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INTRODUCTION
This research aims mainly to find ways and plans to allow upgrading and
promoting the uses of exhaustible energy resources, in light of the growing global
demand and increased environmental awareness and community, as we seek
through it to highlight the role and prospects of the trend towards renewable energy
as an alternative to the exhaustible energy, in addition to the review and assessment
of case of the U.S. experience in the management of their energetic resources.
World energy consumption by source in 2011: Oil 36%, natural gas 26%, coal
20%, nuclear electric power 7.0%, renewable energy 9%.In the U.S., transportation
accounted for 28% of all energy use and 70% of petroleum use in 2011; 97% of
transportation fuel was petroleum (U.S. Energy Information Administration,
September 2012, p.57).
However, to make this study more realistic, we will drop the theoretical
part of a country - the United States of America that they have great importance
in the global energy markets and occupy a leading position in the reserves of
energetic resources as well as renewable energies in the world, and trying to extract
their experience, in order to benefit from them for Algeria.
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The environmental state associated with the energy system results from the
impact of driving forces originating from the economic and social dimensions of
the energy system (Figure 1). In turn, the social state is subject to certain driving
forces from the economic dimension. Finally, the institutional dimension can affect
all three other dimensions- social, economic and environmental through
corrective response policy actions affecting the sustainability of the whole energy
system (IAEA/IEA 2001) (Moehner, 2003, p.25).
From the above figure, we see that Renewable resources hold great
promise for meeting the energy and development needs of all countries throughout
the world, but particularly for developing countries where in many areas
commitment has not been made to fossil fuel dominance and where rural areas may
be served more economically than with traditional resources like kerosene and
diesel fuel. The most advantageous and widely used renewable resources for
energy in developing countries today are wind, photovoltaic, biomass and small
hydroelectric resources (United Nations Development Program, 2000, p.35).
The basic aim of the energy policy in the European Union, is to provide
the consumers the energy, that is produced in accordance with the sustainable
development rules. The European Union has formulated the following targets that
lead to achieving the sustainable development:
doubling the share of renewable energy sources in the primary energy mix
of the UE countries from 6% to 12% in 2010,
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336
estimated that if the current trends are pursued, electricity access rate in this region
will be only 51% by 2030, compared to 66% for South Asia and 95% for the DCs
(International Energy Agency [IEA], 2002).
Table 1. Per capita ratios/region
Region
Africa
Asia
China
Non-OECD
Europe and
Eurasia
OECD
Latin America
Middle East
World
GDP (PPP)per
capita (2000
US$)
2 565
9 094
12 434
2 835
0.67
0.66
1.70
3.14
Electricity
Consumption per
capita (kWh)
561
741
2 648
4 200
Energy
Production
(Mtoe)
1 133
1 310
2 085
1 645
4.28
1.20
3.03
1.80
8 012
1 884
3 278
2 730
3 807
751
1 561
12 292
TPES per
capita (toe)
32 114
3 769
1 433
64 244
Source: International Energy Agency, Key world energy statistics 2011, IEA, Paris, 2011,
P 50-51.
From the Table 1, we can notice that Africa is the poorest region in the use
of energy but in the same time takes first places in the energy resources reserves.
In addition, many challenges are critical for sustainable economic and social
development, and assured access to secure, affordable and reliable energy. While
this sounds tremendous, it is not beyond reach and may be addressed if all the
stakeholders join forces, as well as means, and strive to bring about required
changes and support the right actions in a sustainable way. The key challenges
faced by the African energy sector are:
below;
337
The Obstacles
-
In the past 30 years solar and wind power systems have experienced rapid
sales growth, declining capital costs and costs of electricity generated, and have
continued to improve their performance characteristics. In fact, fossil fuel and
renewable energy prices, and social and environmental costs are heading in
opposite directions and the economic and policy mechanisms needed to support the
widespread dissemination and sustainable markets for renewable energy systems
are rapidly evolving.
Renewable energy sources currently supply somewhere between 15 % and
20 % of worlds total energy demand. The supply is dominated by traditional
biomass, mostly fuel wood used for cooking and heating, especially in developing
countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. A major contribution is also obtained
from the use of large hydropower; with nearly 20 % of the global electricity supply
being provided by this source. New renewable energy sources (solar energy, wind
energy, modern bio-energy, geothermal energy, and small hydropower) are
currently contributing about two %.
338
The OECD region will be able to cover more than 54% of its electricity
and more than 13% of heat requirements from renewables in 2030, totaling a final
energy share of 27%, however, in the non-OECD region, the share of renewables
rises to 30% in the High Varian t (Low Variant 18%).Increases due to
renewables account for almost 68% in regard to electricity, while renewable heat
contributes about 17% of final heat demand (IEA, 2006).
3.
Algerias economy is heavily dependent on oil and gas exports, which aim
to achieve an integration rate of 40% of renewables by 2030 relays essentially on
the use of solar energy, regarding the important potential which has the country.
Futhermore, Algerias energy needs are met almost exclusively by hydrocarbons,
mainly natural gas. The other forms of energy are mobilized only when natural gas
cannot be used. The Algerian government has also established an institute for
renewable energy and energy efficiency (IAER), which will play a key role in
training efforts deployed by the country and ensures quality development of
renewable energies in Algeria.
The Algerian government aims to produce 6% of the countrys energy
from renewable sources by 2015 (Ainouche, 2006). Algeria has definitely decided
to pursue an active role within the global mobilization for environmental protection
and the promotion of sustainable development. Promoting renewable energies is
now one of the major pillars of the Algerian policy (Solar potential of about 170
000 TWh / year, is 4000 times the current electricity generation of Algeria).
339
Furthermore, its solar power capacity is one of the largest on earth. More
than 2.000.000 km2 receive yearly a sunshine exposure equivalent to 2500 kWh/
m2. In this extend photo-voltaic power is successfully used for water pumping in
order to develop steppe areas irrigation, fort the sake and benefit of remote
southern populations. The program covers two (02) phases:
a)
b)
340
The first phase, between 2011 and 2013, will be devoted to the
achievement of pilot projects to test the different available technologies,
The second phase (2014 2015) will mark the beginning of the
deployment of the program,
The last phase, between 2016 and 2020, will be devoted to the large-scale
deployment of the program.
341
342
23.1
17.7
34.1
17.8
Ghardaia
In Amnas
Taman.
Tindouf
2.2
2.8
2.8
2.4
3.1
1.3
1-2
7.6
9.7
8.1
7.6
6.7
4.1
2-3
5-6
9.7
13
10.3 11.6
11.7
13.2
9.1
7.6
16.1
6-7
7.3
13.0 11.3
10.2
12.6 10.9
9.0
11.3 16.0
4-5
12.1 10.0
8.7
3-4
9.2
4.7
7.6
7.0
5.1
11.0
7-8
6.6
3.1
5.3
4.9
4.1
8.1
8-9
6.6
2.7
5.9
6.1
5.4
9.6
9-11
2.5
0.6
1.8
2.5
2.3
3.9
1113
1.1
0.2
0.7
1.3
1.4
2.0
1315
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
1.0
1517
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.3
>17
Sources: Diaf, S. et al. (2007). Assessment of wind energy resource in southern Algeria. Revue des Energies Renouvelables, 10(3), 321 333.
6.4
32.2
Bchar
0-1
Adrar
Site
Wind speed
Table 4. Wind speed distribution at different speeds interval at 10 m above the ground for the six sites
The analysis shows that there are good prospects for wind energy
utilization except for Tamanrasset. The southwest area located in the west of 0
longitude and between 25 N and 30 N latitudes is the windiest part of southern
Algeria with an average wind speed exceeding 6 m/s for Adrar and 5 m/s for
Tindouf at a height of 10 m.
The Algerian renewable program plans at first, in the period 2011-2013,
the installation of 12 the first wind farm of a power of 10 MW in Adrar. Between
2014 and 2015, two wind farms with a capacity of 20 MW each are to be
developed. Studies will be led to detect suitable sites to realize the other projects
during the period 2016-2030 for a power of about 1700 MW.
4.
USA EXPERIENCE
The United States is the largest economy in the world. It covers an area of
9 826 million square kilometers. They led the world in renewable energy
development for many years. Thus, the American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is
one of the most prominent advocate groups for renewable energy. It believes that
the federal government has the ability to influence the market in regards to
renewable energy use through purchasing decisions. If the government took the
initiative to purchase solar, wind and other renewable energy technologies, the net
manufacturing costs of the technologies would lower significantly.
343
The Twenty in Ten initiatives were announced in the 2007 State of the
Union speech by the President of the United States, consisting of two major
elements. The first element focuses on the supply side, and sets a mandatory fuels
standard to require 35 billion gallons1 of renewable and alternative vehicle fuels to
be supplied in 2017, nearly five times the current 2012 target which was set in
EPAct 2005. In 2017, it is expected that this will displace 15% of projected annual
gasoline use compared to the business-as-usual prediction.
In the energy bill passed in December 2007, a target of 36 billion gallons
of these fuels was adopted for 2022. The second element of the initiative is
focusing on the demand side, with the reform and modernization of the Corporate
Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards for cars and the extension of the
existing Light Truck Rule. It is expected that by 2017, this will reduce projected
annual gasoline use by up to 8.5 billion gallons, a further 5% reduction compared
to business as usual. Together, these measures will bring the total reduction in
projected annual gasoline use to 20%. In the energy bill of 2007, the requirement
was toughened, to a 40% improvement by 2020, raising CAFE standards to an
average of 35 miles per gallon (mpg).
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total
4.7%
6.7%
109
23
74
2005
5.5%
7.7%
144
16
26
96
2010
5.1%
solar/wing/other
shayre of tpes
14
geothermal
6.0 %
23
hydro
share of production
62
Comb, enewables
& waste
1990
Mtoe
5.5%
7.8%
159
18
27
107
2020
Table 5. Renewables in the United States Energy System, 1990 to 2005 (in Mtoe)
5.4%
7.9%
175
21
27
120
2030
-9
11
10
n/a
-36
18
17
46
133
100
17
2005
45
1990
19
0
2020/
2006/
Growth(%)
-1
10
17
2030
12
2030/
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4.3. PRODUCTION
The most rapidly growing source of renewable energy supply in the United
States is wind power for electricity generation. In 2005, the United States installed
2 431 MW of wind capacity, followed by another 2 343 MW in 2006, and it is
expected that over 3 000 MW will be installed during 2007. The total installed
capacity now stands at 11 603 MW, and generated some 26 TWh, or 0.6% of US
electricity supply. Because of significant R&D efforts, as well as deployment
programs in other countries, the cost of producing electricity from wind power in
the United States has dropped from USD 0.8 per kilowatt-hour in 1980 (in current
dollars) to USD 0.04 to 0.06 today. Wind power development is driven by the
availability of a federal production tax credit, and in years when this expires, newbuilt rates decline steeply. The United States is also increasing its use of biomass,
primarily in the transport sector.
In the stationary and electricity/heat sectors, however, the use of biomass
is decreasing. The first boost for the use of biomass in the transport sector came
with the EPAct 2005, which mandated an alternative fuel standard for liquid fuels,
and which has since been increased. It was followed by the phasing-out of MTBE
as a gasoline additive in the United States in 2006, and its replacement by ethanol,
most of which is produced from corn. In the State of the Union address in January
2007, the President announced a long-term plan to further increase the contribution
from biofuels to the supply of transport energy, with production of biofuels and
other alternative transport fuels reaching 35 billion gallons by 2017, equivalent to
15% of gasoline demand under the business-as-usual case. Growth of biofuels
production has since increased faster than expected, also aided by a special tariff
that is being applied to prevent imported ethanol from taking the market share from
United States corn-based ethanol. No estimation is available for the production of
heat from solar-thermal collectors, but if collector shipments are taken as an
indication, it has grown rapidly since 1997, when the EIA started collecting the
information. From 721000 m2 collector surface in 1997, shipments grew by 152%
to 1 815 000 m2 by 2006.
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gas
total
342 776
7 421
52 075
59 496
529
23 897
253 204
5 650
2000
68 545
666
solar
71 039
15 323
waste
sold
273 152
hydro
biomass
3 066
wind
1990
373 767
6 574
53 278
60 065
612
22 762
272 447
17 881
2005
403 155
6 641
54 691
63 098
564
22 525
291 103
25 865
2006
Table 6. Renewables in United States Electricity and Heat Supply, 1990 to 2006 (in TJ)
11%
166%
-20%
-11%
-15%
47%
7%
744%
2005/2006
growth
18%
-11%
5%
5%
7%
-6%
15%
358%
2000/2006
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4.4. POLICY
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 calls for an increase in the percentage of
electricity generated from renewable sources to 10% by the year 2020, up from the
2005 production of 8.5%. A number of individual states have set goals for
renewable electricity production or sales in their jurisdiction that are considerably
more ambitious. For example, in 2007, 25 states had RPSs governing the
generation or sale of electricity in their state, while three more states had set nonbinding goals. In June 2007, the President proposed a new energy bill for cutting
the projected use of gasoline by 20% over the next ten years, following his 2007
State of the Union address. To achieve this goal, a new Alternative Fuel Standard
was announced that will require that the United States use 35 billion gallons of
alternative fuels by 2017, reducing projected gasoline consumption in 2017 by
15%. Investment in, and use of, renewable energy has been encouraged with a
range of state and federal government incentives. The federal government is
supporting renewables through a mix of tax credits, rebates, and support for R&D,
and an alternative fuel standard for renewable fuels in the transport sector (see
Table 6).
As part of the CAFE standards, the government has encouraged vehicle
manufacturers to produce E85 flex-fuel vehicles. While many such vehicles are
produced, equivalent to 4.7% of all light vehicle sales in 2004, only a small
number of E85 filling stations exist *, amounting to just 0.7% of all filling stations,
so that most flex-fuel vehicles run mainly on gasoline. A number of individual
states use a mix of RPSs, and direct grants, to further increase penetration of
renewables in their jurisdictions. The federal and state-level incentives are
cumulative.
By 2006, 15 states and the District of Columbia had enacted so-called
Public Benefit Funds, which use money raised from electricity ratepayers through
alternative energy requirements and consumers voluntary contributions to fund
R&D as well as deployment of renewable energy technologies. The development
of wind power is driven to a large extent by a federal production tax credit
(initially of USD 15 per MWh generated, but adjusted for inflation and currently
worth USD 20 per MWh) and paid for the first ten years of the projects lifetime.
The credit is due to expire at the end of 2007, but Congress may decide to extend
it. The credit has already expired three times, in 1999, 2001 and 2003, leading to
significant reductions in new connections of wind power in the following years,
2000, 2002, and 2004. The value of the tax credit to producers was about USD 338
million in 2005, assuming that all wind electricity produced benefited from it.
348
4 000
4 700
5 400
6 100
6 800
7 400
7 500
2006
2007*
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
223
653
imports
production
target
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
3 211
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
68%
113%
share
achievement
4 508
target
total
Table 7. The 2005 Renewable Fuel Standard and Ethanol Production to 2012 (In million gallons)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
7.4%
13.4%
import
349
5. CONCLUSION
In recent years, renewable energy has increasingly attracted public and
policy attention. Particularly, for its potential to contribute to reductions in GHG
emissions. Most interest has focused on the use of renewables in power generation
and as biofuels. The world may be heading towards a global energy crisis due to a
decline in the availability of cheap oil and recommendations to a decreasing
dependency on fossil fuel.
Finally, we believe that the promise of renewable energy has now
become a reality. Both solar photovoltaic and wind energy are experiencing rapid
sales growth, declining capital costs and costs of electricity generated, and
continued performance increase thus, the following concrete proposals for action
should be taken (now) to move forward and should be supported by all the
concerned stakeholders:
350
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reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The 18th World Petroleum Congress.
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Ainouche, A. (2006). Natural gas and Algerian strategy for renewable energy. 23rd
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International Energy Agency. (2006). Alternative Policy Scenario. World Energy
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