R T IN G O F IC IN G ............................................................................................................. 1 7 - 9

17.13

P IS T O N E N G IN E IN D U C T IO N IC IN G ............................................................................1 7 - 1 0

17.14

JE T E N G IN E IC IN G .................................................................................................................. 1 7 - 1 2

17.15

O T H E R F A C T O R S A F F E C T IN G JE T E N G IN E O P E R A T IO N IN IC IN G
C O N D IT IO N S ................................................................................................................................ 1 7 - 1 3
IC IN G Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................................................1 7 - 1 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ICING

METEOROLOGY
17.1

A N IN T R O D U C T IO N T O IC IN G A N D IT S B A S IC C A U S E S
A irfra m e ic in g c a n c a u se a se rio u s lo ss o f a irc ra ft p e rfo rm an ce a n d th is w ill freq u e n tly re s u lt in
a la rg e in c re a se in fu el c o n su m p tio n a n d so m e d iffic u lty w ith a irc ra ft c o ntrol.
Ic in g is d iffic u lt to fo re c a s t a n d th e re fo re th e re is a n e e d fo r a fu ll u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e pro c esses
inv o lv ed .
Ice w ill fo rm o n a n airfra m e i f th e re is:

17.2

a)

W a te r in a liq u id state.

b)

A m b ie n t a ir te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 C (b u t s e e later).

c)

A irfra m e te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0C .

S U P E R C O O L E D W A T E R D R O P L E T S (S W D )
A su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t is a d ro p le t o f w a te r still in th e liq u id sta te a lth o u g h its tem p e ra tu re
is b e lo w 0 C .
I f th e S W D co n ta in s a fr e e z in g n u c le u s th e n th e d ro p le t w ill s ta rt to free ze . M e n tio n w a s m ade
in C h a p te r 8 o f c o n d e n sa tio n n u c le i, b u t a s th e n u m b e r o f fre ez in g n u c le i in th e a tm o sp h ere is
c o n sid e ra b ly le s s th a n th e s e , th e s ta te o f s u p e rc o o lin g is a fre q u e n t o ccu rre n ce .
S u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts c a n e x is t in c lo u d s a t te m p e ra tu re s a s low a s -4 0 C . H o w e v er, w h en
a n a irc ra ft s trik e s a s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t, it w ill sta rt to freeze.
S u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t s iz e is d e p e n d a n t o n th e siz e o f th e b a s ic c lo u d d ro p let, (c o n tro lle d
b y c lo u d ty p e ) a n d th e te m p e ra tu re .
S iz e s w ill be:
a)

0 C to -2 0 C ; b o th la rg e a n d s m all su p e rco o led w a te r d ro p le ts c a n e x i s t .

b)

-2 0 C to -4 0 C ; sm a ll s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts c a n e x ist. A t th e s e tem p e ra tu re s large


su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts w ill h a v e b e c o m e ice.

c)

B e lo w -4 0 C ; o n ly v e ry sm all su p e rco o led w a te r d r o p le ts c a n ex ist. A ll o th e rs w ill ha v e


b e c o m e ice. F re e z in g w ill o c c u r w ith o u t th e a id o f n uclei.

17.3

T H E E F F E C T S O F IC IN G
a)

A E R O D Y N A M IC .

Ic e te n d s to fo rm o n le a d in g e d g e s, th e re b y sp o ilin g th e

a e ro d y n a m ic sh ap e. T h e re s u lt is r ed u ced lift, in cr ea se d d ra g , in c re a sed w e ig h t,


in c r e a se d s ta llin g s p e e d a n d in c r e a sed fu e l co n su m p tio n .

17-1

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ICING

M ETEOROLOGY

Ice, fro st o r sn o w o f a th ic k n e ss a n d ro u g h n e ss s im ila r to c o a rse s a n d p a p e r c an re d u c e


lift by 3 0 % a n d in c re a se d ra g b y 40% .
It is a ls o p o s s ib le fo r p ie c e s o f ic e to b rea k o f f o th e r su rfa ce s a n d to j a m b e tw e en the
c o n tro l su rfa c e s a n d w in g s a n d tail.
b)

W e ig h t. In s e v e re c o n d itio n s, ic e c a n form a t a ra te o f 1" in 2 m inutes.


T h e re w ill b e a lo ss o f sta b ility d u e to th e w e ig h t o f ic e n o t b e in g u n ifo rm a c ro ss the
airfram e.
T h is c a n le a d to a d isp la c e d C o f G . S im ilar u n e v e n w e ig h t o f ic e o n p ro p e lle r b lad es
can c a u se se v e re en g in e v ib ra tio n .
Ice b re a k in g o f f p ro p e lle rs c a n c a u se sk in dam age.

c)

I n s t r u m e n t e ffe c ts . Ice c a n b lo c k p re ssu re h e a d s a n d th e re ad in g s o f A S Is, V S I,

d)

G e n e r a l. W in d sc re e n s a n d c a n o p ies c a n b e o bsc u red .

altim e te rs a n d m ac h m e te rs c a n b e in e rro r a s a result.

A th in film o f ice/fro st c a n c a u s e sk in friction.


Ice in la n d in g g e a r w e lls can a ffe c t re tractio n .
Ice o n a e ria ls c a n c a u s e s ta tic in terference.
17.4

C L E A R (O R G L A Z E ) IC E
I f a la rg e s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t strik e s a n a ircra ft, it w ill sta rt to fre e z e a n d th is w ill re le ase
l a t e n t h e a t . T h is w ill d e la y th e fre e z in g p ro c e ss w h ilst p a rt o f th e s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p let
w ill flo w b a c k o v e r th e im p a c t su rfa c e fo rm in g c le a r Ice.
T h e a m o u n t o f a su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t th a t fre e z e s o n im p ac t is 1/80"' o f th e d ro p le t fo r each
d e g re e b e lo w freezin g .
C le a r o r g la z e ice is a tra n sp a re n t fo rm o f ic e fo rm ed b y l a r g e su p e rco o le d w a te r d ro p le ts, it can
b e d a n g e ro u s. T h e re c a n b e m u c h flo w b a c k a n d th e ice a p p e a rs tra n sp a re n t b ec au se th e re is no
a ir tra p p e d u n d e r th e flo w b a c k icing.
T h e ic e w ill d e s tro y a e ro fo il sh a p e s a n d its w e ig h t c a n c a u se p ro b le m s o f c o n tro l b e c a u se the
b u ild -u p c a n b e u n e v e n , it is illu stra te d in F ig u re 17.1.

1 7 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ICING

METEOROLOGY
P ro p e lle r

ic in g

can

v ib ra tio n s a n d a s th e

cause
ice

se v e re
ad h e re s

stro n g ly , w h e n i t b re a k s o ff, th e p ie c e s
c a n b e larg e a n d c a u s e sk in dam age.
C le a r ic e fo rm s in N s, C u a n d C b at
te m p e ra tu re s fro m 0 to -2 0 C.
It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t c le a r ic e o fte n
fo rm s w ith rim e ic e , th e la tte r b e in g
fo rm e d fro m th e sm a lle r su p e rc o o le d
w a te r d ro p le ts in th e c lo u d .
17.5

R IM E IC E
W h e n th e su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts
are s m all ( a t v e ry lo w te m p e ra tu re s) o r
w h e n c lo u d d ro p le ts a re s m a ll, the
w h o le d ro p le t fre e z e s o n im p a c t, e a c h
d ro p le t s tic k in g to th e su rfa c e it strik es
an d b e c o m in g solid a lm o st al on ce.

Figure 17.1 The Formation of Clear (Glaze)


Ice

A ir b e c o m e s tra p p e d b e tw e e n e a c h
f ro z e n d ro p le t, w h ic h m ak es th e ice
o p a q u e . R im e ic e , s e e F ig . 17.2. is a
w h ite o p a q u e d e p o s it w ith a light
te x tu re . It is c a u se d b y s m a ll, su p e r
c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts fre e z in g q u ick ly .

SMALL
SUPER
COOLED
WATER
DROPLETS

T h e re is little o r n o flo w b a c k . T h e ice


g ro w s o u t fro m th e le a d in g e d g e s and
is c o m p a c te d b y th e a irstream .
S o m e lo s s o f a e ro fo il sh a p e c a n o c c u r
a n d a i r in ta k e s c a n b e a ffected .
R im e ice c a n o c c u r in a n y c lo u d w h e re
th e re a re sm all s u p e r c o o le d w a te r
d ro p le ts; N s, A s , A c, S C , S t a n d th e
p a rts o f h e a p c lo u d s w h e re su p e r
c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re sm all.

Figure 17.2 The Formation o f Rime Ice

1 7 -3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
17.6

R A IN IC E
R a in ic e is th e m o s t d a n g e ro u s fo rm o f ic in g a n d it o c c u rs in r a i n w h ic h b e c o m e s s u p e rc o o le d
b y fa llin g f ro m a n i n v e r s io n in to a ir b e lo w 0 C .

T h e ra in d o e s n o t fre e z e im m ed iately in th e

a i r , b u t c a n im p a c t th e a e ro fo il to f o rm c l e a r i c e w ith m u ch flow back.


R a in ic e b u ild s u p v e ry
q u ic k ly a n d a p ilo t's
a c tio n sh o u ld b e to
tu r n o n to a re c ip ro c a l
h e a d in g im m ed iately .
R a in ice o c c u rs in a
n a rro w

ra n g e

of

a ltitu d e s a t lo w level,
a b o u t 1000 ft, a h e a d o f
a

w arm

fro n t

or

and

is

o c c lu s io n

a s so c ia te d p a rtic u la rly
w ith

th e

m o d e ra te

c o n tin u o u s ra in w h ic h
o fte n

f a lls

fro m

N im b o S t r a t u s c lo u d ,
th is is illu stra te d in
F ig u re 17.3.
R a in ic e is ra re o v e r th e U K , b u t is c o m m o n in w in te r o v e r N o rth A m e ric a a n d C en tral E urope.
17 .7

PA C K SN O W
P a c k s n o w is ic in g w h ic h is d u e t o a m ix tu re o f s u p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a n d sn o w .
It c a n b lo c k a ir in ta k e s a n d o th e r a irc ra ft o p e n in g s. N o rm a lly th e e ffe c ts a re slig h t.

17.8

H O A R FRO ST
H o a r fr o s t is a w h ite c r y s t a l d e p o s it w h ic h a p p e a rs sim ilar to f ro st o n th e g ro u n d . I t o c c u rs in
c l e a r a i r . H o a r fro s t w ill fo rm i f th e airfram e te m p e ra tu re is b e lo w 0 C a n d th e am b ie n t
te m p e ra tu re is lo w e re d to s a tu ra tio n level.

W a te r v a p o u r in c o n ta c t w ith th e a irfra m e is

co n v e rte d to ic e c ry sta ls w ith o u t b e c o m in g liq u id , ie s u b lim a tin g . T h is p ro c e ss re q u ire s th e


p re s e n c e o f a n o th e r ty p e o f ic e n u c le u s , th e s u b lim a tio n n u c le u s (see p a ra 17.2).

T h e ir

co m p o sitio n is u s u a lly in o rg a n ic , e g v o lc a n ic d u st, c la y o r s o il p artic le s.

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ICING

T h e re a re tw o situ a tio n s w h e re h o a r f ro s t c a n o ccu r:


a)

o n t h e g r o u n d . T h is u su a lly o c c u rs a t n ig h t a n d is s im ila r to th e fro st w h ic h fo rm s o n


a c a r. I t m u st b e c le a re d b e fo re ta k e -o ff b ecause:
i)

b)

S k in fric tio n w ill in c re a se th e ta k e -o ff run.

ii)

W in d sc re e n s w ill b e o b sc u re d .

iii)

R a d io in te rfe re n c e w ill b e c a u se d b y ic e o n ae rials,

in f lig h t. H o a r f ro st c a n o c c u r in flig h t in th e fo llo w in g c ases:


i)

I f a r a p i d d e s c e n t is m a d e fro m a v e ry c o ld reg io n to a w a r m m o is t layer.

ii)

I f a c lim b is m a d e fro m a te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 c th ro u g h a n in v e r s io n .

T h e ic in g is n o t se v e re . T h e e ffe c ts c a n b e o v erc o m e b y f ly in g in a re g io n w h e re th e te m p e ratu re


is a b o v e 0 C o r b y fly in g fa s te r to in c re a se th e k in e tic heating.
17 .9

F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G T H E S E V E R I T Y O F I C IN G
a)

s iz e o f th e s u p e r c o o le d w a t e r d r o p le ts .

T h is is d e p e n d a n t o n c lo u d ty p e a n d

te m p e ra tu re a s fo llo w s:

M O D E R A T E /H E A V Y

s u p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts c a n o n ly b e larg e in C u , C b , N s a n d then

C L E A R IC E

o n ly w h e n te m p s a re in th e g e n era l ra n g e 0 C to -20C .

L IG H T /M O D E R A T E

F o r la y e r c lo u d s s m a ll su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re p re se n t from

R IM E IC E

0 C t o -1 0 C

L IG H T R IM E IC E

F o r la y e r c lo u d s su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re s m a lle r b e lo w -10C .

R IM E IC E

S u p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re a lso sm all in C u , C b an d N s from


-2 0 C to -40C .

A t -4 0 C a n d b e lo w , su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re v ery s m all a n d ic in g is u su ally ne g lig ib le .


b)

C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u p e r c o o le d W 'ater d r o p le ts . T h e c o n c e n tra tio n o f w a te r d ro p le ts


is h ig h e r in h e a p c lo u d s b e c a u se th e u p c u rre n ts are stro n g er. H en c e C u a n d C b clo u d s
h a v e a h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n o f su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a n d th is c a u se s th e ic in g to be
se v e re .

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T h e re is a lw a y s a g r e a t e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f d ro p le ts n e a r th e b a se o f th e c lo u d w h e re it is
w a rm e st. Ic in g s e v e rity (b y c lo u d ty p e s ) te n d s to be:
i)

C u , C b - S evere,

i i)

N s- M o d e ra te to se v e re .

iii)

S c- L ig h t to m o d e ra te .

iv )

O th e rs - L ig h t, (e x c e p t C i, C s, C c)

Figure 17.4. The Concentration o f Super Cooled


W ater Droplets.
S h a p e o f th e a irc ra ft.
F ig u re 17.5. illu stra te s
th e a ir flo w a ro u n d th in
a n d th ic k w in g s h ap es.
T h in sh a p e s c o lle c t ice
m o re ra p id ly th a n h ig h
d r a g o n e s. T h in w in g s
an d p re s s u re h e a d s are
th e re fo re lia b le to ra p id
icin g . H ig h sp e e d s a lso
re s u lt in a g re a te r ice
h a z a rd

because

th e

a irfra m e s trik e s a g re a te r
n u m b e r o f s u p e r c o o le d
w a te r d r o p le ts in u n it
tim e.

K in e tic h e a tin g

Figure 17.5. Thin Wing Forms Collect Ice More


Rapidly than High Drag Forms.

m ay c a n c e l th is effect.

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d)

ICING

P r o x im ity o f h ills. T h e o ro g ra p h ic e ffe c t o f a ra n g e o f h ills is lik e ly to incre ase u p lift


in c lo u d s o th a t th e c o n c e n tra tio n a n d siz e o f su p e r co o le d w a te r d ro p le ts w ill b e
in c re a se d e s p e c ia lly a t th e b a se , a s w ill ic in g sev e rity . T h is is sh o w n in F ig u re 17.6.

Figure 17.6. The O rographic Effect on Clouds Close to Hills

Figure 17.7. The Freezing Level in Cloud Close to Hills

T h e fre e z in g le v e l in c lo u d c lo s e to h ills c a n b e lo w e r th a n th e a re a free zin g lev el, as


s h o w n in F ig u re 17.7., p a rtic u la rly w h e n stab le a ir is lifted . (S ee also , C h a p te r 14,
C lo u d F o rm atio n ).

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e)

ICING

C lo u d b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e h ig h e r th e tem p e ra tu re , th e g re a te r th e w a te r v ap o u r
co n tent.
C o n d e n sa tio n firs t o c c u rs a t th e b a se , a n d th e re is th e re fo re a g re a te r a m o u n t o f free
w a te r to b e c o m e ic e o n a n a irfra m e. T h e fre e w a te r c o n te n t a t a n y level in th e clo u d
in c re a se s w ith b a s e te m p e ra tu re .
C o n c e n tra tio n o f d ro p s w ill in c re a se a n d so w ill ic in g s e v erity . A n illu stra tio n o f th is
is sh o w n in F ig u re 17.8.

Figure 17.8. The Different W ater Vapour Content at Different


Temperatures.

f)

K in e tic h e a tin g . A lth o u g h a r is e o f tem p e ra tu re d u e to k in e tic h e a tin g to a b o v e 0 C


m a y p re v e n t ic e a c re tio n , a r is e to b e lo w 0 C m a y in c rea se th e risk a n d th e se v e rity .

17.10

IC IN G F O R E C A S T S
F o re c a stin g a irfra m e ic in g is a m a tte r o f fo re c a stin g c lo u d s, b o th b y ty p e a n d ve rtica l extent.
T h e d e g re e o f a irfra m e ic in g is c la ss e d a s lig h t

y , m o d e r a te ' jjv

, o r s e v e re V||p .

W h e n ra in ice is e x p e c te d , it w ill b e m e n tio n e d s p e c ific a lly in th e fo re ca st. F o rec asts o f en g in e


ic in g a re n o t n o rm a lly p ro v id e d .

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-3C -2C

-1C

0C +1C +2C +3C

Figure 17.9.
17.11

F R E E Z IN G L E V E L
T h e h e ig h t w h e re a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re is z e ro is calle d th e fre ezin g level.
It is u s u a lly g iv e n in fo re c a sts o n a n a re a b a sis b y re fe re n c e to th e h e ig h t o f th e Z e r o D e g re e
Is o th e r m .
W ith a n in v e rsio n , tw o fre e z in g le v e ls a re p o ssib le .
F re e z in g le v e ls in th e s o u th o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m a v e rag e 11,000 f t in A u g u st a n d 3 ,0 0 0 f t in
F eb ru ary .

17.12

R E P O R T IN G O F IC IN G
T h e fo llo w in g e x tra c t fro m th e U K A ir P ilo t is a u se fu l d escrip tio n o f th e d e g re e o f icing
e n c o u n te re d in flight.
A ir f r a m e Ic in g
A ll p ilo ts e n c o u n te rin g u n fo re c a s t ic in g a re re q u e ste d to re p o rt tim e , lo c a tio n , lev el,
in te n sity , ic in g ty p e - an d a irc ra ft ty p e to th e A T S u n it w ith w h o m th e y a re in ra d io
c o n ta c t. It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e fo llo w in g ic in g in te n sity c rite ria are rep o rtin g
d e fin itio n s; th e y a re n o t n e c e ssa rily th e sam e a s fo re c a stin g d e fin itio n s b e c a u se rep o rtin g
d efin itio n s are r e la te d to a irc ra ft ty p e a n d to th e ice p ro te ctio n e q u ip m e n t in sta lle d , an d
d o n o t in v o lv e c lo u d c h a ra c te ristic s. F o r sim ila r re a so n s, a irc ra ft icin g c ertificatio n
c rite ria m ig h t d iffe r fro m r e p o rtin g a n d /o r f o re c a stin g c riteria.

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In te n sity

Ic e A cc u m u latio n

T ra c e

Ic e b e c o m e s p e r c e p tib le . R a te o f a c c u m u la tio n slig h tly g r e a te r


th a n r a t e o f s u b lim a tio n .
It is n o t h a z a rd o u s ev e n th o u g h d e-ic in g /a n ti-ic in g e q u ip m e n t is n ot
u tilise d , u n le ss e n c o u n te r e d f o r m o r e th a n o n e h o u r .

L ig h t

T h e ra te o f a c c u m u la tio n m ight c rea te a p ro b le m i f flig h t in th is


en v iro n m e n t e x c e e d s o n e h o u r . O c c a s io n a l u s e o f
d e - ic in g /a n ti- ic in g e q u ip m e n t re m o v e s/p rev en ts a ccu m u la tio n .
It d o e s n o t p re s e n t a p ro b le m i f d e-ic in g /a n ti-ic in g e q u ip m e n t is u sed.
(IC A O : L e ss th a n m o d era te ic ing)

M o d e ra te

T h e ra te o f a c c u m u la tio n is su ch th a t e v e n sh o rt e n c o u n te rs be co m e
p o te n tia lly h a z a rd o u s a n d u se o f d e - ic in g /a n ti-ic in g e q u ip m e n t, o r
d iv e rsio n , is n e c e s s a r y . (IC A O : c o n d itio n s in w h ic h c h an g e o f
h e a d in g a n d /o r a ltitu d e m a y b e c o n sid e re d d esirab le)
T h e ra te o f a c c u m u la tio n is su ch th a t d e -ic in g /a n ti-ic in g eq u ip m e n t

S e v e re

fa ils t o re d u c e o r c o n tro l th e haz ard . Im m e d ia te d iv e rs io n is


n e c e s s a r y . (IC A O : c o n d itio n s in w h ic h im m ed iate c h an g e o f h e a d in g
a n d /o r a ltitu d e is c o n sid e red esse n tial)
* R im e Ic e : R o u g h , m ilk y , o p a q u e ic e fo rm ed b y th e in sta n ta n e o u s free zin g o f sm a ll su p erc o o led
w a te r d ro p lets.
* C le a r Ic e : A g lo ssy , c le a r, o r tra n s lu c e n t ic e fo rm ed b y th e re la tiv e ly slo w fre ez in g o f large
su p e rc o o le d w a t e r .
17.13

P I S T O N E N G I N E IN D U C T I O N I C I N G
a)

I m p a c t ic in g . Ice in in ta k e a re a s c a u se d b y sn o w , s n o w a n d r a i n m ix e d o r s u p e r
c o o le d w a t e r d ro p le ts .
F o r tu rb o -c h a rg e d (fu e l in je c tio n ) e n g in e s, t h is is th e o n ly ic in g hazard.

b)

F u e l ic in g . T h is is c a u se d b y w a te r in th e fuel f ree zin g in b e n d s in th e in d u ctio n p ip in g .

c)

C a r b u r e t t o r ic in g . T h is is c a u s e d b y:
i)

T h e s u d d e n te m p e ra tu re d ro p a s l a te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d w h en fuel ev a p o ra te s.

ii)

T h e te m p e ra tu re d ro p d u e to th e a d ia b a tic e x p a n s io n o f th e a ir a s it p asse s
th ro u g h th e ven tu ri.

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NOTE:
1.
2.

F u el a n d c a rb u re tto r ic in g a re m o re co m m o n w ith M O G A S .
C a rb u re tto r ic in g c a n b e a g re a te r p ro b le m w ith lo w e r p o w e r se ttin g s - w ith a p a rtia lly
c lo s e d b u tte rfly v a lv e, th e re w ill b e a la rg er tem p e ra tu re d ro p in th e v e nturi.

3.

C a rb u re tto r ic in g c a n o c c u r in c l e a r a i r w ith R H d o w n to 3 0 % a n d a m b ie n t tem p era tu re


u p to + 3 0 C u s in g d e s c e n t p o w e r; a R H o f 6 0 % a n d te m p e ratu re o f + 2 0 C a t c ru ise
p o w e r.

4.

C a rb u re tto r ic in g is m o re o f a h a z a rd o n w a r m , h u m id s u m m e r d a y s b e ca u se o f th e
h ig h w a te r v a p o u r c o n te n t w ith in th e a ir f lo w in g th ro u g h th e carb u retto r.

5.

H ig h hu m id ity sh o u ld b e assu m e d if;


a)

th e g ro u n d is w e t o r th e re is d ew w ith lig h t w inds.

b)

s u rfa c e v is ib ility is p o o r e a rly in th e m o rn in g o r in th e e v e n in g o r i f y o u are


c lo s e to w ater.

c)

y o u a re fly in g j u s t b e lo w c lo u d o r b e tw ee n layers.

d)

y o u a re in p re c ip ita tio n , c lo u d o r fog.

e)

y o u a re in c le a r a ir w h e n c lo u d o r fo g h a v e ju s t d isp e rsed .

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C a r b u r e t t o r ic in g is m o s t d a n g e r o u s w ith in a t e m p e r a t u r e ra n g e o f -1 0 C to + 2 5 C , in
c lo u d , fo g o r p r e c ip ita tio n a t a n y p o w e r s e ttin g .

| SERIOUS ICING - ANY POWER

TEMPERATURE C

Figure 1 7 .1 1 . The W ide Range o f Ambient Conditions Conducive to the Formation of


Carburettor Icing.

1 7.14

J E T E N G I N E IC I N G
Ic e m ay fo rm o n in ta k e lip s o r in le t g u id e v a n e s, i f th is b re a k s a w a y a n d e n te rs th e en g in e, b lade
d a m a g e m a y o ccu r.
S o m e ic in g m ay o c c u r in th e e a rly in le t sta g e s, p a rtic u la rly a t h ig h e n g in e sp e e d s a n d low a ircra ft
f o rw a rd sp e e d s (e g d u rin g th e a p p ro a c h ), w h e re m u c h ad ia b a tic c o o lin g m ay o c c u r and
te m p e ra tu re re d u c tio n s o f 5 C a n d m o re c a n result.
T h is ic in g is p a rtic u la rly p re v a le n t in f re e z in g c o n d itio n s w h ic h a re a sso c ia te d w ith a n y fo rm o f
p re c ip ita tio n ; a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f th is, e n g in e a n ti-ic in g m u s t b e s e le c te d O N w h e n th e r e
is p r e c ip ita tio n a n d th e in d ic a te d o u ts id e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e is + 1 0 C a n d b e lo w .

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O T H E R F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G J E T E N G IN E O P E R A T I O N IN I C I N G C O N D I T IO N S
a)

E n g in e p o w e r in d ic a tio n s m ay b e in e rr o r i f th e re is ic e o n e n g in e in le t ( P I ) p re ssu re
p ro b e s.

b)

E n g in e ig n ite rs sh o u ld b e u se d in p o te n tia l ic in g c o n d itio n s, o th e rw ise e n g in e fa ilu re is


p o ssib le.

c)

L o n g f lig h ts a t v ery lo w te m p e ra tu re s m a y c a u s e fu el fre ez in g a n d fuel fre e z in g p o in t

d)

C le a r ic e c a n o c c u r a t a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e z e ro w h e n w a te r d ro p le ts c o m e into

sp e c ific a tio n f o r th e a irc ra ft ty p e sh o u ld b e know n.

c o n ta c t w ith a n a irc ra ft w h o se u p p e r s u rfa ce s are a t o r b e lo w zero.


T h is lo w sk in te m p e ra tu re c a n b e c a u se d b y a v e ry lo w fuel te m p e ra tu re c o n d u c tin g
th ro u g h th e skin.
T h is ic in g c a n a ls o o c c u r o n th e g ro u n d in high h u m id ity , ra in , d riz z le o r fog. It c o u ld
th e n b e s n o w c o v e re d a n d d iffic u lt to detect.
B re a k u p o f th is ic e o n ta k e -o ff c a n b e p a rtic u la rly h a z a rd o u s to re a r e n g in ed airc raft.
e)

O p e ra tio n o f a n ti-ic in g o r d e ic in g e q u ip m e n t u su a lly im p lie s a p e rfo rm a n c e p enalty.

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Ic in g Q u e s tio n s
1.

A t te m p e ra tu re s o f b e tw e e n 0 C an d -1 0 C c lo u d s w ill c o n sist of:


a)

2.

e n tire ly ic e c ry sta ls
m o stly w a te r v a p o u r

d)

m o stly su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts an d a few ic e cry stals

T u rb u le n t c lo u d s are m o st se rio u s fro m th e ic in g s ta n d p o in t b ec au se :


a)

3.

e n tire ly w a te r d ro p le ts

b)
c)

stro n g v e rtic a l c u rre n ts m e a n th a t a p re d o m in a n c e o f larg e su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts


w ill b e p re se n t

b)

stro n g v e rtic a l c u rre n ts m e a n th a t a p re d o m in a n c e o f sm all su p e rco o le d w a te r dro p lets


w ill b e p re s e n t

c)

tu r b u le n t c lo u d s p ro d u c e h a il w h ic h stic k s to th e a irc ra ft

d)

tu r b u le n t c lo u d s in d ic a te a lo w fre ez in g level

H o a r fro s t fo rm s o n a n a irc ra ft w h en :
a)

th e a irc ra ft s u d d e n ly e n te rs a c lo u d a t b e lo w free zin g te m p e ratu re

b)

th e a irc ra ft in s u b z e ro c le a r a ir su d d e n ly e n te rs a c o ld e r region

c)

th e a irc ra ft in s u b z e ro c le a r a ir su d d e n ly e n te rs a w a rm e r m o ist re gion

d)

th e a ir c r a f t su d d e n ly e n te rs a c lo u d w h ic h is a t a h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re th a n th e
su rro u n d in g a ir.

4.

M o s t c a s e s o f se rio u s p isto n e n g in e ic in g o c c u r in c lo u d , fog, o r p re c ip ita tio n w ith a te m p e ratu re


ra n g e betw een :

5.

a)

-1 0 C

to

+25C

b)

-1 8 C

to

+ 5 C

c)

-10 C

to

o c

d)

-2 0 C to

+ 1 5 '>c

S tra tu s c lo u d o f lim ite d d e p th a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -5 C w ill m o st lik e ly g ive:


a)

m o d e ra te to h e a v y rim e ice

b ) m o d e ra te to h e a v y g la z e ic e
c)

lig h t to m o d e ra te rim e ice

d)

lig h t to m o d e ra te g la z e ice

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6.

7.

ICING

C le a r ic e fo rm s a s a r e s u lt of:
a)

la rg e su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts sp rea d in g a s th e y fre ez e

b)

ic e p e lle ts sp la tte rin g o n th e a irc ra ft

c)
d)

sm a ll su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts s p la sh in g o v e r th e a irc ra ft
w a te r v a p o u r fre e z in g to th e a irc ra ft

O ro g ra p h ic u p lift in sta b le c o n d itio n s g iv e s a stro n g v ertic al c o m p o n e n t to a ir m o v e m en t th u s


su p p o rtin g la rg e r s u p e rc o o le d d ro p le ts in o ro g ra p h ic a lly fo rm ed c lo u d . C o n sid e ra tio n sh o u ld
a ls o b e g iv e n to th e fa c t th a t in t h is clo u d :
a)

8.

th e 0 C is o th e rm w ill b e h ig h e r

b)

th e 0 C iso th e rm w ill b e lo w e r

c)

th e la p se r a te w ill b e iso th e rm a l

d)

a n in v e rsio n c a n b e an ti-c y c lo n ic

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s is m o st fav o u rab le fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f c a rb u re tto r icin g i f


th e a irc ra ft is d e s c e n d in g w ith g lid e p o w e r set:
R e la tiv e H u m id ity

9.

A m b ie n t T e m p e ratu re

a)

25%

b)

40%

+ 2 0 C

c)

50%

-1 0 C

3 0%

-5 C

d)

+ 2 5 C

F ly in g in larg e C U a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -2 0 C , th e a m o u n t o f e a c h c lo u d d ro p le t th a t w ill freeze


o n im p a c t w ith th e a irc ra ft w ill be:
a)

10.

A ll th e d ro p let.

b)

'/2 o f th e d ro p let.

c)

% o f th e d ro p let.

d)

2 0 % o f th e d ro p let.

C a rb u re tto r ic in g is u n lik ely :


a)

In c lo u d .

b)

A t te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n -1 0 C a n d -3 0 C .

c)

In c le a r a ir.

d)

W h e n th e R H is 4 0 % .

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Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
11.

ICING

F ly in g 5 0 n m a h e a d o f a w a rm fro n t o u t o f c lo u d a t 1000 f t in w in te r, w ith a n a m b ien t


te m p e ra tu re o f - 8 C , th e re is a s tro n g ris k of:

12.

a)

H o a r frost.

b)

R im e ic in g a n d c a rb u re tto r icing.

c)

S tru c tu re d a m a g e c a u s e d b y h a il.

d)

C le a r ic e in th e fo rm o f rain ice.

In A S c lo u d a t F L 170 a n d a te m p e ra tu re o f -2 0 C th e a irfra m e ic in g m o st lik e ly to be


e x p e rie n c e d is:
a)
b)
c)
d)

13.

M ix e d (rim e a n d c le a r) ic in g is m o st lik e ly to b e enco u n tere d :


a)
b)
c)
d)

14.

in
in
in
in

n im b o stra tu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -1 0 C
s tra to c u m u lu s c lo u d a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -2 0 C
f a ir w e a th e r c u m u lu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -15 C
to w e rin g c u m u lu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f - 10 0 C

W h e n c o n s id e rin g ic in g in c lo u d o v e r h ig h g ro u n d c o m p a re d w ith icin g in o th e r c lo u d s, th e


e ffe c t o f o ro g ra p h ic liftin g is to:
a)
b)
c)
d)

15.

M o d e ra te c le a r icin g .
L ig h t rim e icin g .
H o a r frost.
S e v e re c le a r icing.

C a u se th e h e ig h t o f th e fre e z in g le v e l to fall a n d incre ases th e inten sity o f th e icing.


C a u se th e h e ig h t o f th e fre e z in g lev el t o rise a n d in c rea ses th e se v e rity o f th e icing.
C a u se th e fre e w a te r c o n te n t o f th e c lo u d to in cre ase a n d t h e f re e z in g le v el to rise so
re d u c in g th e ic in g risk.
In cre a se th e te m p e ra tu re in sid e th e clo u d d u e to th e re le a se o f e x tra la te n t h e a t so
re d u c in g th e ic in g risk.

K in e tic h e a tin g w ill:


a)
b)
c)
d)

In cre a se th e ris k o f ic in g i f it ra ise s th e a irfra m e tem p eratu re t o ju s t b e lo w 0 C .


In cre a se th e r is k o f ic in g i f it ra ise s th e a irfra m e tem p eratu re t o ju s t a b o v e 0 C .
A lw a y s in c re a se th e ris k o f a irfra m e icing.
A lw a y s d e c re a se th e risk o f a irfra m e icing.

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ICING

METEOROLOGY

A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

Q ues

A n s w e rs

10

11

12

13

14

15

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - DOCUMENTATION

C o n te n ts

Page

18.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................

1 8 -1

18.2

IN F O R M A T IO N A V A IL A B L E F R O M M E T E O R O L O G IC A L O F F I C E S

18.3

S U P P L Y O F IN F O R M A T IO N .................................................................................................. 1 8 - 2

1 8 -1

18.4

C O M P U T E R F L IG H T P L A N S .................................................................................................. 1 8 - 3

18.5

W E A T H E R R E P O R T S ..................................................................................................................1 8 - 3

18.6

S N O W T A M S ......................................................................................................................................1 8 - 5

18.7

A S H T A M ............................................................................................................................................. 1 8 - 5
T E R M IN A L W E A T H E R Q U E S T I O N S ...............................................................................1 8 - 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

/IETEOROLOGY
8.1

DOCUM ENTATION

IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h is c h a p te r c o v e rs a sp e c ts o f m e te o ro lo g y d o c u m e n ta tio n a n d m e ssa g e s w h ic h y o u w ill u se a t
th e v ario u s sta g e s o f p la n n in g a flig h t an d c a rry in g it o u t.

A s m o st o f th e in fo rm a tio n is

co n ta in e d in th e U K A 1P, th is c h a p te r is m o re o f a n a id e -m e m o ire, h ig h lig h tin g im p o rta n t p arts


o f th e m e te o ro lo g ic a l se c tio n (G E N ) o f th a t p u b licatio n . R e le v a n t p a g e s o f th is se c tio n are
in c lu d e d in B o o k 15.
8 .2

IN F O R M A T I O N A V A IL A B L E F R O M M E T E O R O L O G I C A L O F F I C E S
a)

W e a th e r r e p o r t s . T h e s e a re p re p a re d a t ro u tin e in te rv a ls a n d a v a ila b le fo r a v iatio n


p u rp o se s e v e ry h o u r o r h a l f h o u r. S e le c te d o r s p e c ia l re p o rts a re m a d e w h en ce rtain
p h e n o m e n a o c c u r b e tw e e n th e tim e s o f th e ro u tin e rep o rts. T h e se re p o rts a re term ed
A c tu a ls a n d e x a m p le s o f s u c h a r e M E T A R s a n d S P E C I. T h e M E T A R is sim p ly an
a v ia tio n ro u tin e w e a th e r r e p o rt w h e re a s a S P E C I is a n av ia tio n selec te d s p e cial w e ath er
re p o rt. T o is s u e a S P E C I th e re m u s t b e im p ro v e m e n ts o r d e te rio ra tio n s th ro u g h c e rtain
w e a th e r crite ria . T h e s e w o u ld th e n s u p p le m e n t th e ro u tin e rep o rts. T R E N D S m a y also
b e issu e d fo r se le c te d a e ro d ro m e s i f s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s o c c u r d u rin g th e tw o h o u rs a fte r
th e o b se rv a tio n tim e. F u rth e r d e ta ils o n G E N p 3 -5 -2 6 to p3 -5 -3 0 . R u n w a y s ta te c od e s
a re in c lu d e d in to M E T A R s w h e n a p p lic a b le. F u rth e r d e ta ils o n G E N p3-5-29.

b)

C h a r ts . A n a ly se d M S L sy n o p tic c h a rts sh o w s th e su rfa c e w e a th e r o v e r a sp e c ifie d area.


P ro g n o stic M S L sy n o p tic c h a rts aim to sh o w th e ex p e c te d sy n o p tic s itu a tio n so m e h o u rs
later, u su a lly 12 o r 2 4 h o u rs a h e a d .

S im ilarly , c u rre n t a n d p ro g n o stic c h a rts are

a v a ila b le fo r v a rio u s p re s s u re le v e ls.

In th e b rie fin g ro o m y o u sh o u ld fin d c h arts

c o v e rin g lo w a n d m e d iu m flig h t o v e r th e U K a n d N W E u r o p e , m e d iu m a n d h ig h level


flig h ts to E u r o p e a n d th e M e d it e r r a n e a n , h ig h lev el f lig h ts to N o r th A m e ric a , high
lev el flig h ts to th e M id d le a n d F a r E a s t a n d h ig h level flig h ts to A f ric a . F u rth e r d e ta ils
o n G E N p 3 -5 -9 , p 3 -5 -1 0 .
c)

F o r e c a s ts . T h e s e a re p re p a re d fo r u se b y a irc re w , a ir tra ffic se rv ic e s u n its, a irc ra ft in


flig h t a s re q u ire d f o r f ly in g o p e ra tio n s. T h e m o st w id e ly used ex a m p le is th e T A F .
F u rth e r d e ta ils o n G E N p 3 -5 -3 0 to p.3-5-32.

d)

W a r n in g s . W a rn in g in fo rm a tio n o f a n y h az a rd o u s w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a is p rep a red


w h e n n e c e s s a ry a n d issu e d to liste d r e c ip ie n ts. A n e x a m p le is a S IG M E T s. T h is re fers
to in fo rm a tio n r e g a rd in g th e o c c u rre n c e o r e x p e c te d o c cu rre n c e , in a n a rea o v e r w hich
a m e te o ro lo g ic a l w a tc h is b e in g m ain ta in ed o f a n u m b e r o f p h e n o m e n a c o n sid ere d
d a n g e ro u s to a irc ra ft w ith in a n F IR . F u rth e r d e ta ils o n G E N p 3 -5 -l 9. M et. O ffic e s are
also o b lig e d to g iv e th e fo llo w in g w a rn in g s o f ad v e rse w e a th e r (p 3-5-3).

i)

G a le s

v)

F og

ii)

S q u a lls, h a il, th u n d e rsto rm s

v i)

D u st/S a n d

iii)

Snow

v ii)

F re e z in g p re c ip ita tio n

iv )

F ro st

18-1

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DOCUMENTATION

M ETEOROLOGY
e)

A i r - r e p o r t s . A irc re w m a y b e re q u ire d to m a k e o b se rv a tio n s w h ile a n a irc ra ft is in flight.


R o u tin e a n d s p e c ia l a irc ra ft o b se rv a tio n s a re re co rd ed o n th e A IR E P form a s s h o w n in
F ig u re 18.2, 18.3.

18.3

S U P P L Y O F IN F O R M A T IO N
T h e su p p ly a n d e x c h a n g e o f o p e ra tio n a l m e te o ro lo g ic a l in fo rm atio n n ee d ed b y m et.
o ffic e s, V O L M E T b ro a d c a s t sta tio n s, a ir tra ffic serv ic es u n its a n d o p e ra to rs is d one
th ro u g h th e M O T N E (M e te o ro lo g ic a l O p erational T elecom m unication N etw ork)system .
a)

M e te o r o lo g ic a l b r ie f in g . T h is is a re q u ire m e n t b y law to p ro v id e a n o ral co m m e n tary


o n e x is tin g a n d /o r e x p e c te d m e te o ro lo g ica l c o n d itio n s . T h is in fo rm a tio n m u st c o v er
th e d e p a rtu re , en -ro u te d iv e rsio n , alte rn a te, a n d d e stin a tio n a e ro d ro m e s a s in d ica te d in
th e f lig h t p la n . T h e sta n d a rd m e th o d is b y s e lf b r ie f in g u sin g th e m aterial d isp la y e d in
b rie fin g ro o m s w h ic h in c lu d e s re p o rts a n d fo re ca sts is m e ssa g e o r c h a rt form at. F u rth e r
d e ta ils o n G E N p 3 -5 -8 a n d p 3 -5 -1 5 .
A IR M E T is a n o th e r fo rm o f s e l f b rie fin g in ten d ed fo r u se b y p ilo ts w h o d o n o t ha v e
a c c e s s to m e te o ro lo g ic a l b y fa x o r te le p rin te r. It is a g en era l a v ia tio n w e a th e r b rie fin g
c o n s is tin g o f te n ro u tin e fo re c a sts, in p la in lan g u a g e, c o v e rin g th e U K a n d n e a r
C o n tin e n t s p o k e n a t d ic ta tio n sp e e d o v e r th e p u b lic te le p h o n e n etw o rk , o r in te x t form
v ia th e A F S , te le x o r fa c sim ile . F u rth e r d e ta ils o n G E N p 3 -5 -2 1 .

b)

I n flig h t.

In fo rm a tio n m ay b e g a in e d b y th e in te rc e p tio n o f ra d io b ro a d ca sts from

ae ro d ro m e s.
i)

V O L M E T S . T h e s e a re ra d io m e ssa g es o f w e a th e r re p o rts a n d fo rec asts w hich


a re b ro a d c a s t o n H F a n d V H F a t re g u la r in te rv als. In th e U n ite d K in g d o m th ese
a re b a se d u p o n th e o ra l c o m m e n ta ry o f a M E T A R o r T A F . F u rth e r d e ta ils on
G E N p 3 -5 -1 7 to p 3 - 5 - 18.

ii)

A T IS . (A u to m a tic T e rm in a l In fo rm atio n S ervice).

T h is is a sh o rt range

b ro a d c a s t o f a irfie ld in fo rm a tio n c o n sistin g of:


P re se n t w e a th e r

1.

A irfie ld n a m e

8.

2.

C o d e lette r

9.

3.

T im e o f o rig in

10.

T e m p e ra tu re & d ew p o in t

4.

R u n w a y in u se

A ltim e te r settin g s

C lo u d

5.

S u rfa c e W /V (d e g re e s m a g n e tic )

11.
12.

6.

V isib ility

13.

S ig n ific a n t w e a th e r info rm atio n

RVR

14.

T ren d fo re ca st

7.

iii)

E ssen tia l a irfie ld in fo rm a tio n

A C A R S ( A ir c r a f t C o m m u n ic a tio n s A d d re s s in g & R e p o r tin g S y ste m ) T h is


is a m e a n s o f se n d in g a n d re c e iv in g co m p a n y m e ssa g e s b e tw e e n c o m p a n y
o p e ra tio n s o ffic e s a n d th e a irc ra ft, w h ic h c a n b e u se d to p ro v id e a p rin te d co p y
o f TA FS & M ETARS.

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M ETEOROLOGY

18.4

18.5

In fo rm a tio n c a n a ls o b e g a in e d fro m re le v a n t A T C ce n tre s, e ith e r b y re q u e st o r b y a n issu e o f


a w a rn in g to re le v a n t a irc ra ft. O n e s u c h s y ste m is th e L o w lev el W in d S h e a r (L L W S ). L ow
level w in d sh e a r h as a lre a d y b e e n d e a lt w ith u n d e r T u rb u le n c e , b u t th e re a re d e te ctio n d e v ic es
in u se w h ic h e n a b le a b ro a d c a st w a rn in g to b e g iven.
M u c h w o rk h a s b e e n d o n e in th e U S to d e te c t a n d w a rn o f th e a p p ro a c h o f w in d sh e a r u sin g
D o p p le r R a d a r o r p a tte rn s o f w in d v a n e s a n d a n e m o m e te rs lin k ed to a c en tral c o m p u ter. A T C
are th u s a b le to g iv e w a rn in g o f w in d sh e a r o n th e a p p ro a c h a n d /o r c lim b o u t path s. F u rth er
d e ta ils o n G E N p 3-5-3.
C O M P U T E R F L IG H T P L A N S
T h e re a re se v e ra l d iffe re n t c o m p u te r f lig h t p la n s a v a ila b le , b u t th e in fo rm atio n b e lo w re la te s to
th e o n e u se d b y B ritish A irw a y s u s in g th e a c ro n y m S W O R D . M e te o ro lo g ic al info rm a tio n is
o b ta in e d fro m th e W o rld A re a F o re c a s t C e n tre (W A F C ) a t B rac k n ell. T h e ce n tre p ro v id e s global
te m p era tu re a n d w in d v e lo c ity fo re c a s ts in a g rid b in ary (G R IB ) fo rm at fed tw ic e d a ily fo r eig h t
a ltitu d e le v e ls b a s e d o n 6 h o u r b lo c k s w ith in a 3 0 h o u r fo reca st span.
T h e fo re c a sts are b a s e d o n a c tu a l o b s e rv a tio n s ta k en a t OOOOz & 1200z. E a ch tran sm issio n
c o n ta in s f o u r fo re c a sts b a s e d o n th e o b s e rv a tio n tim e: T + 12, T + 18, T + 2 4 a n d T + 30.
F o r e x a m p le th e m o rn in g tra n sm issio n re c e iv e d a t a b o u t 0 4 3 0 z c o n ta in s f o re c a sts fo r 1200,
1 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 0 & 0 6 0 0 th e n e x t day . S W O R D c o n ta in s fiv e r o llin g fo re c a sts w h ic h a re u p d a ted at
12 h o u rly in te rv a ls. T h u s a fte r a w e a th e r u p d a te S W O R D w ill h a v e a v a ila b le fo re c a st w e ath er
d a ta fo r th e n e x t 2 4 h o u rs , b u t a t th e tim e o f th e n e x t u p d a te th is is r e d u ce d to ju s t o v e r 12 h ours.
W EATHER REPORTS
a)

R e g u la tio n s . A t th e e a rly sta g e s o f th is c o u rse it w a s m e n tio n e d th a t a n im p o rtan t


so u rc e o f m e te o ro lo g ic a l in fo rm a tio n w a s th a t d e riv e d fro m a irc ra ft re p o rts. A s a resu lt
y o u w ill b e re q u ire d to tra n s m it m e te o ro lo g ic al re p o rts a t d e sig n a te d p o s itio n s a n d a t
a n y tim e w h e n c e rta in c o n d itio n s p rev ail.
R e g u la tio n s a p p lic a b le to U K a re fo u n d o n G E N p 3-5-16.

b)

F o r m a t . R o u tin e re p o rts m a y b e s e n t u s in g th e in te rn atio n ally ag ree d A IR E P fo rm (fig.


18.2). T h is is a c o m b in e d p o s itio n a n d w e a th e r re p o rt. T h is fo rm is a lso used for
S p e c ia l R e p o rts

c)

C h a r t S y m b o lo g y . M ete o ro lo g ic a l r e p o rtin g p o in ts w ill b e sh o w n o n nav ig atio n c h arts


u s in g th e sy m b o lo g y s h o w n in fig u re 18.1.

d)

T u r b u le n c e a n d I c in g . C rite ria fo r d e g re e s o f tu rb u le n c e a n d icin g a re to b e fo u n d o n


G E N p 3 -5 -1 6 & p 3 - 5 - 17

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M ETEOROLOGY

DOCUMENTATION

Figure 18.1. Met Reporting points

A S D A R . S o m e a irc ra ft a re e q u ip p e d to a u to m a tic a lly tra n sm it A IR E P in fo rm a tio n b y


A i r c r a f t t o S a te llite D a ta R e la y . D a ta sen so rs w ith in th e a irc ra ft w ill tra n sm it this
in fo rm a tio n v ia s a te llite to w o rld c e n tre s a t B rac k n e ll & W ash in g to n fo r o n w a rd
tra n sm issio n th ro u g h n o rm a l m e te o ro lo g ic al ch a n n els.
D a ta L in k s . S y n o p o b s e rv a tio n s a n d o th e r re p o rts a re tra n sm itte d to th e N a tio n a l
M e te o r o lo g ic a l C e n t r e (N M C ) a t B ra c k n ell b y C iv il R e n te d D a ta N e tw o rk (C R D N ).
T h e d a ta is c o lla te d b y N M C a n d re -tra n sm itted in b u lle tin fo rm to M et. O ffic e s and
o th e r N M C s. B ra c k n e ll is th e R e g io n al C o m m u n ic a tio n s C e n tre a n d p a sse s d a ta to th e
o th e r R e g io n a l C o m m c e n a t W a sh in g to n .
M T I . A n o th e r in d ic a to r o f L L W S is M a r k e d T e m p e r a tu r e In v e rs io n (M T1). T h is is
p a sse d a t c e rta in a e ro d ro m e s (G E N p 3 -5 -3 ) w h e n e v e r a tem p era tu re d iffe re n c e o f 10C
o r m o re e x ists b e tw e e n th e s u rfa c e a n d a n y p o in t u p to 1000 ft a b o v e t h e ae rodrom e.
T h is is e ith e r b ro a d c a st a s p a rt o f th e A T IS m e ssa g e o r p a sse d d ire c t to a rriv in g o r
d e p a rtin g a irc ra ft b y A T C .

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DOCUMENTATION

METEOROLOGY
18.6

18.7

SNOW TAM S
S N O W T A M w a rn in g s w h ile n o t s tric tly M e te o ro lo g y W arn in g s w ill o fte n a p p e a r in b riefin g
ro o m s a ss o c ia te d w ith th e M e t' o f th e d a y a s p re v a ilin g c o n d itio n s d ic ta te . T h e fu ll in form ation
reg a rd in g th e sy ste m in p la c e is c o v e re d m o re fu lly w ith in th e A ir L a w / O p era tio n al P ro ce d u re s
sy llab u s b u t a n o u tlin e o f w h a t th e w a rn in g s c o n ta in is ind ica te d below :
a)

T h e n a tu re o f th e c o n ta m in a tio n to b e c le a red a n d th is su b jectiv ely asse sse d b y A T C


p e rso n n e l: ic e / d ry sn o w / c o m p a c te d sn o w / w e t sn o w / slu sh / a s s o c ia te d stan d in g
w a te r

b)

D e p th o f sn o w

c)

S n o w b an k s

d)

R u n w a y s a ffe c te d b y s n o w a n d ice

e)

A s s e s s m e n t o f b ra k in g ac tio n . T h e s e a re th e la st tw o d ig its in th e S N O W T A M an d
e ith e r re la te to T h e F ric tio n C o e ffic ie n t, o r, th e B ra k in g a ction.
1)

F ric tio n C o e fficien t.


2 8 = f ric tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f 0 .28
3 5 = f ric tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f 0 .35

ii)B ra k in g A c tio n (in itia l le tte r is 9 fo llo w e d b y a s cale o f 1 - 5).


95 = good
91 = p o o r
A full ex p la n a tio n o f th e c o n te n t o f a S N O W T A M is co n ta in e d in U K A IP A D 1-2-2.
ASHTAM
T h e A S H T A M p r o v id e s in fo rm a tio n o n th e s ta tu s o f activ ity o f a v o lc an o w h e n a c h a n g e in its
ac tiv ity is, o r is e x p e c te d to b e o f o p e ra tio n a l sig n ifica n ce . In th e e v e n t o f a v o lc an ic eru p tio n
pro v id in g ash c lo u d o f o p e ra tio n a l sig n ific a n c e , th e A S H T A M a lso p ro v id e s in fo rm atio n o n the
lo cation , e x te n t an d m o v e m e n t o f th e a sh c lo u d a n d th e a ir ro u te s an d flig h t le v e ls affected.

1 8 -5

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Figure 18.2
1 8 -6

M ETEOROLOGY

DOCUM ENTATION

Figure 18.3

1 8 -7

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DOCUMENTATION

METEOROLOGY

U sin g th e a tta c h e d sh e e t o f te rm in a l in fo rm a tio n , a n s w e r th e fo llo w in g q uestio n s.


1.

F ran k fu rt-M a in
a)
b)
c)
d)

2.

Z u ric h

L S Z H : T h e re d u c tio n in v is ib ility a t 2 1 0 1 0 0 is lik ely t o b e c a u se d b y:


a)

3.

fog.

c)

m ist.

d)

sh o w ers.

R o m e/L IR A : O n th e 21 s t th e r e c o u ld b e C B c lo u d o verhead:

5 0 0 0 m in m ist.
5 k m i n haze.
9 0 0 0 m in fog.
9 0 0 m in fo g b a n k s.

Z u ric h /L S Z H : V is ib ility a t 2 1 1 6 0 0 is e x p e c te d to be:


a)
b)
c)
d)

6.

th ro u g h o u t th e perio d .
a fte r 1800.
g ra d u a lly b e tw e e n 1200 a n d 1800.
b e tw e e n 1200 an d 1800.

M ilan /L IM L : M in im u m v is ib ility fo re c a st fo r 2 1 0 5 0 0 is:


a)
b)
c)
d)

5.

lo w stratu s.

b)

a)
b)
c)
d)
4.

E D D F : T h e W /V a t 2 1 1 0 0 0 is e x p ected to b e:
0 6 0 /1 8 G 3 0 K T
0 4 0 /1 5 K T
0 6 0 /1 8K T
0 4 0 /1 0 K T

7 KM
7000m
2500m
6000m

M ila n /L IM L : T h e lo w e s t c lo u d b a s e e x p e c te d a t 2 0 17 3 0 is:
a)
b)
c)
d)

5 ,0 0 0 fe e t
u n lim ite d (n o c lo u d )
2 ,5 0 0 feet.
3 ,0 0 0 feet.

1 8 - 9

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DOCUMENTATION

M ETEOROLOGY
7.

F ran k fu rt M a in e / E D D F : T h e lo w e s t c lo u d p re s e n t a t 2 0 1 7 2 0 w as:
a)
b)
c)
d)

8.

9.

2
4
7
4

o k ta s a t 4 ,5 0 0 feet
o k ta s a t 4 5 0 feet.
o k ta s a t 2 ,5 0 0 feet.
o k ta s a t 2 5 0 feet.

a)

m o re th a n 10 k m .

b)
c)
d)

3 0 0 0 m.
5000 m.
900 m.

G en e v a /L S G G : T h e lo w e st v is ib ility o b se rv e d o n th e 2 0 th is:
5000
5000
4000
7000

m e tre s
m e tre s
m e tre s
m e tre s

to
to
to
to

th e
th e
th e
th e

n o rth east.
no rth .
n o rth east.
so u th .

A t w h ic h o f th e s e sta tio n s a n d a t w h a t tim e is th e h ig h est re la tiv e h u m id ity to b e found:


a)
b)
c)
d)

11.

to
to
to
to

M ilan /L IM L : T h e lo w e s t v isib ility to b e e x p e c te d a t 2 0 2 1 0 0 is:

a)
b)
c)
d)
10.

1
1
5
3

E D D F a t 1650.
L IR A at 1720.
L IM L a t 1720.
L S G G a t 1650.

M ilan /L IM L : W h a t is th e v isib ility fo re c a s t to b e a t L IM L a t 2 01730:


a)
b)
c)
d)

3000m .
8000m .
5000m .
10k m o r m ore.

18 -1 0

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DOCUMENTATION

METEOROLOGY
F r a n k f u r t M a in : E D D F

S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 3 0 1 5 K T 8 0 0 0 N E F E W 045 S C T 2 5 0 14/10 Q 1 0 1 6 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 3 0 1 1K T 6 0 0 0 N E S C T 0 4 2 B K N 2 5 0 15/10 Q 1 0 1 5 N O S IG
F C 2 0 15 0 0 Z 201 6 0 1 0 4 0 1 0 K T C A V O K
FT201600Z 210018 04015K T 3000H Z BK N 030 BECM G 0709 06018G 30K T
CAVOK
G en ev a : LSG G
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 6 0 0 4 K T 4 0 0 0 N E -R A S C T 0 0 9 B K N 0 4 0 O V C 0 8 0 13/11 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 5 0 0 4 K T 5 0 0 0 N -R A S C T 0 0 9 B K N 0 4 0 14/12 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 5 0 0 Z 201601 0 4 0 0 8 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 2 0 B K N 025
F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 0 3 0 0 5 K T 5 0 0 0 O V C 0 2 0 T E M P O 1118 B K N 0 3 0

S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 4 0 0 5 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 1 6 O V C 0 2 2 12/08 Q 10 1 3 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 4 0 0 8 G 1 9 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 1 6 S C T 0 2 2 B K N 0 4 0 12/08 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 5 0 0 Z 201 6 0 1 0 5 0 0 5 K T 6 0 0 0 S C T 013 O V C 0 2 8 B E C M G 2 1 2 4 2 5 0 0 B R
O V C 0 1 0 F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 0 5 0 0 5 K T 2 5 0 0 B R O V C 0 1 0 T E M P O 0 0 0 8 1500 B R
B E C M G 0 811 0 4 0 1 0 K T O V C 0 1 5 P R O B 3 0 T E M P O 1218 B K N 020
M ila n : L IM L
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 K T C A V O K 16/14 Q 1 0 0 7 N O SIG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 K T C A V O K 16/15 Q 1007 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 7 0 0 Z 2 0 1 8 0 3 V R B 0 5 K T 8 0 0 0 S C T 0 2 5 T E M P O 3 0 0 0 -R A
F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 V R B 0 5 K T 5 0 0 0 S C T 0 3 0 T E M P O 0 2 0 6 0 9 0 0 P R F G B K N 008
B E C M G 1218 + R A B K N 0 2 0
R o m e : L IR A
SA 201720 00000K T
SA 201650 00000K T
FC 201700Z 2 01803
FT 201600Z 210018

9 9 9 9 F E W 0 15 S C T 0 1 7 C B B K N 0 2 5 16/16 Q 10 0 6
9 9 9 9 F E W 0 1 5 S C T 0 1 7 C B S C T 0 2 5 17 16 Q 1005
V R B 0 5 K T 9 9 9 9 S C T 0 2 0 S C T 070
V R B 0 5 K T 9 9 9 9 S C T 0 2 5 S C T 0 7 0 T E M P O 1218 S C T 0 1 5 C B

1 8 - 11

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METEOROLOGY

DOCUMENTATION

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

A nsw er

. 8

10

11

1 8 - 12

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CHAPTER NINETEEN - WEATHER CHARTS

C o n te n ts

Page

19.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................... 1 9 -1

19.2

L O W L E V E L C H A R T S .............................................................................................................. 1 9 - 1

19.3

M E D IU M A N D H IG H L E V E L S ...............................................................................................1 9 - 5

E X E R C IS E A ...................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 9
E X E R C IS E B ................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 1 2
E X E R C IS E C ................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 1 5

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METEOROLOGY

19.1

W EATHER CHARTS

IN T R O D U C T I O N
T h e v isu a l p re s e n ta tio n o f w e a th e r to b e e x p e c te d e n ro u te is an im p o rtan t p a rt o f th is c o urse.
S ig n ific a n t w e a th e r a n d tro p o p a u se /m a x im u m w in d v e lo c ity c h a rts a re p ro d u c ed b y th e U K M et
offic e /C A A to in te rn a tio n a l sta n d a rd s la id d o w n b y IC A O a n d th e W o rld M e teo ro lo g ical
O rg a n isa tio n (W M O ). In a d d itio n to c h a rts sh o w in g e x p e c te d w e a th e r th ere a re c h a rts co v e rin g
sim ila r a re a s d e p ic tin g e x p e c te d u p p e r w in d s a n d tem p era tu re s. A d d itio n ally , o v e r th e N o rth
A tla n tic , c h a rts a re a v a ila b le sh o w in g p re s s u re d istrib u tio n & fro n ts b o th a n aly sed a n d forecast
(A S X X a n d F S X X ).

19.2

LOW LEVEL CHARTS


a)

S ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r .

L o w level c h a rts (F 2 1 5 /4 1 5 ) dea l w ith flig h ts a t a n d b e lo w

F L 1 5 0 . A n e x a m p le o f F 2 1 5 is a t F ig u re 19.1: It c o v e rs th e B ritish Isles a n d th e n e a r


c o n tin e n t a n d is p ro d u c e d e v e ry 6 h o u rs.
T h e tw o c h a rts a t th e to p o f th e fo rm F 2 15, o n th e fo llo w in g p a g e a re, o n th e left, a ch a rt
sh o w in g w e a th e r e x p e c te d 3 h o u rs e ith e r s id e o f th e v a lid ity tim e w ith a d e sc rip tiv e
b e lo w . T h e c h a rt o n th e rig h t is a n O u tlo o k c h a rt sh o w in g th e e x p e c te d w e a th e r 6 ho u rs
fu rth e r o n , e g v a lid ity tim e 0 9 0 0 , c h a rt c o v e rin g th e p e rio d 0 6 0 0 to 1200, o u tlo o k at
1800.

A d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n is o n p 3-5-11 o f th e G E N se c tio n o f th e A ir P ilo t

(A p p e n d ix A to th e la s t c h a p te r, o n D ocu m e n ta tio n ). F 4 1 5 (fig 19.2) is s im ila r b ut


e x te n d s fu rth e r in to E u ro p e.

19-1

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W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY

1 9 -2

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W EATHER CHARTS

METEOROLOGY

1 9 -3

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W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY
b)

W in d s . C o rre sp o n d in g to th e c h a rts F 2 1 5 a n d F 4 1 5 a re c h a rts (F 2 1 4 & F 4 1 4 ) g iv in g


e x p e c te d w in d s b e tw e e n 1,000 a n d 2 4 ,0 0 0 ft. E a ch b o x is p la c e d o v e r th e in tersectio n
o f a m e rid ia n an d a p a ra lle l (sh o w n a t th e t o p o f th e b ox).

Crown copyright

Figure 19.3 Low Level Winds F214

Q u e stio n s o n F 2 14/2 1 5 a re co n ta in e d in e x e rcise C a t th e e n d o f th is c h ap ter.

1 9 -4

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METEORO LO G Y
19.3

W EATHER CHARTS

M E D IU M A N D H I G H L E V E L S
a)

C h a rts n o rm a lly a v a ila b le in th e U K are


E U R O P E c o v e rin g F L 100 to F L 4 5 0 .
N O R T H A T L A N T I C c o v e rin g F L 2 5 0 to F L 630.
M I D D L E & F A R E A S T c o v e rin g F L 2 5 0 to F L 630.
A F R I C A co v e rin g F L 2 5 0 a n d abo v e.
C A R I B B E A N /S O U T H A M E R I C A co v erin g F L 2 5 0 a n d a b ove.
A n e x a m p le o f th e E U R c h a rt is a t F ig u re 19.4.

1 9 -5

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W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY

M eteorological C harts-Explanatory Notes


1

S y m b o ls f o r a s ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r, T r o p o p a u s e a n d F re e z in g L e v e l e tc .
Thunderstorm

Rain

Tropical cyclone

Severe squall line

Widespread blowing snow

Hail
Moderate turbulence

Shower
Severe sand or dust haze

Severe turbulence

Marked mountain waves

Widespread sandstorm or duststorm


Widespread haze

Light aircraft icing

Widespread mist

Moderate aircraft icing

Widespread fog

Severe aircraft icing

Freezing fog

Freezing precipitation

Drizzle

Snow

Widespread smoke
Volcanic eruption

Altitudes between which phenomena and associated cloud are protected are indicated by flight levels, top ov
base or top followed by base. 'XXX' means the phenomenon is expected to continue above and/or below the
vertical coverage of the chart. Phenomena of relatively lesser significance, for example light aircraft icing or
drizzle, are not usually shown on charts even when the phenonmenon is expected. The thunderstorm symbo
implies hail, moderate or severe and/or turbulence.

| 400

,
440 j
340
L

Tropopause spot altitude (eg FL400)

Boundary o f area o f significant weather

High point or maximum in tropopause


topography (eg FL440)

Boundary of area of clear air turbulence.


The CAT area may be marked by a
numeral inside a square and a legend
desribing the numbered CAT area my
be entered in th e margin.

Low point or mimnimum in tropopause


topography (eg FL340)
|

State o f sea (wave height in metres).

Freezing level.

Sea surface temperature (C).

F ro n ts a n d c o n v e rg e n c e z o n e s
L

A iA L
* r * r

Cold front at the surface

-----------

Axis o f trough

Warm front at the surface

/WWWV\

Axis o f ridge

Occluded front at the surface

Convergence line

Quasi-stationary front at the surface

c a

Inter-tropical convergence zone

An arrow with associated figures indicates the direction and the speed of the movement of the front (knots).
Dots inserted at intervals along the line of a front indicate it is a developing feature (frontogenesis), while bars
indicate it is a weakening feature (frontolysis).

Figure 19.5.

b)

Significant W eather Symbology.

S y m b o lo g y is sh o w n in F ig u re 19.5.

1 9 -6

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W EATHER CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
c)

W in d s . C o rre s p o n d in g to th e c h a rts listed a b o v e a re c h arts o f s im ila r c o v era g e, e ac h


c h a rt s h o w in g w in d an d te m p e ra tu re f o r a p a rtic u la r f lig h t level. T h e flig h t le v e ls a re
listed in c o lu m n 3 o f p a g e 3 -5 -1 0 o f th e G E N se c tio n o f th e A ir P ilo t (A p p en d ix A to
C h a p te r 18). O n th e se c h a rts w in d s a re g iv e n e v e ry 5 o f la titu d e a n d lo n g itu d e u sing
th e sy m b o lo g y s h o w n in F ig u re 19.5 an d a n e x a m p le o f a w in d c h a rt is F igure 19.6.

Crown copyright

Figure 19.6 Wind Temperature Chart for FL340

1 9 -7

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METEOROLOGY

W EATHER CHARTS

T o f in d th e w in d a n d te m p e ra tu re a t a p o sitio n o th e r th a n th a t a t a la t/lo n g in terse ctio n , som e


ca re fu l in te rp o la tio n is re q u ire d . T o fin d a n a v e r a g e w in d fo r a w h o le ro u te y o u m u st s p lit th e
ro u te in to a n u m b e r o f se c tio n s, s a y 10 o f la titu d e o r lo n g itu d e (d e p e n d in g o n th e d ire c tio n ) find
th e w in d & te m p e ra tu re f o r e a c h se c tio n a n d fin d a m a th e m a tic al av e rag e. I f th e w in d s fo und
v a ry th ro u g h 3 6 0 , y o u w ill h a v e to ta k e c a re eg . th e a v erag e o f th e tw o w in d s 3 1 0 /2 0 a n d 0 1 0 /3 0
is 3 4 0 /2 5 an d n o t 160/25!
T o fin d th e w in d c o m p o n e n t, th e a v e ra g e W /V w ill h a v e to b e a p p lie d to th e m e a n tr a c k fo r
th e ro u te u s in g a re p re se n ta tiv e T A S an d th e n av ig atio n co m p u ter. (F o r n o rm a l su b so n ic je t
tra n sp o rt a irc ra ft fly in g b e tw e e n 3 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 4 0 ,0 0 0 ft, 4 8 0 k ts is a re aso n ab le figure).
E x e rc ise s A & B a t th e e n d o f th is c h a p te r c o v e r th e u se o f b o th th e sig n ifican t w e a th e r and
te m p e ra tu re c h arts.

Wind Symbols

5.1

Wind/Temperature Chart

Wind 300(T) 30 KT, temperature


-36C at arrow head
36

56

Wind 090(T) 60 KT, temperature


-56C at arrow head

Wind 240(T) 15 KT, temperature


+2C at arrow head
F ig u re 19.7.

19-8

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W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY
E X E R C IS E A
S ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r , a n d T r o p o p a u s e /M a x im u m

W in d s p e e d C h a r t, U p p e r W in d a n d T e m p e r a tu r e C h a r t , a n d T A F S

1.

U sin g F ig u re 1 E x e rc ise A , d e ta il s ig n ific a n t w e a th e r fro m B o d o to L isb o n v ia G lasg o w


a b o v e F L 2 4 0 : sp e c ify in g w h e re c h a n g e s o c c u r b y la titu d e , o r lo n g itu d e a s a p p ro p ria te.

2.

U sin g F ig u re 2 E x e rc ise A , ta b u la te th e m ea n W /V an d tem p era tu re a t F L 3 0 0 a t each


10 d e g re e lo n g itu d e lin e a lo n g th e r o u te ( i.e. a t 10W , 2 0 E , 3 0 E e tc .) a n d c alc u la te
th e m ean W /V o v e r th e w h o le ro u te.

3.

4.

C a lc u la te th e IS A te m p e ra tu re d e v ia tio n a t F L 3 0 0 o verh e ad :
a)

London

b)

C airo

G iv e fo re c a s t la n d in g c o n d itio n s fro m t h e lis t b elo w :


a)

H E C A fo r th e p e rio d 1800 G M T to 0 0 0 0 G M T .

b)

L IC J f o r th e p e rio d 1200 to 1800 G M T .

T A F S M id d le E a st
FTE G
H EC A

31

O LB A
FT

281100

281812

BECMG
H ELX

FT
F T

V RB05KT

0506

04010KT

CAVO K TE M P O

0006

3000

HZ

281812

V R B 0 3 K T C AVO K BECMG

280606

1 8 0 1 5 K T 2 5 0 0 H Z S C T 0 3 0 BECMG 0 9 1 0

BECMG

1416

SC T01 7

CAVOK

0000KT

TE M P O

0608 04010KT

0003

2000

BR

13010G 22KT
BEC M G

0304

18015KT
L IC J

FT

280606

32030KT
HZ

BECMG

29008G 19KT
0800
0305

+TSSA

6000

FEW 020SC T0 3 0

SC T03 0C B

30008G 18kt

19-9

BECMG

3000

2302

TEM P O

0906

VRB05KT

2500

HZ

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

li t Jl

Crown copyright

Figure 1 - Significant W eather Chart Exercise A

Crown copyright

Figure 2 - Upper W ind/Tem perature for Exercise A

W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY

S ig n if ic a n t

W e a th e r,

and

T r o p o p a u s e /M a x im u m

W in d s p e e d

C h a r t.

U pper

W in d / T e m p e r a tu r e C h a r t , a n d T A F S .
1.

U sin g F ig u re 1 E x e rc ise B , d etail s ig n ific a n t w e a th e r fro m K efla v ic to B e rlin v ia


L o n d o n g iv in g c lo u d , icin g , tu rb u le n c e an d C A T o v e r th e ro u te a b o v e F L 2 5 0 sp ec ify in g
lo n g itu d e w h e re c h a n g e s o ccu r.

2.

U s in g F ig u re 2 E x e rc ise B , ta b u la te th e m e a n W /V a n d tem p era tu re a t F L 3 40 a t each


10 degree lo n g itu d e lin e a lo n g th e r o u te (i.e. a t 10W , 2 0 W , 3 0 W e tc.) an d c alc u la te
th e m ean W /V o v e r th e w h o le route.

3.

I f th e flig h t is c a rrie d o u t a t F L 3 4 0 b e tw een L o n d o n an d 3 0 W w ill th is ro u te p o rtio n

4.

G iv e fo re c a s t la n d in g c o n d itio n s fro m th e list o f T A F S a s follow s:

b e flo w n in th e stra to sp h e re ?

a)

C Y M X fo r th e p e rio d 0 6 0 0 G M T to 1000 G M T .

b)

K O R D fo r th e p e rio d 1000 G M T to 1200 G M T .

O ct 7

21

31

56

1998

A ir t r a n s a t

FO M S

ST A T IO N WEATHER IN FO RM A TIO N
C YM X YM X
TA F

071620Z

071717

O VCO 20 F M 2 3 0 0 Z
O VC 006

PRO B30

OVC0 3 0 T E M P O
TA F 0 7 1 0 1 5 Z
FM 1400Z

K O R D O RD
TA F

0205
1117

2SM

4SM

15010KT
RM K N X T

071623Z

3SM

P6SM

-S H R A
BY

-R A

TA F

2SM

BR

BR

BR

FM 1100Z

O VC 010

O VC 080

4SM

-S H

2311

3SM

29008KT
FC ST

P6SM
BY

TEM PO
O VCO 20

2103

6SM

TE M P O

-S H R A

09012KT

-S H R A

0311

RA
-R A

23Z

B K N O 8 0 BEC M G 1 2 1 4

SC T12 0

BKN 220

OVCO20

3SM

BEC M G

0 5 0 0 8 K T P 6 S M B K N 0 3 0 O V C 1 0 0 TE M P O
05008KT

05006KT

FM 1400Z

071111

O VC 080

1923

O VCO20 R M K N X T

SC T01 0

FM 02000Z

O VC 006

071015Z

BKN 030

-R A

O V C 006

TE M P O

O VCO 20 T E M P O

0 7 0 0 8 K T P6SM FEW 0 3 0

O VC 080

B K N 0 4 0 O VC 100 F M 0 0 0 0 Z
-S H R A

O VC 030

SC T00 6

-S H R A

17Z

B R O VC 015 F M 0 6 0 0 Z

2SM

23Z

TSR A

SC T03 0

6SM
FC ST

071717

BKN 030

-R A

0613
BY

P6SM
-R A

-S H R A

B K N 0 3 0 O VC 100 F M 2 3 0 0 Z
-SH R A

6SM

0 7 1 1 1 1 V R B 0 3 K T P6SM S C T 0 4 0

09012KT

FM O 300Z
O VC 010

08008KT

18015KT

5SM

6SM

-R A

-R A

BR

2 8 0 1 0 K T P6SM

0 6 0 0 8 K T P6SM

RM K N X T

05008KT

FC ST

19-12

BY

SC T00 6

6SM

1920

0002

P6SM

TEM P O

0206

O VC 012 TEM P O

O VC 025 RM K N X T F C S T

SC T12 0

0 5 0 0 8 K T P6SM B K N 0 4 0
FM O 400Z

O VC 025

BKN 230

TEM P O

1800

O V C 100 T E M P O 0 1 0 4

P6SM

-R A

0411

O VC 025

TE M P O

17Z

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

a aspjsxg - z &in6y
li)6uAdOD umojo

WORLD AREA FORECAST CENTRE


LONDON
FIXED TIME FORECAST CHART
EUR SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
a 100-450
VAUD 12 U.T.C. ON 23/09/1999

a - ^ s a -

Crown copyright

Figure 1 Significant W eather Chart fo r Exercise B

METEOROLOGY

W EATHER CHARTS

E X E R C IS E C
U sin g th e a tta c h e d sig n ific a n t w e a th e r c h a rt (A p p e n d ix A ) a n sw e r q u e stio n 1 to 4 o n th e ro u te from
M a d rid to L a rn a c a f o llo w in g th e m a rk e d ro u te .
1.

2.

3.

T h e h ig h e st tr o p o p a u se h e ig h t e n -ro u te w o u ld b e at:
a)

o v e rh e a d 2 0 E

b)

o v e rh e a d M ad rid

c)

L a rn a c a

d)

10 E

T h e C A T e x p e c te d a t 5 E en -ro u te w o u ld b e:
a)

m o d e ra te b e tw e e n F L 2 3 0 a n d F L 4 6 0

b)

m o d e ra te fro m b e lo w F L 1 0 0 to F L 160

c)

m o d e ra te fro m F L 2 6 0 to F L 3 7 0

d)

m o d e ra te b e tw e e n F L 2 9 0 to F L 4 4 0

I f th is r o u te w a s flo w n a t F L 2 9 0 m o d e ra te to s e v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d ic in g c o u ld b e e x p e c te d at:
a)

5E

b)

10E

c)

o v e rh e a d L a rn a c a

d)

25E

U sin g th e a tta c h e d u p p e r w in d an d te m p e ra tu re c h a rt (A p p e n d ix B ) fo r f ly in g th e ro u te from


M a d rid to L a rn a c a a t F L 3 0 0 a n s w e r Q u e s tio n s 4 to 6.
4.

5.

T h e m ean w in d v e lo c ity a n d te m p e ra tu re b e tw ee n M a d rid a n d 30


a)

2 9 5 /7 0 - 4 0

b)
c)

2 9 0 /8 0 - 4 5
27 0 /7 5

42

d)

2 6 0 /7 0

38

T h e IS A d e v ia tio n o v e rh e a d M ad rid is:


a)
b)

IS A -4

c)

IS A +5

d)

ISA +3

I S A +4

19 -1 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

W EATHER CHARTS

METEOROLOGY
6.

T h e h ig h e s t g ro u n d sp e e d w o u ld b e a c h ie v e d at:
a)
b)

25E

c)

30E

d)

20E

15E

U sin g th e a tta c h e d F 2 1 4 U K lo w lev el w in d a n d tem p e ra tu re c h a rt (A p p en d ix C ) a n sw e r


Q u e stio n s 7 to 9.
7.

T h e m ean w in d a n d te m p e ra tu re b e tw e e n L iv e rp o o l (E G G P ) a n d J e rs e y (E G JJ) a t 14000 ft


w o u ld b e:

8.

-8C

a)

2 5 0 /5 0

b)

2 8 0 /3 5

-5

c)

275 /5 2

- 17 C

d)

2 5 5 /6 0

-2 3

A t p o sitio n 5 7 307^1 0 5 0 0 'W b e tw e e n 2 0 0 0 ft a n d 5 0 0 0 ft th e E L R in e x iste n c e w o u ld lea d to


a s ta te of:
a)

n e u tra l eq u ilib riu m

b)

ab so lu te sta b ility

c)
d)
9.

co n d itio n a l in sta b ility


a b s o lu te in sta b ility

T h e IS A d e v ia tio n a t 5 5 N 0 0 E a t 18000 ft w o u ld be:


a)

IS A - 3C

b)

IS A + 0 C

c)

IS A + 12C

d)

IS A + 3 C

U sin g th e a tta c h e d F 2 1 5 U K lo w le v e l fo re c a st (A p p en d ix D ) a n sw e rs 10 to 15.


10.

T h e ty p e o f fo g fo re c a st in Z o n e 4 is m o s t lik e ly to be:
a)

ra d ia tio n fog.

b)

fro n ta l fog.

c)

a d v e c tio n fo g

d)

arc tic sm o k e

1 9 -1 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

a)

120 /2 0 k t

b)

0 8 0 /3 5 k t

c)

L e ss th a n 5kt

d)

0 9 0 /3 0 k t

In Z o n e 3 th e r e p o rte d c lo u d is:
a)
b)

13.

14.

15.

W EATHER CHARTS

A t 0 9 0 0 Z th e o c c lu sio n v e lo c ity is:

s tra to c u m u lu s
s tra tu s an d s tra to cu m u lu s

c)

a lto cu m u lu s

d)

s tra tu s , stra to c u m u lu s a n d a lto c u m u lu s

B y 1200 Z th e lo w e s t v isib ility w ill b e fo u n d in:


a)

Zone 4

b)

Zones 2 a nd 3

c)

Zone 5

d)

Zones 2, 3 and 4

T h e h ig h e st c lo u d to p s e x p e c te d a t K id lin g to n b e tw e e n 0 6 0 0 Z a n d 1200 Z a re:


a)

FL250

b)

14000 ft A G L

c)

8000 ft A M SL

d)

25000 A M SL

T h e s u rfa c e w in d d ire c tio n e x p e c te d a t L o n d o n H e a th ro w a t 1800 Z is:


a)

0 6 0 T

b)

2 9 0 T

c)

180 T

d)

2 4 0 T

F ro m th e T A F s fo r M K P P a n d K B O S g iv e n b e lo w a n sw e r 16 to 20.
M KPP

270606

10017KT

+SH R A

BKN 010C B

10010KT
KBO S

271212

5000
V RB05

05025G 35KT

3000

HZ

BEC M G

SC T02 4
1215

PRO B30

VRB05KT

TEM P O

CAVO K

0812

2000

BECMG

0103

SC T01 5
C AVO K

5000

BECMG

O VC 030

1 9 -1 7

1819

PRO B40

06012KT

1012

2800

BECMG

0204

SN

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

W EATHER CHARTS

METEOROLO G Y
16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

T h e v isib ility a t M K P P a t 1600 Z is e x p e c te d to be:


a)

2000 m

b)

3000 m

c)

5000 m

d)

10 k m o r m o re

T he lo w e s t c lo u d b a s e fo re c a s t fo r M K P P at 1100 is:
a)

2400 ft A M SL

b)
c)

above 5000 ft A M SL

d)

1000 f t A G L

2 4 0 0 ft AGL.

T h e h ig h e s t s u rfa c e w in d sp e e d a t M K P P is e x p e c te d betw een:


a)

0600 Z and 0600 Z

b)

060 0 Z and 1200 Z

c)

1200 Z a n d 1 5 0 0 Z

d)

0 8 0 0 Z a n d 1200 Z

A t K B O S a t 1100 Z w h ic h o f th e f o llo w in g w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a re e x p ected:


a)

v is ib ility o f 2 8 k m

b)

8 /8 c lo u d a t 2 8 0 0 ft.

c)

4 0 % c h a n c e o r m o d e ra te sn o w

d)

su rfa c e w in d o f 0 5 0 2 5 K T .

A t K B O S a t 0 6 0 0 Z th e v is ib ility is e x p e c te d to be:
a)
b)

5000 m

2800m

d)

1012m

m o re th an 10 k m

1 9 -1 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

PklBE 3 0

-A

I lEIIPERniURC

*v
CHnRf FUR FL 500

VALID

12 UTC

[ X

2 7 0C1 98

% .-U ^
*6 ^
M <4i

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t" \Yi-_

K S u .

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IEIIPERREURES RRE NECBIIVE


UNLESS PREFIXED BY PS'
DIHR IIIIE 12 U1C 2b OCI 9^1ji

V
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V.'

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'-V. v

b "i

.A
i3e*
'

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:; UV,)

d
'

V ' v"n

c
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Crown copyright

Exercise C - Appendix B

*
>^?

W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY

F IX E D TIME CHfiRT V R L ID ST 9 UTC ON TUESDRT 5 / 1 / 9 3 <L


S U IT A B L E FOR F L IG H T S BETWEEN 0 6 0 0 BNO 1 2 0 0 UTC
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a e = 6CN 0230W

60N 0230E

S730N 10W
5730N 05H
573QN 0230W
21.0125 - 3 7
2WOIOO - 2 6
2LQ 70 - I I 2L 0 7 0 - 0 2
2 3 0 5 5 +01.
2 3 0 -5 0 + 0 7 -

5730N Q230E

18
10
05
02
01

ESN 0730W
S5N 0230W

S230N
7L ?*.o
lH 2JO
111 2U1
05 ?h(1
no 760
01 250

0730W
05 - 3 2
95 - IB
60
bS + 00
5b + 05
30 + o;

S230N 0230H

5230N QSE

S230N QOS

EB3R
I son 02 3 qw

50N 0230E

(3 LFPG

QflTA [S FOR LAT/LONG POSITIONS


SHOWN AT TOP OF EACH BOX.
ALTITUDES ARE ABOVE nSL
ITHOUSANOS OF FEET)
TEMPERATURE IN DECREES CELSIUS

Crown copyright

Exercise C - Appendix C

1 9 -2 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

W EATHER CHARTS

W EATHER CHARTS

M ETEOROLOGY

Q ues

A n sw er

Q ues

A n sw er

11

12

13

14

D
D

15

16

17

18

19

10

20

1 9 -2 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER TWENTY - AIR MASSES


C o n te n ts
Page
20.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N

2 0 .2

ID E N T IF IC A T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 2

20 .3

A IR M A S S E S A F F E C T IN G T H E B R IT IS H IS L E S A N D N W E U R O P E

20.4

O T H E R A R E A S .............................................................................................................................2 0 - 6

2 0.5

F R O N T S , A N IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................2 0 - 6

2 0.6

T H E P O L A R F R O N T ..................................................................................................................2 0 - 7

.................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 1

2 0 -4

2 0 .7

THF, A R C T IC F R O N T ................................................................................................................2 0 - 7

2 0 .8

T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N F R O N T ....................................................................................... 2 0 - 8

2 0 .9

T H E IN T E R T R O P IC A L C O N V E R G E N C E Z O N E ( I T C Z ) ......................................2 0 - 8

2 0 .1 0

F R O N T A L F A C T O R S ................................................................................................................ 2 0 - 9

20.11

T H E P O L A R F R O N T A N D P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N S ............................. 2 0 - 1 0

20.1 2

W A RM FRO N TS

20.1 3

CO LD FRO N TS

.................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 1 1
.......................................................................................................................2 0 - 1 2

2 0 .1 4

A N A - A N D K A T A F R O N T S ..............................................................................................2 0 - 1 3

20.1 5

Q U A S I S T A T IO N A R Y F R O N T S ........................................................................................2 0 - 13

2 0 .1 6

T H E W A RM SECTO R

2 0 .1 7

W E A T H E R W IT H T H E P A S S A G E O F A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N . . 2 0 - 1 5

................................................................................................ 2 0 - 1 4

20.1 8

U P P E R W IN D S IN A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N ........................................... 2 0 - 1 7

P R A C T IC A L Q U E S T IO N S ......................................................................................................................2 0 - 19
A IR M A S S E S A N D F R O N T S Q U E S T IO N S

................................................................................ 2 0 - 2 1

A P P E N D IX A ................................................................................................................................................2 0 - 2 4

APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................... 20-25

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY
20.1

IN T R O D U C T I O N
A n a ir m a ss is a la rg e v o lu m e o f a ir w h e re th e h u m id ity a n d te m p e ra tu re in th e h o riz o n ta l are
m o re o r less c o n sta n t.
T h e te m p e ra tu re a n d h u m id ity p ro p e rtie s a re o b ta in e d b y th e a ir r e m a in in g r o u g h ly statio n a ry
o v e r a su rfa c e w h e re c o n d itio n s a re g e n e ra lly c o n sta n t fo r som e len g th o f tim e - a h ig h p ressu re
are a . T h e re fo re a t s o u rc e , a ll a ir m a s s e s m u s t b e s ta b le .

Figure 20.1 General Source Regions


T h e b a s ic p ro p e rtie s o f sta b ility , te m p e ra tu re a n d h u m id ity c an ch a n g e a s an a ir m ass m o v es o v er
s u rfa c e s w ith d iffe re n t p ro p e rtie s. A n a ir m a ss m o v in g to a w a rm e r a re a w ill b e c o m e h e a te d in
th e lo w e r la y e rs a n d sh o u ld b ec o m e :
a)

U n stab le.

b)

W a n n e r.

c)

L o w e r re la tiv e h u m id ity .

A n a ir m a ss m o v in g to a c o ld e r r e g io n sh o u ld b ecom e:
a)

M o re stab le.

b)

C o ld e r in th e lo w e r lay ers.

c)

H av e a n in c re a se d re la tiv e hu m id ity .

2 0 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLO GY
20 .2

AIR MASSES

ID E N T IF IC A T IO N
A ir m a sse s a re id e n tifie d b y tem p era tu re /la titu d e:
a)

T ro p ic a l.

b)

P o lar.

C)

A rc tic

a n d b y h u m id ity o r s e a /la n d so u rce:


a)

M aritim e.

bi

C o n tin e n ta l.

H en c e th e m a in a ir m a s s e s a re nam ed :
a)

A rc tic (n o t u s u a lly su b -d iv id e d )

b)

P o la r M a ritim e (P M ).

c)

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l (P C ).

d)

T ro p ic a l M a ritim e (T M ).

e)

T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l (T C ).

2 0 -2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY

2 0 - 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

20.3

A IR MASSES

AIR MASSES AFFECTING THE BRITISH ISLES AND NW EUROPE


(A ir m a s s e s a ffe c tin g th is a re a a ffe c t o th e r p a rts o f th e w o rld in a sim ila r fa sh io n .)
a)

P o la r M a ritim e.
S ou rce:

N o rth

A tla n tic :

s ta b le , co ld , a b s o lu te h u m id ity
lo w , re la tiv e h u m id ity high.
W e a th e r : C o ld , m o ist, N W
a irflo w . O n a p p ro a c h in g U K
b e c o m e s u n s ta b le g iv in g C u ,
C b , h e a v y sh o w e rs, so m etim es
h a il a n d th u n d e rsto rm s.
C b m o st

lik e ly

over

C u,
NW

co a sts. V is ib ility g o o d e x c e p t
in sh o w e rs.

B u m p y flying.

A t n ig h t in la n d th e c lo u d
d issip a te s, th e c le a rin g sk ies
c a u s in g a lo w lev el in v e rsio n
w ith s ta b le a ir b e lo w - id e a l
co n d itio n s fo r r a d ia tio n fog.
b)

Figure.20.4 A ir Masses Affecting the British


Isles.

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l.
S o u r c e : S ib e ria ( w in te r o n ly ). S ta b le, v ery c o ld a n d d ry.
W e a th er:
i)

I f th e a irflo w is m a in ly fro m th e E v ia c o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e, th e n v e r y co ld , v e ry


d ry , n o c lo u d , n o p re c ip ita tio n . R e m a in s s ta b le - g o o d v isib ility b u t sm o k e
p o ssib le .

ii)

I f th e a irflo w is m a in ly fr o m o v e r th e N o rth S e a fro m th e N E , th e a ir w ill


b e c o m e u n sta b le , w ith la rg e C u a n d h e a v y s h o w e rs o n th e E c o a st o f U K .
R e m a in s v e ry co ld .

iii)

V isib ility g o o d e x c e p t in s h ow ers.

In su m m e r th e a ir m a s s v irtu a lly d isa p p e a rs. H o w e v e r, w ith h ig h p re ssu re o v er


S c a n d in a v ia in e a rly to m id su m m e r, th e re w ill b e a N E f lo w o v e r th e N o rth S e a
to E U K .

T h e a ir o rig in a te s a s d ry, w a rm a n d stab le. O v e r th e N o rth S e a it

b e c o m e s m o is t a n d co o l.
T h is re su lts in H a a r co n d itio n s o v e r E c o a st o f N E n g la n d a n d S c o tla n d - v e ry low St,
d riz z le , a d v e c tio n fo g , p o o r v isib ility.

2 0 -4

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
c)

AIR MASSES

T r o p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l.
S o u r c e : N A fric a /S E E u ro p e . M a in ly s um m er, w arm , d ry, stable.
W e a th e r : A w a rm , d r y S o r S E flo w . N o c lo u d o r p re c ip ita tio n , w a rm o r v e ry w arm .
V is ib ility g o o d e x c e p t in d u s t h a z e w h ich can o ccur.

d)

T r o p ic a l M a r itim e .
S o u r c e : T h e A z o re s. W a rm , s ta b le , a b so lu te h u m id ity h ig h , R H m o d e ra te .
W e a th e r : A w a rm , m o is t S W a ir flo w . A s th e a ir m o v e s N o rth , th e te m p e ra tu re red u c es
(b u t re m a in s w arm ). S ta b ility a n d R H in cre ase. L o w c lo u d , S t a n d S c. D riz zle o r lig h t
p re c ip ita tio n . V isib ility p o o r. A d v e c tio n f o g o v e r se a a re a la te sp rin g , e a rly sum m er,
o v e r la n d w in te r, e a rly sp rin g . In h ig h su m m e r in so latio n a n d c o n v e c tio n b re a k d o w n
th e s ta b ility r e s u ltin g in c le a r s k ie s o r p o s s ib ly a f e w s m all Cu.

e)

A r c tic : T h e so u rc e is th e p o la r ice c a p , w h e re it is s tab le , v ery c o ld w ith low a b so lu te


h u m id ity . T h e h u m id ity in c re a se s a s it a p p ro a c h e s N S co tla n d a n d i t b e co m es un stab le
fro m th e w a rm e r se a .

It g iv e s a c o ld N a irflo w w ith larg e C u , h e a v y sn o w falls,

b liz z a rd s a n d v e ry lo w te m p e ra tu re s in th e e x tre m e N o f S c o tla n d . It o c c u rs o n ly


in fre q u e n tly in w in te r.
f)

R e tu r n i n g P o l a r M a r itim e .
T h is is P o la r M a ritim e a ir w h ic h h a s
m o v e d to th e S o f th e n o rth A tla n tic &
ap p ro a c h e s fro m th e W o r SW .

In its

lo w e r la y ers tro p ic a l m a ritim e c o n d itio n s


are a c q u ire d a n d re ta in e d . It w ill s till be
u n s ta b le a t h ig h e r lev els. It c a n q u ic k ly
b e c o m e u n sta b le g iv in g C u , C b a n d T s.
E q u a t o r i a l: T h is d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e U K
o r N o rth e rn E u ro p e . T h e w e a th e r p a tte rn s
as s o c ia te d w ith th e e q u a to ria l s o u rc es
in c lu d e ; T r a d e W in d s , M o n s o o n s , T h e
I n t e r T r o p ic a l C o n v e r g e n c e Z o n e a n d
T r o p ic a l R e v o lv in g S to r m s . T h e m ain
p ro p e rtie s are h ig h te m p e ra tu re s a n d h ig h
h u m id ity (b o th a b s o lu te a n d relative).

2 0 - 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY

20 .4

O TH ER AREAS
P o la r M a ritim e (P M ) a ir a ls o h a s a s o u rc e in th e N P ac ific . T ro p ic a l M a ritim e (T M ) a ir h a s
so u rc e s in th e P a c ific a n d th e su b -tro p ic s. P o lar C o n tin e n ta l (P C ) a ir h a s a so u rc e in N A m erica
w h ic h c o n sid e ra b ly a ffe c ts N A m e ric a n w e a th er.

20 .5

F R O N T S , A N IN T R O D U C T IO N
A fro n t is a z o n e o r s u rfa c e o f in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n tw o a ir m a sse s o f d iffe re n t te m p e ratu re.
W h e n th e tw o a ir m a s s e s m e e t, the
w a rm e r w ill ris e o v e r th e to p o f the
co ld e r b e c a u s e o f th e d iffe re n c e in
de n sity . T h e fro n ta l su rfa c e w h e re th ey
m eet is fre q u e n tly , b u t n o t a lw ay s,
a c tiv e

w it h

p re c ip ita tio n .

m uch

c lo u d

and

T h e g ro u n d p o sitio n o f

th e fro n ta l s u rfa c e is s h o w n o n s y n o p tic


c h arts.
A fro n t is u s u a lly o n ly a fe w m iles w ide.
I f th e te rm Z O N E is used , th e n th e
r e g io n o f in te ra c tio n is m u c h w id e r (u p
to 3 0 0 n m ).

Figure 20.7 Front

2 0 - 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

AIR MASSES

T h e m a in g lo b a l fro n ts are:
a)

2 0 .6

T h e P o la r F ront.

b)

T h e A rc tic Front.

c)

T h e M e d ite rra n e a n F ro n t.

d)

T h e In te r T ro p ic a l C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e (IT C Z ).

T H E PO L A R FR O N T
T h e P o la r F ro n t is t h e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n p o la r a n d tro p ic a l a ir m a sse s. It e x te n d s a c ro ss th e
A tla n tic a n d P a c ific fro m la t 3 5 N to 6 5 N a n d i n th e S h e m isp h e re a ro u n d l a t 5 0S.
T h e re are n u m e ro u s w a v e s o n th e fro n t w h ic h c a u se d e p re ssio n s w h ic h c o n ta in th e ir o w n
p o rtio n s o f th e p o la r fro n t.

2 0 .7

T H E A R C T IC F R O N T
T h e A rc tic F ro n t is th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n th e A rc tic a n d th e P o la r a ir m a sse s a n d m a y h a v e an
as s o c ia te d J e t S tre a m . I t lie s a t h ig h e r la titu d e s th a n th e P o la r F ro n t b u t s o m e tim e s m o v e s into
te m p e ra te la titu d e s (s o u th G re e n la n d to n o rth o f N o rw a y ) in w in te r a n d sp rin g . (S e e F ig u re 20.8
an d 20 .9 ).

20-7

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A IR MASSES

METEOROLOGY

20 .8

T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N F R O N T
T h e M e d ite rra n e a n F ro n t is th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n P o la r C o n tin e n ta l o r M a ritim e a ir fro m
E u ro p e a n d T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a ir fro m N o rth A fric a . I t e x te n d s w e s t to e a s t a c ro ss th e m id d le
o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n S e a a s f a r a s th e C a sp ian.
T h e fro n t d is a p p e a rs i n S um m er.

20 .9

T H E I N T E R T R O P I C A L C O N V E R G E N C E Z O N E (I T C Z )
T h e In te rtro p ic al C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e is th e b ro a d z o n e o f se p a ra tio n b e tw e e n th e a ir m asses
e ith e r s id e o f th e h e a t e q u a to r. T h e a ir is c o n v e y e d b y th e T ra d e W in d s n o rth e a s t a n d so u th
east. S u b je c t to la rg e se a s o n a l m o v e m e n t o v e rla n d , b u t m u c h le ss o v e r th e sea . S o m etim e s
k n o w n a s th e T h e r m a l E q u a t o r o r E q u a t o r ia l T r o u g h .

20 - 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 0

AIR MASSES

FRO N TA L FA CTO RS
F ro n ts in

a lo c a lity a re n a m e d w a r m o r

co ld , d e p e n d a n t u p o n w h e th e r w a rm o r c o ld
a ir is r e p la c in g th e o th e r. A ll fro n ts h a v e a
slo p e w ith h e ig h t s o th a t in sid e v ie w th e
fro n t is a s lo p in g s u rface.
W h ils t fro n ts a re n o rm a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith
c o n v e r g e n c e a n d a s c e n d in g air, g iv in g
m u c h c lo u d a n d b a d w e a th e r, it is p o ssib le
fo r a ir m a ss e s to flo w s id e b y s id e w ith little
in te ra c tio n .
T h e fa c to rs c o n c e rn e d a re:
a)

E q u ilib riu m .

The

P re ssu re

G ra d ie n t F o rc e (P G F ) is to w a rd s th e
fro n t fro m b o th th e c o ld a n d th e
w a rm

s id e

c o n d itio n s

th e n
th e

under

w in d

th e se

w o u ld

be

G e o s tr o p h ic , b lo w in g p a ra lle l to
th e fro n t.

T h e fro n ta l su rfa c e s

w o u ld b e in e q u ilib riu m w ith n o


te n d e n c y f o r th e c o ld a ir to u n d e rc u t
th e w arm .
It c a n b e c o n c lu d e d th a t i f th e w in d
is G e o s tr o p h ic , th e re is eq u ilib riu m
a n d little w e a th e r.
b)

C o n v e rg e n c e .

T h e re

is

a lw a y s

c o n v e rg e n c e in a n y d e p re s s io n b u t
th is w ill n o rm a lly b e s m a ll a n d g iv e
lig h t p re c ip ita tio n a n d th in c lo u d
o n ly . It fo llo w s th e re fo re th a t th e re
m u st

be

eq u ilib riu m ,

u n b a la n c in g
c a u s in g

of

th e

liftin g an d

u n d e rc u ttin g o f th e w a rm air, fo r
e x te n s iv e c lo u d to o c c u r to g e th e r
w ith h e a v y p re c ip ita tio n .
U n b a la n c in g c a n b e c a u s e d b y th e p re ssu re fa llin g in th e d e p re ssio n . T h is w ill c a u se th e
w in d s to n o lo n g e r b e g e o s tro p h ic a n d th e re w ill b e a flo w o f a ir a c ro ss th e iso b a rs
to w a rd s th e d e e p e n in g ce n tre .

2 0 - 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY

20.11

THE POLAR FRONT AND POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS


P o la r a n d tro p ic a l a ir m a s s e s m e e t a t a b o u n d a ry w h ic h is c a lle d t h e p o la r fro n t. T h is fro n t is
in te m p e ra te la titu d e s in b o th h e m is p h e re s a n d its p o s itio n c h an g e s, p a rtic u la rly w ith th e seasons.
T h e p o rtio n o f th e p o la r f r o n t w h ic h p a rtic u la rly a ffe c ts th e B ritis h Isle s is th e A tla n tic p o la r
fro n t.
T h e a v e ra g e p o sitio n o f th e fro n t in w in te r is fro m F lo rid a to S o u th W e st U K a n d in th e su m m e r
fro m N e w fo u n d la n d to N o r th S c o tlan d .
T h e p o la r fro n t is im p o rta n t b e c a u s e d e p re s s io n s f o rm o n th e fro n t a n d th e se c o n ta in m o d ifie d
p o rtio n s o f th e fro n t w h ic h p r o v id e m u c h o f th e U K a n d E u ro p e a n b a d w eather.
D e p re s s io n s w h ic h fo rm o n th e p o la r fr o n t a re c a lle d P o la r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T h e y f o rm in
fa m ilie s o n e b e h in d th e o th e r. T h e fo rm a tio n m o s t fre q u e n tly o c c u rs o n th e ta il o f th e de p ressio n
co ld fro n t. T h e p o rtio n s o f th e f r o n t ly in g e ith e r s id e o f th e P F D e p re ssio n a re c a lle d eith e r
w a rm o r c o ld .

2 0 -1 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

20.12

AIR MASSES

W ARM FRONTS
I f w a rm a ir is r e p la c in g c o ld air, th e n th e front
is c a lle d w a rm .

A w a rm fro n t is sh o w n a t

F ig u re 2 0 .1 4 .

A w a rm f r o n t h a s a n a p p ro x im a te slo p e o f
1 :1 5 0 a n d a s id e v ie w is a s s h o w n in F ig ure
2 0 .1 5

Figure 20.14 A W arm Front

Figure 20.15 W arm Front Side Elevation


T h e fr o n t m o v e s a t rig h t a n g le s to
its e lf a t a sp e e d e q u a l to 2 /3 o f th e
G e o s tro p h ic in te rv a l m e a su re d a lo n g
th e fro n t. S e e F ig u re 20 .1 6 .

Figure 20.16 W arm Front - Speed A t Movement

20 - 11

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2 0 .13

A IR MASSES

C O LD FRONTS
If c o ld a ir is r e p la c in g w a rm air, th e n th e fro n t
is c a lle d a c o ld front. A c o ld fr o n t o n a sy n o p tic
c h a rt is a s s h o w n in F ig u re 2 0.17

Figure 20.17 A Cold Front

T h e s lo p e o f a c o ld fro n t is a p p ro x im ately
1:50 a n d a s id e v ie w is sh o w n in F ig u re
2 0.18. A W in te r c o ld fro n t in E u ro p e w ill
u s u a lly p ro d u c e m o re in te n se w e a th e r a n d
p re cip itatio n .

Figure 20.18 Cold Front - Side Elevation

T h e fro n t m o v e s a t rig h t a n g le s to its e lf


a t a sp e e d e q u a l to th e g e o stro p h ic
in te rv a l (fu ll) m e a s u re d a lo n g th e fro n t.
S e e F ig u re 20 .1 9 .

2 0 -1 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A IR MASSES

METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 4

ANA - AND K ATAFRONTS


A s u b -c la ssific a tio n o f fro n ts d e p e n d s u p o n th e v e rtic a l m o tio n o f a ir a t th e fro n t. I f th e a ir in
th e w a rm s e c to r (b e tw e e n th e tw o fro n ts) is r i s in g re la tiv e to th e fro n t it is c a lle d a n A N A front.
T h e fro n t w ill b e a c tiv e .w ith h e a v y p re c ip ita tio n a n d a d e e p la y e r o f c lo u d , e s p e c ia lly n e a r th e
s u r f a c e p o s itio n o f th e front.
W ith t h e K A T A f r o n t h o w e v e r, w h e re t h e w a rm se c to r a ir is d e s c e n d in g , th e w e a th e r is less
in te n se , w ith a m u c h s h a llo w e r c lo u d b e lt. T h is u s u a lly o c c u rs w h e n th e d e p re ssio n is fillin g .

2 0 .1 5

Q U A S I S T A T IO N A R Y F R O N T S
W h e n th e fro n t h a s little o r n o m o v e m e n t it is k n o w n a s a q u a s i s ta tio n a r y fro n t. F ig u re 20.21
sh o w s s u c h a fro n t o n a s y n o p tic c h a rt.

S in c e th e re is little fro n ta l m o v em en t, w e a th e r

co n d itio n s are lik e ly to b e c o m p a ra tiv e ly q u ie t, th o u g h lo n g e r lasting.

Figure 20.21 A Q uasi-Stationary Front

2 0 - 13

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 6

AIR MASSES

TH E W ARM SECTO R
T h e a r e a ly in g b e tw e e n th e tw o fro n ts is
k n o w n , s in c e i t is c o v e re d b y t r o p i c a l a ir ,
a s th e w a r m s e c to r.

Figure 20.23 The W arm Sector


T he w a rm

s e c to r

w ill m o v e a s th e
w a rm fr o n t a n d c o ld
fro n ts

m oye

and

w ill in f a c t fihirdW',
a s th e c o ld

fro n t

m o v e s fa s te r th a n
th e

w a rm .

T he

d e p r e s s io n a t th e
tip

o f th e

s e c to r

w ill

p a ra lle l

to

w a rm
m ove
th e

iso b a rs in th e w a rm
s e c to r a t a
g iv e n
d is ta n c e

by

sp e e d
th e

b e tw e e n

th e f ir s t a n d s e c o n d
iso b ars.

2 0 -1 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO GY
2 0 .1 7

AIR MASSES

W E A T H E R W IT H T H E P A S S A G E O F A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N
a)

A h e a d o f a w a r m f r o n t ( F ig u re 2 0 .25).
S u rfa c e W /V

S p e e d in c re a sin g , slig h t b a c k in g , u s u a lly s o utherly.

T e m p e ra tu re

S te a d y low .

D ew P o in t

S te a d y low .

P re ssu re

S te a d y fall.

C lo u d

In c re a sin g t o 8 /8 , b a se lo w erin g , C i,C s, A s, N s.

P re c ip ita tio n

L ig h t c o n tin u o u s f r o m A s b e c o m in g m o d e ra te c o n tin u o u s

V isib ility

R e d u c in g to p o o r.

fro m N s.

Figure 20.25 Ahead o f a


W arm Front

F ig u re 2 0 .2 6 A t the W arm
Front

A t th e w a r m f r o n t . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 6 )
S u rfa c e W /V

S h a rp v eer.

T e m p e ra tu re

S u d d e n rise.

D ew P o in t

S u d d e n rise .

P re s s u re

S to p s falling.

C lo u d

8 /8 , b a s e v e ry lo w , N s,S t.

P r e c ip ita tio n

M o d e ra te o r h e a v y c o n tin u o u s.

V isib ility

V e ry p o o r, fo g c a n o ccur.

2 0 -1 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO G Y
c)

AIR MASSES

I n t h e w a r m s e c to r . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 7 )
S u rfa c e W /V -

S te a d y , u s u a lly fro m th e SW .

T e m p e ra tu re

S teady.

D e w P o in t

S tead y .

P re ssu re

S teady.

C lo u d

6 /8 to 8 /8 , so m e la rg e b re a k s m a y o c c u r, b a se lo w , St, Sc.

P re c ip ita tio n

L ig h t r a in , d riz zle

V isib ility

P o o r.

A t t h e c o ld f r o n t . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 8 )
S u rfa c e W /V

S h a rp v e e r, g u sts a n d sq u a lls likely.

T e m p e ra tu re

S u d d e n fall.

D e w P o in t

S u d d e n fall.

P re s s u re

S ta rts to rise .

C lo u d

6 /8 to 8 /8 , b a se lo w b u t risin g , C u , C B , so m e tim e s N s.

P re c ip ita tio n

H e a v y r a in o r s n o w s h o w e rs, t h u n d e r a n d h a il po ssib le.

V isib ility

G o o d , e x c e p t in p rec ip itatio n .

2 0 -1 6

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO GY
e)

AIR MASSES

B e h in d th e c o ld f r o n t (F ig u re 2 0 .2 9 )
S u rfa c e W /V

S te a d y o r s lig h t v e e r to N W .

T e m p e ra tu re

S tead y low .

D e w P o in t

S tead y low .

P re ssu re

R is e s slow ly.

C lo u d

6 /8 , b a s e liftin g , C u , C b.

P r e c ip ita tio n

S h o w e rs, h e a v y a t tim es, h a il a n d T s p o ssib le .

V isib ility

V e ry g o o d , e x c e p t in sh ow ers.

Figure 20.29 Behind the Cold


Front
2 0 .1 8

U P P E R W IN D S I N A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N

W h ils t th e u p p e r w in d e q u a ls th e
th e r m a l

w in d

g e o s tr o p h ic

w in d

p lu s

_______ SURFACE
UPPER
WINDS

th e

near

th e

su rfa c e , w h e n th e th e rm a l e ffe c ts
are

v e ry

p ro n o u n c e d ,

( lo w \

'

stro n g

u p p e r w in d s fo llo w th e iso th e rm
dire c tio n s.

T h e s e o fte n b lo w

pa ra lle l to th e s u rfa c e fro n ts so


th a t w in d s are:

"
A.

"

'w

Figure 20.30 The Upper Winds in a Polar Front


Depression.
Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
a)

A IR MASSES

A h e a d o f a w a r m f r o n t . N W ( ra p id m o v e m e n t o f C i fro m th e N W is a g o o d in d ic a tio n
o f a j e t stre a m a b o v e ) T h e j e t s tre a m w ill b e n e a r th e tr o p o p a u se , p a ra lle l to a n d a b o u t
4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e s u rfa c e p o sitio n o f th e fro n t in t h e w a r m a ir .

b)

A b o v e t h e w a r m s e c to r . T h e re w ill b e little ch a n g e fro m th e g eo stro p h ic w in d n e a r th e

c)

B e h in d t h e c o ld f r o n t . S W . T h e je ts tre a m w ill b e n e a r th e tro p o p a u se , p a ra lle l to a n d

su rfa c e a s r e g a rd s d ire c tio n , b u t th e s p e e d w ill b e g reater.

a b o u t 2 0 0 n m b e h in d th e su rfa c e p o s itio n o f th e c o ld f ro n t in t h e w a r m a ir.

2 0 -1 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEORO LO G Y

A IR MASSES

P R A C T I C A L Q U E S T IO N S
F o r Q u e stio n s 1-5 o n th is p a g e , p le a se r e f e r to F ig u re 2 0.31 o n th e f o llo w in g p age.
1.

2.

3.

W h a t w ill b e t h e p o sitio n o f th e d e p re ssio n ce n te re d a t 5 8 3 0 N 0 2 0 0 E b y 1400Z?


a)

5430N 0600E

b)

6000N 0330W

c)

5930N 0630E

d)

5920N 0400E

A t w h a t tim e w ill th e W a rm F ro n t r e a c h S tatio n 2 75 (5 2 0 0 N 0 6 00E )?


a)

0545Z

b)

1 550Z

c)

1830Z

d)

1 745Z

A t w h a t tim e w ill th e W a rm F ro n t re a c h S ta tio n 0 27 (4 9 1 0 N 0 0 3 0 W )?


a)

4.

1604Z

c)

1735Z

d)

1818Z

A t w h a t tim e w ill th e C o ld F ro n t re a c h S ta tio n 4 1 4 (5 3 0 0 N 030 0 W )?


a)

5.

0607Z

b)

1426Z

b)

1616Z

c)

1 355Z

d)

1705Z

A t w h a t tim e w ill th e W a rm F ro n t re a c h S tatio n 0 20 (5 5 0 0 N 0 8 30E )?


a)

1414Z

b)

1 556Z

c)

1 528Z

d)

1429Z

2 0 -1 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

A IR MASSES

F ig u re 20.31

2 0 -2 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

A IR MASSES

AIR MASSES AND FRONTS QUESTIONS


1.

2.

A n a ir m a s s th a t h a s tra v e lle d o v e r a n o c e a n is k n o w n as:


a)

co n tin e n ta l a ir a n d h a s a h ig h h u m id ity

b)

c o n tin e n ta l a ir a n d h a s a lo w h u m id ity

c)

m aritim e a ir a n d h a s a h ig h h u m id ity

d)

m aritim e a ir a n d h a s a lo w h u m id ity

C h a ra c te ris tic w e a th e r a s s o c ia te d w ith a P m a irm a ss tra n sittin g th e B ritish I sle s in S um m er


w o u ld in c lu d e:

3.

a)

w id e s p re a d C u a n d C b a c tiv ity o v e rla n d d u rin g th e d a y

b)

c le a r q u ie t s e ttle d w e a th e r o v e rla n d b y d a y w ith g o o d visib ility

c)

w a rm m o is t c o n d itio n s w ith s o m e S c o r C u a n d m o d e ra te to p o o r v isib ility

d)

e x te n siv e lo w s tra tu s c lo u d g iv in g d riz zle to lig h t ra in o v e rla n d b y d a y

I f a ir in tra n s it is h e a te d fro m b e lo w it te n d s to b e c o m e m ore:


a)

4.

5.

sta b le

b)

n e u tra lly s ta b le

c)

u n sta b le

d)

n o n e o f th e se

T h e w e a th e r a s s o c ia te d w ith p o la r m a ritim e a ir is:


a)

o v e rc a st, m o d e ra te d riz z le

b)

o v e rc a s t m o d e ra te in te rm itte n t ra in

c)

b ro k e n c lo u d , lig h t, m o d e ra te o r h e a v y ra in

d)

b ro k e n c lo u d , m o d e ra te c o n tin u o u s rain

P o la r m aritim e a ir i s .......................... a n d c a n b r i n g

in th e U K in w in te r b u t . . . .

in su m m er.
C o m p le te th e a b o v e se n te n c e c o rre c tly u s in g o n e o f th e fo llo w in g :
a)

v e ry u n s ta b le /h e a v y s n o w s h o w e rs /d o e s n o t arriv e

b)

c o ld a n d sta b le /a d v e c tio n f o g /ra in sh o w ers

c)

u n s ta b le /in te rm itte n t o r c o n tin u o u s s n o w /co o l d ry w ea th e r

d)

u n sta b le /h e a v y s h o w e rs /lig h t ra in sh o w e rs

20-21

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

M ETEOROLOGY
6.

T ro p ic a l c o n tin e n ta l a ir n o rm a lly b rin g s to t h e U K :


a)

h o t d ry c lo u d le s s w e a th e r w ith a th ic k h az e

b)

w a rm w e a th e r w ith b ro k e n C u a n d s h o w e rs o n c o asts, v isib ility v e ry g o o d e x c e p t in

c)

sh o w e rs
w a rm d ry c lo u d le s s w e a th e r w ith v e ry g o o d v isib ility

d)

h o t d ry c lo u d le s s w e a th e r o n c o a s ts b u t C u b u ild in g u p in la n d w ith ra in sh o w ers,


v isib ility g o o d e x c e p t in sh o w e rs

7.

R e fe rrin g to th e a re a o f th e N o rth A tla n tic , th e m e a n p o sitio n o f th e p o la r fro n t in Jan u a ry is:


a)

fro m F lo rid a to s o u th w e s t E n g la n d

b)

fro m N e w fo u n d la n d to th e n o rth o f S c o tlan d

c)

fro m F lo rid a to th e n o r th o f S c o tla n d

d)

fro m N e w fo u n d la n d to s o u th w e s t E n g la n d

W h e n a ir fro m a n a ir m a ss m o v e s to a lo w e r la titu d e , it c a n b e e x p e c te d that:

a)

S u rfa c e la y e r a ir w ill b e c o m e w a rm e r, th e R H w ill rise a n d th e a ir w ill b e c o m e

b)

u n stab le.
S u rfa c e la y e r a ir w ill b e c o m e c o ld e r, t h e R H w ill r is e a n d th e a ir w ill b e co m e m o re
stab le.

c)

S u rfa c e la y e r a ir w ill b e c o m e w a rm e r, th e R H w ill fall a n d th e a ir w ill b e co m e


u n sta b le .

d)

S u rfa c e la y e r a ir w ill b e c o m e w a rm e r, th e R H w ill fall a n d th e a ir w ill b e c o m e m o re


stab le.

In t h e N . h e m isp h e re w h e n fly in g in th e tr o p o sp h e re a b o v e th e s u rfa c e fric tio n la y e r in the


p o la r m a ritim e a irm a s s b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t o f a f u lly d e v e lo p e d fro n ta l dep ressio n :
a)
b)

T h e w in d w ill te n d to v e e r in d ire c tio n a n d in c re a se in sp e e d w ith pro g ressiv e


in c re a se o f a ltitu d e.
T h e w in d w ill te n d to v e e r in d ire c tio n w ith in c re a se o f a ltitu d e b u t th e sp e e d m a y
re m a in c o n s ta n t in th e lo w e r la y e rs o f th e a tm o sp h ere .

c)

T h e w in d s p e e d w ill r e d u c e p ro g re s s iv e ly w ith in c rea se o f a ltitu d e un til a t a b o u t 10


0 0 0 fe e t a b o v e m e a n s e a lev el w h e re it w ill th e n te n d to in c re a se in sp e e d fro m

d)

a n o th e r d ire c tio n .
T h e w in d w ill te n d to b a c k in d ire c tio n a n d in crease in sp e e d w ith p ro g re ssiv e
in c re a s e o f a ltitu d e.

T h e a v e ra g e s u rfa c e lev el w in d s a t A 3, B 3 a n d C 3 in A p p e n d ix 'A ' a re resp ec tiv ely :


a)

E a ste rly , w e s te rly , so u th w e ste rly .

b)

W e ste rly , w e s te rly , so u th w e ste rly .

c)

S o u th w e ste rly , w e s te rly , n o rth w e ste rly .

d)

S o u th w e ste rly , w e s te rly , n o rth e rly .

2 0 -2 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

AIR MASSES

T h e a v e ra g e u p p e r w in d s a t A l , B1 a n d C l in A p p e n d ix A a re resp e ctiv e ly :
a)

e a ste rly , w e s te rly , n o rth w e ste rly

b)

n o rth w e ste rly , w e ste rly , so u th w e ste rly

c)

s o u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth w e ste rly

d)

s o u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth e rly

It c a n b e e x p e c te d th a t th e d e p th o f th e F ric tio n L a y e r o v e r th e U K w ill be:


a)

G re a te r in P o la r M a ritim e a ir d u e to th e in s ta b ility a n d m o d e ra te w ind.

b)

G re a te r in T ro p ic a l M a ritim e aix d u e to t h e w a rm tem p eratu re.

c)

G re a te r i n P o la r C o n tin e n ta l a ir d u e to th e v e ry lo w te m p e ratu res.

d)

G re a te r in T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a ir d u e to th e r e la tiv e ly h ig h te m p e ra tu re s in w in ter.

T h e a irm a s s e s in v o lv e d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a P o la r F ro n t D e p re ssio n are:


a)

P o la r M a ritim e a n d P o la r C o n tin e n ta l.

b)

T ro p ic a l M a ritim e a n d P o la r C o n tin e n tal.

c)

T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a n d P o la r M aritim e.

d)

P o la r M a ritim e a n d T ro p ic a l M aritim e.

W h e n a c o ld fro n t p a s s e s a S ta tio n in th e B ritish Isles:


a)

T h e w in d v e e rs a n d th e d e w p o in t fa lls.

b)

T h e w in d b a c k s a n d th e d e w p o in t fa lls.

c)

T h e w in d v e e rs a n d th e d e w p o in t rises.

d)

T h e w in d b a c k s a n d th e d e w p o in t rises.

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix B
T h e a irm a s s e s in d ic a te d in th e d ia g ra m s b y th e h a n d a re re sp ec tiv ely
a)

A rc tic , T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l, P o la r M a ritim e , A rc tic M aritim e

b)

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M a ritim e , T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l, A rc tic

c)

P o la r M a ritim e , T ro p ic a l M a ritim e , P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, A rc tic

d)

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, P o la r M a ritim e , T ro p ic a l M a ritim e , A rc tic

2 0 -2 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY
A P P E N D IX A

40,000 FT

PV

. . .

c i\
25,000 FT

C2
C3

/A
/

B1

A1

/ ------------

V _ .

A2

82

B3

A3

Cross Section Through a P olar Front Depression.

2 0 -2 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

AIR MASSES

A P P E N D IX B

February

March

J u ly

2 0 -2 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AIR MASSES

METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

10

11

12

13

14

15

2 0 -2 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - OCCLUSIONS

C o n te n ts

Page

21.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N .......................................

2 1 .2

W A R M T Y P E O C C L U S IO N ...................................................................................................... 2 1 - 1

2 1 -1

21 .3

C O L D T Y P E O C C L U S IO N ........................................................................................................ 2 1 - 3

2 1 .4

O C C L U S IO N W E A T H E R ........................................................................................................... 2 1 - 5

21 .5

B A C K B E N T O C C L U S IO N S .....................................................................................................2 1 - 5

2 1 .6

M O V E M E N T ...................................................................................................................................2 1 - 6

2 1 .7

G R O W T H A N D D E C A Y ............................................................................................................. 2 1 - 6

2 1 .8

C O N C L U S IO N ...............................................................................................................................2 1 - 7
O C C L U D E D F R O N T Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................... 2 1 - 9
A P P E N D IX A ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 2
A P P E N D IX B ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 3
A P P E N D IX C ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 3
A P P E N D IX D .........................................................................................................................

2 1 -1 3

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

METEOROLOGY
21.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N
A n o c c lu s io n o c c u rs w h e n th e c o ld f r o n t
in a d e p re s s io n c a tc h e s u p w ith o r o v e r
ta k e s th e w a r m f r o n t.
A n o c c lu s io n fo rm s b e c a u se th e c o ld fro n t
n o rm a lly m o v e s fa s te r th a n th e w a rm
fro n t. I t u s u a lly fo rm s w h e n th e p r e s s u r e
in

th e

d e p re s s io n

s to p s

f a ll i n g

(fro n to ly s is ).

21 .2

W A R M T Y P E O C C L U S IO N
I f th e a ir a h e a d o f th e w a r m fro n t is c o ld e r th a n th e a ir b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t, th e n a w a r m ty p e
o c c lu s io n w ill b e fo rm ed .
T h e w a rm s e c to r w ill b e lif te d a b o v e th e s u rfa ce a n d o n ly a w a r m f r o n t w ill b e a p p a re n t o n th e
g ro u n d . T h e re w ill b e a w id e r a in b e lt, w ith m a in ly s ta b ility ty p e p rec ip ita tio n .

21 - 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

METEORO LO G Y

21 - 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

21.3

OCCLUSIONS

COLD TYPE OCCLUSION


I f th e a ir b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t is c o l d e r th a n t h e a ir a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t, th e n a c o ld ty p e
o c c lu s io n w ill b e fo rm ed .
T h e w a rm s e c to r w ill b e lifte d a b o v e t h e s u rfa c e a n d o n ly a c o ld f r o n t w ill b e a p p a re n t o n th e
g ro u n d . T h e re w ill b e a n a rro w ra in b e lt, w ith C b a n d N s th e m o st lik e ly cloud.

Figure 21.4. A qH Occlusion.

21 - 3

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

OCCLUSIONS

Crown Copyright

F ig u re 2 1 .5 A C old O cclusion.

21 - 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

METEOROLOGY
2 1 .4

O C C L U S IO N W E A T H E R
W e a th e r is u s u a lly b a d b e c a u s e th e n o rm a l fro n ta l d e p re ssio n w e a th e r is co n c e n tra te d in to a
s m a lle r h o riz o n ta l b a n d a n d th e re fo re a m ix tu re o f c lo u d s c a n o c c u r, e g C b e m b e d d e d in N s.
F u rth e rm o re , a n o c c lu sio n fo rm s to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e life c y c le o f a d ep ressio n , w h e n it is
slo w m o v in g a n d h e n c e th e w e a th e r c a n la st fo r a le n g th y p e rio d o f tim e.
T h e a b o v e situ a tio n a p p lie s m o re p a rticu larly, to th e w a r m ty p e o cc lu sio n b e c a u se o f th e w id er
p r e c ip ita tio n b e lt a n d th e f a c t th a t th is ty p e o f o c c lu sio n is m o re fre q u e n t i n E u ro p e a n w in te rs
b e c a u s e o f th e e ffe c t o f P o la r C o n tin e n ta l a ir f ro m th e e a s t (ra in ic e is a p a rtic u la r h azard ).
O c c lu sio n s c a n b e c o m e n o n -a c tiv e a n d th e n p ro d u c e a little c lo u d a n d n o th in g m o re a s th e
d e p re ss io n d ies.
O c c lu sio n s u su a lly m o v e a t a b o u t th e sa m e s p e e d a s c o ld fro n ts.

21 .5

B A C K B E N T O C C L U S IO N S
A s th e o c c lu sio n fo rm s, th e firs t p o in t o f o c c lu sio n is a t th e d e p re ssio n ce n tre . I t g ra d u a lly
m o v e s S a n d W fo rm in g a b a c k b e n t o c c lu s io n ra th e r lik e a lo o p th ro u g h th e d e p re ssio n centre.
T h is b a c k b e n t p o rtio n is u s u a lly s o m e 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 n m s lo n g a n d g iv es a b e lt o f ra in in th e c old
a ir b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t, o fte n o f a th u n d e ry n ature.

F ig u re 2 1 .6 A B a c k B e n t O c c lu s io n
21 - 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

METEOROLOGY
2 1 .6

M OVEM ENT
T h e p re c is e fo re c a s tin g o f w e a th e r a n d m o v e m en t o f th e o cc lu sio n is d iffic u lt. T h e p o in t o f
o c c lu sio n m a y b e p lo tte d f o r so m e tim e a h e a d b y m o v in g th e w a r m f r o n t a n d c o ld f r o n t o f a
w a rm s e c to r d e p re s sio n a s d e s c rib e d in th e la s t c h a p te r. W h e re th e fro n ts m e e t w ill b e th e n e w
p o in t o f o cclu sio n . F ig u re 2 1.7 sh o w s h o w th is m a y b e d one.

f>OIMG
OCCLUSION
AT 1000

Figure 21.7 Movement o f the Point o f Occlusion

M o v e m e n t o f th e d e p r e s s io n its e lf is m u c h m o re d iffic u lt to p re d ic t, b u t it w ill c u rv e in an


a n tic lo c k w ise d ire c tio n ( N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re ) a t a s p e e d d e p e n d e n t u p o n iso b a r s p acing.
2 1 .7

G R O W T H AND DECAY
G ro w th o f a d e p re s s io n t o th e tim e o f p ro d u c in g th e lo w e st p re ssu re a t th e ce n tre is a b o u t 4 days.
T h e d y in g a w a y a s th e d e p re s s io n fills c a n ta k e 10 d a y s o r m o re a n d e v e n tu a lly th e d e p re ssio n
is a b s o rb e d b y s o m e o th e r p re s s u re fe atu re.
F o r th e B ritis h Isle s, th e tim e s e q u e n c e ty p ic a lly in volves:
a)

F o rm a tio n a n d g ro w th n e a r th e E a s te rn s e a b o a rd o f U S A o r m id -A tla n tic .

b)

L o w e s t p re s s u re o v e r th e U K a n d o c c lu sio n o f fro n t.

21 - 6

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

METEOROLOGY
c)

D e p re s s io n f illin g o v e r N S e a /N o rw a y /E u ro p e/R u ssia- fro n tolysis.

F a m ilie s o f d e p re s s io n s fo rm a lo n g th e P o la r F ro n t a n d m o s t fre q u e n tly th e n e w m e m b ers form


a s s e c o n d a ry d e p re s s io n s a t a n o c c lu sio n p o in t o r a t th e e n d o f a tra ilin g c o ld fro n t. T h is la tte r
p o s itio n p a rtic u la rly a p p lie s la te r in th e life o f a d ep ressio n a s th e c o ld f ro n t c ro sse s a co a stlin e
(e g th e c o a s t o f B ritta n y ) o r a r a n g e o f m o u n ta in s.

2 1 .8

C O N C L U S IO N
T h e H a n d b o o k o f A v ia tio n M e te o ro lo g y su m s u p th e m a tte r o f o c c lu sio n s thus:
T h e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e o c c lu s io n a re v a riab le. T h e y m a y b e s im ila r to th o se o f e ith e r th e
w a rm o r c o ld f r o n t (a c c o rd in g to ty p e ) b u t a re o fte n ill d e fin e d .

21 - 7

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY

OCCLUSIONS

O c c lu d e d F r o n t Q u e s tio n s
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix A f o r Q u e s tio n s 1-3:
1.

2.

T h e c lo u d in g rid s q u a re M l 1 is m o st lik e ly to be:


a)

C irru s.

b)

N im b o stra tu s.

c)

A lto c u m u lu s.

d)

S tra tu s fractu s.

P re c ip ita tio n w ill re a c h th e g ro u n d m a in ly i n th e a rea:


a)

3.

Q 1 4 -S 1 4

c)

0 1 4 -T 1 4

d)

J1 4 -0 1 4

In g rid s q u a re M 6 T h e w o rs t c lo u d c o n d itio n s fo r fly in g c o u ld be:


a)

4.

L 1 4 -R 1 4

b)

A ltro c u m u lu s

b)

C u m u lo n im b u s e m b e d d e d in n im b o stra tu s

c)

C u m u lo n im b u s

d)

N im b o stra tu s

W h ic h o f th e c o n d itio n s b e lo w w o u ld le a d to th e w o rs t ic in g c o n d itio n ?:
S iz e o f D ro p

5.

A m b ie n t T e m p .
-3 0 C

a)

2 mm

b)

1 mm

-rc

c)

5m m

-4 C

d)

3 mm

-1 2 C

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix B . In a w a rm o c c lu sio n fly in g a t 2 0 0 0 0 ' w h e re w ill th e m o st tu rb u le n ce


b e fo u n d ?
a)

b)

c)

d)

A and C

21 - 9

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

OCCLUSIONS

M ETEO RO LO G Y
6.

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix C \
a)

7.

8.

W h ic h a re a w ill g e t th e m o st ra in a t th e surfa ce?

b)

c)

d)

R e fe r to A ppendix. D . W h a t ty p e o f c lo u d .will b e fo u n d a t X ?
a)

CS

b)

NS

c)

SC

d)

CB

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix D .
a)
b)

W h a t ty p e o f clo u d is m o st lik e ly a t Z ?

CU
CB

c)

AS

d)

NS

A fte r p a s s a g e o f a n o c c lu d e d fro n t in th e N o rth e rn H em isphere:

10.

W in d

T e m p e ra tu re

P recip itatio n

a)

backs

sto p s fa llin g

co n tin u e s

b)

v e e rs

d ro p s ra p id ly

sto p s a b ru p tly

c)

v e ers

d ro p s o r rises

b e g in s to d ry u p

d)

bac k s

rise s q u ic k ly

in cre ases in strength

W ith a c o ld o c clu sio n :


a)

T h e a ir a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t is c o ld e r th a n th e a ir b e h in d th e co ld front.

b)

T h e w a rm s e c to r r e m a in s o n th e s u rface.

c)

T h e c lo u d ty p e is p re d o m in a te ly la y e r w ith a w id e p re c ip ita tio n band.

d)

T h e re is a r is k o f C B em b e d d e d in N S.

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix A fo r q u e stio n 11

2 1 -1 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO GY
11.

OCCLUSIONS

T h e fro n t a t P I 4 is:
a)

C o ld

b)

W a rm

c)

W a rm a t a n occlu sio n .

d)

C o ld a t a n o cc lu sio n .

R e fe r to A p p e n d ix B f o r q u e stio n s 1 2 - 1 4
12.T h e re la tiv e te m p e ra tu re s a t A , B , a n d C c o u ld b e resp e ctiv e ly :

13.

14.

a)
b)

+6

+8

+ 10

+6

+10

+8

c)

+8

+10

+8

d)

+ 10

+6

+8

P re c ip ita tio n a t th e su rfa c e u n d e rn e a th B is lik e ly to b e:


a)

L ig h t d rizzle.

b)

C o n tin u o u s m o d e ra te .

c)

S h o w e rs, h e a v y w ith th e p o ssib ility o f hail.

d)

N il.

F lig h t c o n d itio n s at B a re lik e ly to be:


a)

S m o o th an d clear.

b)

L a y e r c lo u d s w ith o n ly lig h t tu rb u le n ce .

c)

S o m e tu rb u le n c e in N S w ith th e p o s s ib ility o f em b ed d e d

d)

F lig h t in C U , C B w ith so m e tu rb u le n c e.

C B g iv in g m o d e ra te /s e v e re tu rb u len ce.

15.

W h e n f ly in g fro m w e s t to e a s t th ro u g h a c o ld o c c lu sio n (b elo w th e w a rm a ir) o v e r th e n o rth


A tla n tic y o u w o u ld e x p e c t th e w in d t o
a)

16.

a n d th e te m p e ratu re.t o ...................................

v e e r/d e c re a se

b)

b a c k /in c re a se

c)

b a c k /d e c re a se

d)

v e e r/in c re a se

A w a rm o c c lu sio n o c c u rs w h en :
a)

w a rm a ir is fo rc in g c o o l a ir o v e r c o ld a ir

b)

c o ld air is fo rc in g c o o l air o v er w a rm a ir

c)

c o o l a ir is fo rc in g w a rm a ir o v e r c o ld a ir

d)

c o o l a ir is fo rc in g c o ld air alo ft

21 -

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OCCLUSIONS
A P P E N D IX A

21 - 1 2

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OCCLUSIONS

21 - 13

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M ETEOROLOGY

OCCLUSIONS
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n sw e rs

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

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CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - OTHER DEPRESSIONS

C o n te n ts

Page
22.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................2 2 - 1

2 2 .2

O R O G R A P H IC (L E E ) D E P R E S S IO N S ................................................................................2 2 - 1

22.3

T H E R M A L D E P R E S S IO N S ......................................................................................................2 2 - 4

2 2 .4

T H E M O N S O O N L O W ............................................................................................................... 2 2 - 5

22 .5

T H E E Q U A T O R IA L L O W P R E S S U R E B E L T ................................................................ 2 2 - 6

22 .6

P O L A R A IR D E P R E S S IO N S ....................................................................................................2 2 - 7

22 .7

IN L A N D W A T E R S ....................................................................................................................... 2 2 - 8

22 .8

T H E R M A L L O W S O V E R L A N D (S U M M E R )................................................................2 2 - 8

22 .9

T R O P IC A L R E V O L V IN G S T O R M S (T R S )......................................................................2 2 - 9

2 2 .1 0

S E C O N D A R Y D E P R E S S IO N S .......................................................................................... 2 2 - 1 4

22.11

C O L D A IR P O O L S .................................................................................................................. 2 2 - 15

2 2 .1 2

T O R N A D O E S ............................................................................................................................ 2 2 - 17

O T H E R (N O N -F R O N T A L ) D E P R E S S IO N S Q U E S T IO N S .....................................................2 2 - 2 1

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O THER DEPRESSIONS

METEOROLOGY
22.1

IN T R O D U C T I O N
P o la r F ro n t d e p re s s io n s p re d o m in a te in te m p e ra te la titu d e s b u t o th e r ty p es o f d e p re ssio n also
ex ist, in te m p e ra te a n d o th e r re g io n s. T h e s e include:

22 .2

a)

O ro g ra p h ic d e p re ssio n s.

b)

T h e rm a l d e p re ssio n s.

c)

S e c o n d a ry d e p re ssio n s.

O R O G R A P H I C ( L E E ) D E P R E S S IO N S
W h e n a flo w o f a ir m e e ts a m o u n ta in ra n g e a t a la rg e an g le, th e r e is a m ark ed te n d e n c y fo r m u ch
o f th e a ir t o flo w a ro u n d th e e n d o f th e ra n g e in ste a d o f f lo w in g o v e r th e to p . T h is c a n c a u se a
co m p a ra tiv e la c k o f a ir o n th e d o w n w in d (le e ) sid e o f th e m o u n ta in s so th a t lo w p re ssu re o ccurs.

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METEOROLOGY

OTHER DEPRESSIONS

T h e re a re th re e w e a th e r situ a tio n s:
a)

I f th e a ir is d r y a n d s ta b le , th e n a n y u p lift c a u s e d b y th e d e p re ssio n w ill h a v e little


e ffe c t a n d th e w e a th e r w ill b e w a r m , c le a r a n d d r y . T h is is th e F o h n effect.

Figure 22.2 Fohn effect

b)

I f th e a ir is m o is t, th e n th e u p lift c a u se d a s i t p a s s e s o v e r th e d e p re ssio n c a n e n su re th a t
C u a n d C b w ith s h o w e r s a n d p o s s ib ly th u n d e r s to r m s a n d h a il m a y d ev e lo p .

Figure 22.3 Moist, Unstable

22-2

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OTHER DEPRESSIONS

M ETEOROLOGY
c)

S o m e tim e s a c o ld f r o n t w ill a p p ro a c h th e m o u n ta in ra n g e a n d th e n m u c h o f th e c o ld a ir
w ill in itia lly b e h e ld b a c k b y th e r a n g e. W h e n th is u n sta b le a ir f in a lly b re a k s o v e r th e
m o u n ta in s , liftin g w ill o c c u r w ith a d d itio n a l liftin g fro m th e o ro g ra p h ic low .
T h e r e s u lt c a n b e h e a v y b a n k s o f C b , w ith lin e s q u a lls , v e r y h e a v y s h o w e rs ,
t h u n d e r s t o r m s , h a il a n d p o o r v is ib ility .
A g o o d e x a m p le o f th is o c c u rs o v e r th q A lp s in N o r th e r n I ta ly in w in te r, th e c o ld fro n t
b e in g p a r t o f a p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n .

Figure 22. 4 The Result o f a Cold Front Approaching a Mountain Range.

2 2 -3

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O THER DEPRESSIONS

METEORO LO G Y
22 .3

T H E R M A L D E P R E S S IO N S
B a s ic T h e o r y
A s th e a ir a t th e su rfa c e is h e a te d , it w ill e x p a n d , c a u sin g th e p re ssu re s u rfa c e to b e lifte d . T h is
h ig h e r p re ss u re a t h e ig h t w ill re s u lt in a n o u tflo w o f air. In tu r n th is w ill c a u se a f a ll in surfac e
p re s s u re a n d th e a ir w ill m o v e c y c lo n ic a lly .

T h e th e rm a l d e p re ssio n o fte n w e a k e n s w ith h e ig h t b e c a u se p re ssu re te n d s to b e h ig h e r. T h is c a n


ca u s e u p p e r w in d s to r e v e rs e , b u t d e v e lo p m e n t o f a th e rm a l d e p re ssio n i n u n sta b le a ir c a n be
a c tiv e u p t o tro p o p a u s e h e ig h ts.
W e a th e r .
a)

C u , C b (p e rh a p s h a il a n d th u n d e rsto rm s).

b)

H e a v y sh o w ers.

c)

G o o d v isib ility e x c e p t in sh o w ers.

d)

M o d e ra te o r s e v e re tu rb u le n c e .

2 2 - 4

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METEOROLOGY
22 .4

T H E M ONSOON LO W

O v e r la rg e c o n tin e n ts in su m m e r a la rg e th e rm a l low d e v elo p s w h ic h c o n tro ls th e c irc u la tio n o f


air. T h e w e a th e r p a tte r n is v a ria b le , b e in g a ffe c te d b y to p o g ra p h y , e g th e H im ala y as, a n d b y
th e a ir m a s s e s d ra w n in to th e circ u la tio n .

Figure 22.6 Monsoon Low

22.5

THE EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE BELT


T h e s u n m o v e s b e tw e e n th e tro p ic s o f C a n c e r (2 327rN ) an d C a p ric o rn (2 3 27'S ) d u rin g th e c o u rse o f th e y e a r a n d a p erm an en t lo w p re ssu re b e lt p ro d u c ed
b y th e s u n s h e a tin g re su lts, to g e th e r w ith m u ch in sta b ility . B e ca u se o f th e d iffe re n t la n d m a sse s a n d o c e a n ic a re a s th e N o rth a n d S o u th b o u n d a rie s o f
th is b e lt d o n o t fo llo w th e p a ra lle ls o f la titu d e , b u t a re a s s h o w n in th e p ictu re.

Figure 22.7 Approximate North and South Limits

A ls o k n o w n as:
a)

E q u a to ria l tro u g h

b)

In te rtro p ical C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e. (IT C Z ) o r (so m etim es) In tertro p ic al F ro n t (IT F )

c)

H e a t E q u a to r.

2 2 -6

OTHER DEPRESSIONS

METEOROLOGY

22.6

POLAR AIR DEPRESSIONS


T h e s e th e rm a l lo w s fo rm w h e n P o la r M a ritim e a ir is su b je c t to liftin g o n a la rg e sca le . T his
u s u a lly o c c u rs d u e t o th e P M a ir m o v in g s o u th o v e r a w a rm e r s e a in w in ter. It g iv es C u , C b,
h e a v y s h o w e r s a n d s o m e tim e s s e c o n d a r y c o ld f r o n ts d e v e lo p . D o n o t c o n fu se w ith P o la r F ro n t
D e p re s s io n s w h ic h a re a t th e jo in in g p o in t o f th e T ro p ic a l M a ritim e a n d P o la r A ir M asses.

Figure 22.8. The Formation o f a Polar A ir Depression.

Figure 22.9. A Polar A ir Depression o ff the Norwegian Coast in November

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M ETEOROLOGY
2 2 .7

O THER DEPRESSIONS

IN L A N D W A T E R S
In w in te r, th e rm a l lo w s d e v e lo p o v e r th e C a s p ia n , B la c k a n d
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S eas. A c o ld o u tflo w o f P C a ir fro m th e
S i b e r i a n h ig h flo w s o v e r th e w a rm e r se a s. C o n v ec tio n a n d
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e p re s s io n s re s u lt. S im ila r lo w s d ev e lo p
o v e r th e G r e a t L a k e s o f N o r th A m e ric a .

22 .8

T H E R M A L L O W S O V E R L A N D (S U M M E R )
D u rin g S U M M E R , s h a llo w lo w s w ill a p p e a r o v e r la n d d u e to
su rfa c e h e a tin g . I f th e a ir is a lre a d y U N S T A B L E o r th e re a re
OLD

FRO N TA L ZO N ES

in th e are a , th u n d ersto rm s,

w id e s p re a d ra in o r s q u a lls m a y re su lt. F ig 2 2 .1 0 s h o w s s u ch
lo w s o v e r c e n tra l F ra n c e p ro d u c in g th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e y a ls o

F ig u r e 2 2 .1 0 In la n d W a t e r s

o c c u r r e g u la rly in S u m m e r o v e r th e A m e ric a n m id -w est,

(B la c k S e a )

g iv in g h e a v y th u n d e rsto rm s.

some hot sunshine. A small chance


188880 this after-noo
Max 73-79f. <23-26c).

should clear to leave good:


' spells of warm sunsh
66-72f. (19-22c).
= sr.rvn awn pniMRI irrh

SW SCOTLAND, NW SCOTLAND, GLASGOW,

F ig u re 2 2 .1 1 . T h e rm a l L o w E ffect.

22-8

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METEOROLOGY

22.9

TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS (TRS)


D e s c rip tio n :
T h e s e a re c y c lo n e s th a t d e v e lo p o v e r th e w a rm tro p ic a l o c e a n s a n d h a v e s u sta in e d w in d sp ee d s
in e x c e s s o f 6 4 k n o ts. T h e y a re th e m o st d e stru c tiv e a n d e x te n siv e w e a th e r p h en o m e n o n w h ic h
a ffe c ts o u r p la n e t. W in d s in a to rn a d o m a y m o m e n ta rily e x c e e d th o se o f a T R S , b u t th e life
cy c le o f a to rn a d o is p rim a rily m e a s u re d in m in u tes. T h e life c y cle o f a T R S , h o w e v e r, is
m e a su re d i n w e e k s a n d i t s e x tra o rd in a ry s iz e e x c e e d s a n y o th e r m e te o ro lo g ic a l p h e n o m e n o n .

Figure 22.12. The Segm ent o f W orst W eather in a Tropical Revolving


Storm.
F o r m a tio n :
H u rric a n e s a re fo rm e d fro m c o m p le x e s o f th u n d e rsto rm s, (u su a lly th e e a ste rn s id e o f the
o c e a n s). H o w e v e r, th e s e th u n d e rs to rm s c a n o n ly g ro w to h u rric a n e stre n g th w ith th e rig h t
c o n d itio n s o f th e o c e a n a n d th e a tm o sp h e re . T h e s e th u n d e rsto rm s a re m o st co m m o n ly fo rm ed
in o n e o f tw o w a y s. T h e m a in w a y b e in g f ro m th e InterT ro p ica l C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e (I.T .C ,Z )
w h e re th e e a s te rly tra d e w in d s c o n v e rg e a t th e e q u a to r c re a tin g a b a n d o f sto rm s
circ u m n a v ig a tin g th e g lo b e. T h e s e c o n d w a y is fro m th e e q u a to ria l e a ste rly a tm o sp h e ric w av e s,
o th e rw ise k n o w n a s e a s te rly w av es.
T h e sto rm s g e n e ra te th e ir p o w e r a n d e n e rg y fro m th e re le a se o f la rg e a m o u n ts o f la te n t he at
fro m th e m o istu re th e y h a v e g a in e d o v e r th e w a rm s e as. T h is re le a se o f h e a t c a u se s th e a ir to
ex p a n d , fu rth e r r e d u c in g th e su rfa c e p re ssu re. T h is c re a te s e v e n s tro n g e r co n v erg en c e, w h ich
in tu r n c a u s e s m o re m o is t a ir to r is e a n d c o o l to co n d e n sa tio n , a id in g th e r e le a s e o f g rea ter
a m o u n ts o f la te n t heat.

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OTHER DEPRESSIONS

R e q u ir e m e n ts :
a)

M u s t be w ith in 5" an d 25 latitu d e. B e lo w 5 c o rio lis fo rc e is to o sm all, a b o v e 25


la titu d e th e s e a is u s u a lly to o cold.

b)

O c e a n te m p e ra tu re s m u s t b e g re a te r th a n 26C . T h e h ig h e r th e o c e a n tem p e ra tu re th e
g re a te r th e p re s s u re d ro p w ith in th e co re. T h is is th e re a so n w h y w e h a v e n o T R S
fo rm in g in th e so u th e rn A tla n tic b e c a u se th e se a su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re s a re t o o low .

c)

T h e re m u st b e a s u ffic ie n t d e p th o f w a rm w a te r (2 0 0 -3 0 0 ft) in th e o c e a n to p ro v id e a
c o n tin u a l e n e rg y so u rce. I f th e d e p th o f w a rm w a te r is to o s h a llo w th e sto rm w o u ld
q u ic k ly d ra in th e e n e rg y fro m th e o c e an a n d c e a se to d e v elo p ..

d)

V e ry little sh e a r m u st e x ist w ith in th e a tm o sp h ere , o th e rw ise t h e sto rm w o u ld topple.


T h is a lso h a s th e e ffe c t o f in c re a sin g th e area o v e r w h ic h th e la te n t h e a t is re le ased ,
th e re b y re d u c in g th e e ffe c t it w ill h a v e o n in te n sify in g th e storm .

M o v e m e n t:
T h e p a th o f a T R S g re a tly d e p e n d s u p o n th e w in d b e lt in w h ic h it is lo ca te d .

S in ce m ost

o rig in a te fro m th e tro p ic s, it fo llo w s th e n th a t th e T R S w ill in itia lly b e d riv e n w e stw a rd s b y th e


e a s te rly tr a d e w in d b e lt a t a ro u n d 10 - 2 0 k n o ts. E v e n tu a lly th e sto rm s w ill m o v e a w ay fro m th e
e q u a to r a n d in c re a se i n s tre n g th a s a re su lt o f in c re a sin g C o rio lis F orce. T h e su b tro p ic al h ighs
a n d p re v a ilin g w e s te rlie s a t th e s e la titu d e s d riv e th e T R S e astw a rd s. A t th is sta g e th e T R S hav e
m o v e d to h ig h e r la titu d e s w h e re th e se a s a re n o w to o c o ld to fe e d en e rg y in to th e sto rm a n d th e y
w ill e v e n tu a lly die. I f a t a n y tim e th e s to rm g o e s o v e r la n d , th e in flu x o f m o istu re is c e a se d a n d
ag a in , th e s to rm w ill d ie . F ig u re 2 2 .1 2 . sh o w s th e g e n e ra l m o v em en t o f T R S a ro u n d th e w o rld .
S ta g e s o f D e v e lo p m e n t:
T R S e v o lv e th ro u g h a life c y c le , fro m b irth to d e a th m uch like th a t o f a th u n d ersto rm . T h e
sta g e s a re b a s e d u p o n th e o rg a n isa tio n o f th e sto rm a n d th e su sta in e d w in d sp e e d s w h ic h they
create. N o t a ll o f th e sta g e s w ill e v e n tu a lly e v o lv e in to a T R S .
S ta g e 1

T r o p ic a l D e p re s s io n
T h is is d e sig n a te d w h e n th e first ap p e a ra n c e o f a lo w e re d p re ssu re a n d
o rg a n iz e d c irc u la tio n in th e c e n tre o f th e th u n d e rsto rm c o m p le x o ccurs.
A s u rfa c e p re s s u re c h a rt w ill re v e a l a t le a s t o n e c lo se d iso b a r. W in d s
c o n s ta n tly b e tw e e n 2 0 - 3 4 knots.

S ta g e 2

T r o p ic a l S to r m
T h is is w h e n th e s to rm b e co m es m o re o rg a n iz ed , ta k in g o n a c irc u la r
ro ta tin g a p p e a ra n c e , w ith su sta in e d w in d sp e e d s b e tw e e n 3 5 - 6 4 knots.
It is a t th is sta g e w h e n it is a ssig n e d a nam e.

2 2 -1 0

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S ta g e 3

T r o p ic a l C y c lo n e
S u rfa c e p re s s u re c o n tin u e s to d ro p a n d it is d e sig n a te d th is sta g e w hen
s u sta in e d w in d sp e e d s a re g re a te r th a n 6 4 k n o ts. T h e re is a p ro n o u n c e d
ro ta tio n a ro u n d a c e n tra l c o re w hich w ill e v e n tu a lly fo rm th e e y e .

T h e eye:
T h e o f th e m o s t re c o g n iz a b le fe a tu re s fo u n d w ith in a T R S is th e e ye. T h e y a re fo u n d w ith in th e
ce n tre h a v in g a ty p ic a l d ia m e te r o f 2 0 - 5 0 k m . T h e tig h te n in g o f th e e y e is a u se fu l g u id e th a t
th e sto rm is in c re a s in g in stre n g th . I t is w ith in th e e y e th a t w e fin d th e lo w e st su rfa c e p re ssu re s,
a n d th e c a lm e st c o n d itio n s. A s a ir is fo rc e d u p a n d o u tw a rd f ro m th e s to rm so m e o f it re tu rn s
d o w n th e c e n tre c a u s in g a d ia b a tic h e a tin g w h ic h e v ap o rates c lo u d s c re a tin g th e fa m ilia r c le a r
c o lu m n o f a ir w h ic h d is tin g u ish e s th e e y e itself.
T h e e y e w a ll:
T h is is th e v e rtic a l w a ll o f c lo u d e n c lo s in g t h e e y e a n d is th e re g io n o f th e m o st d e v a sta tin g
r e g io n

w ith in te n s e w in d s a n d r a in fa ll.

F rom th e w a ll its e lf la rg e b a n d s o f c lo u d a n d

p r e c ip ita tio n sp ira l o u t fro m th e s to rm a n d a re c a lle d sp iral ra in b a n d s .

Figure 22.13 Cross Section o f a TRS

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Figure 22.14 Tropical Revolving Storms.

METEOROLOGY

OTHER DEPRESSIONS

N a m e s a n d N ic k n a m e s :
T R S a re g iv e n d iffe re n t n a m e s in d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e w o rld . F ig 2 2 .1 4 s h o w s th e n a m e s a n d
m o v e m e n ts o f th e s e storm s.
W ith in e a c h r e g io n , a n d f o r e a c h s to r m s e a s o n , a se rie s o f n ic k n a m e s in a lp h a b e tic a l o rd e r is
d e v ise d , a lte rn a tin g m a le a n d fe m a le n a m e s, e.g . th e firs t sto rm in th is y e a rs s e a s o n in th e
C a rrib e a n m ig h t b e c a lle d A rth u r, th e n e x t o n e B e tty a n d th e th ird o n e C h a rlie . N e x t y e a r
th e se rie s w o u ld s ta rt w ith A n n ie fo llo w e d b y B ria n a n d s o o n.

A c tio n to a v o id a r e v o lv in g s to r m :
i)

In t h e N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , i f v e ry h ig h v a lu e s o f sta rb o a rd d rift o c c u r, turn


p o r t o r s ta rb o a rd u n til p o rt d rift o cc u rs. T h e a irc ra ft is th e n h e a d in g a w a y fro m
th e sto rm .

ii)

In th e S o u th e rn h e m isp h e re , d rifts a re re v ersed .

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METEOROLOGY

22.10 SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS


W h e n a sm all d e p re s s io n is e n c lo se d w ith in th e c irc u la tio n o f a la rg e r d e p re ssio n i t is c alled a
s e c o n d a r y . T h e iso b a rs n e e d n o t sh o w a c lo se d ce n tre . S ec o n d a rie s a re p a rtic u la rly asso ciate d
w ith fro n ta l d e p re s s io n s a n d form :

e)

O n a tr a ilin g fr o n t fr o m
a n o c c lu d e d p rim a ry . T h is
se c o n d a ry m a y d e e p e n an d
fo rm th e n e x t d e p ressio n
a lo n g th e P F a n d e q u a l th e
s iz e o f th e p rim a ry . A t this
sta g e , th e d e p re s s io n s te n d
to ro ta te a ro u n d e a c h o th er,
un til e v e n tu a lly th e p rim a ry
and

th e

s e c o n d a ry

has

b e c o m e th e n e w p rim ary .

Figure 22.16 A S econdary Depression on the


End o f a Cold Front

b)

O n a tr a ilin g c o ld fro n t
w e ll w ith in th e p r im a r y
c ir c u la tio n . In th is c a se , it
a p p e a rs o n ly a s a d istu rb a n c e
o n th e fro n t, it m o v e s a lo n g
it w ith o u t m ic h d e v e lo p m e n t
un til it e v e n tu a lly b e c o m e s
a b so rb e d .

A lth o u g h

p ro d u c in g little w e a th e r o f
its o w n , it m ay d e la y the
m o v e m e n t o f th e C F and
m a k e fo re c a s tin g o f frontal
p a s s a g e d iffic u lt.

Figure 22.17 A Secondary Depression W ithin the


Prim ary Circulation

22 -1 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

c)

T ip

OTHER DEPRESSIONS

of

w arm

s e c to r

of

p a r t l y o c c lu d e d d e p r e s s io n .
F o rm e d a t th e P o in t o f O rig in
o r T rip le P o in t, w h ile th e
p rim a ry

fills

up.

O fte n

fo rm e d w h e n p rim a ry an d
o c c lu d e d fro n ts a re h e ld u p
b y a m o u n ta in b a rrie r a s in
S o u th e rn

G re e n la n d

or

N o rw a y .

2 2.11

C O L D A IR P O O L S
T h ic k n e ss c h a rts w e re m e n tio n e d in th e c h a p te r o n U p p e r W in d s. L o w th ic k n e ss in d ic a te s low
m e a n te m p e ra tu re o f th e c o lu m n o f a ir a n d th u s f ig u re 2 2 .1 8 sh o w s th a t in th e c e n tre o f a low
v a lu e e n c lo s e d is o p le th w e f in d th e lo w e s t te m p e ra tu re . A t h e ig h t th is in d ic a te s a P o o l o f C o ld
A ir. It w ill o c c u r o v e r a n o ld o c c lu d e d d e p re ssio n a w a y fro m th e w a rm s e cto r, i.e. su rro u n d e d
b y P o la r air.
B e c a u s e th e a ir is v e ry c o ld a n d th e re fo re v e ry d e n se , i f a n y o f th is a ir a d v e c ts it w ill disp lac e
w a rm e r a ir a n d fo rc e it to ris e . T h is m a y c re a te a n a re a o f v ig o ro u s in sta b ility ( p o ssib ly fro n ta l)
w h ic h , i f s u ffic ie n t h u m id ity is p re s e n t, w ill re su lt in e x te n siv e h e a p ty p e c lo u d d e v e lo p m e n t i.e.
C u , C b / T h u n d e rsto rm s a n d s h o w ers.

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O THER DEPRESSIONS

METEOROLOGY

A: C O L D P O O L ( Q U A S I-S T A T J O N A R Y, L O N G - L A S T IN G T Y P E ).
B: W A R M D O M E .
C: C O L D P O O L ( T R A N S I T O R Y /M O B I L E T Y P E ).
C . C O L D P O O L (T R A N S I T O R Y /S L O W - M O V I N G T Y P E ).
D: C O L D P O O L (L O W -L A T I T U D E T Y P E ).
E: B A R O C L I N I C Z O N E S .

2 2 -1 6

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METEOROLOGY
2 2 .1 2

O THER DEPRESSIONS

TORNADOES
A v io le n t w h irl, g e n e ra lly c y c lo n ic in s e n se, a v e ra g in g a b o u t 10 0 m in d ia m e te r a n d w ith a n
in te n s e v e rtic a l c u rre n t a t th e c e n tre , c a p a b le o f lif tin g h e a v y o b je c ts in to th e a ir .
(M e te o ro lo g ic a l G lo ssary ).
N o r th A m e r ic a n T o r n a d o . T h e s y n o p tic s itu a tio n s g iv in g rise to to rn a d o e s in th e U S A a re as
sh o w n in F ig u re 22 .1 9 .

LOW-LEVEL
MOIST TONGUE

GULF OF MEXICO

W ARM
Figure 22.19 Synoptic Situation Favouring Tornadoes

T h e to rn a d o e s w ill o c c u r w h e n C o ld D r y A i r fro m th e N o r th W e s t m e e ts w a r m m o is t a i r fro m


th e G u l f o f M e x ic o o v e r th e p r a i r i e s o f c e n tr a l U S A in S p rin g a n d e a rly S u m m e r. 8 0 % o f
to rn a d o e s o c c u r b e tw e e n 1400 a n d 2 2 0 0 w ith p e a k in cid e n c e a t 1700. T h e p re c ise m e a n s o f
fo rm a tio n o f th e T w is te r is o p e n to c o n s id e ra b le c o n je c tu re , b u t c o m p u te r m o d e llin g a n d th e
u s e o f D o p p le r R a d a rs i s m a k in g p re d ic tio n m o re c ertain . F ig u re s 2 2 .2 0 to 2 2.23 sh o w h o w a
T o rn a d o m a y form .

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OTHER DEPRESSIONS

METEORO LO G Y

A IR T O
T H E V E R T IC A L

Figure 22.20 Possible Causes o f Tornado


Formation (a).

Figure 22.22 Possible Cause o f Tornado


Formation (c)

T o rn a d o e s

a re

Figure 22.21 Possible Causes o f Tornado


Formation (b).

Figure 22.23 Possible Cause o f Tornado


Formation (d)

in v a r ia b ly

a s so c ia te d w ith th u n d e rs to rm s an d
in s o m e c a se s th e ro ta tio n e x te n d s
to th e to p o f th e storm .

F ig u re 2 2 .2 4 A T o rn a d o

2 2 - 18

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

OTHER DEPRESSIONS

D e stru c tiv e p o w e r o f to rn a d o e s lie s in th e lo ca lise d re d u c tio n in p re ssu re (2 0 to 2 00 m bs)


le a d in g to stru c tu re s e x p lo d in g a n d th e v e ry h ig h (u p to 3 0 0 k ts) w in d sp e e d s in th e vortex.
T o rn a d o e s u s u a lly la s t a m a tte r o f m in u te s, so m e o c c a sio n a lly la st a fe w h o u rs a n d m o v e at
sp e e d s u p to 4 0 k ts. F ig 2 2 .2 4 sh o w s th e a p p e a ra n c e a n d resu lts o f to rnadoes.
In c re a sin g u se o f D o p p le r R a d a rs w h ich w ill also m ea su re p a rtic le sp e e d s w ith in th e v o rte x is
m a k in g lo c a l to rn a d o w a rn in g s m o re re lia b le , b u t s till n o t m o re th a n 3 0 m in s a h ea d . T o rn a d o es
d e v e lo p a ty p ic a l h o o k p a tte rn o n th e ra d a r scre en . F ig. 2 2.25 sh o w s th is ra d a r s ig n a tu re .

'V . V .
\

v
j '

^ y
'

Figure 22.25 Radar Scope Picture

22-19

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OTHER DEPRESSIONS

METEORO LO GY

W e s t A f r ic a n T o r n a d o . W e st A fric a n T o rn a d o e s a re a s so c ia te d w ith th e p a ssa g e o f th e IT C Z


th ro u g h c o u n trie s b o rd e rin g th e G u lf o f G u in e a. T h e y a re th u n d e rsq u a lls w h ic h fo rm in a line
N o rth -S o u th a n d m o v e fro m E a s t to W e s t in M a rc h t o M a y a n d O c to b e r to N o v em b er.

LIN E OF
T H U N D E R S Q U A LL S

Figure 22.26 W est African Tornadoes

W h ils t th e tw o a b o v e a re th e m a in to rn a d o e s , le sse r to rn a d o e s o c c u r in th e U K a n d E u ro p e a n d
in th e U S A w e a k to rn a d o e s c a lle d g u s ta d o e s o c c u r in a sso ciatio n w ith G u st F ro n ts an d
la n d s p o u ts a re w a te rs p o u ts w h ic h h a v e c o m e a sh o re. A n e x a m p le o f th is o c c u rs in th e film
H u rric a n e sh o w n a s p a r t o f th e c o u rse.

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O THER DEPRESSIONS

M ETEOROLOGY
O t h e r ( n o n - f r o n ta l) D e p r e s s io n s Q u e s tio n s
1.

A th e rm a l d e p ressio n is lik ely to form :


a)
b)

2.

o v e r th e Ib e ria n p e n in su la r d u rin g th e su m m e r
in th e l e e o f th e A lp s o v e r N o rth e rn Italy in w in te r

c)

in a sso c ia tio n w ith a m a rk e d tro u g h o f low p re ssu re o v e r th e U S A

d)

o n th e tra ilin g e d g e o f a w a rm s e c to r m id la titu d e d e p ressio n

T ro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s u su ally :
a)

fo rm c lo s e to o n e sid e o f th e e q u a to r a n d w h ile m o v in g s lo w ly in a w e ste rly d irec tio n ,


c ro s s o v e r to th e o th e r h e m isp h e re

b)

3.

4.

m o v e in a w e s te rly d ire c tio n b e fo re r e c u rv in g to w a rd s th e e q u a to r

c)

m o v e in a n e a s te rly d ire c tio n b e fo re re c u rv in g to w a rd s th e n e a re st p o le

d)

d o n o t fo rm w ith in 5 0 o f th e e q u a to r

W ith re fe re n c e to tro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s, w h ic h o f th e f o llo w in g s ta te m e n ts is c orrect:


a)

ty p h o o n s are fo u n d in th e S o u th C h in a s e a in J a n u a ry

b)

c y c lo n e s, o c c u r in th e B a y o f B e n g al in w in te r

c)

h u rric a n e s, in th e S o u th A tla n tic so m e tim e s a ffe c t th e e a st c o a s t o f B ra z il

d)

h u rric a n e s a ffe c t th e s o u th e a s t o f th e U S A in la te su m m er

W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts a c c u ra te ly d e sc rib e s th e "W e st A fric a n T o rn ad o ":


a)

th e W e st A fric a n T o rn a d o is s im ila r to th e N o rth A m e ric a n a n d E u ro p e a n to rn ad o e s

b)

it is a lin e o f th u n d e rsto rm s p ro d u c in g a lin e s q u a ll a lig n e d ro u g h ly n o rth /so u th

c)

it is a n o th e r n a m e f o r th e c y c lo n e s th a t a ffe c t th e W e st A fric a n c o a st in s u m m er

d)

it is th e n a m e g iv e n t o a lin e o f th u n d e rsto rm s th a t lie a lo n g th e IT C Z b u t so m e 2 0 0


m ile s to th e s o u th

5.

E x te n s iv e c lo u d a n d p re c ip ita tio n is o fte n a sso c ia te d w ith a n o n -fro n ta l th e rm a l d e p re ssio n


b e c a u s e of:
a)

S u rfa c e d iv e rg e n c e a n d u p p e r level co n v erg e n c e c a u sin g w id e sp re a d d e sc e n t o f a ir in

b)

th e d e p re ssio n .
S u rfa c e c o n v e rg e n c e a n d u p p e r le v e l d iv e rg e n c e c a u sin g w id e sp re a d d e sc e n t o f a ir in
th e d e p re ssio n .

c)

S u rfa c e c o n v e rg e n c e a n d u p p e r lev el d iv e rg e n c e c a u sin g w id e sp re a d a sc e n t o f a ir in the


d e p ressio n .

d)

S u rfa c e d iv e rg e n c e a n d u p p e r lev el c o n v erg en c e c a u sin g w id e sp re a d a sc e n t o f a ir in th e


d e p ressio n .

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METEOROLOGY
6.

7.

8.

O THER DEPRESSIONS

In c o m p a ris o n w ith a p rim a ry d e p re ss io n a s e c o n d a ry d e p re ssio n is:


a)

A lw a y s m o re activ e.

b)

S o m etim es m o re activ e.

c)

N e v e r m o re activ e.

d)

U n lik e ly to p ro d u c e g a le fo rc e w in d s.

A S e c o n d a ry D e p re ssio n w o u ld fo rm in a s s o c ia tio n w ith:


a)

A P o la r D e p re ssio n .

b)

A Col.

c)

A S u m m e r T h e rm a l D e p re s s io n o v e r th e M e d ite rra n e a n o r C a sp ia n Sea.

d)

A P o la r F ro n t L ow .

T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S torm s:
a)

A re a lw a y s g iv e n a m a le f ir s t n a m e b e g in n in g w ith A fo r th e first o f th e se a so n a n d

b)

H av e in tern al w in d sp e e d s o f 1 0-20 k n o ts r o ta tin g c y c lo n ica lly ro u n d a s u b sid in g c le a r

c)

U su a lly h a v e th e m o st s e v e re w e a th e r in th e q u a d ra n t to th e rig h t o f th e tra c k in a

d)

R e g e n e ra te a fte r c ro ss in g th e c o a s t fro m sea to land

th e re a fte r n a m e d in a lp h a b e tic a l o rd e r o f o c cu rre n ce .


a ir c o re k n o w n a s th e eye.
H u rric a n e .

9.

W h ic h o f th e f o llo w in g a re T h e rm a l D e p re ssio n s:
a)

T ro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s, p o la r a ir d e p re ssio n s, to rn ad o e s.

b)

T h e e q u a to ria l tro u g h , m o n so o n lo w s, som e d e p re ssio n s o v e r th e c e n tra l a n d ea ste rn

c)

T h e e q u a to ria l tro u g h , p o la r a ir d e p re ssio n s, m o n so o n lo w s, o ro g ra p h ic low s.

d)

T h e lo w s fo rm in g o v e r fla t la n d in sum m er, p o la r a ir d ep re ssio n s, tro p ic al re v o lv in g

M e d ite rra n e a n s e a in su m m er.

sto rm s, so m e o f th e lo w s w h ic h fo rm o v e r in la n d s e a s in w in te r
10.

A S e c o n d a ry lo w p re s s u re sy ste m ro ta te s a ro u n d a P rim ary low:


a)
b)

C y c lo n ica lly .
A n tic y c lo n ic a lly .

c)

In to t h e p rim ary .

d)

A t a c o n s ta n t d ista n c e .

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O THER DEPRESSIONS

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

F ly in g c o n d itio n s in a S e c o n d a ry lo w p re s s u re sy ste m are:


a)

A lw a y s m o re s e v e re th a n in a P rim a ry low .

b)

S o m e tim e s m o re s e v e re th a n in a P rim ary low .

c)

L e s s s e v e re th a n in a P rim a ry low.

d)

R e la tiv e ly calm .

T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S torm s:
a)

D o n o t o c c u r in th e S o u th A tlan tic.

b)

G e n e ra lly m o v e fro m e a s t to w e s t b e fo re tu rn in g to w a rd s th e e q u a to r.

c)

In te n sify a fte r c ro ss in g c o asts.

d)

O c c u r p rin c ip a lly in sp rin g a n d e a r ly sum m er.

22 - 23

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M ETEOROLOGY

O THER DEPRESSIONS
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

10

11

12

2 2 -2 4

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CHAPTER TWENTY THREE - GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY

C o n te n ts

Page

23.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N ......................................-................................................................................... 2 3 - 1

23 .2

ID E A L IZ E D A IR C IR C U L A T IO N .........................................................................................2 3 - 1

23.3

ID E A L IZ E D C IR C U L A T IO N W E A T H E R ........................................................................ 2 3 - 1

2 3 .4

B A S IC C L IM A T IC Z O N E S ......................................................................................................2 3 - 3

23.5

C L IM A T IC Z O N E S (B Y L A T IT U D E ).................................................................................2 3 - 4

23 .6

S U M M A R Y ......................................................................................................................................2 3 - 4

23 .7

S E A S O N A L E F F E C T ..................................................................................................................2 3 - 5

23 .8

T E M P E R A T U R E A N D T O P O G R A P H IC A L E F F E C T S ............................................. 2 3 - 6

2 3 .9

P R E S S U R E ................................................................................................................................. 2 3 - 1 4

2 3 .1 0

S U R F A C E W IN D S .................................................................................................................... 23 - 16

2 3.11

W E A T H E R .................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 2 1

2 3 .1 2

M O N S O O N S ...............................................................................................................................2 3 - 2 3

2 3 .1 3

U P P E R W IN D S ............................................................................................................................2 3 - 2 5

2 3 .1 4

W A V E S ........................................................................................................................................2 3 - 3 0

G L O B A L C L IM A T O L O G Y Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................... 2 3 - 3 3
A P P E N D I X A .......................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 4 1
A P P E N D I X B

.......................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 4 2

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METEOROLOGY
23.1

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

IN T R O D U C T I O N
W e h a v e stu d ie d h o w th e in d iv id u a l e le m e n ts o f w e a th e r o c c u r, h o w w in d s o cc u r, the
p r e c ip ita tio n th a t fa lls fro m th e c lo u d s a n d so on.

W e n o w n e e d to lo o k a t h o w all th e se

ele m e n ts c o m e to g e th e r to fo rm w e a t h e r a n d h o w th is w e a th e r v a rie s fro m p la c e to p la ce . T h e


w e a th e r a t a p la c e m a k e s its c lim a te ; th e s tu d y o f th is c lim a te is c alle d c lim a to lo g y .
T h e e le m e n ts o f c lim a to lo g y a re p r e c i p it a t i o n , te m p e r a tu r e , h u m id ity , s u n s h in e a n d w in d
ve lo c ity .
T h e s e e le m e n ts w ill b e a ffe c te d d iffe re n tly a c ro ss th e g lo b e b y ; l a titu d e , lo c a tio n ( m a ritim e o r
co n tin e n ta l), th e c irc u la tio n o f p r e s s u r e s y s te m s , a ltitu d e an d g e o g r a p h y .
O v e r th e y e a rs c lim a to lo g ic a l d a ta h a s b e e n a c c u m u la te d to su c h a d e g re e th a t w e a th e r
fo re c a stin g o n a n a re a b a s is h a s b e c o m e q u ite a c c u ra te a n d co m m u n ic a tio n s h a v e im p ro v e d to
su c h a d e g re e th a t w e a th e r e x p e c te d o n a rriv a l a t a d e stin a tio n ( a n d th e w e a th e r en -ro u te ) m a y
e a s ily b e o b ta in e d . T h is c h a p te r w ill d e a l w ith c lim a to lo g y o n a g lo b al b a s is a n d its re g io n a l an d
se a so n a l v a riatio n s.
23 .2

ID E A L I Z E D A I R C I R C U L A T I O N
T h e g e n e ra l a ir c irc u la tio n is a v e ry c o m p lic a te d sy stem o f a ir m o v em en ts. T h e se m o v em en ts,
w h ile b a s e d o n th e p a s s a g e o f a ir fro m h ig h p re ssu re to low a n d th e e ffe c t o f th e ro tatio n o f the
e a rth , a re c o m p lic a te d by:
a)

T h e u n e q u a l h e a tin g o f la n d a n d s e a to g e th e r w ith la n d a n d se a d isp o sitio n .

b)

V a ria tio n in la n d h e a tin g c a u s e d b y d iffe re n t su rfaces.

c)

T h e 2 3 14 in c lin a tio n o f th e e a rth s a x is w h ic h ca u se s m o v em en t o f th e th e rm a l eq u ato r.

It is th e re fo re u se fu l to c o n s id e r a n a ir c irc u la tio n w h ic h ig n o re s th e se m a in c o m p lic a tio n s a n d


to u se th is a s a b a s is fo r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e c o n d itio n s w h ic h a c tu a lly p rev a il. T h e id ea lized
c irc u la tio n a ssu m e s th a t th e e a r th s su rfa c e is c o v e re d w ith s e a a n d th a t th e g e o g ra p h ic an d
th e rm a l e q u a to rs a re c o in c id e n t. In fa c t, s in c e th e su rfa c e o f th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re is larg e ly
c o v e re d b y se a , c lim a to lo g y in th a t h e m isp h ere v e ry c lo se ly fo llo w s th e id ea lize d case.
23 .3

ID E A L I Z E D C I R C U L A T I O N W E A T H E R
W ith a u n ifo rm s p h e ric a l e a rth , th e te m p e ra tu re w o u ld o n ly vary w ith latitu d e. P ressu re a t an y
g iv e n h e ig h t o v e r th e e q u a to r w o u ld th e n b e g re a te r th a n th a t a t a n y h e ig h t o v e r th e p o le s. T h u s
a ir w o u ld d rift a t h e ig h t fro m th e e q u a to r to th e p o le s, h e lp in g to p ro d u c e h ig h latitu d e
an tic y c lo n e s a n d c a u s in g a m o v e m e n t o n th e su rfac e o f a ir f ro m p o le s to e q u ato r.

23-1

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G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY
H o w e v e r,

th is

c y c lic

POLAR TROPOPAUSE

m o v e m e n t o f a ir w o u ld b e

TROPOSPHERE

a ffe c te d b y th e r o ta tio n o f
th e

e a rth ,

c irc u la tio n

and

th e

w o u ld

be

POLAR HIGH
VARIABLE EASTERLIES

F ig u re 23.1.

M S:

TRAVELLING LOWS
FRONTAL ACTIVITY
VARIABLE WESTERLIES

m o d ifie d to th a t s h o w n in

fG l

iiaM Fiiiiiiii

V \-

* y .i

SUBTROPICAL HIGH

NE TRADE WINDS
| EQUATORIAL TROUGH/
THERMAL EQUAT CR ' l i e /
g E TRAOEW,NOS
SUBTROPICAL HIGH
VARIABLE WESTERLIES
TRAVELLING LOWS /
FRONTAL ACTIVITY
VARIABLE EASTERLIES

TROPOSPHERE
POLAR TROPOPAUSE

F ig u re 2 3 .1 .

Id e a lis e d D is trib u tio n o f S u rfa c e P re ssu re


o v e r th e E arth.

A n tic y c lo n e s, fo rm e d b y
H a d le y C e lls a ro u n d 30

ARCTIC
TROPOPAUSE

NORTH
POLE

POLAR FRONT
JET STREAM
MID LATITUDE
.TROPOPAUSE

N a n d S , a n d k n ow n as
POLAR
FRONT

su b -tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s,

SUBTROPICAL
' JET STREAM

w o u ld p ro v id e a su rfa c e
o u tflo w
so m e

of

w a rm

o f w h ic h

air,

RADIATIVE
SINKING

w o u ld

\ TROPICAL
TROPOPAUSE

m o v e to w a rd s th e n e a re r
po le . T h is a ir w o u ld m e e t

HADLEY
CELL

th e c o ld a n tic y c lo n ic flo w
fro m th e p o la r re g io n s,
th u s p ro v id in g a re a s o f
fro n ta l activ ity .

| EQUATOR

F ig u re 2 3 .2 . H a d le y C ell, P o la r F ro n t a n d A s s o c ia te d
W in d -F lo w s .
T h e H a d le y C e ll a n d P o la r F ro n t, w ith th e v e rtic al a irflo w s th a t c a u s e th e m , a r e sh o w n a t F ig u re
23.2.
F ro m th e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s in e a c h h e m isp h ere , su rfa c e o u tflo w a lso o c c u rs to w a rd s th e
e q u a to r. T h is c o n v e rg e n c e c a u se s ris in g a ir a n d m u c h in sta b ility in th e E q u a to ria l Z o n e , a n d is
k n o w n a s th e In te r T ro p ic a l C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e (IT C Z ).

2 3 - 2

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METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

T h e E a rth s c lim a tic e n g in e , th e a irflo w p a th w a y s o f th e w o rld , c le a rly d e m o n stra te h o w th e


clim a tic z o n e s o f e a rth a re in te rre la te d . M o is tu re la d e n a ir ris e s a lo n g th e IT C Z c a u sin g m asse s
o f c u m u lo n im b u s th u n d e rc lo u d s to d e v e lo p g iv in g rise to th e h e a v y ra in s in th e tro p ic a l reg io n s.
U p p e r a ir fro m th e H a d le y a n d F e rre l ce lls, in d ic a te d in F ig u re 2 3 .2 ., m ee t a n d a re c o o le d a n d
u n d e rg o ra d ia tiv e s in k in g to p ro d u c e th e S u b T ro p ic a l H ig h P re ssu re z o n e s a t th e E a rth s su rfac e
g iv in g s e ttle d w e a th e r.
T h e a ir stre a m s s e p a ra te h e re in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , o n e flo w s S o u th a s th e N E T rad e
W in d s w h ils t th e o th e r flo w s N o rth to b e c o m e te m p e ra te la titu d e W e ste rlie s. T h e flo w is
m irro re d in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re .
T h e P o la r F ro n t is c a u s e d b y c o ld a ir o f th e P o la r C e ll fo rm in g a w e d g e b e n e a th th e w a rm e r
F e rre l C e ll. C o m p le x a irflo w p a tte rn s a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e P o la r F ro n t a re r e sp o n sib le fo r th e
v a g a rie s in th e w e a th e r o f m id la titu d e s.
2 3 .4

B A S IC C L I M A T I C Z O N E S
A d ia b a tic c o o lin g o f th e a ir b y a sc e n t, p ro d u c in g c lo u d a n d m u c h p r e c ip ita tio n , w ill o c c u r in th e
e q u a to ria l re g io n a n d in th e te m p e ra te fro n ta l z o n e s. C o n v e rse ly , m a in ly a rid c o n d itio n s w ill
a p p ly in th e a n tic y c lo n ic p o la r a n d su b -tro p ic a l re g io n s b e c a u se o f su b sid e n c e . T h e G lo b e
th e re fo re m a y b e c o n v e n ie n tly d iv id e d in to a n u m b e r o f clim a tic zo n e s a s s h o w n in F ig u re 23.3.

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G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
2 3 .5

C L I M A T I C Z O N E S ( B Y L A T IT U D E )
E q u a t o r i a l 0 - 1 0 d e g r e e s . T w o m a in w e t s e a so n s - a t th e E qu in o x es. N e v e r dry. M uch
co n v e c tio n c lo u d a n d h e a v y ra in s h o w e rs a n d th u n d ersto rm s. T e m p e ra tu re a n d h u m id ity high.
L ig h t s u rfa c e w in d s ( th e D o ld ru m s).
S a v a n n a h /tr o p ic a l tr a n s i t io n a l 1 0 - 2 0 d e g re e s .

D r y T ra d e W in d c o n d itio n s in w in te r.

E q u a to ria l r a in s in su m m er. D u ra tio n o f w e t p e rio d d e c re a se s a s la titu d e in c rea ses to w a rd s 20


A r id s u b - tr o p ic a l / s t e p p e 2 0 - 3 5 d e g r e e s .

T y p ic a l s u b -tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n ic w ea th e r.

D e s c e n d in g a ir - w a rm & d ry . P ro d u c e s ty p ic a l d e s e rt clim ate w ith sh o rt w e t se a so n a t th e d e se rt


ed g e - a t th e lo w la titu d e e d g e in su m m e r fro m th e IT C Z , a n d a t th e h ig h la titu d e e d g e in w in te r
fro m te m p e ra te z o n e a c tiv ity . D e se rts in c lu d e S a h ara , K a la h a ri, G ib so n , A ra b ia n , A riz o n a &
S o u th A m erica. T h e z o n e in c lu d e s th e T ra d e W in d b e lt.
T h e se m i-a rid S te p p e ty p e c lim a te b o rd e rs th e d e se rt re g io n s a n d h a s a sh o rt ra in fa ll season.
W e a th e r g iv e s g ra ssy , tre e le s s p lain s.

E x a m p le s a re th e R u ssia n S te p p es a n d th e S o u th

A m e ric a n P am p as.
W a r m te m p e r a t e 3 5 - 4 0 d e g r e e s .

M e d ite rra n e a n ty p e c lim a te .

D istu rb e d te m p era te

c o n d itio n s in w in te r w ith fro n ta l a n d th e rm a l d ep re ssio n s. In s um m er, w a rm a n d d ry a s the rm al


e q u a to r m o v e s to w a rd s th e p ole.
C o o l te m p e r a t e 4 0 - 6 5 d e g r e e s .

W e a th e r is c o n tro lle d m a in ly b y tr a v e llin g p o la r fro n t

d e p re ssio n s. W in d s a re w e ste rly ; g a le s a re fre q u e n t in w in ter. T h e re is n o d ry s eason.


B o r e a l z o n e 4 0 -6 0 N .

B e tw e e n th e C o o l T e m p e ra te a n d P o la r z o n e s in th e N o rth e rn

H e m isp h e re lie s th e B o re a l Z o n e . O c c u rs o v e r t h e la n d m a sse s o f n o rth e rn N o rth A m erica,


S c a n d in a v ia a n d n o r th R u ssia . C h a ra c te ris e d b y w a rm , m o ist s u m m ers a n d v ery c o ld w in ters.
P o l a r 6 5 - 9 0 d e g re e s . F o r m u c h o f th e tim e , a n tic y c lo n ic w e a th e r - v ery c o ld a n d dry, b ut
m o d ifie d b y d e p re s s io n s p e n e tra tin g th e p e rip h e ra l re g io n in su m m e r to b rin g u n s e ttle d w ea th e r
a n d p re c ip ita tio n .
In s o m e a re a s , te m p e ra tu re s c a n ris e a b o v e z e ro f o r a m o n th o r so , g iv in g a T u n d ra C lim a te o f
s p a rse v e g e ta tio n , e g L ic h e n a n d M o s s . S u b so il re m a in s p e rm a n e n tly fro z e n - P e rm afrost.
2 3 .6

SUM M ARY
T h e id e a liz e d w e a th e r d e s c rib e d a b o v e w ill b e m o d ifie d b y local to p o g ra p h y a n d b y th e
p ro x im ity o f s e a a re a s . T h e e ffe c t o f th e s e o n te m p e ra tu re , d e n sity a n d p re ssu re c a n h a v e a
m a rk e d e ffe c t o n lo c a l c lim ato lo g y .

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METEOROLOGY
23 .7

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

SEA SO N A L E FFE C T
F ig u re 2 3 .1 . a ssu m e s , a p a rt f ro m a n a ll-s e a w o rld , th a t th e s u n s su b p o in t e n c irc le s t h e g lo b e
a lo n g th e e q u a to r in a ll se aso n s.
In p ra c tic e , th e e a rth s p o la r a x is is in c lin e d a t a n a n g le o f 23 Z- to th e p la n e o f th e p a th th a t th e
e a rth tra v e ls th ro u g h sp a c e d u rin g th e y e a r. T h is p a th is sh o w n in F ig u re 2 3 .4. a n d it m a y b e se en
th a t, w h ile th e s u n s s u b p o in t is o n th e e q u a to r a t th e E q u in o x e s o n 21 M a rc h a n d 21 S eptem ber,
it is o n th e T ro p ic o f C a n c e r ( 2 3 14N) a t th e S o lstice o f 21 Ju n e a n d o n th e T ro p ic o f C a p ric o rn
(23'/2S) a t th e S o ls tic e o f 21 D e c e m b e r.

H e n c e w h e n v ie w e d f ro m th e e a rth th e s u n s su b la titu d e a p p e a rs to m o v e s o u th w a rd s fro m th e


T ro p ic o f C a n c e r o n 21 J u n e to th e T ro p ic o f C a p ric o rn o n 21 D e c e m b e r th e n n o rth w a rd s a g a in
re tu rn in g to 2 3 /2N th e n e x t Ju n e.
It m a y b e n o te d th a t a b o v e 66 Z t N (th e A rc tic C ircle) th e su n is a b o v e t h e h o riz o n 2 4 h o u rs a
d a y o n 21 J u n e a n d b e lo w th e h o riz o n 2 4 h o u rs a d a y o n 21 D ece m b e r. T h e r e v e rse is tru e in
th e A n ta rc tic .
In th e a c tu a l w o rld th e s e a so n a l m o v e m e n t o f th e th e rm a l e q u a to r c a n p ro d u c e tro p ic a l ra in s
m o v in g in to th e s u m m e r h e m is p h e re ; th a t is, N o r th in Ju ly o r S o u th in Jan u a ry . W e th u s h a v e
a tra n s itio n a l re g io n in e a c h h e m is p h e re b e tw e e n th e su b -tro p ic a l h ig h s a n d th e e q u a to ria l low .
E a c h w ill b e s u b je c t to tro p ic a l r a in in s u m m e r a n d to d ry tra d e w in d w e a th e r in w in te r. N e a r
th e e q u a to r th e re w ill b e r a in n e a rly a ll th e tim e, w ith m a x im u m ra in fa ll a b o u t th e tim e o f th e
e q u in o x e s a n d m in im u m a t th e so lstic e s.

23-5

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G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY

T h e h o tte s t b a n d a ro u n d th e e q u a to r o r H e a t E q u a to r , w ill m o v e N o rth a n d S o u th s o m e 10


o f la titu d e in sy m p a th y w ith th e s u n s m o v e m e n t, a lb e it a b o u t a m o n th la te r a n d in d e e d all
clim a tic z o n e s w ill so m ove. T h is g iv e s r is e to th e N o rth e rn a n d S o u th e rn c lim a tic ex tre m e s in
th e a ll-s e a w o rld a s s h o w n in F ig u re 23.5.

F ig u re 2 3 .5 . S e a s o n a l M o v e m e n t o f th e W o rld C lim a tic Z o n e s.


Sim ila rly , th e d is tu rb a n c e s o f th e te m p e ra te z o n e e x te n d to w a rd s th e e q u a to r in w in te r a n d a w a y
ag a in in su m m e r s o th a t a re a s o n th e p o la r s id e o f th e su b -tro p ic al h ig h s h a v e w in te r c y c lo n ic
ra in s a n d d ry su m m ers.
23 .8

T E M P E R A T U R E A N D T O P O G R A P H IC A L E F F E C T S
T h e su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re o f a n id e a liz e d a ll s e a w o rld w o u ld c o o l ev e n ly w ith la titu d e in c rea se
be c a u s e th e s u n s e le v a tio n w o u ld re d u c e . In p ra c tic e th is e v e n c o o lin g w ill b e m u c h m o d ifie d
b y th e p re s e n c e o f la n d m a sse s, e sp e c ia lly in th e N o rth e rn H em isp h ere w h e re th e c o n tin e n ts o f
A s ia a n d N o rth A m e ric a a re v ast.
O n e e ffe c t is th a t th e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s d o so m etim es b re a k d o w n d u e to su m m ertim e
la n d h e a tin g w h ic h lo w e rs p re s s u re . C o n v e rsely , c o n tin e n ts o u ts id e th e su b -tro p ic a l h ig h b e lt
ca n e x p e rie n c e w in te rtim e la n d c o o lin g w h ic h ra ise s p ressu re.
In J a n u a r y th e te m p e ra tu re in A s ia is e x c e p tio n a lly c o ld a s s h o w n in F ig u re 2 3 .6 . T h e w in te r
c o ld a ir o v e r c en tra l A s ia is d u e to its d is ta n c e fro m th e se a , lo n g n ig h ts an d w in te r lo n g
te rre s tria l ra d ia tio n . It w ill b e h e ld b a c k fro m In d ia a n d P a k ista n to th e s o u th b y th e H im ala y as.
In N o r th A m e r ic a th e c o ld is f u rth e r e n h a n c e d b y th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s w h ic h b lo c k w a rm
P a c ific a ir w h ile t h e a b s e n c e o f a b a rrie r to th e N o rth a llo w s A rc tic a ir to m o v e so u th . N o rth
A tl a n ti c te m p e ra tu re s w ill re m a in c o m p a ra tiv e ly h ig h d u e to th e w a rm w a te r s e a c u rre n t from
th e G u lf o f M e x ic o . H e n c e p re v a ilin g w e s te rly w in d s fro m th e A tla n tic w ill w a rm th e a d ja c e n t
la n d m a s s e s o f U K a n d W e s te rn F ra n c e . S o u th e r n H e m is p h e re iso th e rm s w ill b e n e a r th e
id e a l d u e to t h e g re a te r s e a are a s.

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F ig u re 2 3 .6 A v e ra g e M e a n S e a L e v e l T e m p e ra tu re s in D e g re e s C e ls iu s in
Ja n u a ry .

23-

co

F ig u re 2 3 .7 . A v e ra g e M e a n S e a L e vel T e m p e ra tu re s in D e g re e s C e ls iu s in
July.

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY

In J u ly , C e n tra l N o r th A m e r ic a is w a rm e d b y a ir fre e to m o v e n o r th fro m th e G u lf o f M ex ico ;


th e v a s t a re a o f A s ia is w a n n e d b y th e su n . T h e se co n tin e n ts a re n o w w a rm e r th a n t h e G u lf
stre a m -w a rm e d -A tla n tic s o th a t iso th e rm s a re re v e rse d a s sh o w n in F ig u re 2 3 .7 ., a lth o u g h
c o n tra s ts a re le s s th a n in Jan u a ry . In th e S o u th e r n H e m is p h e r e th e Ju ly w in te r re fle c ts s om e
s e a so n a l o c e a n c o o lin g b u t iso th e rm s s till e q u a te a p p ro x im a te ly w ith latitu d e.
It w ill b e re a liz e d fro m F ig u re 2 3 .7 . th a t in h ig h la titu d e s , a n n u a l su rfa c e c o n tin e n ta l land
te m p e ra tu re s w ill h a v e w id e e x tre m e s, w h e re a s s e a te m p e ra tu re s w ill v a ry m u ch le ss d u rin g th e
y e a r.

T h is h a s im p lic a tio n f o r in sta n c e o n th e lo c a tio n o f p o la r fro n ts a n d th e stre n g th o f

je ts tre a m s . A t th e E q u a t o r te m p e ra tu re s v a ry little. T y p ic a l W in te r a n d S u m m er d iffere n ce s


a re s h o w n a t F ig u re 2 3 .8 .

Figure 23.8. Annual Range o f Temperature in Degrees Celsius.

A s d is tin c t fro m se a so n a l v a ria tio n , te m p e ra tu re s w ill a lso ch a n g e d a ily , b u t d iu rn a l c h a n g e w ill


b e m o s t in a re a s o v e r la n d m a s s e s s in c e i t is in th is c irc u m stan c e th a t th e s u n s h e a tin g e ffe c t is
g re a te st. F ig u re 2 3 .9 . c h a rts t h e d iu rn a l d iffere n ce s.

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1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY

Ju s t a s s u r f a c e te m p e ra tu re s c h a n g e m o re w ith d e p a rtu re fro m th e e q u a to r, so w ill te m p e ra tu re s


alo ft. A t th e g e o g ra p h ic a l e q u a to r th e f re e z in g level is 1 6000', a lth o u g h lo ca l Ly a s h ig h a s 18000'
in J u ly w h e n t h e h e a t e q u a to r lie s o v e rla n d in S E A sia ; b e c a u se o f th is h ail in th u n d e rsto rm s
w o u ld m e lt b e fo re r e a c h in g M e a n S e a L e v e l. E lse w h e re in b o th h e m isp h e re s th e f ree zin g level
ch a n g e w ill b e s e a so n a lly w id e r b u t e sp e c ia lly so o v e r la n d are as. F ig u re s 2 3 .1 0 . a n d 2 3.11.
refe r.
S u m m a r y . T o p o g ra p h ic a l te m p e ra tu re v a ria tio n s w ill a ffe c t su rfa c e p re ssu re a n d d isto rt th e
id e a liz e d d is trib u tio n sh o w n in F ig u re 2 3 . 1 so th a t w h e re a s th e c lim a tic p re ssu re z o n e s w ill b e
m a in ta in e d o v e r th e o c e a n s , th e p re s s u re p a tte rn s o v e r la n d , a n d h e n c e th e w in d s a n d w ea th e r,
w ill b e g o v e rn e d m u c h m o re b y s u rfa c e te m p e ra tu re c h an g e s. T h is w ill a p p ly e s p e c ia lly to th e
N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re , w h e re tw o -th ird s o f th e w o rld s la n d m a sse s lie.

2 3 -1 0

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METEORO LO G Y

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

R e la tiv e H u m id ity . F ig u re 2 3 .1 0 sh o w s h o w re la tiv e h u m id ity v a rie s w ith la titu d e a n d season.

Latitude, degrees

Figure 23.10 Zonal distribution o f the relative humidity

SMA L L V
f

CHANGE

16,000 FT

'

Figure 23.11. Height in Feet of Freezing Level in January.

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Figure 23.12 Height in Feet o f Freezing Level in July

Figure 23.13. Average Mean Sea Level Pressures in Millibars in January.

METEOROLOGY
23 .9

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

PRESSURE
a)

JA N U A R Y
i)

In t h e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re th e p a tte rn is c lo se to th e id e a liz e d c ircu latio n .

ii)

T h e E q u a t o r i a l L o w P r e s s u r e z o n e lies to th e s o u th o f th e e q u a to r.

iii)

S u b - tr o p ic a l h ig h s a re e s ta b lish e d o v e r o c e a n ic a r e a s .

iv )

C o ld w e a t h e r h ig h s a re e s ta b lish e d o v e r N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re l a n d m a sse s.

v)

T h e re a re s ig n ific a n t p re s s u re a re a s in th e r e g io n of:

I c e la n d (L o w )

1000 m b s

(sta tistic a l low )

A le u tia n s (L o w )

1000 m b s

(sta tistic a l lo w )

N . A u s tra lia (L o w )

1005 m bs

S ib e ria (H ig h )

1035 m bs

N . A m e ric a (H ig h )

1020 m b s

A z o re s (H ig h )

1020 m b s

P a c ific (H ig h )

1020 m b s

23-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

Figure 23.14

Average Mean Sea Level Pressures in Millibars in July.

2 3 -1 5

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY
b)

JU L Y
i)

In th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re th e p a tte rn re m a in s c lo se to th e id eal. O v e rla n d

ii)

T h e E q u a t o r i a l lo w p r e s s u r e z o n e lie s to th e n o r th o f th e e q u ato r.

iii)

W h e re s u b -tro p ic a l h ig h s w o u ld b e e x p e c te d in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re , low

te m p e ra tu re s a re c o ld e r th u s th e su b tro p ic a l h ig h is g e n e ra lly unb ro k en .

p re s s u re a re a s n o w fo rm o v e r la n d m a sse s d u e to s o la r h e a tin g .

T h u s th e

S ib e r ia n H ig h o f J a n u a ry is r e p la c e d b y th e B a lu c h is ta n L o w , c e n tre d o v er
P a k ista n b u t a ffe c tin g a ll o f A sia .

N A m e ric a a lso h a s lo w pre ssu re.

iv )

T h e A le u tia n a n d N A u s t r a l ia lo w s d isap p ear.

v)

I c e la n d ic s ta tis tic a l lo w p re ssu re is le ss d e e p a n d is n o w d isp e rse d in to th ree


sm all areas:
O f f G r e e n la n d , th e B a ltic a n d I c e la n d - 1 0 1 0 m b s

v i)
2 3 .1 0

T h e A z o r e s & P a c if ic H ig h s a re d o m in a n t a t 1025 m bs

S U R F A C E W IN D S
T h e w e s te r lie s o f te m p e r a t e la titu d e s .
W e s te rly w in d s e x is t in th e r e g io n b e tw e e n su b -tro p ic a l h ig h s a n d te m p e ra te lo w s. (4 0 - 60
d e g re e s la titu d e ). T h e s e a re c a u s e d b y th e tu rn in g e ffe c t o f G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (C o rio lis) o n th e
P o le w a r d o u tflo w fr o m th o s e su b -tro p ic a l h ig h s. In th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re th e w e ste rlie s
a p p ly m a in ly o v e r th e o c e a n s, w ith fre q u e n t w in te r g a le s. D u rin g th e su m m e r m o n th s th e se
w e s te rlie s a re le s s c o n s ta n t a n d le s s stro n g . In th e so u th e rn h e m isp h e re th e se w in d s a re la rg e ly
u n in te rru p te d b y la n d m a s se s a n d a re c o n s e q u e n tly stro n g . T h e y a re c a lle d T h e R o a r in g F o rtie s
- s o c a lle d b e c a u s e th e y b lo w p rin c ip a lly b e tw e e n la titu d e s F o rty a n d F ifty S o u th . W e a th e r in
th is b e lt c o m e s fro m ra p id ly m o v in g d e p re ssio n s; w ild w e a th e r, stro n g w e ste rly w in d s a n d gales,
o v e rc a s t sk ie s a n d h e a v y rain .
U n d e rn e a th th e su b -tro p ical-h ig h p re s s u re z o n e s th e w in d sp e e d is re la tiv e ly slo w a n d som e tim e s
n o n e x iste n t. T h e a re a s ( b e tw e e n 3 0 - 4 0 N ) h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n a s th e H o rse L a titu d e s fro m
th e tim e w h e n sa ilo rs e n -ro u te to th e A m e ric a s d isp o se d o f th e ir h o rs e s o f f th e s h ip s r a th e r th a n
h a v e to fe e d th e m w h e n th e s a ilin g s h ip s w e re b ec alm ed .
T r a d e w in d s . (T ro p ic a l E a ste rlie s)
T ra d e w in d s a re c o n s is te n t w in d s c o n v e rg in g to th e e q u a to ria l tro u g h fro m th e su b -tro p ica l h ig h
b e lt o n e a c h sid e o f it. T h e tu rn in g e ffe c t o f G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (C o rio lis) c a u se s n o r t h e a s t
t r a d e s in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re a n d s o u th e a s t t r a d e s in th e s o u th e rn . T h e tra d e w in d s b lo w
to w a rd s th e t h e r m a l e q u a t o r a n d w ill th e re fo re c h a n g e d ir e c tio n w h e n c ro ssin g th e
g e o g r a p h ic e q u a t o r . N E tra d e s w ill b a c k ; S E trad e s w ill v e e r. J a n u a ry flo w is sh o w n a t F ig u re
2 3 .1 5

a n d J u ly flo w a t F ig u re 2 3 .1 6 . F in e w e a th e r p re v a ils in th e p o le w a rd a n d e a ste rn p a rts o f

th e tr o p ic a l o c e a n s w h ile to w a rd s t h e w e s t a n d th e e q u a to r u n sta b le c o n d itio n s w ill d o m in ate,


w ith clo u d y , sh o w e ry w e a th e r.

2 3 -1 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

2 3 -1 7
Figure 23.15 Prevailing Surface W inds in January

2 3 -1 8
Figure 23.16 Prevailing Surface W inds in July

METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

M o n s o o n s . T h e s e a re s e a so n a l w in d s d u e to th e w in te r h ig h p re ssu re , o r su m m e r lo w p re ssu re ,
w h ic h d e v e lo p s o v e r la rg e c o n tin e n ts. T h e y a re p a rtic u la rly m a rk e d in S o u th a n d S o u th E a s t
A s ia a n d a lso o c c u r in W e s t A f r ic a . T h e y b lo w in c o n c e rt w ith th e tra d e w inds.
W e a th e r w ill d e p e n d v e ry m u c h o n th e tr a c k fo llo w e d . N E m o n so o n s o v e r c en tra l I n d ia w ill b e
d ry w ith little c lo u d , w h ils t th e S W m o n s o o n w ill b e w a rm a n d m o is t w ith m u c h c o n v e ctiv e
clo u d a n d h e a v y ra in . N E m o n so o n o v e r th e F a r E a s t w ill b e relativ ely d ry w h ils t th e S W
m o n so o n , w ith its lo n g s e a tra c k o v e r th e tro p ic a l o c e a n s w ill p ro d u c e v e ry w e t c o n d itio n s.

JANUARY

JULY
Figure 23.17 Monsoons

O t h e r w in d s . O u tsid e t h e m a in c u rre n ts th e re are:


a)

W in d s ap p lic a b le to th e lo c a l p re s s u re sy ste m p re v a ilin g a t th e tim e . E x a m p le v ariatio n s


a re sh o w n a t F ig u re 2 3 .1 8 .

Figure 23.18 Cool Temperate (W inter)

b)

S tro n g E a s te r lie s n e a r th e S o u th P o le. ( O u tflo w from S P o lar h ig h tu rn s le ft).

2 3 - 1 9

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
c)

G e n e ra lly stro n g e a s te r lie s n e a r th e N o r th P o le b u t in S u m m e r w e s te r lie s o v e r N


A tla n tic & N P a c if ic seas.

Figure 23.19 Polar Easterlies


d)

S e a b re e z e s , w h ic h c a n b e d o m in an t in lo w e r la titu d es.

Figure 23.20 Sea Breeze at Darwin in the W inter


(Against the flow)

23- 20

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
23.11

W EATHER
T e m p e r a t e la t i t u d e d e p re s s io n s . F ro n ta l d e p re ssio n s w ill b re e d a lo n g th e p o la r fr o n t w h e re
th is lies o v e r w id e o c e a n are a s. In. th e N o r t h e r n H e m is p h e r e th is w ill o c c u r b e tw e e n 3 5N a n d
65 N a c ro ss th e A tla n tic b e tw e e n N A m e r ic a a n d E u r o p e , a n d a s im ila r p a tte rn w ill e x ist
a c ro s s th e N o r th P a c if ic to a ffe c t th e W e s t C o a st o f N A m e ric a . In th e S o u th e r n H e m is p h e r e
P o la r fr o n t d e p re s s io n s w ill c e n tre a ro u n d 5 0 S in a ll se a s o n s w ith fro n ts a ffe c tin g t h e w e s t
c o a s t o f S o u th A m e ric a a lso N e w Z e a la n d a n d th e S o u th C o a st o f A u stralia.
P o l a r A i r O u t b r e a k s . F o u n d g e n e ra lly in w in te rtim e , th e se a re d e p re ssio n s a ffe c tin g C en tral
an d N o rth C h in a a s w e ll a s C e n tra l a n d S o u th e rn U n ite d S tates. B e h in d th e c o ld fro n t fresh
ou tb re a k s o f v e ry c o ld c o n tin e n ta l p o la r a ir g r e a tly re d u c e m e a n tem p e ra tu re s. T h e se w in te r
m e a n te m p e ra tu re s a re c o n s id e ra b ly b e lo w th o s e o f e q u iv a le n t la titu d e s.

T h e e q u a t o r i a l tr o u g h / I T C Z .
a)

T h e tro u g h is c e n tre d o n th e t h e r m a l e q u a to r . H ig h tem p e ra tu re s c a u se lo w p ressu re,


p a rtic u la rly o v e r la n d , w ith w id e s p re a d liftin g o f a ir fro m th e T ra d e W in d s w h ich
c o n v e rg e b e lo w a t th e su rfa c e . T h is a re a is k n o w n a s th e ITC Z.

Figure 23.22 The Approximate Position o f the Equatorial Trough


2 3 - 21

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY
b)

T h e m a in fe a tu re o f th e I T C Z is e x te n siv e C u , C b & t h u n d e r s to r m s . W h e n sta b le a ir


e x ists, th e re w ill b e e x te n siv e s h e e ts o f A s & N s c lo u d a n d m o re c o n tin u o u s ty p e rain.

c)

T h e I T C Z c a n v a ry fro m 2 5 n m s to 3 0 0 n m s in w id th a n d th e re is n o w e ll d efin e d
fro n ta l su rfa c e . C lo u d is n o t c a u s e d b y a ir m a ss te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s a s a t th e p o la r
fro n t, b u t b y c o n v e r g e n c e o f th e N E a n d S E tra d e w in d s w h ic h are n o rm a lly th e sam e
te m p e ra tu re . T h e c lo u d to p s a re s o m e tim es as lo w a s 2 0 ,0 0 0 ft b u t m o re freq u en tly
5 0 ,0 0 0 f t o r m o re.

d)

T u rb u le n c e is u s u a lly se v e re , a s is ic in g , w h ic h c a n b e f ro m 16,000 f t u pw ards.

e)

V ig o ro u s a n d q u ie t I T C Z c ro s s se c tio n s a re s h o w n a t F ig u re s 2 3 .2 3 . & 2 3.24.

Figure 23.23 Cross-section o f a vigorous ITCZ

F ig u re 2 3 .2 4 Cross-section o f a quiet ITCZ

23-22

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEORO LO GY

23.12
a)

W h e n t r a d e w in d s b lo w to co n tin e n ta l
lo w p re s s u re o r f r o m c o n tin e n ta l h ig h
p re s s u re th e a s s o c ia te d w e a th e r is
k n o w n a s a m o n s o o n . T h e re a re th re e
m o n s o o n flo w s; th e N E , N W & S W .

F ig u re 2 3 .2 5 M o n soo n on G lo be

b)

T h e N E M O N S O O N o f A s ia b lo w s
fro m th e w in te r S ib e ria n h ig h a n d is
c o n s e q u e n tly c o o l & c o m p a r a tiv e ly
d ry

g iv in g

c le a r

w e a th e r

over

B a n g la d e s h , B u r m a a n d T h a ila n d .
S E I n d ia , S r i L a n k a & E a s t C o a s t o f
W e s t M a la y s ia a re a ls o a ffe c te d by
th is m o n so o n , b u t h e re th e o v e r-se a
tra c k p ic k s u p m o is tu r e a n d p ro d u c e s
h e a p t y p e c lo u d s a n d t h u n d e r s t o r m s
and

heavy

p re c ip ita tio n

w hen

c ro s s in g c o a s ta l m o u n ta in ra n g es.

Figure 23.26 North East Monsoon and


N o rth W e s t M o n soo n

c)

T h e N W M O N S O O N is re a lly a n ex te n sio n o f th e N E M o n so o n w h ic h b a c k s on
c ro s s in g th e e q u a to r s o u th b o u n d a n d b rin g s C u , C b an d t h u n d e r s t o r m s to N o r th
A u s tr a lia & N ew G u in e a . S e e fig. 23.26.

23-23

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY
d)

T h e S W M O N S O O N is p ro d u c e d b y the
S E T ra d e W in d c ro s s in g th e e q u a to r an d
v e e rin g to S W a n d th e n c e to th e su m m e r
B a lu c h ista n L o w .

H a v in g a lo n g sea

tra c k , th is m o n s o o n is v ery m o is t and


p r o d u c e s m u c h h e a v y C u & C b w ith
l a r g e s c a le th u n d e r s t o r m s .

I t a ffe c ts

a ll o f I n d i a , S r i L a n k a , B u r m a an d
e x p o s e d c o a s ts o f W e s t M a la y s ia I t h a s
a m o re se rio u s e ffe c t o n fly in g th a n th e
NE

M on so o n ,

th u n d e rs to rm s ,

w ith

lo w

heavy

c lo u d

b ase &

s e v e r e tu r b u le n c e . T h e S W M o n so o n
a ls o a ffe c ts th e W e s t A f r ic a n c o a s t,
n o ta b ly

G u in e a ,

G hana

&

N o r th

N ig e ria .
e)

In s u m m a r y . T h e w o rld s r a in fa ll i s p ro d u c e d p rin c ip a lly b y th e w e a th e r fro m th e IT C Z


a n d a s s o c ia te d m o n so o n s, a ls o fro m th e tw o C o o l T e m p e ra te zo n es.

T h e tw o

su b tro p ic a l h ig h b e lts a n d tw o p o la r h ig h s w ill u su a lly b e d ry . N e v e rth e le ss th e se


p a tte rn s m a y b e a lte re d sig n ific a n tly b y lo c a l to p o g ra p h ic a l f e atu res. T h e e x tre m e s o f
ra in fa ll a re in d ic a te d o n th e c h a rt a t F ig u re 2 3.2 8 .

LESS THAN 10 INCHES


MORE THAN 80 INCHES

Figure 23.28. Mean Annual Precipitation Showing Extreme W et and Dry Areas.

23 - 24

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

M ETEOROLOGY
23.13

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

U P P E R W IN D S
a)

S u b T r o p ic a l J e t s . T h e s e j e t s b lo w a t th e 2 0 0 m b le v e l in e a c h h e m isp h e re b e tw e e n
2 5 a n d 4 0 la titu d e in w in te r an d 4 0 a n d 4 5 in sum m er. T h e c a u s e is th e up p er
p re s s u re g ra d ie n t b e tw e e n th e d e sc e n d in g w a rm a n d c o ld a ir o n e ith e r s id e o f th e sub
tr o p ic a l h ig h p re s su re b e lt. S e e F ig u re 2 3 .2 9 a n d 2 3 .2 5 . S p e e d s c a n b e in e x c e ss o f 100
k ts. (U p to 3 0 0 k ts n e a r Ja p an ).

b)

P o l a r F r o n t J e t s . T h e P o la r F ro n t je ts in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re a re o f a tr a n sie n t


n a tu re a n d m o v e w ith th e P o la r F ro n t a s i t m o v e s s o u th in w in te r a n d n o rth in sum m er.
P o la r F ro n t J e ts a re c a u s e d b y th e u p p e r p re ssu re g ra d ie n t b e tw e e n th e T m w a rm a n d P m
c o ld a ir m a sse s o n e ith e r sid e o f th e p o la r front.
I n th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re th e y a re m o re c o n sta n t a n d b lo w a ro u n d th e 5 0 th p ara llel.
T h e y a re le s s s tro n g th a n th o se i n th e n o rth e rn h em isp h e re.

c)

T r o p ic a l E a s te r ly J e t ( E q u a t o r ia l E a s te r ly J e t) . S tro n g e a ste rlie s t h a t o c c u r in the


n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re s su m m e r b e tw e e n 10 a n d 20 n o rth , w h e re th e c o n tra st b etw e en
in te n se ly h e a te d c e n tra l A s ia n p la te a u x a n d u p p e r a ir f u rth e r s o u th is g rea te st. It ru n s
fro m S o u th C h in a S e a w e stw a rd s a c ro ss S o u th e rn In d ia , E th io p ia a n d th e s u b Sahara.
T y p ic a lly h e ig h ts c irc a 150 h P a (1 3 -1 4 k m ; 4 5 ,0 0 0 ft). T h e se e a ste rlie s c a n g iv e w a y to
w e ste rlie s e s p e c ia lly in J a n u a ry a s th e IT C Z m o v es s outh.

d)

A r c t i c J e t S t r e a m fo u n d b e tw e e n th e b o u n d a ry o f a rc tic a ir a n d p o la r air. T y p ic a lly in


w in te r at a ro u n d 6 0 n o rth b u t in th e U S A a ro u n d 4 5 to 50 n o rth . T h e c o re v aries
b e tw e e n 3 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 h P a . I t is a tra n sie n t fe atu re fo u n d o v e r la rg e co n tin e n ts d u rin g
a rc tic a ir o u tb re a k s.

23-25

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

2 3 -2 6
Figure 23.29 Sub-Tropical Jetstreams - January

2 3 -2 7

2 3 -2 8

Figure 23.31 Equatorial Upper Winds - January

2 3 -2 9
Figure 23.32 Equatorial Upper Winds - July

METEO RO LO G Y
d)

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

H ig h L e v e l W in d s O v e r I n d ia . W ith th e o n se t o f th e S W M o n so o n (M a y to Ju ne),
la rg e c h a n g e s o c c u r o v e r In d ia a t th e 2 0 0 m b lev el. T h e a x is o f th e w e ste rly su b -tro p ic al
j e t m o v e s n o rth o f th e H im a la y a s a n d th e h ig h lev el w in d s a c ro ss In d ia b e c o m e e a s te rly .

e)

E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . In th e ea ste rn M e d iterran e an in w inter, su b -tro p ic a l je t strea m


w in d s o c c u r p a rtic u la rly a t th e 2 0 0 m b lev el. T h e y are n o rm a lly in th e C y p ru s/E g y p tian
C o a st a re a w ith w e ste rlie s in e x c e ss o f 100 kts. 2 25 k ts h a s b e e n rec o rd e d . (S e e F igures
2 3.31 & 2 3 .3 2 )

f)

P o la r W in d s .

N e a r th e p o le s th e re a re stro n g

w e s te r lie s in w i n t e r b e c a u s e th e p o la r tro p o p au se
te m p e ra tu re is lo w e r th a n th a t a t te m p e rate
latitu d e. R e m e m b e r - b a c k to th e w in d - N o rth ern
H e m isp h e re -lo w t e m p e r a t u r e o n th e le ft).

Figure 23.33 Polar Upper


W inds - Winter

In S u m m e r , a s th e p o la r tr o p o p a u se tem p e ratu re
ris e s a n d e x c e e d s th a t a t T e m p e ra te L atitu d es, th e
W e s te rlie s re d u c e a n d b e c o m e E a s te rlie s .

2 3.14

Figure 23.34 P olar Upper


W inds - Sum mer
W AVES
a)

E a s te r l y W a v e s . A n e a s te rly w av e is a w av e o rtr o u g h o f lo w p ressu re , o rig in atin g over


W e s t A fric a b e tw e e n la titu d e 5 N o rth an d 2 0 N o rth a n d m o v in g to w a rd s the
C a r ib b e a n . S o m e o f th e w a v e s p ro c e e d b e y o n d th e C a rib b e a n a n d into th e Pacific.
T h e y o c c u r d u rin g th e su m m e r an d a u tu m n , u su a lly n u m b e rin g a b o u t 5 0 ea ch year.
W e a th e r p ro d u c e d w ill b e lik e th a t a sso c ia te d w ith t r o p ic a l r e v o lv in g s to r m s , tho u g h
t o a m u c h le s s e r e x te n t in se v e rity . T h e y m a y d ev e lo p in to tr o p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s
th e m se lv e s.

2 3 -3 0

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

/
t r o u g

^K

Figure 23.35 An Easterly Wave.


b)

W e s te r l y W a v e s .

T h e s e a re v e ry s im ila r to e a ste rly w a v e s b u t a re sim p ly

in te rc o n n e c tin g w a rm fro n t a n d c o ld fr o n t b a n d s o f w e a th e r (a sso c ia te d w ith a p o la r


fro n ta l d e p re s s io n ) t h a t m o v e fro m th e w e s t to th e e a s t c re a tin g a p a tte rn t h a t is very
s im ila r to th a t o f a w a v e . F ig u re 2 3 .3 6 s h o w s a ty p ic a l w e s te rly w ave.

F ig u re 2 3 .3 6 . A W e s te rly W a v e

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METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

G lo b a l C lim a to lo g y Q u e s tio n s
1.

T h e S a v a n n a h c lim a tic z o n e is:


a)

ap p ro x im a te ly 2 0 - 3 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s v ery d ry d e se rt c o n d itio n s th ro u g h o u t


th e y ear.

b)

ap p ro x im a te ly 10 - 2 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s d r y tra d e w in d c o n d itio n s in w in te r an d


a w e t su m m e r seaso n .

c)

a p p ro x im a te ly 10 - 2 0 o f la titu d e a n d p r o v id e s a w e t w in te r se a so n a n d a d r y h ot
su m m er.

d)

ap p ro x im a te ly 10 - 3 0 o f la titu d e a n d h a s a p e rio d o f lo n g ra in s in sp rin g a n d au tu m n ,


b u t is n e v e r dry.

T h e w a rm te m p e ra tu re c lim a tic z o n e is:


a)

a p p ro x im a te ly 2 0 - 3 5 o f la titu d e a n d c o v e rs th e h ig h p re ssu re d e s e rt r e g io n s o f th e
w o rld .

b)

ap p ro x im a te ly 3 5 - 4 0 o f la titu d e a n d is u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f p o la r fro n t d ep ressio n s

c)

a p p ro x im a te ly 3 5 - 4 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s a w a rm d r y s u m m e r w ith a c o o l w e t

th ro u g h o u t th e y ear.
w in te r.
d)

a p p ro x im a te ly 3 5 - 4 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s a w e t s u m m e r se a so n a n d a d ry c o ld
w inter.

N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re su m m e rs te n d to be:


a)
b)

w a rm e r th a n th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re a n d w in te rs a re w a rm e r to o .
c o ld e r th a n th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re d u e to th e s m a lle r a m o u n t o f so la r ra d ia tio n .

c)

c o ld e r th a n th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re b e c a u se o f th e la rg e la n d m asses.

d)

w a rm e r th a n th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re a n d th e w in te rs a re c o ld e r. .

T h e e ffe c t o f m o u n ta in b a rrie rs o n te m p e ra tu re is e x e m p lifie d b y th e fo llo w in g :


a)

E u ro p e a n te m p e ra tu re s a re lo w in w in te r b e c a u se th e re is n o b a r rie r to p re v e n t c o ld
A tla n tic a ir c ro s s in g th e area.

b)

th e R o c k y m o u n ta in s o f N o rth A m e ric a p re v e n t c o ld P a c ific a ir re a c h in g in la n d , so

c)

th e H im a la y a s p re v e n t w a rm d ry a ir fro m R u ssia r e a c h in g I n d ia a n d P a k ista n .

d)

th e O ra l m o u n ta in s o f W e s t R u ssia p re v e n t m o s t o f t h e co ld S ib erian a ir r e a c h in g

s u m m e r te m p e ra tu re s to th e e a s t o f th e m o u n ta in s a re h igh.

E u ro p e in su m m er.

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G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEOROLOGY
T h e T ro p o p a u se is:
a)

m o re o r le s s c o n sta n t f o r a n y latitu d e.

b)

is a b o u n d a ry la y e r b e tw e e n th e tro p o sp h e re a n d th e strato sp h ere .

c)

n o rm a lly th e u p p e r lim it o f w e a th e r.

d)

th e u p p e r lim it fo r j e t s tre a m s a n d m o u n ta in w aves.

S ta tistic a l p re s s u re v a lu e s te n d to be:
a)

o n a v e ra g e p a ra lle l t o th e lin e s o f la titu d e.

b)

o n a v e ra g e p a ra lle l to t h e lin e s o f la titu d e in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re a n d m u c h m o re


v a ria b le in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re .

c)

m u c h lo w e r in w in te r in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re t h a n in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h ere .

d)

h ig h e r o v e r th e o c e a n s i n w in te r.

T h e h e a t e q u a to r is:
a)

a n o th e r n a m e f o r th e g e o g ra p h ic e q u ato r.

b)

co in c id e n t w ith th e e q u a to ria l tro u g h a n d ITC Z.

c)

a lin e o v e r th e la n d jo in in g p la c e s w h e re th e su m m e r te m p e ra tu re s a re h ighest.

d)

a lin e o v e r th e la n d jo in in g p la c e s w h e re th e w in te r te m p e ra tu re s a re h ig h est.

T h e a v e ra g e te m p e ra tu re a ro u n d th e e q u a to ria l re gions:
a)

is a lw a y s a b o v e + 4 0 C.

b)

is h ig h e r o v e r th e s e a are a s.

c)

v a rie s o n a v e ra g e f ro m w in te r to su m m e r b y o n ly s o m e 5 C.

d)

h a s a v e r y h ig h r a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re s th ro u g h o u t th e y ea r.

T ra d e w in d s:
a)

b lo w to w a rd s t h e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s.

b)

a re c a u s e d b y liftin g o v e r th e h e a t e q u a to r a n d th e s u b se q u e n t a ir m o v e m e n ts f ro m th e
s u b tr o p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s.

c)
d)

o n ly b lo w in th e w in te r m o n th s.
b lo w fro m th e e q u a to ria l lo w p re s s u re s y stem s th ro u g h o u t th e y ear.

T ra d e w in d s in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re are:
a)

so u th e a ste rly .

b)

s o u th e a st a t f irs t b e c o m in g so u th w e st.

c)

in o p p o sitio n to th e m o n so o n s.

d)

u su a lly fro m th e n o rth e a st.

23-34

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G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
11.

12.

13.

T h e H a d le y c e ll is th e n a m e g iv e n to:
a)

th e C U c e lls w h ic h c o n tin u e to fo rm a C B .

b)

a n in itial b u b b le o f a ir w h ich is lifte d b y co nvection.

c)

th e c e n tre p o rtio n o f a j e t s tream .

d)

a c e ll fo rm e d b y lifte d a ir o v e r th e h e a t e q u a to r d e sc e n d in g to th e su b tro p ic a l h ighs.

T h e la rg e c h a n g e in th e d ire c tio n o f tr a d e w in d s is c a u se d by:


a)

lo c a l p re s s u re d iffe re n c e s.

b)

a n e x c e s s o f a ir a t h e ig h t in a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e H ad le y cells.

c)

th e c h a n g e in g e o stro p h ic fo rc e w h e n c ro ssin g th e g e o g ra p h ic e q u ato r.

d)

th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e in th e e q u a to ria l re g io n s.

M o n so o n s a re se a so n a l w in d s w h ic h :
a)

d e v e lo p d u e to th e h ig h p re ss u re o v e r c o n tin e n ts in w in te r a n d th e su b se q u e n t low

b)

a re n e v e r in c o m b in a tio n w ith tra d e w inds.

c)

b lo w o n ly in th e so u th e a st A s ia reg io n.

d)

a re fro m th e so u th e a s te rly d ire c tio n o v e r th e I n d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t in sum m er.

p re s s u re w h ic h d e v e lo p s o v e r th e s a m e a re a s in sum m er.

14.

T h e o u tflo w f ro m th e S ib e ria n H ig h :
a)

is n o rth w e s te rly o v e r Ja p a n , n o rth e rly a n d n o rth e a ste rly o v e r C h in a a n d n o rth e rly o v e r

b)

is th e s o u rc e o f P o la r M a ritim e a ir.

c)

is n o rth w e s te rly o v e r Ja p a n , n o r th e a s te rly o v e r so u th e a st A s ia a n d e a ste rly o v e r E urope.

d)

is e v id e n t th r o u g h o u t th e y e a r.

th e w h o le o f In d ia.

15.

T h e u p p e r w in d s te n d to b e w e s te rly o u ts id e th e tro p ics b ec au se:


a)

th e r o ta tio n o f th e e a rth is w e s t to e ast.

b)

th e th e rm a l w in d s a re w e s te rly o n a v erage.

c)

su rfa c e w in d s a re n e a rly a lw a y s w e sterly .

d)

j e t s tre a m s a re u s u a lly w e ste rly .

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G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

M ETEOROLOGY
16.

J e t stre a m m a in lo catio n s are:


a)

in th e w a rm a ir so m e 4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f a w a rm o r co ld fro n t a n d n e a r th e su b tro p ical

b)

in th e w a rm a ir so m e 4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f a w a rm f ro n t a n d s o m e 2 0 0 n m b e h in d a c o ld

c)

o n ly in a sso c ia tio n w ith th e p o la r front.

d)

in a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e p o la r fro n t a n d w ith m o u n ta in w a v es.

h ig h s.
fro n t a n d n e a r th e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h s.

17.

i 8.

19.

20.

21.

J e ts tre a m s :
a)

o n ly o c c u r in th e tro p o sp h e re .

b)

h a v e a s p e e d in e x c e ss o f 8 0 kt.

c)

a re lo c a te d a b o v e th e tro p o p a u se .

d)

a re c a u s e d b y a larg e d iffe re n c e i n m e a n te m p e ra tu re in th e h o rizo n tal,

N e a r th e e q u a to r u p p e r w in d s t e n d to be:
a)

easte rly .

b)

w e ste rly .

c)

a t sp e e d s g re a te r th a n 6 0 kt.

d)

calm .

T h e P o lar F ro n t is:
a)

th e b o u n d a ry s u rfa c e b e tw e e n p o la r c o n tin e n ta l a n d tro p ic a l c o n tin e n ta l a ir.

b)

n e a r th e po les.

c)

o n ly a p p a re n t o v e r th e A tla n tic ocean.

d)

th e re g io n w h e re w a rm s e c to r d e p re ssio n s develop.

T h e IT C Z is:
a)

th e r e g io n b e tw e e n th e tw o tra d e w in d s y ste m s c e n tre d o n th e h e a t e q u ato r.

b)

th e b o u n d a ry re g io n b e tw e e n th e tw o m o n so o n s.

c)

th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n p o la r a ir a n d e q u a to ria l air.

d)

a re g io n o f c a lm w in d s a n d la y e r ty p e c lo u d s w ith m uch h az e.

T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S to rm s are:
a)

a su m m e r w e a th e r fe a tu re .

b)

e a sily p red ictab le.

c)

c a n b e v ery a c tiv e w ell in lan d .

d)

c a n tra v e l a t sp e e d s o f 100 kt.

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M ETEOROLOGY
22.

2 3.

24.

25.

a)

th o s e w h e re th e re is m u c h p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n activity.

b)

in t h e e q u a to ria l reg io n s.

c)

in th e p o la r reg io n s.

d)

in c e n tra l N o rth A m e ric a in su m m e r d u e to th e la rg e c o n v e ctiv e c lo u d fo rm ations.

T h u n d e rsto rm s m o st fre q u e n tly occu r:


a)

in a s so c ia tio n w ith th e IT C Z o v e r c e n tra l A frica.

b)

o v e r th e e a s t In d ie s a re a (Ja v a ) d u e to t h e in te n se su rface heating.

c)

in re g io n s a ffe c te d b y c o ld fro n ts.

d)

in a ss o c ia tio n w ith tro p ic a l r e v o lv in g storm s.

D u st sto rm s an d h a z e a re m o s t co m m o n :
a)

in a sso c ia tio n w ith th e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s o v e r land.

b)

w ith th e H a b o o b s in w in te r.

c)

in u n sta b le a ir w ith lo w p re ssu re .

d)

in te m p e ra te la titu d e s.

T h e m o st n o to rio u s a d v e c tio n fo g s occu r:


a)

2 6.

2 7.

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

T h e a re a s o f g re a te s t ra in fa ll a re:

o v e r so u th w e st U K .

b)

o v e r th e s e a in th e r e g io n o f N e w fo u n d la n d a n d th e K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la .

c)

o v e r E u ro p e w ith h ig h p re s s u re to th e n o rth .

d)

o v e r c e n tra l N o rth A m e ric a in a u tu m n a n d w in te r.

T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a lo n g th e fro n t a t A 3 in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)

CU CB

b)

S T SC

c)

ST NS

d)

A S NS

T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a t B 2 b e tw e e n th e fro n ts in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)

AS

b)

S T SC

c)

NS

d)

N IL

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Oxford Aviation Services Limited

G L O B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
28.

29.

30.

31.

T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a t C 2 a lo n g th e fro n t in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)

C U CB

b)

AS NS

c)

S T SC

d)

AC

T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a lo n g th e fro n t a t A 2 in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)

CI

b)

AS NS

c)

ST

d)

CU

T h e a v e ra g e su rfa c e le v e l w in d s a t A 3 , B 3 a n d C 3 in A p p e n d ix A are re sp e ctively:


a)

e a ste rly , w e ste rly , so u th w e ste rly .

b)

w e ste rly , w e s te rly , so u th w e ste rly .

c)

s o u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth w e ste rly .

d)

so u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth e rly .

T h e a v e ra g e u p p e r w in d s a t A 1, B 1 a n d C 1 in A p p e n d ix A a re re sp ectively:
a)

e a ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth w e ste rly .

b)

n o rth w e s te rly , w e ste rly , so u th w e ste rly .

c)

s o u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth w e ste rly .

d)

so u th w e ste rly , w e ste rly , n o rth e rly .

32. T h e n a m e s o f th e a ir m a sse s in d ic a te d A , B , C a n d D a t A p p e n d ix B are re sp ectively:


a)

P o la r M a ritim e , P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M a ritim e , T ro p ic a l C o n tin en tal.

b)

R e tu rn in g P o la r M a ritim e , A rc tic , T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M aritim e.

c)

P o la r M a ritim e , A rc tic , T ro p ic a l C o n tin en tal, T ro p ic a l M aritim e.

d)

P o la r M a ritim e , A rc tic , P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M aritim e .

33. T h e n a m e s o f th e a ir m a sse s in d ic a te d E , F , G an d H a t A p p e n d ix B a re re sp ectively:


a)

T ro p ic a l M aritim e , P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l C o n tin en tal, A rctic.

b)

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M a ritim e, T ro p ic a l C o n tin en tal, A rctic.

c)

P o la r C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l, T ro p ic a l M a ritim e, A rctic.

d)

T ro p ic a l M a ritim e , P o la r M a ritim e , T ro p ic a l C o n tin en tal, P o la r M aritim e.

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METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
NORTH PO LE
'

Figure 1
R E F E R T O T H E A B O V E D IA G R A M F O R Q U E S T IO N S 34 - 39.

34.

35.

36.

37.

In are a L th e m a in w e t s e a so n s w ill be:


a)

a t th e eq u in o x es.

b)

in Jan u a ry /F e b ru a ry .

c)

in Ju ly /A u g u st.

d)

in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r.

In a re a M in w in te r th e re w ill b e:
a)

e q u a to ria l rain s.

b)

e x te n siv e lo w cloud.

c)

th e D o ld ru m s.

d)

d ry tra d e w in d c o n d itio n s.

In a re a N th e re w ill be:
a)

e x te n siv e w in te r rains.

b)

a n tic y c lo n ic d e s e rt are a s.

c)

d r y su m m e rs a n d w e t w in ters.

d)

p o la r fro n t w e a th e r.

In a re a O th e c lim a te w ill inclu d e:


a)

th e tra d e w in d s.

b)

d r y w a rm su m m e rs a n d a w e t w in te r season.

c)

s te p p e ty p e w ith g ra s s y p la in s.

d)

a w e t su m m e r a n d d r y c o ld w in ters.

2 3 -3 9

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G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y

METEOROLOGY
38.

In a re a P th e m a in w e a th e r f a c to r w ill b e:
a)

39.

p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n s.

b)

d ep re ssio n s in w in te r, a n tic y c lo n e s in sum m er.

c)

e x te n siv e lo w c lo u d th ro u g h o u t th e year.

d)

m o n s o o n w e a th e r.

In a re a Q th e c lim a te w ill inclu d e:


a)

p o la r fro n t d ep re ssio n s.

b)

c o ld a n tic y c lo n ic w e a th e r.

c)

te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e z e ro fo r 3 m o n th s o f th e y ear.

d)

g o o d v isib ility th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r.

2 3- 4 0

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A P P E N D I X A

23-41

G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY

METEORO LO G Y
A P P E N D IX B

February
A

Au gust

Novem ber
D

METEORO LO G Y

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
A P P E N D IX B

N ovem ber
H

February

M arch

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METEOROLOGY

G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
A N SW ERS

Q ues

A n s w e rs

Q ues

A n s w e rs

21

- 22

23

24

A
B

25

26

27

28

29

10

30

11

31

12

32

13

33

14

34

15

35

16

36

17

37

18

38

19

39

20

23 -4 4

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CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR - LOCAL WINDS AND WEATHER

C o n te n ts

Page
24.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ..........................................................................................................................2 4 - 1

24 .2

F O H N W I N D S ................................................................................................................................. 2 4 - 1

24 .3

V A L L E Y W I N D S ..........................................................................................................................2 4 - 2

24 . 4

M E D IT E R R A N E A N W I N D S ................................................................................................... 2 4 - 2

24 .5

S Q U A L L S ........................................................................................................................................... 2 4 - 5

2 4 .6

T H E H A R M A T T A N .................................................................................................................... 2 4 - 6

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

LO C AL W INDS & W EATH ER

M ETEOROLOGY
24.1

IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h e l a s t c h a p te r d e a lt w ith th e g e n e ra l t h e o ry o f clim ato lo g y : th is c h a p te r s e a ls w ith a n u m b e r
o f w in d s a ro u n d th e w o rld a n d th e w e a th e r p a tte rn s a sso c ia te d w ith th e m . T h e w in d s a re in five
se c tio n s, F o h n ty p e , V a lle y , s o m e M e d i te r r a n e a n , S to rm s q u a lls a n d a W e s t A fr ic a n w ind.

24 .2

F O H N W IN D S
F o h n W in d s w e re d e a lt w ith in C h a p te r 11 a n d th e d ia g ram e x p la in in g th e re su lta n t in c re a se in
te m p e ra tu re o n t h e le e sid e o f th e m o u n ta in r a n g e is sh o w n b elow .

+4

X
Figure 24.1. The Fohn Effect.
A lth o u g h F o h n w in d s b lo w in th e A lp s , th e n a m e is
u s e d g e n e ric a lly t o d e s c rib e w in d s w h ic h b lo w w ith
sim ila r e ffe c t in o th e r p a rts o f th e w o rld .
O n e su c h w in d is th e C h in o o k w h ic h b lo w s o n th e
E a s te rn sid e o f th e R o c k y m o u n ta in s o f N orth
A m e ric a . F ig u re 2 4 .2 b e lo w s h o w s th e lo c a tio n o f
th e C h in o o k .
T h e C h in o o k u su a lly b lo w s d u rin g th e w in ter
m o n th s a n d p r o d u c e s a ra p id a n d c o n sid e ra b le rise
in te m p e ra tu re . A r is e o f 2 0 in 15 m in u te s is n ot
u n u su a l. T h e w in d m a y b lo w fo r se v e ra l d a y s a n d
sn o w o n th e e a s te rn s id e o f th e R o c k ie s m ay c le a r
co m p le te ly . T h e a re a c o v e re d r u n s fro m S o u th e rn
C o lo r a d o u p to th e M a c k e n z ie B a sin .
F ig u r e 2 4 .2 C h in o o k W in d

2 4 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
24 .3

LO C AL WINDS & W EATHER

V A L L E Y W IN D S
M i s t r a l . V a lle y w in d s a re c a u s e d b y a ir fu n n e llin g th ro u g h a m o u n tain g a p o r d o w n a v alley.
T h e M istra l, w h ic h is a g o o d e x a m p le o f su c h a w in d , b lo w s d o w n th e R h d n e V a lle y b etw e en
th e M a s s if C e n tra l a n d th e A lp s t o th e F re n c h M e d ite rra n e a n c o a st a n d b e y o n d . It is u su ally a
w in te r w in d w ith h ig h p r e s s u r e o v e r C e n t r a l F r a n c e a n d lo w p r e s s u r e o v e r th e G u l f o f
G enoa.

T e m p e ra tu re s a re lo w w ith w in te r M istra l te m p e ra tu re s w e ll b e lo w zero , flying

c o n d itio n s a re t u r b u l e n t an d th e w in d s a re s tro n g , 4 0 to 7 5 k ts.


T h e B o r a . T h is w in d is p a rt v a lle y a n d p a rt k a tab atic. A s F ig u re 2 4 .5 s h o w s, it b lo w s d o w n th e
n o rth A d r i a t i c w ith h ig h p re s s u re o v e r C e n tr a l E u r o p e an d th e B a lk a n s a n d a low o v e r th e
A d r ia tic . T h e w in d s p e e d is a ro u n d 7 0 k ts w ith g re a t g u sts e x c e e d in g 100 k ts in p la c e s. T h e
B o ra is s tro n g e st a n d m o s t fre q u e n t in w in te r.
2 4.

M E D I T E R R A N E A N W IN D S
T h e S iro c c o . A ll th re e o f th e m a jo r M e d ite rra n e a n w in d s w e a re d e a lin g w ith a re s im ila r in that
th e y b lo w a h e a d o f fro n ta l d e p re s sio n s tr a c k in g a lo n g th e N o rth A fric a n c o a stlin e. T h e S irocco,
w h ic h b lo w s o v e r A lg e ria is a h o t a n d d u s ty s o u th e rly w in d b lo w in g o u t o f th e d e sert. T h is
w in d is u su a lly a s p r in g tim e w in d a n d m a y la s t a d a y o r so . V is ib ility m a y b e re d u c e d to b e lo w
fo g lim its (1 0 0 0m ). T h e S iro c c o m a y tra v e l a s fa r a s th e F r e n c h c o a s t a n d in th e p ro c e ss it m ay
p ic k u p m o istu re a n d p r o d u c e lo w s t r a tu s , d riz z le a n d fog.
T h e G h ib li. T h is is a sim ila r w in d w h ic h b lo w s o v e r L ibya.
T h e K h a m s in . B lo w s a h e a d o f d e p re s sio n s tra c k in g a lo n g th e M e d ite rra n e a n c o a st o f E g y p t.
C o n d itio n s a re s im ila r to th e S iro c c o a n d th e G h ib li. T h e n a m e is a lso g iv e n t o s o u th o r so uth
w e s t g a le s b lo w in g in th e R e d S e a .

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Oxford Aviation Services Limited

c u / cb

F ig u re 2 4.3 . W in te r P re ssure S yste m s a nd S u rfa ce W in d s (S outh)

2 4 -3

pCYPRUSi

F ig u re 2 4.3 a. W in te r P re ssure S yste m s a nd S u rfa ce W in d s (N orth).


2 4 -4

LO C AL W INDS & W EATHER

M ETEOROLOGY
24 .5

SQ U A LLS
T h e P am p ero .

T h is is a s e v e r e w in d s to r m

b lo w in g a ro u n d th e e s tu a ry o f th e R iv e r P la te
(U ru g u a y a n d A rg e n tin a ). I t is a c o ld d u s ty s o u th
to s o u th w e s t w in d b lo w in g b e h in d a c o ld frontal
de p re ssio n . S to rm y , g u s ty c o n d itio n s p re v a il, w ith
a c o n s id e ra b le t e m p e r a t u r e fa ll a fte r th e sto rm
p a sse s. T h e sq u all is s h o r t liv e d , b u t th e stro n g ,
ste a d y w in d m a y la s t f o r s o m e h o u r s . P a m p e ro s
u s u a lly b lo w in s p r i n g a n d s u m m e r

PAM PER O
REGION

Figure 24.4 The Pampero

S u m a t r a s . T h e s e o c c u r in th e S t r a i t s o f M a la c c a (se e F ig u re 2 4 .5 ) b lo w in g b e tw e e n so u th w e st
a n d n o r th w e s t, m o s t fre q u e n tly b e tw e e n A p r il a n d N o v e m b e r d u rin g th e tim e o f th e so u th w e s t
m o n so o n . D u rin g th e d a y th u n d e rsto rm s b u ild u p o v e r th e h ig h g ro u n d o f S u m atra, a ssiste d b y
th e s e a b r e e z e , b u t a t n ig h t th e su b sid in g c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d s d rift e a stw a rd u n d e r th e
in flu e n c e o f th e l a n d b r e e z e a n d th e K a t a b a tic effe ct. T h e sto rm s a re re ju v e n a te d o v e r th e
w a rm s e a a n d v io le n t s to r m s re su lt la te a t n ig h t a n d in t h e e a rly m o rn in g . T h e re is a s u d d e n
te m p e r a t u r e d r o p a s th e s q u a ll p a s s e s th ro u g h . S u m a tra s ta k e o n a p ro n o u n c e d a r c h e d s h a p e
as th e C b a n v ils sp re a d o u t a t th e to p s o f th e c louds.

24-5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

LO C AL W INDS & W EATHER

METEOROLOGY

Figure 24.5. Sumatras.

2 4 .6

TH E HARM ATTAN
T h e la s t o f th e m a jo r lo c a l w in d s is th e H a r m a t t a n . T h is b lo w s m o stly d u rin g th e w in te r fro m
th e h ig h p r e s s u r e d e s e rt a re a s o f N o rth A frica a s a N o r th E a s te r ly w in d to w a rd s t h e IT C Z .
(N o rth e a s t tra d e w in d s). T h e H a rm a tta n is a c o o l d u sty w in d th a t m a y re d u c e v isib ility to b e lo w
10 0 0 m , e s p e c ia lly in a re a s b o rd e rin g d e s e rt re g io n s, s u c h a s K a n o , N ig eria. T h e d u s t la y e r m a y
e x te n d to 7 ,0 0 0 o r 1 0,000 f t o r m o re , v is ib ility im p ro v e s to w a rd s th e co a st. T h e H arm a ttan
b lo w s fro m N o v e m b e r th ro u g h to A p r il, th o u g h b y th is tim e th e w in d s w ill b e lig h t, e sp e cially
in th e so u th .

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CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE - AREA CLIMATOLOGY


C o n te n ts
Page
N O R T H W E S T A F R IC A
25.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N .........................................................................................................................2 5 - 1

25.2

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S ........................................................................... 2 5 - 1

25.3

P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S .............................................................................................................. 2 5 - 1

2 5 .4

W E A T H E R A N D S U R F A C E W I N D S ................................................................................ 2 5 - 1

25.5

U P P E R W I N D S ..............................................................................................................................2 5 - 4
N O R T H A T L A N T IC R E G IO N

2 5.6

G E O G R A P H IC A L A R E A ..........................................................................................................2 5 - 5
C O N T IN E N T A L N O R T H W E S T E U R O P E

2 5.7

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S .........................................................................2 5 - 1 3

25 .8

W IN T E R ........................................................................................................................................ 2 5 - 1 3

25 .9

S U M M E R ..................................................................................................................................... 2 5 - 1 5
T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N S E A A N D A D J A C E N T L A N D S

2 5 .1 0

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S .........................................................................2 5 - 1 7

25.11

W IN T E R ........................................................................................................................................2 5 - 1 7

2 5 .1 2

S U M M E R ..................................................................................................................................... 2 5 - 2 0
A R A B IA , T H E G U L F A R E A , A R A B IA N S E A A N D B O R D E R S E N C L O S E D
W I T H IN 1 5 N -3 5 N A N D 3 5 E -7 5 E

25.13

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S .........................................................................2 5 - 2 3

2 5 .1 4

WINTER ....................................................................................................................... 2 5 -2 3

25.15

SUMMER

25-2 4

AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
25.1

NORTH W EST AFR IC A

IN T R O D U C T I O N
T h e r e g io n in c lu d e s th e a re a b e tw e e n th e M e d ite rra n e a n in th e N o rth , a n d th e N ig e ria - G h a n a S e n e g a l c o a s t in t h e S o u th , th a t is b e tw e e n 3 5 N a n d 5 N a n d w e s t o f 10E. It a lso in clu d es
p a rts o f Iv o ry C o a st, G u in e a , L ib e ria , M a u rita n ia , M o ro c c o , M a li a n d A lg eria.

2 5 .2

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e a re a is b o u n d e d to th e e a s t b y th e S a h a ra d e se rt, c e n tre d n e a r 2 3 N , w h ic h is a s o u rc e o f
T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a ir a n d b rin g s m u c h d u s t t o th e r e g io n . T h e c o ld C an a rie s se a cu rre n t
ru n n in g s o u th c lo s e to th e A tla n tic C o a s t h e lp s a d v e c tio n f o g to form .

25 .3

PR E SSU R E SY STEM S
T h e I T C Z ( E q u a to ria l T ro u g h ) tra v e rs e s th e s o u th e r n h a l f o f th e r e g io n b rin g in g r a i n a n d a
c h a n g e o f s u r f a c e W /V a s i t p a s s e s. It is s o u th o f th e c o a sta l r e g io n s o f G h a n a a n d N ig e ria in
Ja n u a ry , th e n p u sh e s n o rth to 18 - 2 0 N in Ju ly , th e re a fte r m o v in g s o u th ag ain , to c le a r th e
so u th c o a st b y th e n e x t J a n u a ry . N o rth o f th e I T C Z lies t h e S u b T r o p ic a l H ig h . In W in te r it
ex te n d s fro m t h e W e s t a c ro s s th e S a h a ra d e se rt a n d th e su rfa ce o u tflo w b rin g s d r y d u s ty
c o n d itio n s to a ll p a rts e s p e c ia lly th e S o u th a n d W e st. T o w a rd s S u m m e r, t h e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h
a n d a s s o c ia te d d r y d u s ty c o n d itio n s w ill b e in c re a sin g ly re s tric te d n o rth w a rd s a s th e IT C Z
a d v a n c e s f ro m th e S o u th .

25 .4

W E A T H E R A N D S U R F A C E W IN D S
It is c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e r e g io n in to tw o a re a s sp lit a t th e m id la titu d e o f 20N . T h e
so u th e rn re g io n in c lu d e s D a k a r o n th e W e s t C o a st a t 15N .
S o u th o f 2 0 N - W i n t e r S e a so n
T h e I T C Z is s o u th o f th e are a . H ig h p r e s s u r e is d o m in a n t o v e r th e S a h a r a a n d th e re is n o
c lo u d o r p r e c ip ita tio n . T h e N E tr a d e w in d o u tflo w fro m th e S a h a ra t o th e IT C Z is ex tre m e ly
d u sty a n d is k n o w n a s th e H a r m a t ta n .

T h e d u r a tio n o f th e H a r m a t t a n p e rio d d e c re a se s

so u th w a rd s b e c a u s e th e IT C Z re c e d e s so u th w a rd s in A u tu m n th e n a d v a n c e s n o rth in th e S pring.
V is ib ility in th e d u s t is fre q u e n tly d o w n to 4 0 0 0 m e tr e s a n d o c c a sio n a lly d o w n to th e f o g lim its.
O u tflo w o v e r th e c o ld c a n a rie s s e a c u rre n t fa v o u rs a d v e c tio n se a fo g , w h ic h c a n th e n d rift
in la n d w h e n th e re is a s e a b re e z e .

25 - 1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

NORTH W EST AFRICA

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
N o r t h o f 2 0 N - W i n t e r S e a so n
H ig h p r e s s u r e o v e r th e
S a h a r a a n d to th e W e s t
can

be

m o d ifie d

by

en c ro a c h in g p o la r fro n t
Low s

and

ass o c ia te d
w h ic h

c o ld

in

o n s h o re

th e ir
fro n ts,

tu rn

b rin g

W e ste rlie s

or

N o rth W e s te rlie s to th e
co a s ts o f M a u rita n ia a n d
M o ro c c o .

P a ssin g o v e r

th e c o ld c a n a rie s c u rre n t
th is w in d c a n b rin g c o ld
fro n ts w ith lo w c lo u d a n d
p re c ip ita tio n - th e w e t
se a s o n . C o ld fro n ts fro m
th e

M e d ite rra n e a n c a n

a ls o

a ffe c t

N o r th e r n

A lg e ria b u t a re p re v e n te d
fro m
s o u th

m o v in g
by

m o u n ta in s.
th e

f u rth e r

th e

H a rm a tta n

A tla s

E lse w h e re

p re v a ilin g
w in d

NE
w ill

tra v e rs e th e a re a b rin g in g
d r y d u s t y c o n d itio n s .
A t tim e s o u tflo w to th e N o rth w ill p r o d u c e th e d u s ty b u t d ry S c iro c c o w in d to th e M ed ite rran e an
S o u th o f 2 0 N - S u m m e r S e a s o n
T h e IT C Z w ill a d v a n c e n o rth w a rd s a c ro ss th e re g io n d u rin g th e S p rin g a n d w i t h i ts p a s s a g e th e
N E H a r m a t t a n w ill v e e r th r o u g h E a s t to b e c o m e th e S W M o n so o n w in d . T h e S W d irec tio n
re s u lts fro m th e SE tra d e s w h ic h h a v e c ro s s e d th e e q u a to r a n d h a v e th e re fo re v ee re d . T h e S W
M o n s o o n b rin g s th e w e t sea so n w ith m u c h C U , C B , h e av y ra in sh o w e rs an d T h u n d e rsto rm s. In
th e A u tu m n th e IT C Z w ill re c e d e so u th w a rd s a n d w ith i ts p a s s a g e th e S W m o n so o n w ill b a c k
th r o u g h E a s t to b e c o m e th e d ry d u s ty N E H a rm a ttan o n c e m o re. N o te th e S W /V is e a s te r ly
a t e a c h I T C Z p a s sa g e .

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NORTH W EST AFR IC A

AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
N o r th o f 2 0 N - S u m m e r S e a s o n
T h e w in te r S a h a ra H ig h h a s
m oved

n o rth

to

th e

M e d ite rra n e a n . T h e o u tflo w


g iv e s

NE

d u s ty

w in d s

flo w in g to th e IT C Z to th e
so u th , a n d to b e y o n d th e W e s t
C o a s t w h e re a d v e c tio n s e a
fo g c a n fo rm o v e r th e c o ld
c a n a rie s c u rre n t. T h is fo g c a n
th e n b e d ra w n i n l a n d b y se a
bre e z e s.

Figure 25.2. North W est Africa in July, W eather Details


at the Surface.
W e s t A f r ic a n T o r n a d o e s
T o rn a d o e s o c c u r in th e S E o f
th e a re a o v e r th e S o u th e r n
N ig e r ia n V a lle y s, w h e re th e a ir
is m o ist a n d th e su rfa c e h e a tin g
strong.

They

are

th u n d e r s t o r m s w h ic h fo rm in a
N o r th /S o u th lin e a b o v e th e
v a lle y s a s th e I T C Z p a s s e s
N o rth b o u n d
and

in

M a rc h /A p ril,

Southbound

in

Sep te m b e r/O c to b e r. T h e w in d
is te m p o r a r i ly f r o m t h e E a s t
a t th e se tim e s a n d th e sto rm s
a re th e re fo re c a rrie d w e stw a rd s
to a ffe c t o th e r c o a s ta l c o u n trie s
b e fo re

p a s s in g

out

to

th e

A tla n tic .

Figure 25.3. North W est Africa, in Spring and Autumn.


The Formation and Movement o f W est African
Tornadoes.
25-3

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

NORTH W EST AFR IC A

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
25 .5

U P P E R W IN D S
W in t e r
T h e IT C Z w ith lig h t E a s te rlie s a lo ft lie s
w e ll s o u th . O v e rla n d lig h t w e s te r lie s w ill
o c c u r in th e s o u t h

in c re a s in g to th e

w e s te r ly s u b tr o p ic a l j e t o f 100 k n o ts o r
m o r e o v e r M o ro c c o .

Figure 25.4. North W est Africa, Upper


W inds in January.
Sum m er
T h e IT C Z w ith l ig h t e a s te r lie s a lo ft a ffe c ts
th e s o u th o f th e re g io n .

In th e n o r t h th e

w in d w ill b e c o m e lig h t w e s te rly o n ly . N o te


th a t th e s u b tr o p ic a l j e t h a s m o v e d o u t o f th e
a re a to B o rd e a u x .

T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e l

Figure 25.5. North W est Africa, Upper


W inds in July.

T h e tr o p o p a u s e a v e ra g e s 5 4 0 0 0 ' a n d th e F re e z in g lev el 15000' th r o u g h o u t th e y ear.

S Oxford Aviation Services Limited

NORTH ATLAN TIC REGION

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
2 5 .6

G E O G R A P H IC A L A R E A .
T h e a re a c o n s id e re d re a c h e s fro m 1 0 N to 7 0 N la titu d e a n d fro m th e C a r ib b e a n a n d N ew
Y o r k in t h e W e s t to L o n d o n a n d th e N o r w e g ia n S e a in th e N o rth -E a st. T h e a re a lie s a cro ss
th e D is tu r b e d T e m p e r a t e a n d S u b - tr o p ic a l H ig h clim a tic b e lts. F ig u re s 2 5 .6 a n d 2 5 .7 refe r.
W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s

N o rth A m e ric a n H ig h

1020 m b s

Ice la n d ic S ta tistic al L o w

1000 m b s

A z o re s H ig h 3 0 N

1020 m b s

P o la r A ir D e p re ssio n s

6 5 N - 5 5N

P o la r F ro n t A c tiv ity is dom in a n t a c ro s s th e d istu rb e d te m p e ra te re g io n . In th e W e st, d iv e rg in g


a ir fro m th e N o r th A m e ric a n H ig h m o v e s S E o v e r th e s e a to m e e t w a rm T m a ir o v e rly in g th e
w a rm g u lfstre a m w a te rs f lo w in g n o rth b o u n d o f f th e N . A m e ric a n E a s t C o ast. T h is c o n v erg en c e
c a u se s m u c h in s ta b ility a n d th e fo rm a tio n o f d e p re ssio n s w h e re th e tw o a ir m asse s m eet. T h is
w e ll-d e fin e d b u t e rra tic fro n ta l lin e fo rm s th e W e ste rn e n d o f th e p o l a r f r o n t w h ic h in W i n t e r
lie s n e a r S W F l o r i d a a n d s tre tc h e s a c ro s s th e A tla n tic .

T h e s e d e p re ssio n s w ill b e driv en

ea st/n o rth -e a stw a rd s b y th e th e rm a l m id la titu d e w in d s a n d w ill tra c k a lo n g th e p o la r fro n t


to w a rd s th e U K a n d N o rw e g ia n S e a . S o m e o f th e L o w s w ill b e c o m e slo w m o v in g a n d /o r
o c c lu d e d b e tw e e n S G re e n la n d a n d N o rw a y , g iv in g ris e to th e S ta tis tic a l L o w n e a r I c e la n d
a s th e d e p re s s io n s p a s s b y.
In th e E a s te rn A tla n tic th e n o rth -e a s tw a rd o u tflo w fro m th e su b -tro p ic a l A z o re s H ig h w ill
e n su re th a t th e tr a v e llin g fro n ta l d e p re s s io n s tra c k to th e N o rth -E a st, a ty p ic a l W i n t e r lan d fa ll
b e in g S W E n g la n d . S e e F ig u re 25.6.
O v e r th e A tla n tic , th e p o la r f r o n t w ill re m a in th e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n P m a i r to th e n o r t h a n d
T m a i r to t h e s o u th . A s th e tr a v e llin g d e p re ssio n s d e v elo p , a p o rtio n o f th e T m a i r w ill be
in c re a s in g ly t r a p p e d b e tw e e n a re a s o f P m a i r e ith e r s id e, fo rm in g w a rm a n d c o ld fro n ts. S ee
a ls o F ig u re 2 5 .8 .
N o rth o f th e P o la r F ro n t, P o la r A i r d e p r e s s io n s a re fo rm e d b y a r c tic a i r m o v in g s o u th 6 5 N 5 5 N o v e r re la tiv e ly w a rm e r s e a s c a u s in g i n s ta b ility w e ath er.

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Figure 25.6.

NORTH ATLAN TIC REGION

North A tlantic W eather details in January.

W EATHER
T h e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n L o n d o n a n d N ew Y o r k . A lth o u g h N e w Y o rk is 4 0 N a n d L o n d o n 5 2N
th e w in te r w e a th e r is w o rs e in N e w Y o rk . W hy?
C o ld c o n tin e n ta l o u tflo w fro m th e N o rth A m e ric an H ig h b e c o m e s u n sta b le o v e r th e a d ja c e n t b u t
w a rm e r s e a fo rm in g lo w p re ssu re . T h e re s u lta n t in s ta b ility c a n th e n sw in g in la n d b rin g in g snow
to th e N e w Y o rk area.
L o n d o n in W in te r c a n a ls o b e a ffe c te d b y c o ld c o n tin e n ta l o u tflo w - fro m th e S ib e ria n H igh.
T h e d iffe re n c e is th a t su c h a ir w ill h a v e a lo n g la n d tra c k an d th e re fo re w ill re m a in dry.
S e c o n d ly , i f th e w in d in L o n d o n is f ro m th e p re v a ilin g w e st, it w ill b e f lo w in g o f f th e A tlan tic
a n d th e re fo re w ill b e r e la tiv e ly w a rm , p o ssib ly g iv in g rain b u t n o t snow .

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C lo u d . In t h e N o rth o f th e re g io n , c lo u d a v e ra g e s 6 O k ta s, m o stly a s so c ia te d w ith tra v e llin g


d e p re ssio n s a n d a c ro s s s e c tio n is s h o w n a t F ig u re 2 5.7. C irru s a n d S tra to fo rm c lo u d b e lo w th e
tro p o p a u se w ill th ic k e n d o w n to n e a r th e su rfa ce p re c e d in g a w a rm fro n t.

E x ten siv e

S tra tu s /S tra to c u m u lu s w ill o c c u r a s T m a ir m o v es n o rth o v e r c o ld e r se a s to th e p o la r fro n t an d


esp e c ia lly w h ile tra p p e d in th e w a rm s e c to r o f p o la r fr o n t d e p re ssio n s. C u m u lu s a n d C u m u lo N im b u s w ill o c c u r o n c o ld fro n ts w ith c u m u lu s fo rm in g in th e fo llo w in g u n sta b le n o rth w e ste rly
air. In th e C a rib b e a n th e m o is t N E tra d e w in d s w ill p ro d u c e o ro g ra p h ic c lo u d a n d r a in fa ll o n
w in d w a rd slo p es.

Figure 25.7. The Cross Section o f a North A tlantic P olar Front Depression .

F ly in g w e s t th ro u g h a p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n , a s s h o w n a t f ig u re 2 5 .7 , th e p ilo t s h o u ld find:


Cl

4 0 0 - 6 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t s u rfa c e p o s itio n

CS

3 0 0 - 5 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm f ro n t su rfa c e p o s itio n

AS

2 0 0 - 4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t su rfa c e p o sitio n

S T /N S

2 0 0 - 3 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t s u rfa c e p o sitio n .

S T /S C

A b o v e W a r m S e c to r a t L o w L evel.

C U /C B

A t C o ld F r o n t s u rfa c e p o sitio n a n d 100 - 2 0 0 n m b e y o n d .

Ic in g .

Ic in g o c c u rs w id e ly a n d th ro u g h g re a t d e p th in C o n v e c tiv e a n d F ro n ta l C lo u d

B e h in d C o ld F r o n t re g io n , th e sa m e b u t sm a lle r am o u n ts.

a n d is fre q u e n tly m o d e ra te to sev e re. R a in Ic e /F re e z in g ra in , in c o ld a ir b e lo w


w a rm fro n ta l a ir, c a n c a u s e s ev e re c le a r ic e a ffe c tin g a irfie ld s n e a r W a sh in g to n
a n d N e w Y ork.
V isib ility .

R a d i a t io n F o g c a n o c c u r in la n d e s p e c ia lly in A u tu m n a n d W i n t e r w hen
p r e s s u r e is h ig h .

A d v e c tio n F o g c a n o c c u r w h en m o ist T m a ir o v erru n s

p re v io u s ly c o ld -s o a k e d in la n d a re a s e s p e c ia lly in la te W in te r /e a r ly S p r in g .

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NORTH ATLAN TIC REGION

S u r f a c e W in d s . N o rth o f th e su b tro p ic a l B e rm u d a-A z o res H ig h , w in d s a re g e n e ra lly w e ste rly


b u t lo c a lly e a s te rly o n th e n o r th sid e o f d e p re ssio n s. T h e re a re fre q u e n t ga le s. In th e S o u th , N E
tra d e w in d s p re v a il a ll y e a r.
U p p e r W in d s . T h e s e a re g e n e ra lly w e ste rly b e c a u se th e ir d ire c tio n is g o v e rn e d b y th e th e rm a l
w in d w h ic h b lo w s w ith L o w T e m p e r a t u r e o n th e le ft. T h e a v e rag e w in te r w in d c o m p o n e n t
fro m L o n d o n to N e w Y o r k is m in u s 5 0 k n o ts - lo c a lly w in d s c a n b e s tro n g e r a n d i f g re a te r th a n
6 0 k n o ts a re k n o w n a s je ts tre a m s . O v e r th e A tla n tic th e re a re tw o d istin c t je ts tre a m p a tte rn s th e P o l a r f r o n t J e t a n d th e S u b tr o p i c a l J e t . E a c h m a y re a c h 2 0 0 k n o ts.
P o l a r F r o n t J e t . T h is w ill n o rm a lly b lo w f ro m b e tw e e n N W a n d S W a n d o cc a sio n a lly o u tsid e
th is ra n g e , d e p e n d in g o n th e s u r f a c e o r i e n t a tio n o f th e p o la r f r o n t. W ith lo w te m p e ra tu re o n
th e le ft, t h e W a r m F r o n t J e t w ill n o rm a lly b e f r o m th e N W a n d a h e a d o f a w a r m f r o n t a n d
d u e to t h e slo p e o f th e fro n t, so m e 4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f its su rfa c e p o sitio n . S im ilarly th e C o ld
F ro n t j e t w ill n o rm a lly b lo w fro m th e S o u th - W e s t a n d so m e 2 0 0 n m b e h in d th e su rfa ce p o sitio n
o f th e fro n t. F ig s 2 5 .7 a n d 2 5 .8 re fe r. T h e level is a ro u n d 3 0 0 m b s (3 0 0 0 0 ') a n d i ts avera g e
lo c a tio n is S W F lo r id a to S W E n g la n d is s h o w n a t F ig u re 2 5.6.

Figure 25.8. The Upper W inds over a North A tlantic Polar


Front Depression.

A p ilo t fly in g a t h ig h le v e l fro m E a s t t o W e s t a c r o s s a p o l a r f r o n ta l d e p r e s s io n w o u ld


e x p e rie n c e w in d a n d d r i f t a s fo llo w s a n d a s s h o w n in F ig u re 2 5.9.
a.

In itia lly w in d s w ill b e N o rth W e ste rly g iv in g s tro n g p o r t d r i f t .

b.

S o m e 5 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t, j e t a x is sp e e d s o f 100-200 k n o ts g ive


i n c r e a s e d p o r t d r i f t . T h is w ill la s t f o r 2 0 0 n m .

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c.

NORTH ATLAN TIC REGION


W in d s re m a in stro n g N W u n til c ro ssin g t h e s u r f a c e p o s itio n o f w a r m f r o n t
w h e n w in d s w ill b a c k s h a rp ly to W e st o r S o u th -W e st g iv in g n e a r - z e r o d r if t.

d.

A b o v e s u r f a c e p o s itio n o f c o ld f r o n t w in d s w ill b a c k a g a in s h a rp ly to S o u th
W e s t g iv in g s t a r b o a r d d r if t.

e.

A f te r 100 n m e n te r th e j e t a x is, sp e e d s 100-200 k n o ts, g iv in g in c r e a s e d

f.

P a ssin g o u t o f th e J e t s tre a m S W w in d s, s t a r b o a r d d r i f t d e c re a se s.

s t a r b o a r d d r i f t . T h is w ill la st f o r 2 0 0 n m .

S u b T r o p ic a l J e t . T h is w ill b e lo c a te d c lo s e to th e su rfa c e p o s itio n o f th e S u b tro p ica l H ig h (in


th e N o rth A tla n tic , th e A z o re s H ig h ) a n d is c a u se d b y th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e
a d ja c e n t c o lu m n s o f d e s c e n d in g a ir fro m th e w a rm e r H a d le y c e ll to th e S o u th a n d th e c o o le r
F e rre l c e ll to th e N o rth . T h e w in d w ill b e w e ste rly , b lo w a t 2 0 0 m b s (3 9 0 0 0 1) a n d in W in te r b e
lo c a te d b e tw e e n 2 5 N -4 0 N .

O v e r th e N .A tla n tic in W in te r it b lo w s fro m N e w Y o r k to

M o r o c c o a s s h o w n a t F ig u re 2 5 .6 .
SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s . N o rth A m e ric a n L o w re p la c e s W in te r H ig h . Ic e la n d ic S tatistica l L o w
1010 m b s. L e s s d e e p a n d sp lit. A z o re s H ig h 1025 m b s in ten sified . F u rth e r N o rth a t 35N .
H u rric a n e s in C a rib b e a n a n d F lo rid a area.

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T h e p o l a r f r o n t is still p re s e n t b u t le s s a c tiv e .

T h e N o rth A m e ric a n W in te r H ig h h a s

d is a p p e a re d a n d w ith it th e e a s t c o a s t te m p e ra tu re c o n tra st b e tw e e n la n d a n d se a. T h is p a rt o f
th e p o la r fro n t th e re fo re d isa p p e a rs in S u m m e r a n d th e w e ste rn e n d sta rts a t L ab rad o r,
N e w fo u n d la n d , E . C a n a d a w h e re th e a d v a n c e d w a rm G u lf S tre a m s e a c u rre n t n o w m ee ts th e
re c e d e d c o ld L a b ra d o r S e a c u rre n t.
In th e E a st, th e A z o re s H ig h is in te n sifie d a n d fu rth e r N o rth , th u s p u sh in g th e P o la r F ro n t
n o rth w a rd s to S co tlan d .
In S u m m e r th e P o l a r F r o n t a v e ra g e p o sitio n th u s lies fro m L a b r a d o r /N e w f o u n d la n d to N o r th
o f S c o tla n d to N o r w a y . S e e F ig u re 25 .9 a.
T e m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s a c ro ss th e fro n t a re less, so fro n ta l a c tiv ity is le ss in te n se a n d le ss
fre q u e n t. T h e w e a k e n e d Ic e la n d ic sta tistic a l lo w is n o w s p lit w ith a v e ra g e 1010 m b s c e n tre d
W e s t o f G re e n la n d , o v e r Ic e la n d a n d in th e B altic.

F ig u re 2 5 .9 a .

N o rth A tla n tic W e a th e r d e ta ils in July.

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NORTH ATLAN TIC REGION

W e a t h e r a n d C lo u d
T h e N e w Y o rk W in te r sn o w s a re g o n e. L o n d o n tem p e ra tu re s re m a in m o d e rated b y a ir flo w fro m
th e A tla n tic . P o la r a ir is le s s c o ld a n d th e re d u c e d tem p e ra tu re c o n tra sts m e a n le ss c o n v ectio n
c lo u d o v e r th e se a . F ro m th e A z o re s H ig h w a rm m o ist T m o u tflo w n o r th w a r d s o v e r c o o le r
se a s c a u s e s a d v e c tio n f o g /s tr a tu s /s tr a to c u m u lu s a n d th is c a n w id e ly a ffe c t S W E n g lish co a sts
in la te S p rin g /e a rly S um m er.
In th e C a r i b b e a n th e N E tra d e w in d s w ill c o n tin u e t o c a u se o r o g r a p h ic c lo u d a n d r a in on
w in d w a rd slo p e s. A d d itio n a lly in S u m m e r, rain fall w ill b e in c re a se d b y c o n v e c tio n .
V is ib ility .

In la n d r a d ia tio n fo g is le s s lik ely in S p rin g a n d S u m m er a n d i f fo rm e d , e a rly

m o rn in g in so la tio n w ill c a u s e q u ic k c le a ra n c e . A d v e c tio n F o g c a n fo r m o v e r th e c o o le r se a s


a n d n e a r S W f a c in g c o a s ts o f U K a n d F r a n c e in l a te S p r in g /e a r ly S u m m e r b y T m a i r fro m
th e A z o re s m o v in g n o rth e a st. N e a r N e w fo u n d la n d w id e sp re a d a d v e c tio n fo g c a n fo rm o v e r th e
G ra n d B a n k s (a p p ro x 4 5 N 5 0 W ) in M a y /J u n e b y a d v a n c in g w a rm m o ist a ir fro m th e M e x ic a n
G u lf o v e rru n n in g th e v e ry c o ld L a b ra d o r s e a cu rrent.
W in d s . In m id la titu d e , s u rfa c e w in d s a re s till g e n e ra lly w e ste rly b u t le s s stro n g th a n in W in ter,
a s a re u p p e r w in d s b e c a u s e th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s a re le ss. In th e C a rib b e a n , N E trad e
w in d s p re v a il a t th e su rfa c e .
J e t s tr e a m s .

T h e P o la r F r o n t j e t stre a m s w ill still b e a ro u n d th e 3 0 0 m b s le v e l a n d b e

p o sitio n e d in r e la tio n to th e P o la r w a rm a n d c o ld fro n ts a s in W in te r b u t w ill b e le ss fre q u en t,


le s s stro n g , a n d d isp la c e d f u rth e r n o r th w ith th e S u m m e r a lig n m e n t o f th e P o la r F ro n t. T h e S u b T r o p ic a l J e t a t 2 0 0 m b s w ill a ls o b e f u rth e r n o rth a n d in th e la titu d e b a n d 40N -4 5 N .
S p e c ific a lly a c ro ss th e A tla n tic in S u m m e r , it w ill b lo w fro m M o n tr e a l to B o rd e a u x , a s sh o w n
a t F ig u re 2 5 .5 .
E a s te r ly W a v e s . E a s te rly w a v e s a re sim ila r to s h a llo w tro u g h s ex te n d in g N o rth fro m th e
E q u a to ria l L o w P re s s u re b e lt.

T h e y m o v e slo w ly E a st to W e st u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e

an tic y c lo n ic w in d a ro u n d t h e su b tro p ic a l H ig h p re ssu re . In t h e N o rth A tla n tic au tu m n , W e st


A fric a n T o rn a d o e s, w h ic h fo rm o v e r N ig e ria , d rift w e stw a rd s w ith th e se w a v e s a n d c a n bec o m e
se e d lin g s o f C a rib b e a n H u rrican es.
H u r r ic a n e s . H u rric a n e is th e n a m e g iv e n to T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S to rm s in th e C a rib b e a n /G u lf
o f M e x ic o A re a . F re q u e n c y o f d e v e lo p e d H u rric a n e s is a v era g e 3 p e r y ea r. T h e y o c c u r fro m
A u g u s t to O c to b e r , tra c k in g w e s tw a r d s a c ro ss

th e A tla n tic n e a r 10N -1 5 N la titu d e a n d a t

10-1 5 k n o ts . In te rn a l w in d s p e e d s c a n e x c e e d 1 00 k n o ts . T h e y th e n c ro ss th e B a y o f M ex ico
o r tu rn rig h t a ro u n d th e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h to tra c k N W , N , N E u p th e U S A E a st C o ast. T h e y a re
e n e rg is e d b y th e la te n t h e a t o f c o n d e n sa tio n a n d a re th e re fo re m o r e a c tiv e o v e r th e s e a . E a ch
se a s o n th e y a re n a m e d a lp h a b e tic a lly in o r d e r o f o c c u rre n c e u sin g a lte rn a te m a le /fe m a le first
na m e s.

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T ro p o p a u se H e ig h ts

NORTH ATLA N TIC REGION


7 0 N
2 0 N

30 0 0 0 '
50000'
Ja n u ary

J u ly

7 0 N

S u rface

5000'

2 0 N

12000'

16000'

F re e z in g L e v e l H e ig h t

4 7 N 6 5 N a n d 4 W 2 0 E

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2 5 .7

CONTINENTAL NORTH W EST EUROPE

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e m o u n ta in s o f N o r w a y lie to th e N o r t h w h ile to th e S o u th th e re a re m a n y m o u n ta in ran g e s
d o m in a te d b y th e A lp s . B e tw e e n th e tw o re g io n s lie s th e N o r th E u r o p e a n P la in w ith n o
m o u n ta in b a rrie r a g a in st th e A tla n tic w in d s fro m th e W e st n o r to th e c o ld w in te r w in d s fro m th e
East.

2 5 .8

W IN T E R
P o l a r F r o n t D e p r e s s io n s . T h e s e m o v e f r o m th e A tla n tic to w a r d s R u s s ia a n d p rin c ip a lly
b e tw e e n th e m o u n ta in b a rrie rs t o N o r th a n d S o u th a lth o u g h tra c k s a re v a ria b le . A re a s to th e
S o u th o f e a c h L o w w ill e x p e rie n c e f r o n t a l w e a th e r .
T h e A lp s o fte n b lo c k a n d d e la y c o ld fro n ts, c a u sin g f r o n ta l a n d o r o g r a p h ic a l c lo u d to p e rsist
o n th e n o rth e rn s id e . A n a c tiv e s e c o n d a r y d e p r e s s io n m a y d e v e lo p o n su c h a fro n t, te n d in g to
ru n e a s t - n o r th - e a s t a lo n g th e fro n t u n til th e c y c lo n ic c irc u la tio n a ro u n d it e v e n tu a lly d riv e s th e
fr o n t in to th e M e d ite rra n e a n .
T h e r m a l D e p r e s s io n s . T h e rm a l lo w s c a n fo rm in W i n t e r to th e E a s t o f th e A lp s o v e r th e low
ly in g D a n u b e a re a w h ic h is m o is t a n d c o m p a r a tiv e ly w a r m . A s so c ia te d c y c lo n ic c irc u la tio n
o n th e e a s t s id e w ill b rin g w a rm a i r N o rth fro m th e M e d ite rra n e a n fo rm in g a c tiv e w a r m f r o n ts .
T h e s e c a n b rin g e x te n siv e lo w s t r a t u s to G e rm a n y a n d s n o w fa ll a s f a r n o rth a s S E E ngland.
P o l a r A i r D e p re s s io n s . T h e s e c a n so m e tim es a ffe c t th e ex tre m e N W s e a a re a s o f th e r e g io n in
W in te r. (P L in F ig u re 2 5 .1 0 )
S ib e r ia n H ig h E x te n s io n . P c a ir g iv e s c o ld d ry w e ath er. S tea m in g fo g o r L o w S tra tu s m a y b e
p ro d u c e d lo c a lly o v e r w a te r n e a r G e rm a n a n d D u tc h c o a sts a s th e c o ld a ir re a c ts w ith th e w arm er
w a te r.
T e m p o r a r y H ig h s .

R id g e s o r tra n sie n t a n tic y c lo n e s m a y e x is t in th e N /N W in b e tw ee n

tra v e llin g p o la r fro n t lo w s.

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C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
C lo u d a m o u n t e x c e e d s six o c ta s o n a v e ra g e.

C lo u d is fro n ta l fro m th e m a n y p o la r fro n t

d e p re s sio n s a ls o fro m w a rm fro n ts m o v in g N o rth fro m th e M e d ite rra n e a n a lth o u g h clo u d


a m o u n ts d e c re a s e fro m W e s t t o E ast.
T h e re is m u c h p re c ip ita tio n , in th e E a s t m a in ly o f snow .
V isib ility .
R a d ia tio n F o g c a n fo rm in l a n d w ith a s la c k p re ssu re g ra d ien t, p rin c ip a lly in A u tu m n an d
W in ter. W ith a S W w a rm m o is t w in d fro m th e A tla n tic , a d v e c tio n f o g c a n fo rm o v e r p re v io u sly
co ld s o a k e d in l a n d a re a s. S m o k e h a z e m a y r e d u c e v isib ility to t h e le e o f i n d u s tr ia l a re a s .
F r o n t a l fo g c a n o c c u r o n th e w a r m f r o n t s o f d e e p a c tiv e P o la r F r o n t d e p re s s io n s .
W in d s .
S u r f a c e W in d s a re g e n e ra lly w e s te r ly a lth o u g h e a s te rly o n th e n o rth s id e o f d ep ressio n s.
E o r N E w in d s c a n o c c u r a s a n o u tflo w f ro m th e S ib e r ia n H ig h .
U p p e r W in d s b e c o m e in c re a s in g ly w e s te rly w ith asc e n t, d u e to th e in c re a sin g w e s te rly th e rm a l
c o m p o n e n t. P o l a r F r o n t J e t s , lo c a te d in r e la tio n to th e m o v in g w a r m a n d c o ld f r o n t su rfa c e
p o sitio n s, a n d c e n tre d a ro u n d 3 0 0 m b s / 3 0 0 0 0 ' a re co m m o n a n d o fte n e x c e e d 1 00 k n o ts . T he
S u b tro p ic a l Je t is to th e S o u th n e a r M o ro c c o a n d th e re fo re d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e reg io n .

Figure 25.10. January Weather.


2 5 - 14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y

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Ic in g . A s o v e r th e N o rth A tla n tic , ic in g o c c u rs w id e ly a n d th ro u g h g re a t d e p th in F ro n ta l C lo u d


a n d is fre q u e n tly m o d e r a t e to s e v e re . F r e e z in g R a in ( R a in I c e ) c a n c a u s e se v e re c le a r ic e in
c o ld a ir u n d e r a w a r m f r o n t o r w a rm o c c lu sio n . A r a re o c cu rre n c e in U K , i t is m o re c o m m o n
o v e r C e n t r a l E u r o p e w h e re th e g ro u n d is g e n e ra lly m u c h c o ld e r, in d e e d th e fre e z in g lev el m a y
fre q u e n tly b e o n th e s u rfa c e e s p e c ia lly in th e E ast.
2 5 .9

SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
P o l a r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T h e s e w ill t r a c k e a stw a rd s a s in W in te r b u t f u r t h e r N o r th (se aso n a l
m o v e m e n t is w ith th e S u n ). T h e y w ill a ls o b e le ss i n te n s e b e c a u se o f th e sm a lle r P o la r/T ro p ic a l
te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e th a t fo rm s th em .
T h e r m a l D e p re s s io n s . S tro n g in s o la tio n c a n c a u s e a c tiv e th e rm a l d e p re ssio n s o v e r F ra n c e a n d
S o u th e rn G e rm an y . T h u n d e rsto rm s a re c o m m o n w h e n m o ist u n sta b le c o n d itio n s e x ist.
A z o re s H ig h . T h is is w e ll e s ta b lis h e d w e s t o f A fric a a t 35N . A n a sso c ia te d r id g e a c ro ss
E u ro p e o fte n g iv e s a lim ite d p e rio d o f fin e d ry w ea th er.
T e m p o r a r y H ig h s . T e m p o ra ry rid g e s o r tra n sie n t a n tic y c lo n e s to th e N W a re m o re d o m in an t
in S u m m e r, in b e tw e e n w e a k e r P o la r F ro n t L ow s.
S c a n d in a v ia n H ig h s . T h e s e c a n p e r s is t f o r a few d a y s d raw in g a ir a c ro ss th e N o rth S e a fro m
w e s te rn R u ssia.
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
F ro n ta l c lo u d a m o u n ts a n d ra in w ill b e m u c h le ss th a n in W in te r b e c a u se th e a sso c ia te d p o la r
fro n t d e p re ssio n s a re fe w e r, le ss in te n s e , a n d f u rth e r n o rth , a n d b y S u m m e r th e M e d iterran e an
w a rm fro n ts are g o n e. C lo u d is m a in ly c o n v e c tiv e in t h u n d e r s t o r m s p ro d u c e d b y t h e r m a l
lo w s . R a in f a ll is th e re fo re m a in ly in th e fo rm o f h e a v y s h o w e rs b u t th e e ffe c t m a y b e in cre ased
b y o ro g ra p h ic liftin g i n th e s o u th e rn m o u n ta in s.
V is ib ility
R ad ia tio n F o g is m u c h less lik e ly . I t c a n o c c u r in e a rly S p rin g b u t m o rn in g in s o la tio n w ill
n o rm a lly e n s u r e q u ic k c le a ra n c e .

In L a te S p rin g /E a rly S u m m er a n e a ste rly w in d ro u n d a

S c a n d in a v ia n H ig h b lo w in g o v e r th e N o rth S e a c a n o fte n r e s u lt in e x te n siv e a d v e c tio n se a fog


a lo n g th e U K E a s t C o a s t. In S c o tla n d th is is k n o w n a s h a a r . I t c a n tra v e l in la n d so m e dista n ce .

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CO NTIN EN TAL NORTH W EST EUROPE

Figure 25.11. July Weather.

W in d s
S u r f a c e w in d s a re g e n e ra lly w e s te r ly b u t l i g h te r th a n in W in ter. W in d s m a y b e m o d ifie d by
s e a b r e e z e s a lo n g co asts.
U p p e r W in d s b e c o m e in c re a sin g ly w e ste rly w ith a sc e n t b u t th e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t is less
th a n in W in te r a n d u p p e r w in d s w ill th e re fo re b e le ss stro n g . R e d u c e d S p e e d P o l a r F r o n t J e ts
w ill o c c u r b u t f u r t h e r N o r th w ith th e S u m m e r m o v e m e n t o f th e p o la r fro n ts. T h e A tla n tic s u b
tr o p i c a l j e t w ill re a c h th e c o a s t n e a r B o rd e a u x b u t d u e to m o u n ta in in te rfe re n c e w ill n o t ex ten d
o v e rla n d a t J e t Speed s. It th e re fo re d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e r e g io n .
Ic in g . T h e fre e z in g le v e l w ill b e h ig h e r in S u m m er an d fro n ta l a c tiv ity is le ss, b u t ic in g in
th u n d e rsto rm s a n d o ro g ra p h ic a l c lo u d m a y s till b e severe.
A v e r a g e T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e l H e ig h ts o v e r C e n tr a l F r a n c e
Ja n u a ry

Ju ly

T ro p o p a u se

35000

390 0 0

F re e z in g L ev el

4000'

12000'

2 5 -1 6

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THE M EDITERRANEAN SEA AN D AD JAC EN T LANDS

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
2 5 .1 0

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e M e d ite rra n e a n s e a is a lm o s t e n tire ly s u rro u n d e d b y lan d . C o m p a r e d w ith t h e l a n d , th e sea
w ill b e r e la tiv e ly w a r m e r i n w i n t e r (g iv in g u n sta b le c o n d itio n s a b o v e ) a n d r e la tiv e ly c o o le r
in s u m m e r (g iv in g s ta b le c o n d itio n s ab o v e ). T h e re fo re d u rin g th e w in te r s u rfa c e a ir w ill te n d
to f lo w in fro m s u rro u n d in g la n d a re a s a n d d u rin g s u m m e r it w ill te n d to f lo w o u t.
T h e re a re s ig n ific a n t m o u n ta i n a r e a s to th e N o r th a n d to th e W e s t. In w in te r, th e m o u n ta in s
to th e N o r t h w ill h o ld b a c k m u c h o f th e c o ld a i r f r o m E u ro p e /A sia . T h e h ig h g r o u n d t o th e
W e s t w ill r e s i s t th e a d v a n c e o f P o l a r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s e x c e p t v ia th e m o u n ta in g a p s in S W
F r a n c e a n d a t th e S t r a i t s o f G i b r a l t a r b e tw e e n S p a in a n d M oro c co .
T o th e S o u th th e re is n o m o u n ta in b a r r i e r to p re v e n t d r y d u s ty a i r f ro m th e S a h a r a d e s e rt
sp re a d in g n o rth , e x c e p t th e A tla s m o u n ta in s in th e e x tre m e SW .

2 5.11

W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
M e d it e r r a n e a n F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T h e M e d ite rra n e a n fro n t lie s e a s t/w e s t a lo n g th e c e n tr e
o f th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d is fo rm e d b y in flo w in g c o ld P c a i r fro m th e N o rth a n d in flo w in g less
c o ld T c a i r fro m th e S o u th .

A ir w ill b e f o rc e d to r is e a lo n g th e co n v e rg e n c e line fo rm in g

f r o n ta l d e p r e s s io n s in th e W e s t w h ic h m o v e e a s tw a r d s a lo n g th e fro n ta l d iv id e d riv e n b y th e
w e ste rly u p p e r airflo w . B e c a u s e o f th e d r y n e ss o f th e d e s e rt T c air, w a rm fro n t a n d w a rm se c to r
c lo u d d o e s n o t fo rm , th u s th e re is c o ld f r o n t w e a th e r o n ly .
O r o g r a p h ic o r L e e D e p re s s io n s .

T h e s e c a n fo rm s o u th o f th e A lp s o v e r th e N o r th e r n

A d r ia tic a n d o v e r th e G u l f o f G e n o a . T h e G e n o a L o w c a n m o v e s o u th a lo n g th e Ita lia n co ast


g iv in g u n s t a b l e w e a th e r . L e e L o w s c a n fo rm S o u th o f th e A tla s m o u n ta in s in M o ro c c o w ith
a c o ld W /N W a irstre a m a n d th e n m o v e N E to e n te r th e M e d ite rra n e a n e a s t o f T u n isia . T h e y c a n
a ls o fo rm S o u th o f t h e T u r k i s h T a u r u s m o u n ta in s to fo rm th e C y p r u s L o w b e tw e e n C y p ru s
a n d T u rk e y . T h e C y p r u s L o w g iv e s n o t o n ly in s ta b ility b u t is a c c o m p a n ie d b y N E g a le s. W e a k
d e p re s sio n s m o v in g in to th e a re a c a n b e c o m e d e e p e n e d a n d re a c tiv a te d . T h e se lo w s c an th e n
m o v e e a s tw a r d s i n t o L e b a n o n a n d A r a b ia .
S ib e r ia n H ig h . T h e S ib e ria n H ig h is w e ll n o r t h o f th e r e g io n b u t its c o ld o u tflo w c a n r ea ch
th e w a rm M e d ite rra n e a n a n d c a u s e in s ta b ility .
T h e r m a l D e p re s s io n s . W h e n c o ld a ir fro m th e S ib e r ia n H ig h flo w s o v e r a re la tiv e ly w a r m
la n d lo c k e d s e a a r e a s u c h a s th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , in s ta b ility o r T h e r m a l L o w s a re crea te d .
O v e r th e M e d ite rra n e a n , th e s e fo rm p a rtic u la rly in C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn a re a s a n d m ove
e a stw a rd s t o A ra b ia , t h e A ra b ia n G u lf, Ira n a n d A fg h an ista n .

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P o la r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . P o la r F ro n t L o w s a n d so m e tim e s sec o n d a ry L o w s c a n e n te r th e
re g io n v ia S W F r a n c e o r G ib r a l t a r , a fte r w h ic h th e y te n d to b e c o m e a b s o r b e d b y o th e r
D e p re ssio n s.
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
C o ld fro n ts a ss o c ia te d w ith M e d ite rra n e a n fro n t D ep re ssio n s, a lso o ro g ra p h ic a n d the rm a l
d e p re ssio n s, p ro d u c e C U

and

C B w ith a tte n d a n t h e a v y r a in o r h a il s h o w e r s an d

t h u n d e r s t o r m s . T h e re is s o m e la y e r ty p e c lo u d a n d m o re c o n tin u o u s r a in in a sso c ia tio n w ith


th e f e w P o la r F ro n t d e p re s s io n s in t h e W est.
V is ib ility
R a d ia tio n F o g is le s s c o m m o n th a n in N W E u ro p e b u t c a n b e p e rs is te n t in th e P o V a lle y in
N o rth Italy . O th e rw is e v is ib ility is e x c e lle n t b e tw e e n sh o w ers e x c e p t w h e n a ir b lo w s fro m th e
so u th b rin g in g d u s t la d e n a ir fro m th e S a h a ra d e sert. T h e se s o u th e r ly w in d s , c a lle d th e S iro c c o
in A lg e r ia , th e C h ili i n T u n is ia , t h e G h ib li in L ib y a a n d th e K h a m s in in E g y p t b lo w a h e a d o f
d e p r e s s io n s tr a v e llin g e a s t o v e r th e sea.
S u r f a c e W in d s
S u rfa c e w in d s w ill b lo w in a c c o rd w ith th e lo c a tio n o f d e p re ssio n s b u t th e re a re s o m e n a m e d
w in d s b lo w in g i n t o th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n fro m s u rro u n d in g la n d a re a s th a t sh o u ld b e n o te d :
M is tr a l. T h is is a s tro n g n o r t h e r l y w in d u p to 7 0 k ts b lo w in g d o w n th e R h o n e v a lle y in S E
F ra n c e , e s p e c ia lly w h e n H ig h p re s s u re is t o th e N o rth . It is a v a lle y /k a ta b a tic w in d , n o rm ally
s tr o n g e r a t n ig h t a n d in W in t e r , w h ic h b rin g s c o ld a i r fro m th e N o rth . It h e lp s fo rm th e
G e n o a o ro g ra p h ic L o w .
B o r a . T h is is a s tro n g e r d r y g u s ty N E w in d u p to 100 k ts w h ic h is p a r t v a lle y /p a r t k a ta b a tic .
T h e w in d b lo w s th ro u g h th e m o u n ta in p a s s e s in to th e N o r th e r n A d r ia tic a n d c a n b e re in fo rc ed
b y H ig h P re ssu re t o th e N E . It c a n b rin g s n o w a n d is s tr o n g e s t a t n ig h t.
It c a n s e t in s u d d e n ly a n d is th e re fo re d a n g e ro u s. It c a n h e lp fo rm th e A d ria tic o ro g ra p h ic L ow .
G r e g a le . T h is is s im ila r to th e B o r a b u t le s s s tr o n g , f u r t h e r s o u th a n d m o re m o ist. I t b lo w s
fro m th e N E n e a r S o u th e rn Ita ly a n d M a lta a n d is d u e to c o n tin e n ta l re la tiv e ly h ig h p re ssu re to
th e N o rth , a n d lo w p re s s u re o v e r th e M e d ite rra n e a n S ea. It o c c u rs in 1 -2 d a y sp e lls in asso ciatio n
w ith M e d ite rra n e a n d e p re s s io n s to th e S o u th w h ic h a re m o v in g e astw a rd s.
S ir o c c o (o r S c iro c c o ).

B lo w s o u t o f A lg e ria an d th e S a h a ra D e se rt in to th e w e s te r n

M e d i t e r r a n e a n a h e a d o f tr a v e llin g M e d ite rra n e a n lo w s, a n d c a n c a rry d u s t u p to 10000'. T h e


S iro c c o c a n s o m e tim e s c o n tin u e n o r t h w a r d s t o F r a n c e ; w h ile in tra n s it it w ill b e c o o le d a n d
h u m id ifie d b y th e s e a a n d c a n th u s c a u s e a d v e c tio n fo g a n d /o r lo w s t r a t u s a lo n g t h e S o u th
F r e n c h C o a s t.
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K h a m s in . S im ila r to th e s iro c c o , b u t f u r t h e r e a s t, th e K h a m sin o rig in a te s in N o rth e rn S u d a n ,


b lo w s f r o m t h e S o u th th ro u g h E g y p t a n d c a n a ffe c t Jo rd a n , S y ria a n d C y p ru s. D u st c a n be
c a rrie d to 10000'.

F ig u re 2 5 .1 2 . W in te r P re s s u re S y s te m s a n d S u rfa c e W in d s .

V a n d e v a le . S tro n g S W t o W w in d in th e S tr a its o f G ib r a l t a r . B lo w s a h e a d o f a p o la r fro n t


co ld fro n t a p p ro a c h in g f ro m th e A tla n tic . I t is v e ry sq u a lly w ith m u ch lo w c loud.
U p p e r W in d s
In th e e x t r e m e w e s t a fe w P o la r F r o n t J e t S tr e a m s o c c u r in a sso c ia tio n w ith P F L o w s. T h e
S u b T r o p ic a l J e t o v e r M o r o c c o d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e W e s t o f th e s e a a re a b u t c a n a ffe c t th e
E a s te rn M e d ite rra n e a n in t h e C y p ru s a n d E g y p t re g io n . It is c e n tre d a t th e 2 0 0 m b le v el w ith
m a x im u m w e s te rly w in d s a t o v e r lOOkts.

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F ig u re 2 5 .1 3 . W in te r U p p e r W in d s .

Ic in g
C le a r ic e c a n o c c u r in c o n v e c tiv e c lo u d a n d th u n d e rsto rm s. F re e z in g ra in /ra in ic e c a n o c c u r o v e r
N Ita ly w h e re th e fre e z in g le v e l m a y o c c a sio n a lly b e o n th e surface.
2 5 .1 2

SU M M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
A z o r e s H ig h . T h e A z o re s su b tro p ic a l h ig h a t 3 5 N e x te n d s e a stw a rd s a c ro ss th e M ed ite rran e an .
T h e r m a l L o w s . P re ssu re o v e r E g y p t, L e b a n o n , a n d la n d s t o th e E a st is re la tiv e ly lo w d u e to
in te n s e in so la tio n .
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
T h e re is little c lo u d a s id e fro m f a i r w e a t h e r C U . L o c a l C U /C B c a n o c c u r o v e r th e h ig h g ro u n d
o f G re e c e , Ita ly a n d T u rk e y d u e to c o n v e c tiv e a n d o r o g r a p h ic u p lif t, p o ssib ly r e su ltin g in local
th u n d e rsto rm s.

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V is ib ility

T ra p p e d n e a r th e s u rfa c e b y g e n e ra lly d e s c e n d in g air, d u s t c a n re d u c e v isib ility a c r o s s th e


re g io n . In t h e s tra its o f G i b r a l t a r , w a rm m o ist a ir flo w in g o u t o v e r th e c o o le r A tla n tic c a n
p ro d u c e a d v e c tio n fo g o r lo w S T /S C .
S u r f a c e W in d s
L e v a n te r.

S u m m e r o u tf lo w fro m th e M e d ite rra n e a n o c c u rs a t G ib ra lta r a n d is c a lle d th e

L e v a n te r. I t b lo w s f ro m th e E a s t (th e L e v a n t) d u rin g J u ly - O c to b e r a n d M a r c h a n d c a n re a c h
g a le fo rc e . T h e a x is o f th e R o c k o f G ib ra lta r is N o rth /S o u th a n d o r o g r a p h ic u p lif t o n th e e ast
s id e th ro u g h s o m e 1 1 0 0 ' c a n p ro d u c e a b a n n e r o f S T /S C w h ic h th e n s tr e a m s w e s tw a r d fro m
th e to p o f th e R o ck .

In sta b le a ir s t a n d i n g w a v e s c a n o c c u r o v e r th e ro c k .

C o n sid e ra b le

tu r b u l e n c e u p t o 5 0 0 0 ' c a n e x is t a b o v e th e a d ja c e n t airfield .
E te s ia n . T h is m o d e r a t e p e r s is te n t w in d b lo w s f r o m t h e N o r th a c ro ss th e G re e k Isla n d s o f th e
A e g e a n s e a to w a rd s th e is la n d o f R h o d e s th e n so u th w ard s. It is c a u se d b y th e p re ssu re g ra d ie n t
b e tw e e n th e A z o re s rid g e , e x te n d in g a c ro s s th e W e ste rn a n d C en tral M e d iterra n e an , a n d h ea t
in d u c e d lo w p re s s u re o v e rla n d t o th e E a st. T h e w in d is d ry a n d b rin g s c le a r sk ie s a n d g o o d
v is ib ility . S tro n g E te s ia n s c a n b rin g g a le s a n d a ffe c t th e a re a fro m W G re e c e to W T u rk e y a n d
a s fa r so u th a s th e N A fric a n c o a s t w h e n C U m a y d e v e lo p a fte r th e lo n g s e a trac k .
S e a B re e z e s . T h e s e c a n b e stro n g a t th is tim e o f th e y e a r a n d w ill lo c a lly m o d ify su rfa c e w in d
d ire c tio n .
U p p e r W in d s
L ig h t w e s te r ly in th e W e s t. W e s te r ly a v e ra g e 4 0 -5 0 k n o ts in th e E a s t. B oth J e t s t r e a m s a re
o u t o f th e r e g io n to th e N o rth .
Ic in g
T h e f re e z in g level is h ig h a n d ic in g is n o t n o rm a lly a p ro b le m in sum m er.
A v e ra g e T ro p o p a u s e
S o u th R e g io n 5 3 0 0 0 '

N o rth R e g io n 4 0 0 0 0 '

A v e r a g e F r e e z in g L e v e ls
W in te r 6 0 0 0 '

S u m m e r 14000'

25-21

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AR EA CLIM A TO LO G Y

THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND AD JAC EN T LANDS

F ig u re 2 5 .1 4 . S u m m e r P re s s u re , S u rfa c e W in d V e lo c ity a n d C loud.

Figure 25.15. Summer Upper Winds.

2 5 - 22

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y

25.13

AR AB IA , THE GULF AR EA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS


ENCLOSED WITHIN 15N-35N AN D 35E-75E

G E O G R A P H I C A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .
In la n d a re a s o f Ira q , S a u d i A ra b ia a n d O m a n a re la rg e ly d e se rt. T h e T ro p ic o f C a n c e r a t 23 'A
N a lm o st b is e c ts th e re g io n s o th a t in s u m m e r th e n o o n s u n is v irtu a lly o v e rh e a d . T h e d aytim e
in te rio r is e x tre m e ly d r y a n d h o t. T h e w a rm G u lf w a te rs c a u s e o p p re ssiv e h u m id ity a lo n g c oasts.
S u rfa c e w in d d ire c tio n is g e n e ra lly g o v e rn e d in th e W e s t b y t h e N W /S E a x is o f th e Z a g ro s
m o u n ta in s in W . Ira n a n d i n th e E a s t b y th e H im alay a s.
TO THE NORTH

GENERALLY SW/V N'LY


EXCEPT AHEAD OF
MEDITERRANEAN LOW:

A V

HUMID G',,
* BURN

F ig u re 2 5 .1 6 .

2 5 .1 4

A ra b ia n W e a th e r - W in te r

W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
T h e S ib e r ia n H ig h is e s ta b lis h e d o v e r A s ia to th e N E b u t its su rfa c e o u tflo w a ffe c ts th e reg io n .
T h e r m a l L o w s , o fte n w ith a s s o c ia te d c o ld fro n ts, tra v e l e a stw a rd fro m th e M ed ite rran e an acro ss
A ra b ia in to Ira n a n d A fg h a n ista n .
S ib e ria n d r y c o ld fro n ta l a ir p a s s in g o v e r t h e re la tiv e ly w a rm C a sp ia n S e a to th e N o rth c an
in itia te c o n s id e ra b le th e rm a l in sta b ility .

25-23

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y

AR A BIA , THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS


ENCLOSED W ITHIN 15N-35N AND 35E-75E

C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n is r e s tric te d to th e N o rth a n d W e s t o nly. T r a v e llin g L o w s fro m th e


M e d i t e r r a n e a n w ill p ro d u c e C U /C B , h e a v y s h o w e r s a n d t h u n d e r s to r m s , a n d th e ir asso c ia te d
c o ld fro n ts m a y b r in g s o m e w e a th e r a n d d u s ts to r m s to t h e m o re s o u th e rn in te rio r o f A ra b ia .
T h e r m a l i n s ta b ility o v e r th e C a s p i a n S e a c an b rin g t h u n d e r s to r m s , h a il a n d p o ssib ly s n o w
to h ig h g ro u n d to th e n o rth .
S u r f a c e W in d s . In th e w e s t th e Z a g r o s m o u n ta in ra n g e a n d p a ra lle l rid g e s a re o rie n te d
N W /S E . T h e s e b lo c k a n d d e f le c t th e c o ld S ib erian o u tflo w s o th a t th e s u r f a c e w in d s b e co m e
N o r t h o r N o r th w e s te r ly .

In th e E a s t, th e S ib e ria n o u tflo w e sc a p in g ro u n d th e w e ste rn en d

o f th e H im a la y a n a ir b lo c k w ill a g a in b e n o r t h e r ly . T h e e x c e p tio n is th e t e m p o r a r y s o u th e r ly
w in d w h ic h o c c u rs a h e a d o f th e tr a v e llin g d e p re ssio n s fro m th e M ed ite rran e an .
V isib ility . W in te r v is ib ility is g e n e ra lly m u c h b e tte r th a n in th e su m m e r c o n v e c tio n c u rre n ts,
b u t in th e N W o f th e re g io n ris in g d u s t c a n o c c u r w ith a n y w in d d ire c tio n a n d e s p e c ia lly in th e
s o u t h e r l y w in d s a h e a d o f th e tr a v e llin g e x M e d ite rra n e a n L o w s.

V io le n t b u t sh o rt liv e d

d u s ts to r m s m a y a c c o m p a n y th e p a s s a g e o f a sso c ia te d c o ld f r o n ts . O v e rla n d n e a r co a sts w h ere


h u m id ity i s h ig h , r a d i a t io n fo g m a y fo rm , b u t d is p e r s a l is q u ic k a fte r s u nrise.
U p p e r W in d s a re w e s te rly . T h e 2 0 0 m b S u b tr o p ic a l J e t c o v e rs th e w e s t o f th e r e g io n a n d m ay
ex te n d a s lo w a s 3 0 0 m b s (3 0 0 0 0 '). C o re s p e e d s fre q u e n tly e x c e e d 1 00 k n ots.
Ic in g is n o t a p ro b le m e x c e p t w h e n c lim b in g o r d e s c e n d in g th ro u g h la rg e C U /C B .
2 5 .1 5

SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y ste m s .
T h e B a lu c h is ta n L o w is th e lo w e s t p re ss u re p o in t o f g en e ral w a rm w e a th e r lo w p re ssu re o v e r
th e A s ia n c o n tin e n t. I t c e n tre s o n th e a re a o f B a lu c h ista n , ly in g a c ro ss th e Ira n /P a k ista n b o rder,
d u e to th e m a in ly so u th -fa c in g ro c k y n a tu re o f th e su rfac e, a n d in te n se so la r h e a tin g fro m th e
h ig h n o o n d a y sun.
T h e I T C Z j u s t re a c h e s O m a n in th e w e s t. In th e e a s t it tra v e rse s th e N . A ra b ia n S e a n o rth w a rd s
in Ju n e /Ju ly a n d s o u th w a rd s d u rin g S e p tem b er.
T h e r m a l L o w P r e s s u r e . O v e r E a s te rn P a k ista n a n d N W In d ia, M a rc h to J u n e is d ry. W ith
a d v a n c in g S p rin g , th e la n d m a ss b e g in s t o w a rm , th u s p re ssu re b e g in s to fa ll, d ra w in g in w a rm
m o is t a ir fr o m th e A ra b ia n S e a in re s p o n s e to th e p re ssu re g rad ien t; first a t lo w e r la titu d e s th e n
p ro g re s siv e ly f u rth e r n o rth . T h e IT C Z fo llo w s.
C y c lo n e s o c c u r o v e r th e A r a b i a n S e a d u rin g th e a d v a n ce a n d re tre a t o f th e IT C Z b e tw e e n J u n e
a n d S e p te m b e r .

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A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y

AR AB IA , THE GULF AREA, A R ABIAN SEA AND BORDERS


ENCLOSED WITHIN 15N-35N AN D 35E-75E

S u r f a c e W in d s .
In th e W e s t, a n tic lo c k w ise r o ta tio n a ro u n d t h e B a lu c h is ta n L o w , a s m o d ifie d b y th e Z a g ro s
m o u n ta in N W /S E o rie n ta tio n , g iv e s N o r t h e r ly o r N o r th w e s te r ly w in d s.

In p a rtic u la r, th e

S h a m a l w in d o rig in a te s a s d r y d u s ty c o n v e c tio n c u rre n ts o v e r I r a q . It is N o r th w e s te r ly a n d


b lo w s th e le n g th o f th e G u l f p ic k in g u p m u c h m o istu re a n d d e liv e rin g d u s ty h u m id a ir to N W
fa c in g c o a s ts ty p ic a lly b e tw e e n B a h ra in a n d D ubai.

It d e c re a se s a t n ig h t. (Jin g le: S ham al

o c c u rs in S u m m er).

F ig u re 2 5 .1 7

A ra b ia n W e a th e r - S u m m e r.

2 5 - 25

' Oxford Aviation Services Limited

A R A B IA , TH E GULF AR EA, A R ABIAN SEA AND BORDERS


ENCLOSED WITHIN 15N-35N AN D 35E-75E

A R EA CLIM ATOLOG Y

C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
M o s t o f th e r e g io n is a lm o s t r a in le s s a n d te m p e ra tu re s c an e x c e e d 5 0 C . In la n d a re a s a re v e ry
d r y b u t G u lf c o a s ta l re g io n s fa c in g th e N /N W o n sh o re w in d s c a n b e o p p re ssiv e ly h u m id . A n
e x c e p tio n is th e S E o f O m a n .

T h e I T C Z r e a c h e s th e c o a s t w h e re

th e d e s e rt

te rra in

te m p o ra rily b u rs ts in to b lo o m . F u rth e r E a st to w a rd s t h e I n d ia n co a st, th e IT C Z n o rth w a rd


m o v e m e n t is fo llo w e d b y th e o n s e t o f th e S W m o n so o n . T h e m o n so o n is v e ry m o ist an d
co n v e c tiv e ly u n sta b le . O ro g ra p h ic a n d c o n v e c tio n c lo u d a n d h e av y ra in a re w id esp re ad .
V is ib ility .
T h e n o r t h / n o r th w e s t e r ly w in d s c a n c a u s e m u c h d u s t i n th e d e s e rt re g io n s. T h e s h a m a l w ill
b rin g d u s ty m o is t a i r to c o a s ta l a re a s.. V is ib ility w ill a lso b e re d u c e d in re g io n s a ffe c te d b y th e
IT C Z .
U p p e r W in d s . A b o v e 2 0 0 0 0 ' w in d s a re lig h t E asterly.
Ic in g . Ic in g s h o u ld n o t b e a p ro b le m in S um m er.
A v e r a g e T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e l H e ig h ts
F r e e z in g L e v e l

T ro p o p au se
N o rth
Ja n u a ry

S o u th

11000 '

38000'
56000'

Ju ly

16000'

45000'

25-26

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CHAPTER TWENTY SIX - ROUTE CLIMATOLOGY


C o n te n ts
Page
C A L C U T T A T O S IN G A P O R E
26.1

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S

26 .2

W IN T E R (J A N U A R Y ) ...............................................................................................................................2 6 - 1

......................................................................................... 2 6 - 1

26.3

S U M M E R ( J U L Y ) .......................................................................................................................................2 6 - 3
S IN G A P O R E T O T O K Y O V IA H O N G K O N G

26 .4

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .........................................................................................2 6 - 6

26 .5

W I N T E R ...........................................................................................................................................................2 6 - 6

2 6 .6

S U M M E R ........................................................................................................................................................ 2 6 - 9
S IN G A P O R E T O A U C K L A N D V I A D A R W IN A N D S Y D N E Y 0 1 N - 3 7 S
1 0 5 - 1 7 5 E

2 6 .7

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S

......................................................................................2 6 - 1 3

26 .8

W IN T E R ( J U L Y ) ...................................................................................................................................... 2 6 - 1 3

2 6 .9

S U M M E R ( J A N U A R Y ) ..........................................................................................................................2 6 - 1 6
C A IR O T O J O H A N N E S B U R G V IA N A IR O B I 3 0 N - 2 7 S

2 6 .1 0

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S

2 8 E - 3 7E

......................................................................................2 6 - 1 9

26.11

JA N U A R Y (N O R T H E R N W IN T E R /S O U T H E R N S U M M E R ) ........................................... 2 6 - 1 9

2 6.12

JU L Y (N O R T H E R N S U M M E R /S O U T H E R N W IN T E R ) .....................................................2 6 - 2 1

26.13

N A IR O B I R E G IO N

................................................................................................................................ 2 6 - 2 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE C LIM ATO LO G Y


26.1

C ALC U TTA TO SINGAPORE

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e r o u te is lo c a te d b e tw e e n L a titu d e s 2 3 N a n d 01N . It o v e rflie s th e e a ste rn B a y o f B e n g al
a n d is j u s t o f f th e w e s t c o a st o f B a n g la d e sh , B u rm a , T h a ila n d a n d W . M a la y sia. T h e H im ala y a s
lie to th e n o r th o f lo w ly in g B a n g la d e sh . T h e C a m e ro n H ig h la n d s fo rm a sp in e th e le n g th o f
W e s t M a la y sia , a n d S u m a tra Is la n d to th e S W a lso h a s a m o u n ta in b ack b o n e.

2 6.2

W IN T E R ( J A N U A R Y )

Figure 26.1. Weather and Winds in January.

2 6 -1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C ALC U T TA TO SINGAPORE

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y


P r e s s u r e S y s te m s .

C o n tin e n ta l o u tf lo w fro m th e S ib e r ia n H ig h e sta b lish e s th e N E M o n so o n o v e r th e w h o le ro u te


a s sh o w n in F ig u re 2 6 .1 . T h e I T C Z is s o u th o f th e route.
W e a th e r .
In W in te r th e ro u te w e a th e r is g e n e ra lly v e ry g ood. C a lc u tta a n d B a n g la d e sh a re p ro te c te d from
th e N o rth b y t h e H im a la y a s. A b e a m B u rm a , th e N E m o n so o n w ill h a v e h a d a lo n g la n d tra c k
an d , a lth o u g h is o la te d c o n v e c tiv e c u m u lu s a re p o ssib le, th e d ry c o ld a ir w ill in g e n e ra l e n su re
c le a r skies.
F u rth e r so u th th e m o n so o n w ill c ro s s th e G u lf o f T h a ila n d p ic k in g u p w arm th a n d m o istu re
en c o u ra g in g s o m e C U a n d C B to fo rm o v e r th e isth m u s o f S o u th e rn T h a ilan d .
O n th e la s t se c tio n o f th e ro u te th e N E M o n so o n a rriv e s w a rm a n d m o is t fro m th e e x p a n se o f th e
S o u th Ch in a S e a g iv in g la rg e s c a le o ro g ra p h ic c u m u lu s a n d th u n d e rsto rm s o v e r th e E a st C o a sts
a n d C e n tra l h ig h la n d s o f W e st M a la y sia a n d Sum atra.
T h e W e s t C o a sts a re m o re s h e lte re d a n d g e n e ra lly le ss w e t a lth o u g h all e q u a to ria l la n d a re as
in c lu d in g

S in g a p o re h a v e

c o n s id e ra b le c o n v e c tiv e h e a tin g re su ltin g

in a lm o st d a ily

th u n d e rsto rm s.
V is ib ility .
E a rly m o rn in g m is t c a n o c c u r in th e m o is t riv e r d e lta re g io n s o f B a n g la d e sh a n d B urm a.
O th e rw ise v is ib ility is v e ry g o o d o u ts id e s h o w ers a n d th u n d ersto rm s.
W in d s .
L o w lev el w in d s a re n o rth -e a s te rly o v e r th e w h o le ro u te u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e N E m on so o n .
A b o v e 2 0 0 0 0 ' u p p e r w in d s o v e rru n th e m o n so o n . T h e 2 0 0 m b su b tro p ic a l j e t lie s j u s t so u th o f
th e H im a la y a s a n d is th e re fo re n o r th o f th e ro u te; d e c re a sin g w e ste rlie s o f a ro u n d 4 0 k n o ts o v er
C a lc u tta re d u c e t o z e ro n e a r 10N th e re a fte r b e c o m in g th e n o rm a l lig h t e q u a to ria l easterlie s.
Ic in g .
Ic in g c a n o c c u r a b o v e 16 0 0 0 ' b u t is a le s se r p ro b le m in J a n u a ry th a n J u ly a s s k ies a re g e n era lly
c le a r o n th e ro u te.

26-2

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C ALC U TTA TO SINGAPORE

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y


26 .3

S U M M E R (JU L Y )

F ig u re 2 6 .2 .

W e a th e r an d W in d s in July.

P r e s s u r e S y s te m s .
T h e S ib e ria n H ig h o f W in te r h a s b e e n r e p la c e d b y th e A s ia n L o w c e n tre d o v e r B a lu c h is ta n .
T h e I T C Z ra p id ly tra v e rs e s th e r o u te n o rth b o u n d in S p rin g to b e b y S in g a p o re in M arc h a n d
C a lc u tta in M a y , th e n a g a in s o u th b o u n d in th e A u tu m n to b e b y C a lcu tta in O c to b e r an d
S in g a p o re a g a in in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r. In J u ly it is th e re fo re lo c a te d w e ll to th e N o r th . T h e
in flo w to th e IT C Z c y c lo n ic a lly ro u n d th e A sia n L o w e sta b lish e s th e S W M o n so o n a s sh o w n
a t F ig u re 2 6 .2 . T h e m o n s o o n is s u p p lie d fro m th e S o u th e rn H e m isp h e re S E tra d e w in d s w h ich
v e e r to S W o n c ro s s in g th e eq u ato r.

26-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

C ALC U TTA TO SINGAPORE

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

T h e le n g th y e q u a to ria l s e a tra c k o f th e s e w in d s e n su re s h ig h te m p e ra tu re s a n d h ig h h u m id ity so


th a t w h e re v e r th e y la n d fa ll, th e o ro g ra p h ic u p lift w ill trig g e r in te n se in stab ility w ith
th u n d e rsto rm s a n d s e v e re w e a th e r.
W e a th e r .
In S u m m e r, f ly in g c o n d itio n s a re p o o r. T h e w h o le ro u te lies o n th e w in d w a rd sid e o f the
B a n g la d e sh i, B u rm e se , T h a i a n d W e s t M a la y sia n c o a sts. T h u n d e rsto rm s a n d s ev e re w e a th e r
w ill o c c u r th ro u g h o u t e x c e p t o v e r th e e x tre m e s o u th o f th e ro u te , w h e re in th e S traits o f M a la cc a
th e re w ill b e so m e p ro te c tio n

b y th e m o u n ta in s o f S u m a tra fro m th e S W M on so o n .

N e v e rth e le ss th e h ig h m o u n ta in s o n e ith e r s id e o f th e stra its c a n c a u se a n e w h a za rd .


A t N ig h t, th e k a t a b a ti c w in d s f r o m e a c h s id e , a id e d b y th e la n d b re e z e effe c t, w ill m ee t in th e
m id d le o f th e s tra its c a u s in g a c o n v e rg e n c e lin e w ith c o n se q u e n t u p lift. A lo n g th e stra its th is
d o u b le sid e d u p lift c a n c a u s e a lin e o f n ig h t tim e t h u n d e r s to r m s a r c h e d in th e m id d le , kn o w n
a s S u m a t r a s . (Jin g le : S u m a tra s o c c u r in S u m m er)
C y c lo n e s .
T ro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s a re k n o w n a s c y c lo n e s in th e B a y o f B e n g a l. T o form th e y n e e d a
su m m e r w a r m s e a (e v id e n c e su g g e sts in e x c e ss o f + 2 7 C ) a n d th e c lo s e in s ta b ility o f th e
IT C Z . In J u ly th e IT C Z is n o rth , o v e r th e la n d , so th a t i n th is a re a th e y fo rm o n ly in e a rly an d
la te s u m m e r w h e n th e IT C Z is o v e r th e se a , th a t is in J u n e o r O c to b e r . T ro p ical re v o lv in g
sto rm s a ls o o c c u r in t h e G u lf o f T h a ila n d a n d o c c a sio n a lly m o v e w e s t to a ffe c t th e route.
V isib ility .
V isib ility is g e n e ra lly im p a ire d b y m u c h c lo u d a n d fre q u e n t rain fall. R e d u c tio n in tro p ical
ra in sto rm s c a n b e c o n sid e ra b le .
W in d s .
S u r f a c e w in d s a re S W o v e r th e w h o le ro u te. A lo ft, th e 2 0 0 m b su b tro p ica l j e t is n o w lo ca ted
N o rth o f th e H im a la y a s th u s a b o v e 2 0 0 0 0 ' th e eq u a to ria l m o stly lig h t u p p e r e a s te r lie s a p p ly
o v e r th e w h o le r o u te . A lso in t h is re g io n , su m m e r h ig h tem p e ra tu re s in th e la n d m a ss o f A sia
ca u s e a r e v e rsa l o f th e S o u th -N o rth te m p e ra tu re grad ien t. A lo ft, w ith w a rm a ir to th e n o rth , th e
u p p e r p re ssu re g r a d ie n t m o v e m e n t is s o u th w a rd , w h ic h C o rio lis/G F w ill tu rn to th e rig h t, giv in g
a p ro n o u n c e d E a s t e r l y J e t o v e r R a n g o o n o f 7 0 k n o ts c e n tre d n e a r th e 150 m b lev el (4 5 0 0 0 ').

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Ic in g .

C ALC U T TA TO SINGAPORE

Ic in g c a n b e a p ro b le m on th is ro u te d u rin g th e S u m m er, w h e n d e sc e n d in g th ro u g h

c u m u lo -fo n n clo u d s.
T r o p o p a u s e H e ig h ts a v e ra g e 5 6 0 0 0 ' a ll y ear.
F r e e z in g L e v e l H e ig h ts a v e ra g e 1 6 0 0 0 ' a ll year.

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2 6 .4

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e ro u te tra v e rs e s th e W e ste rn P a c ific R im fro m L a titu d e 01 N to 35N . It p a sse s c lo se to
th e e a s t c o a s ts o f W . M a la y sia , V ie tn a m a n d C h in a . T h e e n ro u te w e a th e r is d o m in a te d b y th e
ch a n g in g s e a so n a l p r e ssu r e o v e r A sia a n d th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n c o n tin e n t an d
o c e a n a n d b e tw e e n s e a c u rre n ts. E a st o f Ja p a n , th e co ld O y a siw o se a c u rre n t sw e ep s d o w n fro m
th e R u s sia n K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la , a n d is c o u n te re d b y th e w a rm K u ro siw o s e a c u rre n t flo w in g
n o rth e a s tw a rd fro m th e N o rth e rn P h ilip p in e s.

M u ch o f th e area , in c lu d in g Ja p a n , h a s a

m o u n ta in o u s interior.
2 6 .5

W IN T E R

F ig u re 2 6 .3 .

S u rfa c e C o n d itio n s in Ja n u a ry.

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P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
T h e I T C Z lie s w e ll so u th o f th e route.
T h e S ib e r ia n H ig h is w e ll e s ta b lis h e d to th e w e st o v e r A sia.
So m e P o l a r F r o n t L o w s tra v e rs e th e e x tre m e n o rth o f th e reg io n .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
C lo c k w ise o u tflo w f ro m th e S ib e r ia n H ig h esta b lish e s th e w in d flo w o v e r th e ro u te a s s h o w n
in F ig. 2 6 .3 . F ro m S in g a p o r e to V ie tn a m th e N E m o n s o o n b low s. F ro m V ie tn a m to C h in a
th e w in d re m a in s n o r th o r n o r t h e a s t. N e a r J a p a n th e w in d is n o r th o r n o r th w e st.
W e a th e r .
In th e s o u th o f th e ro u te , th e N E m o n s o o n s w e e p s d o w n f ro m th e w a rm e x p a n se o f th e S outh
C h in a S e a p ro d u c in g in te n s e c o n v e c tiv e in sta b ility . T h is w ill p ro d u c e C U , C B , h e a v y sh o w ers
a n d th u n d e rs to rm s a lo n g a n y w in d w a rd c o a s t in its p a th , f o r e x a m p le th e E a st/N E c o a sts o f W .
M a la y sia a n d V ie tn a m . I n la n d are a s, s h e lte re d b y m o u n ta in s, w ill re m a in d rie r a sid e from
co n v e c tiv e w e a th e r.
T o w a rd s H o n g K o n g , a f te r th e IT C Z h a s p a s se d s o u th b o u n d in S e p te m b er,so m e s h e lte r w ill be
a ffo rd e d fro m n o rth /N E w in d s b y th e C h in e se m o u n ta in o u s la n d m a ss; fro m O c to b e r to
D e c e m b e r th e w e a th e r in H o n g K o n g is fin e a n d d ry. A c h a n g e o c c u rs in J a n u a ry a s th e w in d
v e e rs a n d th e so u rc e a re a is o v e r th e w a rm K u ro siw o s e a c u rre n t. T h e se n e w w a rm m o ist w in d s
fo rm , o v e r s e a s o n a lly c o o le d c o a s ta l H o n g K o n g w a te rs, a d v e c tio n fog, lo w s t r a t u s d r iz z le
a n d g lo o m y c o n d itio n s . T h is c o a s ta l c o n d itio n is k n o w n a s th e C r a c h in a n d la sts in H o n g
K o n g fro m J a n u a r y t o A p r il a fte r w h ic h t h e n o rth w a rd m o v e m e n t o f th e IT C Z w ill d isp e l it.
In th e n o r th o f th e ro u te v e ry c o ld d r y S E w a rd o u tflo w f ro m S ib e ria c ro sse s th e c o m p arativ ely
w a rm S e a o f Ja p a n .

M o d e ra te in s ta b ility g e n e ra te d is o ro g ra p h ic a lly en h a n c e d o v e r th e

J a p a n e s e N W c o a s t a n d c e n t r a l m o u n ta in s c a u s in g C U a n d h e a v y s n o w s h o w e rs . E a ste rn
lee a re a s , s u c h a s T o k y o , w ill b e d r ie r a n d le s s co ld d u e to th e F o h n e ffe c t a n d w a rm in g fro m th e
K u ro s iw o s e a c u rren t.
V isib ility .
In th e so u th o f th e ro u te , v isib ility is g o o d b e tw e e n sh o w ers. A t H o n g K o n g v is ib ility is
e x c e lle n t O c to b e r - D e c e m b e r , b u t a b y s m a l fro m J a n u a r y - A p r i l in th e C r a c h in c o n d itio n s
d is c u s s e d a b o v e . N e a r T o k y o a n d o th e r b ig Ja p a n e se c itie s v isib ility c a n b e re d u c e d to n e a r fog
lim its b y in d u s tria l sm o k e.

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SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG

U p p e r W in d s .
E q u a to ria l 10 -3 0 k t E a s te rlie s b lo w fro m S in g ap o re to 10N . F u rth e r n o rth , w in d s be co m e
w e ste rly in c re a sin g in sp e e d to w a rd s 2 5 N -4 0 N w h e re th e 2 0 0 m b sub tro p ica l j e t b lo w s,
fre q u e n tly u p t o 150 k n o ts, a n d o c c a sio n a lly to 3 0 0 k n o ts n e a r Ja p a n . T h is ex c ep tio n al sp e e d
is d u e to a c o m b in a tio n o f th e stro n g lo w le v e l g e o stro p h ic S o u th E a stw a rd S ib e ria n o u tflo w a n d
th e e x tre m e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t g e n e ra te d b y th e m a rk e d S ib e ria /P a c ific te m p e ratu re
d iffe re n c e . F u rth e r n o rth , th e re a re so m e o c c a sio n a l w e ste rly je ts in asso c ia tio n w ith p o la r fro n t
lo w s.

F ig u re 2 6 .4 . U p p e r w in d s in Jan u a ry.

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ROUTE C LIM ATOLOG Y


2 6 .6

SUM M ER

JAPAf

Y E LLO W
SEA

TOKYO

SH AN G H /

PACIFIC

20 N

PHILIPPINES

TYPHOONS O
MAIN SEASON
J U L -S E P
ALSO POSSIBLE
MAY - NOV

.S OUTH
IC H IN A
I SEA

EQUATOR

F ig u re 2 6 .5 . S u rfa c e C o n d itio n s in July.

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SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG

P r e s s u r e S y s te m s .
B a lu c h is ta n L o w . T h e W in te r S ib e ria n H ig h is r e p la c e d b y t h e S u m m e r A sia n L o w c en tred
o v e r B a lu c h ista n . Its a n tic lo c k w is e in flo w p r o d u c e s th e S W m o n s o o n o v e r th e ro u te a s fa r
n o r th a s C e n tra l J a p a n - th e N o rth e rn lim it o f th e ITC Z.
I T C Z /E q u a to r ia l T r o u g h . T h e S W m o n so o n w ill fo llo w n o rth w a rd s th e IT C Z w h ic h w ill b e
o v e r S in g a p o re in M a rc h , C h in a in M a y a n d Ja p a n in July. T h e n o rth e rn e x te n t o f th e S W
m o n s o o n w ill th e n re c e d e s o u th w a rd s a g a in d riv e n b e fo re th e IT C Z , w h ic h p a sse s H o n g K o n g
in S e p te m b e r a n d S in g a p o re a g a in in N o v e m b er/D ec em b er.
T y p h o o n s . In th e N o rth P a c ific , tro p ic a l r e v o lv in g s to rm s a re k n o w n a s ty p h o o n s. E v id en c e
su g g e s ts th a t to fo rm , re q u ire m e n ts in c lu d e a s e a te m p e ra tu re g re a te r th a n + 2 7 C , a p ro x im ity
to IT C Z in sta b ility , p lu s a d is p la c e m e n t a w a y fro m th e e q u a to r w h e re c o rio lis is ze ro , an d
lo c a tio n s o u th o f th e J e ts tre a m b e lts w h ic h w o u ld d e stro y th e ir v e rtic a l c o n tin u ity . T h e y form
in th e C e n tra l p a c ific , a t a ro u n d 10 -1 5 N th e n d rift w e stw a rd a t 10-15 k n o ts w ith th e clo c k w ise
w in d d ire c tio n a ro u n d th e N . P a c ific su b tr o p ic a l H ig h . N e a rin g th e P h ilip p in e s th e y w ill
g e n e ra lly tr a c k n e a r th e s e a so n a l IT C Z b u t c a n c u rl n o rth w a rd s e x te n d in g th e s e a so n in som e
lo c a tio n s. U p to 12 p e r y e a r c a n e ffe c t S o u th e rn J a p a n , p r in c ip a lly in J u ly - S e p te m b e r a n d in
H o n g K o n g o c c u rre n c e is c o m m o n ly in S e p te m b e r. T h e o v e ra ll s e a so n m a y e x te n d f ro m M a y
to N o v e m b e r d e p e n d in g o n L a titu d e . T h e s o u th e rn lim it is th e G u lf o f T h a ilan d .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
In J u ly th e s o u th w e s t m o n s o o n e x te n d s o v e r th e w h o le ro u te a s f a r N o rth a s C en tral Jap a n
w h e re th e IT C Z th e n lie s. B y la te S u m m e r, th e c o ld N o rth w e ste rlie s w ill re -e sta b lish b e h in d th e
re tre a tin g IT C Z a s th e S ib e ria n H ig h b e g in s to re b u ild . W h e re T y p h o o n s o c c u r, w in d s o f
v a ry in g d ire c tio n m a y e x c e e d 100 k n o ts. S e a b re e z e s w ill e ffe c t c o a sta l w in d d ire c tio n in su n n y
c o n d itio n s e sp e c ia lly in th e So u th .
W e a th e r .
T o th e w e s t o f S in g a p o re in th e M a la c c a S tra its, th e K a ta b a tic th u n d e rsto rm S u m a tr a s w ill fo rm
o v e rn ig h t. T h e S W m o n so o n w ill b rin g O ro g ra p h ic C U C B to S W fa c in g c o asts, w h ile e a st
c o a sts w ill b e m o re sh e lte re d .
N e v e rth e le ss in th e se e q u a to ria l r e g io n s in c lu d in g S in g a p o re p u re ly c o n v ec tiv e c lo u d w ill be
h e a v y , o fte n g iv in g d a ily th u n d e rsto rm s.
M o st ro u te w e a th e r a ris e s o n th e IT C Z a s it tra v e ls fro m S in g a p o r e in M a r c h to T o k y o in J u l y
a n d b a c k to S in g a p o r e in N o v e m b e r /D e c e m b e r. T h e n o r th b o u n d I T C Z w ill p a ss C h in a in
M a y w h e re a s s o c ia te d p re c ip ita tio n is k n o w n a s th e P lu m R a in s .

26-10

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ROUTE C LIM ATO LO G Y

H ig h ty p h o o n in te rn a l w in d sp e e d s, c o u p le d w ith in te n se ra in a n d th u n d ersto rm s, c a n locally


b r in g m u c h s tru c tu ra l d a m a g e a n d flo o d in g .
O v e r J a p a n in L a te S u m m e r so m e fro n ta l ra in o c c u rs a s P C a ir s p re a d in g so u th fro m S ib eria
m e e ts re tre a tin g tro p ic a l a ir.

F ig u re 2 6 .6 . U p p e r W in d s in July.

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SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG

V is ib ility
In e a rly s u m m er, w a rm m o ist S W m o n so o n w in d s, a d v a n c in g n o rth , c a n b rin g se a fo g to c o o le r
C h in e se c o a sta l w a te rs a n d e x te n s iv e b la n k et ad v e ctio n s e a f o g o v e r th e co ld O y a siw o sea
c u rre n t b e tw e e n e a s te rn Ja p a n a n d th e m a in la n d K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la fu rth e r to th e n o rth ea st.
S o m e in d u s tria l sm o k e c a n o c c u r n e a r c itie s in Japan.
U p p e r W in d s
E q u a to ria l l ig h t e a s te r lie s o f 1 0-3 0 k n o ts e x te n d to 2 5 N , b e y o n d w h ic h w in d s b e co m e lig h t
w e s te r ly . S u b tro p ic a l a n d P o la r F ro n t J e ts a re little in ev id e n c e o v e r th e su m m e r N o rth P ac ific.
T r o p o p a u s e H e ig h ts
S in g a p o re

Ja p a n

56000'

38000'

F r e e z in g L e v e ls
S in g a p o re

Ja p a n

16000

3 0 0 0 '-1 5 0 0 0 '

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

26 .7

SINGAPO RE TO A U C KLAN D via DARWIN AND SYDNEY


01N - 37S
105 - 175E

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e ro u te c ro sse s th e e q u a to r j u s t s o u th o f S in g a p o re th e n o v e r o v erflie s th e J av a se a a n d m an y
o f th e In d o n e sia n isla n d s. N e x t is th e T im o r S ea fo llo w e d b y th e C e n tra l N o rth A u stra lia n co a st
at D a rw in , a t la titu d e 12 S . F ro m D a rw in th e ro u te c ro sse s th e d u sty la rg e ly fla t A u stra lia n
in te rio r to th e m o u n ta in o u s S E c o a st a t S y d n ey , la titu d e 3 4S . T h e la s t le g th e n h e a d s a c ro ss th e
T a s m a n s ea to N e w Z e a la n d s lo w ly in g A u c k la n d a irp o rt a t 3 7S.

2 6 .8

W I N T E R (J U L Y )

P r e ssu r e S y stem s
IT C Z . T h e IT C Z is in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere w e ll c le a r o f th e route.
T h e r m a l L o w s. C o n v e c tiv e th e rm a l lo w s w ill o c c u r o v er th e In d o n e sia n isla n d s. T h e se are
fo rm e d b y a c o m b in a tio n o f is la n d in s o la tio n a n d h ig h h u m id ity fro m th e s u rro u n d in g sea.
S u b tr o p ic a l H ig h .

T h e A u s tra lia n in te rio r in w in te r lie s in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re S ub

T ro p ic a l H ig h b e lt.

R e la tiv e ly c o o l s e a s o n a l te m p e ra tu re o v e rla n d w ill r e in fo r c e high

p r e ssu r e w ith in th e c o n tin en t.

2 6 -1 3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

SING APO RE TO A U C KLAN D via DARW IN AND SYDNEY


01 N - 37S
105 - 175E

P o l a r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T r a v e llin g P o la r F ro n t L o w s in th e S o u th e rn H e m isp h e re s d istu rb e d


te m p e ra te z o n e w ill th e m se lv e s b e lo c a te d w e ll s o u th o f th e ro u te ; b u t a s so c ia te d tro u g h s, an d
s e c o n d a ry lo w s , c a n b r in g f r o n t a l w e a t h e r a s f a r n o rth a s th e A u s tr a lia n S o u th C o a s t a n d to
N e w Z e a la n d . A s in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re , th e se e astw a rd -trav ellin g fro n ts w ill alte rn a te
w ith te m p o ra ry rid g e s a n d a n tic y c lo n e s. C o ld fro n ta l a c tiv ity c an b e q u ite s e v e re fro m S y dney
to A u ck lan d .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
T h e S W M o n s o o n W in d a t S in g a p o r e w ill so o n b a c k to S E (C o rio lis c h a n g e ), a s th e ro u te
c ro s s e s th e e q u a to r. T h e s e S E tra d e w in d s w ill re m a in a s fa r a s D a rw in a n d b e y o n d a lth o u g h
at D arw in its e lf s t r o n g lo c a l s e a b r e e z e s m a y b lo w f ro m th e N o rth . O n th e D a r w in to S y d n e y
se c to r th e S E tr a d e w in d s g ra d u a lly v e e r to S o u th w e s te rly to c o n fo rm w ith th e a n tic lo c k w ise
ro ta tio n ro u n d th e C e n tra l A u s tra lia n w in te r h igh.
T o w a rd s S y d n e y , a n d b e y o n d to A u c k la n d , t h e w in d d ire c tio n w ill lo c a lly b e g o v e rn e d b y th e
lo c a tio n o f th e tr a v e llin g p o la r fro n t d e p re s s io n s to th e S o u th b u t b e g e n e ra lly w e s te rly . S o uth
o f th e A u s tra lia n la n d m a ss, th e s e w e s te rlie s w ill e n c irc le th e g lo b e la rg e ly u n im p e d e d b y land
a n d w ill th e re fo re s tre n g th e n . H e re th e y a re k n o w n a s th e R o a r in g F o r tie s fro m th e p rin cip al
la titu d e b a n d in w h ic h th e y b lo w .
S e a b r e e z e s c a n a ffe c t S y d n e y e v e n in w in ter.
V isib ility .
B e tw e e n fre q u e n t e q u a to ria l s h o w e rs o v e r S in g ap o re a n d th e In d o n e sia n isla n d s, v isib ility w ill
b e g o o d u n til n e a r 0 5 S b e y o n d w h ic h th e re w ill b e h a z e c a u s e d b y th e d ry d u s t la d e n S E tra d e
w in d b lo w in g fro m A u stra lia .
B e y o n d D a rw in , th e d u sty o u tflo w fro m th e in te rio r w ill m ain ta in h a z e .

N e a r larg e c itie s

v isib ility m a y b e re d u c e d to 1-2 K m b y i n d u s tr ia l s m o k e h a z e .


O v e r th e tw o isla n d s o f N e w Z e a la n d , th e c le a r a ir g iv es g o o d v isib ility in b e tw e e n co ld frontal
pre c ip ita tio n .

R a d ia tio n fo g c a n o c c u r in la n d , esp e c ia lly o v e r th e c o ld e r S o u th Island.

A d v e c tio n /s e a fo g c a n o c c u r o f f th e S o u th Isla n d e a s t c o a s t o v e r th e c o ld A n ta rc tic D rift se a


cu rren t.

26-14

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SINGAPORE TO A U C K LA N D via DARWIN AND SYDNEY


01N - 37S
105 - 175E

ROUTE CLIM ATO LOG Y

C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
D a ily c o n v e c tiv e C U w ith s h o w e rs o v e r S in g a p o re a n d th e In d o n e sia n Isla n d s w ill g iv e w ay to
q u ie te r w e a th e r to w a rd s D a rw in .

T h e a n tic y c lo n ic A u stra lia n in te rio r w ill b e d ry b u t, risin g

o v e r th e m o u n ta in o u s e a s t c o a s t, th e o n sh o re S E tra d e w in d s c a n g iv e o ro g ra p h ic c lo u d a n d rain.
T h e S y d n e y a re a a n d T a s m a n S e a ro u te a re a ffe c te d b y th e d istu rb e d te m p e ra te re g io n L o w s to
th e S o u th . T h e y are th u s c ro s s e d b y fro n ts w h ic h b rin g m o d e ra te to h e a v y p re cip itatio n
in te rsp e rse d w ith H ig h s g iv in g se v e ra l d a y s o f cool fin e w eather.

Figure 26.8.

Upper W inds - July (W inter)

U p p e r W in d s . A b o v e S in g a p o re t h e u p p e r e q u a to r ia l e a s te r lie s w ill b lo w u n til 10S a fte r


w h ic h th e w in d s w ill in c re a se fro m th e w e s t. In th e s o u th e rn w in te r, tr o p ic a l N o rth A u stra lia
re m a in s h o t w h e re a s th e S o u th is c o m p a ra tiv e ly c o o l. T h e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e o v e r th e
in te rv e n in g su b tro p ic a l a n d co n tin e n ta l h ig h w ill p ro d u c e th e w e ste rly s u b - tr o p ic a l je ts tr e a m
a t th e 2 0 0 m b s lev el a c ro s s th e c e n t r e o f t h e c o n tin e n t a ro u n d 2 5 S . S p e e d s m a y r e a c h 100
k n o ts . F ro m S y d n ey to A u c k la n d , t h e w e ste rly w in d w ill m o d e ra te to 6 0 -7 0 knots.
Ic in g . Ic in g is n o t a sp e c ia l p ro b le m o n th is route.

2 6 -1 5

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

26 .9

SINGAPO RE TO A U C KLAN D via DARWIN AND SYDNEY


01 N - 37S
105 - 175E

SU M M E R (JA N U A R Y )

Figure 26.9.

Surface pressure and weather - January (Summer)

P r e ssu r e S y ste m s.
IT C Z . O v e r S in g a p o re th e IT C Z is so u th b o u n d in N o v em b e r/D e c e m b e r a n d n o rth b o u n d in
M arch . Its s o u th e rly e x tre m e is j u s t so u th o f D a rw in a t th e e n d o f J a n u a r y . T h u s it a ffe c ts th e
S in g a p o r e - D a r w in se c tio n o f th e r o u te f ro m N o v e m b e r to M arch .
C o n tin e n ta l L o w . T h e A u s tra lia n su b tro p ic a l h ig h b e lt o f W in te r h a s m o v e d so u th w ith th e
su n . O v e r A u s tr a lia its e lf in te n se in s o la tio n b rin g s lo w p r essu r e to th e interior.
C y c lo n e s. T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a n d a s s o c ia te d w e a th e r fo rm a d ja c e n t to th e IT C Z o v e r th e C oral
an d T im o r S e a s. T h e y m o v e a t 10-15 k n o ts in o n e o f tw o g e n e ra l d irec tio n s:
a)

W e stw a rd s, c lo s e to th e N o rth A u stra lia n C o a st, o r

b)

C u rv e to th e le f t fro m th e C o ral S ea a ro u n d th e S o u th P ac ific H ig h to a ffe c t th e


A u s tra lia n E a s t c o a st a t B risb a n e.

O c c a sio n a lly th ey trav el f u rth e r so u th e a stw a rd s d e g ra d in g to a d e e p d e p ressio n a s th e y cro ss the


T a s m a n S e a to N e w Z e a la n d s N o rth Island.

26-16

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE C LIM A TO LO G Y

SINGAPORE TO A U C KLAN D v ia DARWIN AND SYDNEY


01 N - 37S
105 - 175E

S u r f a c e W in d s .
T h e N o rth e a st m o n s o o n w in d b lo w in g fro m th e S o u th C h in a S e a t o S in g ap o re w ill c o n tin u e
a c ro s s th e e q u a to r to b e c o m e n o w th e N o r th w e s t m o n s o o n (C o rio lis c h a n g e ) a s fa r a s th e IT C Z ;
w h ic h in la te J a n u a ry is j u s t s o u th o f D arw in . B e y o n d th e IT C Z th e re w ill b e S o u th e a s t t r a d e
w in d s a lth o u g h o v e rla n d th ey w ill b e m o d ifie d a ro u n d th e rm a l lo w p re ssu re c e ntres.
A t S y d n e y th e S E tra d e s c a n g iv e w a y to a stro n g E /N E s e a b re e z e , o r s o u th e r ly w in d s a fte r th e
p a s s a g e o f a p o la r fro n t c o ld fro n t. T h e la tte r a re k n o w n lo c a lly a s S o u th e r ly B u s te r s (se e
c lo u d a n d p r e c ip ita tio n b e lo w ).
C y c lo n e s fro m th e C o ra l S e a v ia B risb a n e o c c a sio n a lly co n tin u e S o u th e a stw a rd s o v e r th e
T a s m a n S e a to p ro d u c e v e ry d e e p lo w s w ith s tr o n g v a r ia b le w in d s b u t o th e rw ise w in d s
b e tw e e n S y d n e y a n d A u c k la n d a re g e n e ra lly w e ste rly .
V isib ility .
V isib ility o v e r D a rw in a n d to th e N o rth is g o o d e x c e p t in p re c ip ita tio n fro m C B /T S . B etw e en
D a rw in a n d S y d n e y , c lo c k w ise ro ta tio n a ro u n d c o n tin e n ta l lo w p re ssu re c a rrie s d u s t to th e ce n tre
a n d s o u th o f th e ro u te a n d o c c a s io n a l d u s t sto rm s w ill o c c u r s o m etim es k n o w n i n th e N W as
W illy -W illie s . I n d u s t r i a l h a z e n e a r c itie s m a y re d u c e v isib ility to 1 - 2 K m s . V isib ility o v e r
th e T a sm a n s e a is g o o d e x c e p t in p re c ip ita tio n .
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
T h e S in g a p o r e a n d I n d o n e s ia r e g io n is o n e o f th e m o st a c tiv e d a ily th u n d e r s to r m a re a s in
th e w o rld . T h is is d u e to h ig h a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re , s tro n g o v e rla n d in so la tio n c o u p le d p o ssib ly
w ith o ro g ra p h ic u p lift, a n d a n d h ig h h u m id ity fro m th e a b u n d a n t su p p ly o f se a w ate r. A t n o tim e
o f th e y e a r is th is re g io n fre e fro m d a ily c o n v e c tiv e c lo u d , b u t th e p re s e n c e o f th e IT C Z
e n h a n c e s i n s ta b ility e v e n fu rth e r. T h e re fo re in th e s o u th e rn su m m e r, th u n d e rsto rm s m a y b e
p re s e n t a ll th e w a y fro m S in g a p o re t o D a rw in , a n d a re re in fo rc e d b y th e I T C Z n e a r S in gapore
in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r a n d M a rc h , a n d n e a r D a rw in in Janu ary /F eb ru ary .
So u th o f th e IT C Z , th e A u stra lia n i n t e r i o r is m a in ly a r i d . T o w a rd s S yd n ey , th e w e a th e r is
m a in ly s u b tro p ic a l e x c e p tin g c y c lo n e s, b u t o cca sio n a l co ld tro u g h s o r fro n ts g iv e s q u a lly w e t
w e a th e r.
T h e p a s s a g e o f th e se f r o n t s c a u s e s a m a rk e d d ro p in tem p e ra tu re , C U C B , a n d sq u a lls a n d a
s h a r p b a c k in th e w in d to S o u th k n o w n in S y d n e y as S o u th e rly B u s te r s . In d e ed th e S y dney
w e a th e r c a n b e w o rst in S um m er.
F ro m S y d n e y to A u c k la n d , E a s tw a rd tr a v e llin g H ig h c e lls, in th e s u b tro p ic a l H ig h b e lt, are
in te rsp e rse d w ith tro u g h s a n d a s s o c ia te d c o ld fronts.

26-17

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

SIN G APOR E TO AU C K LA N D v ia DARW IN AND SYDNEY


01N - 37S
105 - 175E

ROUTE C LIM ATO LO G Y

Figure 26.10 Upper W inds - January (Summer)


U p p e r W in d s . L ig h t u p p e r e q u a to ria l e a s te rlie s b lo w fro m S in g ap o re to a p p ro x im a te ly 2 0S
a fte r w h ic h w in d s w ill in c re a se fro m th e W est. In su m m e r th e w h o le c o n tin e n t o f A u stralia is
h o t w ith c o o le r sea t o th e so u th . T h u s th e 2 0 0 m b s u b - tr o p ic a l w e s te rly j e t is n o w alo n g th e
s o u th c o a s t a t a ro u n d 7 0 k n o ts re d u c in g to 4 0 k n o ts to w a rd s A u ckland.
Ic in g . Ic in g c a n b e s e v e re a b o v e 16000' in C B s.
T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e ls
N o rth

Sou th

T ro p o p a u se

56000'

5 1 0 0 0 ' (tro p ica l air) - 3 6 0 0 0 ' (p o la r air)

F re e z in g L ev el

16000'

10000' (su m m e r) - 5 0 0 0 ' (w inter)

2 6 -1 8

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CAIRO TO JO HANNESBUR G VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

2 6 .1 0

G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .
T h e r o u te o v e r E g y p t a n d S u d a n is a lm o st all o v e r low ly in g S a h a ra d esert. A t th e K e n y a b o rd e r
la titu d e 0 6 N , th e la n d ris e s , a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e e q u a to ria l v e g e ta tio n b e lt, to o v e r 5 0 0 0 ' b y
0 2 S a t N a iro b i. T h e ro u te th e n tra v e rs e s th e e a ste rn e d g e o f th e K a la h a ri p la te a u to th e h ig h veld
o f Jo h a n n e sb u rg .

2 6 .1 1

J A N U A R Y (N o r th e r n W in te r /S o u th e r n S u m m e r)

Figure 26.11. January Surface W eather and W ind Velocity, upper


wind velocity in yellow.

26-19

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CAIRO TO JO H ANN ESBUR G VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

ROUTE C LIM ATO LO G Y

P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
In th e n o rth e rn w in te r, p r e s s u r e w ill b e h ig h o v e r th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly c o o l S a h a r a d e s e rt.
T h e I T C Z w ill b e a t its s o u th e rn e x tre m e o v e r Z im b ab w e . T h is w ill le a d to o v e rla n d low
p r e s s u r e e x te n d in g s o u th f ro m N a i r o b i to J o h a n n e s b u r g .
W e a th e r .
T h e n o rth e rn se c tio n fro m C a i r o t o 0 6 N w ill b e d r y a n d d u s ty .
C o n v e c tiv e C U /C B a n d so m e N S w ill fo rm n e a r N a ir o b i, a n d f u rth e r s o u th in sta b ility w ill b e
f u rth e r e n h a n c e d b y th e IT C Z .
A t Jo h a n n e sb u rg , o ro g ra p h ic lo w c lo u d a n d f o g c a n o c c u r e a rly m o rn in g , b u t th is c le a rs q u ick ly
to g iv e w a y to c o n v e c tiv e C U a n d s h o w e rs in th e a fte rn o o n . It is t h e w e t s e a so n .
C y c lo n e s o rig in a tin g in th e M o z a m b iq u e C h a n n e l c a n so m etim es m o v e w e s t to a ff e c t Z im b a b w e
a n d N o rth e rn S o u th A fric a .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
T h e s o u th e rly K h a m s in w in d to th e M e d ite rra n e a n b lo w s fro m E g y p t b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r a n d
A p r il.
F u rth e r s o u th o v e r S u d a n a n d K e n y a , c lo c k w ise o u tflo w fro m th e S a h a ra H ig h w ill b e c o m e first
n o rth e rly th e n n o r th e a s te rly to b e c o m e th e tra d e w in d s b lo w in g f ro m d ry S a u d i A ra b ia .
S o u th o f th e E q u a to r th e y w ill b a c k a g a in n o rth e rly (c o rio lis c h a n g e ) to b lo w c lo c k w ise a ro u n d
s o u t h e r n A f r ic a 's s u m m e r lo w p re s s u re o f s o m e 1005 m b s; a n d fo r th is re a so n , b e co m e
e a s te r ly a g a in n e a r Jo h a n n e sb u rg .
V is ib ility . V is ib ility is p o o r o v e r th e d u s ty S a h ara b u t g o o d to w a rd s N a iro b i e x c e p t in sh o w ery
p re c ip ita tio n . A t Jo h a n n e s b u rg e a rly m o rn in g fo g c a n b e c a u se d b y th e e a ste rly s u rfa ce w in d s
fro m th e I n d ia n O c e a n o ro g ra p h ic a lly ris in g to th e K a la h a ri p latea u .
Ic in g . Ic in g c a n b e s e v e re a b o v e 16000' in C B n e a r th e ITC Z.

26-20

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

2 6 .1 2

CAIRO TO JO HANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

J U L Y ( N o r th e r n S u m m e r /S o u th e r n W in te r )

1ATOR

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

LIGHT WESTERLY

Figure 26.12. July Surface weather and Wind Velocity, upper wind velocities in
yellow.

26-21

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CAIRO TO JO HANNESBUR G VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

T h e IT C Z e q u a to ria l tro u g h h a s m o v e d n o rth w ith th e s u n to a p p ro x im a te ly 1 8 N , th u s p u sh in g


th e w in te r S a h a ra a n tic y c lo n e n o rth w a rd s to th e M e d iterran e an .
B e h in d a n d s o u th o f th e IT C Z , c o o le r w in te r te m p e ra tu re s o v e r th e S o u th e r n A fr ic a n la n d m a s s
w ill b u ild p re ssu re .
W e a th e r
T h e IT C Z n o rth e rn e x tre m e is j u s t n o r th o f K h a rto u m in Ju ly . T h is is th e re fo re n o rm a lly th a t
c ity 's o n ly w e t m o n th o f th e y e a r. T h e IT C Z b rin g s a tro p ic a l ra in b e lt, lin e sq u a lls a n d d u st
sto rm s k n o w n a s H a b o o b s w h ic h o fte n a p p e a r a s w a lls o f d u s t lifted to 10000'. H a b o o b s c a n
ap p e a r in N o rth e rn S u d a n f ro m M a y to S e p te m b e r a s th e IT C Z sw e ep s n o r th th e n s o uth. T h e y
fo rm d u rin g th e d a y w h e n c o n v e c tio n is stro ng.
It is w in te r in J o h a n n e sb u rg . C o n tin e n ta l h ig h p re ssu re p re v a ils a n d it is th e d r y se a s o n alth o u g h
S T a n d S C tu rb u le n c e c lo u d m a y fo rm in a ir risin g o ro g ra p h ic a lly fro m th e In dian O c e a n to th e
Jo h a n n e sb u rg h ig h v eld.
S u r f a c e W in d s
H ig h p re s s u re o v e r th e M e d ite rra n e a n , a n d lo w p re ssu re o v e r A ra b ia w ill g iv e n o rth e rly su rface
w in d s (a n e x te n sio n o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n E te sia n ) o v e r th e ro u te fro m C a iro to th e IT C Z w h ic h
in J u ly is n e a r 18N .
S o u th o f th e IT C Z a n d n o rth o f th e E q u a to r, w in d s w ill b e fro m th e S W (C o rio lis e ffect),
re v e rtin g to th e S E tra d e w in d s s o u th o f th e E q u a to r. O v e r so u th e a ste rn A fric a th e se S E tra d e s
a re k n o w n a s th e G u ti. T h e s o u th e a s te rly G u ti b lo w s an ti-c lo ck w ise a ro u n d th e o v erlan d w in te r
h ig h , o fte n b e in g in p la c e f o r fiv e d a y s o r s o a t a tim e. I t c a n b r in g th e o ro g ra p h ic a lly fo rm e d S T
& S C to J o h a n n e sb u rg .
V is ib ility
V isib ility o v e r th e S a h a ra w ill b e a p p a llin g i n H a b o o b s, a n d p o o r else w h e re in S a h ara d u st. N e a r
N a iro b i it w ill b e g o o d e x c e p t in sh o w e rs. A t J o h a n n e sb u rg v isib ility m a y b e re d u c e d b e lo w low
S T /S C f o rm e d b y th e G u ti S E w in d .
Ic in g . A s i n w in te r, ic in g c a n b e s e v e re a b o v e 16000' i n C B .

2 6 -2 2

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

CAIRO TO JO HANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

2 6 .1 3

N A IR O B I R E G IO N
T h is r e g io n is o f sp e c ia l in te re s t b e c a u s e th e tw o I T C Z t r a n s i t s i n th e y e a r ea ch g iv e th e ir o w n
in s ta b ility r a in fa ll p a tte rn .

Figure 26.13. Nairobi Weather March - May.

26-23

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE C LIM ATO LO G Y

CAIRO TO JO H ANN ESBURG VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 28E - 37E

N o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e S p r in g . IT C Z p a s s a g e w ill b e n o r th b o u n d (M arc h /M a y ) an d w ill be


fo llo w e d b y th e m o is t S E tra d e w in d s fro m th e I n d ian O c ea n . R a in fa ll w ill b e e x te n siv e a n d is
k n o w n a s th e L o n g R a in s .

EQUATOR

IATOR

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

F ig u re 2 6 .1 4 . N a iro b i W e a th e r N o v e m b e r - D e ce m b e r.

26-24

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

ROUTE CLIM ATO LO G Y

CAIRO TO JO H AN NESBURG VIA NAIROBI


30N - 27S 2 8 E - 37E

N o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e A u tu m n . IT C Z p a s s a g e w ill b e s o u th b o u n d (N o v e m b e r/D e cem b e r) a n d


w ill b e f o llo w e d b y th e d r y N E tra d e w in d s fro m S a u d i A ra b ia . R a in fa ll w ill s till o c c u r b u t w ill
b e le s s a n d is k n o w n a s th e S h o r t R a in s.
O r o g r a p h i c U p lift. A t e a c h IT C Z p a ssa g e th e su rfac e w /v w ill b e a lte rn a tin g b e tw e e n N E an d
SE . N a iro b i h as a n ele v a tio n o f o v e r 5 0 0 0 ' a n d is o n ly 2 0 0 n m fro m th e e a s t co a st. E sp e c ia lly
d u r i n g th e lo n g a n d s h o r t r a i n s a t IT C Z pa ssa g e, a n d b e tw e e n 0 2 0 0 a n d 0 8 0 0 lo c a l tim e ,
o r o g ra p h ic u p lift in th e g e n e ra lly e a s te rly w in d s c a n fre q u e n tly p ro d u c e L o w S tra tu s, o fte n
lo w e rin g to th e u n d u la tin g su rfa c e a s fog.
T h u n d e r s t o r m s . C o n v e c tiv e th u n d e rsto rm s c a n o c c u r a t a n y tim e b u t a re v ery in fre q u e n t from
J u n e to S e p te m b e r w h e n th e IT C Z is w ell north.
T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e ls.
T ro p o p a u se h e ig h ts a v e ra g e 5 6 0 0 0 ' a ll y ear.
F re e z in g le v e l h e ig h ts a re 16 0 0 0 ' in e q u a to ria l re g io n s a n d a v e ra g e 1 4 0 0 0 ' in th e h ig h e r la titu d e s
in W in ter.

2 6 -2 5

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CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN - SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

C o n te n ts

Page

27.1

I N T R O D U C T I O N ....................................

2 7 .2

P O L A R O R B IT IN G S A T E L L IT E S

2 7 -1

.......................................................................................2 7 - 1

2 7 .3

G E O S T A T IO N A R Y S A T E L L I T E S .......................................................................................2 7 - 1

2 7 .4

V IS U A L I M A G E S .......................................................................................................................... 2 7 - 2

2 7 .5

IN F R A R E D ( I R ) ............................................................................................................................. 2 7 - 2

2 7 .6

F A L S E C O L O U R P IC T U R E S ................................................................................................. 2 7 - 3

2 7 .7

L O C A T IO N O F T H E IM A G E

................................................................................................. 2 7 - 3

1Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
27.1

SATELLITE O BSERVATIONS

IN T R O D U C T I O N
M e te o ro lo g y h a s b e n e fite d c o n sid e ra b ly b y th e u se o f s a te llite s in re c e n t y e a rs. A p a rt fro m th e
o b v io u s a d v a n ta g e s o f s a te llite c o m m u n ic a tio n s o v e r th e o ld la n d -b a se d system s, p ro v id in g
p ro m p t a n d tro u b le fre e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f m eteo ro lo g ica l d a ta , s a te llite p h o to g ra p h y h a s
p ro v id e d w e a th e r im a g e s th a t w e re im p o ssib le to p ro d u c e in th e p a s t a n d w e re o fte n m erely
a rtis ts im p re s s io n s o f th e w e a th e r.
T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f sate llite ; th e p o la r o rb itin g a n d th e g e o sta tio n a ry a n d tw o m e th o d s o f
p ro d u c in g th e w e a th e r p ic tu re ; v isu a l p h o to g ra p h y a n d in fra red.

27 .2

P O L A R O R B IT IN G S A T E L L IT E S
T h e so -c a lle d p o la r o rb itin g s a te llite s h a v e b e e n p u t u p p rin c ip a lly b y R u ssia (M e te o r) a n d U S A
(N O A A ). T h e N O A A o rb it is in c lin e d a t a n a n g le o f 9 9 to t h e e q u ato r, ta k e s 1 h r 4 2 m in to
o rb it th e e a rth , is b e tw e e n 8 2 0 a n d 8 7 0 k m a b o v e th e s u rfa c e a n d c o v e rs a b a n d 1500 n m w id e.
E ach s u c c e ssiv e o rb it is a little fu rth e r w e s t a n d th e re w ill b e a n o v e rla p , g re a te st a t th e p o le s an d
sm a ll n e a r th e e q u a to r. A n y s p o t o n th e g lo b e w ill ex p e rie n c e a so u th b o u n d p a s s o f th e sate llite
in th e m o rn in g a n d a n o rth b o u n d p a s s in th e a fte rn o o n o r ev en in g . A lth o u g h p ic tu re d e fin itio n
is g o o d , p o la r o rb itin g s a te llite s d o n o t g iv e a c o n tin u o u s v ie w o f th e w ea th e r.

Figure 27.1 Successive Tracks o f A Polar Orbiting


Satellite
27 .3

G E O S T A T IO N A R Y S A T E L L IT E S
G e o s ta tio n a ry s a te llite s a re p u t in to o rb it o v e r th e e q u a to r a n d sin ce th e y ta k e 2 4 h o u rs to
c o m p le te th e o rb it, th e y w ill a p p e a r to b e sta tio n a ry o v e r a s e le c te d lo n g itu d e. In 1987 th e re
w e re 5 g e o s ta tio n a ry s a te llite s in o rb it; m e te o sa t 2 o v e r th e G re e n w ic h m e rid ian , G O E S E o v e r
lo n g itu d e 7 5 W , G O E S W o v e r lo n g itu d e 135W , G M S 2 o v e r lo n g itu d e 140E a n d IN S A T o v er
lo n g itu d e 7 0 E .

27-1

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY

SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

T h e s e s a te llite s a re c o n s id e ra b ly h ig h e r th a n th e p o la r o rb itin g satellites (3 6 0 0 0 k m ) a n d p ictu re


d e fin itio n m a y n o t b e a s g o o d , b u t th e a d v an tag e o f a co n tin u o u s p ic tu re o u tw e ig h s th is
d isa d v a n ta g e . B e c a u s e o f th e e q u a to ria l o rb it th e p ic tu re b e c o m e so m ew h a t d isto rte d to w ard s
th e p o le s, b u t th is m a y b e c o rre c te d b y c o m p u te r p ro ce ssin g . M e te o sa t c o v e rs a b o u t 1/3 o f th e
e a rth s su rfa c e fro m 7 0 w e s t to 7 0 e a st. T h e s a te llite tra n sm its a p ic tu re e v e ry 4 m in u te s a n d
a u s e fu l f e a tu re is th e tim e la p s e s e q u e n c e sh o w in g m o v e m e n t o f w e a th e r o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e.
2 7 .4

V IS U A L I M A G E S
A lth o u g h v isu a l p h o to g ra p h y m a y b e e a sy to in te rp re t, i t s u ffe rs th e d isa d v a n ta g e o f n o t b e in g
av a ila b le c o n tin u o u sly , d u e to la c k o f su n lig h t a t n ig h t. C lo u d s w ill a p p e a r w h ite , th e la n d grey
a n d th e s e a b lack .

27 .5

IN F R A R E D ( IR )
In fra re d im a g e s h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o f b e in g av a ila b le fo r 2 4 h o u rs a d a y a n d th e s h a d in g o f th e
p ic tu re w ill b e m o re o r le s s th e sa m e b y d a y a n d b y nig h t. C o ld (h ig h ) c lo u d w ill g iv e a w hite
im a g e , lo w e r c lo u d a s o m e w h a t d a rk e r o n e , w h ilst w a rm la n d w ill g iv e a d a rk im age. T h e re a re
9 IR te m p e ra tu re b a n d s, b la c k n o rm a lly d e n o tin g c lo u d fre e area s.

IR m a y n o t b e a b le to

distin g u ish b e tw e e n a s e a s u rfa c e a n d fo g , w h ic h m a y h a v e a s im ila r tem p e ra tu re . In th is c ase,


a v is u a l p ic tu re w o u ld b e a b le to sh o w th e p o sitio n o f f o g m o re p re c ise ly . (S e e F ig u re 2 7 .2 &
27 .3).

Figure 27.2 Visual Picture of North


Sea Fog

Figure 27.3 Infra-red Picture of


North Sea Fog

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEOROLOGY
2 7 .6

S ATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

F A L S E C O L O U R P IC T U R E S
T o h e lp d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s sh a d e s o f g re y p ro d u c e d b y b o th v isu a l a n d IR
p h o to g ra p h y , th e sh a d e s m a y b e c o n v e rte d b y c o m p u te r in to v a rio u s c o lo u rs. T h is is use d
p a rtic u la rly w ith I R sy stem s.

2 7 .7

L O C A T I O N O F T H E IM A G E
It is o fte n d iffic u lt to p ic k o u t g e o g ra p h ic a l f ea tu re s, e sp e c ia lly w h e n th e re is th ic k c lo u d a n d o f
c o u rse , a re a s o f o c e a n s a re c o m p le te ly fe a tu reless. S ate llite im a g e s a re th e re fo re p re s e n te d w ith
a c o m p u te r p ro d u c e d g ra tic u le o f n u m b e re d p a ra lle ls a n d m e rid ia n s s u p erim p o se d . C o a stlin es
m a y b e e n h a n c e d a s w ell.

Figure 27.4 Satellite Visible Image,

Figure 27.5 Surface W eather Map for

0909 GMT

t h e s a m e tirT,e

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S a te llite P h o to g r a p h y
W h ilst v io le n t w e a th e r s u c h a s tr o p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s m a y p ro d u c e a n e a sily id en tifiab le
p ic tu re , n o rm a l w e a th e r p ic tu re s a re b e s t u s e d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith s y n o p tic ch arts. T h e tim e la p se s e q u e n c e s c a n b e u se d to c o n firm e x is tin g a n d fo re c a st w e a th e r b e fo re se ttin g o f f o n a
flig h t. F ig u re s 2 7 .4 & 2 7 .5 sh o w a s u rfa c e a n a ly sis a n d a s a tellite p ic tu re fo r th e s a m e tim es.

27-3

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

METEORO LO GY

SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

F ig 2 7 .6 sh o w s th e v isu a l im ag e w ith th e su rfa c e a n a ly sis su p erim posed.

Figure 27.6 W eather map and visual image

2 7 - 4

Oxford Aviation Services Limited

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