4 Applications of fundamental solutions 4. Introduction ‘We are now going 10 see how the fundamental solutions (especially Bouss: ness) cam be use to find useful answers for certain geotechnical problems. ‘The main things we will be concemed with are the stresses and displacements caused by a shallow structural foundation, Footings, rafts, grillage founda- tions, practiclly all shallow foundations can be treated, provided elastic be- havior is a reasonable assumption for te sols involved. Generally speaking, we ean divide foundation problems into wo classes “These are interactive problems and noninteractive problems. nthe former cat- ‘gory are all problems in which the elasticity of the foundation plays en im porant role, For example, flexible raft foundation supporting multstory structure, like that illustrated in Figure 4.1, interacts withthe soll. Thinking in terms of what we know about elasticity and structural mechanics, we see the deformation of te raft and the deformation ofthe soil most both obey re ‘uirements of equilibrivm and must also be geometrically compatible. If a point onthe raft is displaced relative to nother point, thea we realize bend ing stresses will develop within the raft and there willbe different reactive pressures in the sol beneath those poins, The response of the rat andthe r= sponse ofthe soil are coupled and mast be considered together. In contrast, noninteractive problems aze those where we can reasonably assume the elas- ticity ofthe foundation itself is unimportant tothe overall esponse ofthe sol. ‘Examples of noninteractive problems are illustrated in Figure 4.2. These ‘are situations where the structural foundation is ether very flexible or very Figid when compared with the sil elasticity. In noninteractive problems, we ‘don’t ned to consider the stress-strain response ofthe foundation. The soil ‘deformations are contolled by the contact pressures exerted by the founda- tion, but the response ofthe soil andthe structure are effectively uncoupled Its clear that noniteractve problems will be much simpler than interactive m CB Introduction us Figure 4.1 mulstory structure supported on exible rf foundation: an inter: tive problem. — [ ecceieectier) HU iid mat foundation PPPP PPP Tees Figure 4.2 Some ooninlerstive problems ‘ones. Because oftheir convenience and simplicity, we will devote most ofthis chapter to noninteractive problems. ‘The simplest problems involve a uniform vertical stress applied atthe sur face of a homogeneous, isotropic, elastic half-space. If the stress acts on an aea of regular geometric shape, such as a circle ora square, then the prob lem is furber simplified. Generally, we can folly determine some (if not all)na Applications of fundamental soluions MW ofthe stestes and displacements just by integrating Boussinesq’s fundamen- tal equations over the region covered by the load. The superposition prinei- ple allows this integration. I is superposition that makes linear elasticity so powerful in tackling this type of problem. ‘There are several variations on this simplest case. We can consider nonuni- form loads, and these solutions will suggest how to approach the problem of rigid foundations, We can allow the load to extend to infinity on a stip of - nie width and have plane-strain conditions. We can consider layered soils, us ing a simple method of analysis that is not exact but provides good approxi- ‘mations for displacements. And we can make some generalizations about consolidation of clays and time-dependent setlemens ‘There ae other methods for finding appropriate solutions to these types of foundation problems. They use specialized mathematical models for soils, ‘models that mimi some of the response characteristics of linear elasticity. “The simplest is the Winkler made. This model was proposed by the German enginger E. Winkler in 1867, He represented the case of finite soil layer rest- ing on basement rock by a family of linear springs resting ona rigid base, as showin in Figure 4.3. This is clearly an over-simplified model. If we compare the deflected shape of the real ei surface with the deflected shape of Win- ler’s model we find some similarity, but there ae significant differences, The ‘Winkler springs act independently. We can push ane down, and its neighbors ste not alfected. This is unlike the real soil, The deflected shapo inthe real soil, oF ina Tnear elastic model forthe real soil, is continuous. Despite this fundamental diference, Winkler models ate extemely useful in many types of soil-foundation interaction analyses. ‘A\Winkler model requires only one parameter, the elastic spring constant. A umber of researchers have modified the original model in an effort to obain ‘more realistic deflected shape. To do this, an addtional parameter is needed, and hese modified model are usually referred to as two-parameter elastic mod- els. One ple tworparameter model, which also has an intuitive physical ex- ee Uniform circular Yoad on homogenencous half-space WIS fig bee Figure 44 The two parameter model of Floneko-Borch, planation, is shown in Figure 4.4. This isthe model of Filonenko-Horedich, [An elastic membrane is stretched across the surface ofthe Winkler springs ‘The membrane partially connects the springs depending on how tightly itis initial stretched, The two parameters here ae the spring stiffnesses and the membrane tension. There ae several olber two-parameter models. They ane ‘discussed in detail, as is the Winkler model, in Selvadura's Elastic Analysis (of Sol-Fowxdation Interaction, which we vefeted to in Chapter 1 ‘The plan for this chapter will be 10 consider some simple problems in- volving a homogeneous elastic half-space, then to adda litle complexity by \way of nonuniform loaings and layered soils, and also to consider consoli- ‘ation and time-dependent settlements. Finally, we wll look at some special: ized elasiie analyses that are useful in in sit testing and in determination of travty tesses, We will employ compression positive notation thrughout this chapter. 42 Uniform circular load on homogeneous half-space ‘This isthe simplest possible application. It might arise in analysis of liquid storage tank like that shown in Figure 4.2(b) We can represent the problem as a vertical pressure py applied uniformly over the circular region of ra- dius a as shown in Figute 4.3, The displacement or the siress al any point in the half-space can be determined by integrating Boussines’s solution over the loaded region, We wil begin by considering the displacement ofthe ground surface = 0 Reforing back to eqs. (3.4), we see tha the displacements onthe surface = O for the vical point load are _Pu=29 2PU =» Gears 0, a= ay16 Applications of fundamental solutions doled eves, r, Figure 43 Uniform ses, applied over ciel egon onthe half space surfie [Note that when z = 0, R and r become equal. What we want 19 do now isto replace the point load P by the applied stress, multiplied by an element of area dA. This “point load,” dA, will contribute tothe displacements at all, points on the half-space surface. If we select one particular point, then we can tua together all of these contributions by integrating over the whole region ‘8. To illustrate this, consider the point exacly under the center of the tank, ‘The contribution to the vertical displacement, a this point will be pend — »). 2aGr a iu Here nil is the element of area. The product p. rr plays the role of the point load P in (4.1). If we integrate both sides ofthis equation we find the {otal venical displacement, or settlement, atthe center of the tank. oy = ff stn = narmo.e =o fj eee as Uniform cirewar toad on homogenencous halfspace LIT ‘This simple result gives us the surface sewlement at the center of any uniform circular lod In calculating 1. in (4.3) we have side-stepped an interesting question, In Boussinesq's solution, the point load lies at the origin af coordinates. in ‘ur cireular load problem, we've held the coordinate origin atthe center of the loaded region while we maved the point load over the region of inte- {ration Is this important? The answer is no, if we are dealing with the ver tical displacement u,, but would be yes if we were looking for the radial isplacement u,. In Boussinesq’s solution the point load aets vertically, The contribution dt. due tothe “point Load” per@dr is always in the vertical irection. If we were dealing with radial displacements, however the con- tribution de, would always point toward te place where prfdr hyppened to lie. As we move the “point load” over the region s, the contribution keeps changing in direction. So we see that the vertical displacement is simpler to deal with in these circumstances, which is convenient, of couse, hecause the vertical settlement is usually the most interesting quantity in Foundation analysis Next, consider the vertical displacement atthe edge ofthe ereular load, We will move the origin of coordinates toa point onthe circumference of the et- cles shown in Figure 4.6. Now the radial distance between the point load and the origin i . The element of area is sf2ds. The contribution tothe ver- tical displacement will be _ eesldoyt =», = 2aGs Iegrating both sides of this equation we have { Wosdtdox = Bas ‘The limits of integration for © are —2/2 and 2/2, while s varies between 0 and 2a cos 7 ae nA =») Pa lh a=» I 7 AL cas conn18 Applications of fundamental solutions Figure 4.6 Geometry fr finding displacement a ege of led region. so that = pal a) mdr= az aa “Tis is less than the displacement a the center by factor of 2/, Since we are so often interested in the surface displacements i is eonve- nient to introduce especial symbol 1 use im place of uz = 0) We will let lay this role. Tt wl slays denote the displacement or settlement ofthe free Surface. In axisymmetric problems such asthe cieula load, wis only fune- liom ofthe radial positon, w = w(). In other problems, 7 will generally de- pend upon two coordinates, w = Crs). Restating the results just obtained x » wr as o Now what about other points besides r= 0 and r= a? For an arbitrary point inside the circle, we can use the geometry set out in Figure 4.7. Study- ing this geometry we find Ly = VI aM = a cosM), VT aan + a cost, Uniform circular toad on homogeneneous half-space 119) ow Figure 47 Geometry fr finding ésplacemeat at intro pin of loeded rein, ere e plays the role of dimensionless distance, rf fom the center of the circle. The integration now looks like this, j eased = 9 Ont FY p= ag PP pla T [te awn FS a, Becaie of symncty about the dameter ofthe irl, we eed ony tin tegte rom Oo 272 for fv and then double the answer We an wie wea) = [Psst + Fast] which simplitis to waa) = 228 He "T VT=eRPA aM, for ast, (6) gral here is called a complete elliptic integral. I eam not be ite- arated in closed form, but, because they frequently occur in many physical problems, elliptic integrals have been tabulated for values ofthe parameter a. ‘Tables of elliptic integrals are found in many mathematical handbooks, Two panicular values of a are simple, however, Those ae a= 0 and «r= 1, and if we substitute those values we find the seltlements at the center and atthe ‘edge, exactly the same asin (4.5).120 Applications of fundamental solutions For More el ints outside the circle (with a> 1) a similar analysis can be used. nic integrals appeat. The result looks ike this = Beda) Pf A sina vwlaa) ie Jysintt dt. a an (437 T fora= 1 = sien sy ‘We ean inoduce a dimensionless setlement W'= We) defined by wiaa)G Me) = 5 as) {A graph of W for values of « between 0 and 3 is shown in Figure 48, By te ‘moving dimensions, W effectively gives the settlement for eny czce size and ny applied pressure and for any combination of elastic eonstans. We see that ‘Wis greatest beneath the center ofthe Ioad and diminishes rapidly outside the Toaded circle. Sometimes this shape is rofered to asa settlement bor. "Next, consider the vertical displacement onthe z-axis beneath the center of | the circular load, Recall the Boussinesq solution for or) | as) eck [1-9 +8 “To use this expression we ean replace P by pyri dr and integrate over the cireular region, Refesting t Figure 49, the contribution tow, at depth z be cath dhe center will be and integrating Uniform circular toad on homogeneneous halfspace 121 oso | Figue 49 Geom for fining placement of poi at pthc Bnet he cn ‘Sef tuao cleus a ‘We can carry out the @-integration immediately, To help withthe rinegra- tion, we introduce the angle shown in Figure 49. The integral becomes % woke on te fe singe sings cos see*y a ‘where yy = tanHalz). Integrating this we find the vertical displacement at deh 2 ~1)}. ao Hy fa -avate—a-4m2 Applications of fundamental solutions os eo ‘ i on | 2 a « I © Figure 4.10 Variations of (a) smensionless spleen, and (b) dimensionless ress ‘vith depth beneath center of ufo cca oad \ several valves of Poisson's ratio. [Now we shift our attention tothe stress field in the half-space. We ean use the same technique, replacing P with pjrdfdr and integrating over st, to find the componens of stress. The simplest stress component and also the most inmoresting, isc the vertical stress. Consider the distribation of along the | ‘ais, beneath the center of the load. From Boussinesq's solution, 4, 3.5). | ‘we see thatthe contribution to a: from the point load parr will be | 3 2 to = wordt 5 ‘We can integrate this using the same scheme we used forthe vertical dis. placement u, (asin Figure 4.9) 7 ded si % 39. | snyeos’y dy ap ed ———— oe Uniform loads of other shapes, homogeneous half-space 123 AA graph of this equation, in dimensionless form, is shown in Figure 4.100). ‘We see from this figure, and also from eq. (4.11), that gc approaches Py a8 2 approaches zero, just as we would expec. ‘Values of gat other points than those on the z-axis may be found by us- ing simitar methods to those described for u,, and, as one Would expect, el- liptic integrals again appear. Other componcnts of stress can also be deter ‘mined, but just as was the ease with the radial displacement u, we must be careful with the orientation berween the “point load” in the integration and fe ditcetions in whieh the stress components act. This is true of all the ro- maining nonzero stresses: dy, Bg, and oa, except on the snaxis where they all vanish. In contrast to individual suess component, the stess invariants sseussed in Section 1.8 do not depend on our choice of coordinate system, ‘They can be found relatively easily by imtegraton over the loaded region, 4.3 Uniform loud of other shapes, homogeneous hal-pace “The anf cri load us consid can be ook! on as pote problem tha we wil vary in diferent ways. One import vraton sto one Sie iad eons fee shapes We wil ay wou hemogenesus all Space for hens Being ane rin conceoewilhte vera sere Giplaceren w and he vera ses Copier the tanglarshp fad wih constant pit , sed in Figure 4.1. Thee aight angle (er we ean drop that esticton) and eo sds aligned with the rand yon Fre 41 sows th plan of the Toad, ooking dow onthe sac of the balsa. We wl ist fi the setlemeatw beneath the corer ofthe tingle marked A. The “point oad” | tere wl be pny a he conti ow wl be aw ested 9 a), the two eases row closer and closer together, For values ofr greater than 1a, the differ nce in surfce settlement is less than 53%. We eonclode that fr certain prob- Jems, the exact nature of the oad distribution may not be af great importance, Rigid foundations 13s Fie _ lis footing {09tng Contact ross Figure 4.22 Peso onc ses seen for fiber fe ings. ‘These would be problems where the elfect of @ loaded area on neighboring regions i of more interest than the settlement beneath the load islf. If points Of special interest le well away from the loaded area then the stess dist tution ean probebly be assumed to be uniform without eny appreciable ero. ‘This theme is developed much more fully in Appendix B. Rigid square and retangular foundations ae unfortunately not so amenable to analysis as are circular footings. Many investigators have considered rigid rectangular footings using a varicty of approximate methods. The contact sresses become singularat he footing edges, exacily us we would expect, but the settlement profile quickly approaches that fora uniform applied stess at points outside the footing. Compare the setlements fora rigid rectangular {Tooting with the settlements at the center and at one comer of @ uniformly loaded rectangular area shown in Table 4.1. The average applied sess ‘the same in both cases, and the settlements are all in this dimensionless form wo ll ‘We sce from the table that the center and cornet settlements for the unior load bracket the settlements for the rigid footing in all cases. The average of the center nd comer values is close to the rigid footing settlements, varying by as litle as 3% for a = 1 up 10 7% for Ba = 5.Applications of fundamental solutions “Table 4.1 Dimensionless setement of rig etangaarfotings Wa wis 208 igi footing! ano 520k SRL 6ST Flexible foting center ‘3611 “67S 765989150523 Flexible foting comet 2805-3304 3820 SR s2 Flexible footing svesge 4009 “3091 'S144 6877083 "ates ake fom he paper by Dempsey and Li (1989), Return now to the question that we foreshadowed at the end of the re- ceding section. Jus how close to reality ae these rig foundation solutions? ‘We have observed thatthe contact stress becomes infinite at the foundation edges, and we know this cannot oceur ina real soil. Moreover, we empha- sized earier that elasticity solutions were useful so long asthe sess levels Were not too great Are these rigid foundation solutions of any value in soi cengineeting? The answer is yes, but we need to teat them with care. Fint note that atthe footing edge our infinite contact stess will cause in- Finite shearing sess. Both the radial stesso,» and the azimuthal siress ap will remain finite (for an incompressible elastic body they will be zero), and a glance at Mohr’s circle shows that al surfaces other thn principal surfaces will have infinite shear stress at Ue Footing edge. While we can contemplate infinite stresses in the theory of elastic behavior, We are aware that any rel ‘material will possess finite shear stengdh that must mit te stress magni tude in the annular region near the edge. We might therefore expect to find » truncated stress distibution more like that indicated in Figure 4:23. The de~ tails of this truncation obviously depend on the details of the shear stength ofthe material involved. This rises a new question: What do we know about the shear strength of soils that may affect the contact stress distribution? The answer, ofcourse, de- pends on whether we are dealing with cohesive or cohesionless sol. Cohe- sionless soils derive ther shoar strength from interparticle friction and con- finerent ofthe granular assembly, which inten depends directly on the normal stress acting on the surface in question, Now we can begin to see how the par- aholie tess dstrbotion illustrated in Figure 4.18 might arise. Consider atigid cular plate placed on the surface of a deposit of uniform sand, If load is rally applied to the plate, our elastic analysis suggests the immediate de- velopment ofa stress singularity. Bot the sand particles near the footing edge are unconfined or at best poorly confined and therefore possess litle shear igi foundations aa rite stent) igure 4.23 Eiet of fn sength of si om theoretical contct rts fr rgd cir sl Fotng strength. The stress singularity must be heavily truncated. Moving from the Footing edge toward the center the degree of confinement increases, shear strength increases, nd the amount of truncation due to sung initatons wil diminish, Near the esntr, the true sires will necessriy be greater than the theoretical stress simply In order 10 equilibrate tbe applied load % The resat- ing stress distribution will look roughly parabolic (as in Figure 4.18), and th is exacly what is observed in experiments on sand [Now consider the sume situation but witha cohesive clay soll rather than cohesionless sand. Shear strength of the clay wil be atleast paraly inde- pendent of confining stress and truncation ofthe stress singularity atthe fot ing edge will not be nearly so dramatic asin the case ofthe sand, Fora clay with high cohesion, a significant sires increase near the footing ee is pos- sible, and stress distribution lke that illustrated in Figure 4.19 results. Ex perimental observations support this contusion. Considering all that has been said here, one might conclude that elastic analysis of rigid foundations isa wast of time whenever sands are involved. Not so. Firs, its through the elastic analysis that we have been able to com= prohend the underlying mectanies ofa rigid footing on ether a cohesionless ‘or cohesive soil. Second, most pretcal problems involving rigid foundations find the footings buried at some depth beneath the ground suface. The eect ofthis burial is to inerease the average confining stress that aes near the foot jing, and this implies an increased shear strength, especially for sands. For buried footing, the contact sre distribution, even in sandy sols, may be ex- pected to Took more like the inverted parabolic rather than the parabolic ease ‘To end this section, we can briefly comment on interactive foundation prob lems, where finite foundation stiffness plays a role Those problems Hie some- where between perfectly flexible foundations, where we need only specily the138 Applications of fundamental solutions applied stresses, and perl rigid foundations, which were just discussed. Many investigators have studied interactive problems using a variety of technique. By far the most popular approach i to use a Winkler foundation, but there are aso ‘numerous important development tat analyze Mlexible foundations onan eas- tic half-space. These topics are beyond the seope of an undergraduate text such ‘this, but if you are interested in reading and learning more, see Elastic Analy- sis of Soil-Foundation Ineration by Soivaduri cited in Chapter 1 and in the Rankine Lecture by RE, Gibson (1974) 46 Plane-strain problems ‘Consider long narrow rectangular footing such as might support a bearing wall ofa structure. We could safely guess that, i the length were consier- ably greater than the width, the stresses and displacements near the center of the footing wil be nearly independent ofthe footing length. We might then ‘assume the footing is iafiitely long, because this wil simplify things quite a lot, The resulting condition, in the context of the theory of elasticity, are called plane-strain conditions. To be more precise, suppoxe the footing was infinitely long, with constant dimensions and constant applied load at all points, like the situation illustrated in Figure 424. Under these conditions ll the siesses and stains are independent oy, the diretion parallel tothe foot- ing, and every plane surface defined by y = constant will behave exactly like every other similar surface. To deal withthe problem we need 1 consider only the xz plane. We mentioned plane stain problems briefly in Chapter 3 when wwe analyzed Fiamant’s fine load problem and when we discussed gravity sizesses in Section 3.7, Clearly Flamant’s solution will be wseful in dealing with the infinitely long footing we have here. “The simplest plane-stain problem isthe strip-loa problem illsrated in Figure 4.25, We have a uniform applied sess p, acting on an infinitely Yong strip on the surface ofan elastic half-space. We can attack the problem using "aman solution, and we will begin by examining the stress field in the balf- space. We will postpone considering settlements because they have an unfor- tumate aspect peculiar to plane-strain problems. ‘Returning to Figure 4.25, we can consider the strip load as a sequence of| line loads standing side by side, esch line loud having intensity ps, Fla- ‘man’s solution gives us the stess components at any point inthe half-space ‘due fo the line load. The contribution to the vertical stress da: due tothe line load is given by eq. G.18) inte. ae 426) Plane-srain problems tad oa cw wa ea Figue 4.24 Ptne-rin conditions: log sip footing, mh | fmm / | 5 hrepsce igure 4.25 Plae-staincondon: unr sip load. Figure 4.26 illustrates the Tne Toad and the point where we wish to find Let us put b = V2 + 2 and inoduce the angle @ shown in the figure. Then eq, (4:26) can be writen og = eS = We coer a and the stess increase gd to the strip load is Found by integrating % = 7% [ costodo40 Applications of fundamemal solutions werent dims Figure 4.26 Geometry for finding sess increment de (olin load. where the angles and Os ate illustrated in Figure 427. Carrying ou the ine tegration we find oan te [os Lie “x eles ‘ ‘asin ass ween sow ou~ Pe [ots] aa a [s- sso] a eal aol ro This also easy 0 show that dy = Wor +) ‘We see from the last the equations that te stress field is completely spec ited by p and the two angles 8 and 02, We can use Mol’ circle with these ‘expressions to find the principal streses. They turn out to be ove 280+ sn@) and oy =#E(0- sino) 0 where © = 6: ~ 64. The intermediate principal stess o> is given by (on + '03) As (4.30) makes clea, the principal stresses depend only on the angle ‘subtended atthe point by the width of the strip. This implies thatthe prince pal stresses will be constant on any circle tat passes through the egos ofthe Plane-strain problems mi | {iim * / al) f Figure 4.27 Geometry fr finding tess du Sip loud Wy” Sous of points on whieh 6 td of se constant Figure 428 Principal sueses due to sip oad Strip load, as shown in Figure 428, It can also be showin that the direction of ‘7 points toward the highest point on this circle 'Bofore we turn our attention to displacements, return to eg (4.27) and ex- amine the vertial sees i a litle more detail. Specifically, we ean ask, what happens to ar: if we consider a point on the half-space surface? First, con sider a point outside the strip load. As the point approaches the half-space surface, we see that 6, and @ both approach 2, and when we evaluate (4.27) we find ox = 0, exactly as expected. Next, considera point beneath the stip load. Now Oy = /2, but 8, = ~af2. When we evaluate (4.27) the sn20 term vanishes and we find c= po, agin 8 we expect. Finally, con sider a point exactly under the edge ofthe srip load, Forte right-hand edge in Figure 4.27, we would have 6 = #72 and 8, = 0. Evaluating (4.27) we find age = pd Is this what we expect? Its, because if we were to place ‘wo similar strip loads side by side, we could use superposition to add their effets, and atthe point where they meet the contribution from each would be pul [Now we ean mum to displacements and try to find the settlements caused by the strip load. We did not work out the displacement field for Famant's| problem in Chapter 3; we will do s0 now, Consider the geometry shown inme ‘Applications of fundamental solutions Figure 4.29 Goometry for fading surfieestlesent de to sp lon Figure 4.29, The contribution to the surface settlement w due to the “point load” dy willbe given by Boussinesq’s solution ty = OAL 2nGr “To find w we need to integrate over the line eu=n amor wn? I we introduce the angle @ = tan” "(yi this ean also be writen as 209 seco ‘When we integrate, we find 2L=Y [cane + eno] 159 [acne emo” g? [bo rey, aan) 2G From either of these last two equations, we see that is infinite forall vale us of x. This is the peccliarty we mentioned earlier, Every point on the hal space surface suffers an infinite settlement. Ifthe line load has any finite Tength, this problem doesn’t aise. The setlemens will be finite forall points Planestrain problems M3 ‘except those beneath the line Ioad itself (and we expect them to be infinite thore). But if we lt the Hine load become longer and Yonge, then dhe sete- ‘ments increase in proportion tothe natural logarithm of dhe length of the oad, and if the load becomes infinite, so too Uo dhe settlements. This may seem serious problem, but we must bear in mind that infinitely long line loads are not found in nature. They area mathematical anifie. If ey ead us to an wn- ‘expected resll, we must eonsidor that rsult in the context of the some isa anificial problem we have se ‘Sometimes engineers attempt to avoid the problem of infinite settlement in planeta conditions by introducing the relarve settlement Av between two points on the hall-space surface. For two points x and xp, say, the relative setilement at xy relative to is defined by Aw = wha) — w6), (Of course, both w(x) and ws) ate infinite, bu their difference is not. If we evaluate 4.31) atx and at xy and subtract, we find ou 7 w= 4(2} 43 For the strip load, absolue setements are also infinite, but relative sete rmonts are not 1 we apply (4.32) to the stip loa illustrated in Figure 4.30, we find aE fog (228) 2) + a(S] ‘This result i interesting bot may not be especially useful since we ean find any value of Aw by eoosing the point at greater and greater distances from the stip load Equation (4.32) wil be useful only when relaive displacements are required for some paticolar reason. If we wish to know the absolute amount of setlement at some point on the half-space surface, then we must take aceount of the true length of the loaded region and use the expressions derived earlier for rectangular loads Next, we ean pase the question of how an infinitely tong rigid footing will behave on an elastic half space, We ean immediately deduce the ab solute setlements will be infinite and rn attention to relative displace- rmonts. Tho relative displacement profile will be as shown in Figure 4.31, where settlements are measured relative 10 some point outside the fotinga r Figure 4.30 Geometry for finding relative setlement due ro stip load alae semen pote Figure 431 Rigié sip footing “The relative settlement beneath the footing will be 8 constant that we will, call 8. To solve the problem, we need to find the contact stress distribution ‘ps) that gives a constant displacement beneath the footing and that equli- brates the applied load } nnerae as [Note here that is the load per unit length of footing and we assume is con- sant, othervise plane-srain conditions would not apply. ‘We might anticipate thatthe contact stress may become singular 38 We ap proach the footing edge, just as was the case for the rigid creular footing. The comet contact stress distribution, discovered by M. Sadowsky in 1928, is elven by paemagen r-acecn 30 and it is easy tn verity that equi- rating. The tle We see that ps) +2 a6 approaches librium is preserved by substituting (4:34) in (4.33) and. Sr Seatlements 1 layered sols Mas Figure 4.32 Contact sess and sotement profles forthe rg sip footing. ative settlement 6, relative to a point located a distance b frm the footing center (see Figure 4.32) can be found by using e4. (432) with @ replaced by the “line loa” p(x and integrating. We find steele (Ea) an Take eare here to note that 6 is the relative setlement of the rig strip foot- ing, relative co the setdement at point b, ‘Comments made earlier with regard to observed tess distributions beneath rigid footings on cohesionless and cohesive soils will apply here as wel. For «rig strip footing resting on the surface of a deposit of cohesionless sand, ‘roughly parabolic stress distribution Figure 4.18) would be the expected re- sult On a clay soil, an inverted parabolic distibution Figure 4.19) vould be expected. The reasoning behind these expectations was explained in Section 45. It sould be clear that we can use Flamant’s solution and eq (4:32) to ‘work out dhe details of the stress fold and the relative setlemenis for other problems involving various sess distributions that obey plane-strain condi- tions 47 Settlements in layered soils ‘The next question we want to consider is this: What if the soil profile at some site is not homogeneous? More likely than not, some degree af inhomogenc-146, Applications of fundamental solutions | e231 Cres st tvart te) Figure 4.33 The problem ofan clastic ayer on a rigid base approximated bythe fo {al compression in an clastic Ral space ity will exist in most natural soll profiles. The most likely profile is layered, ‘Transported soils will almost always exhibit layering. The natural processes ot transportation and deposition by aie and water lead automatically to layer- ing on a variety of scales, Residual soils tend to he more uniform, oF at Teast, to change more gradually, but layering may be evident in distinet weathering horizons, Other types of inhomogeneity will also be present in the fom of lateral variations and occasional inclusions and lenses andl even voids in rare instances. These sorts of inhomogeneities are beyond Our scope here, bu T- lula layering isnot, Fundamental solutions for layered elastte media were in vestigated by Burmiste, and were brielly mentioned in Chapter 3. These so Iutions are exact but complex, Instead of atempting 1 use them, there isa ‘very simple way to approximate the settlements ina layered sll profile that ‘ve will explain, ‘We can begin by considering the simplest layered problem, a single elastic layer resting on a rigid basement as shown in Figure 4.3(a). The layer has ‘thickness, and we Wish to find the surface selementw, dc toa specified applied stress pix). Figure 43(b) illustrates how we might approach this problem. Suppose we have an elastic hal-space with the same elastic prop- ‘ties asthe clastic ayer: Consider the response of the hall-ypece if we apply the same loading which acts on the layer. In particular, consider the surface settlenient ne = 0) and the vertical displacement u(¢= i). We might expect the relative displacement u,{z = 0) ~ ue = A) to be a reasonable approxi ‘ation for w, since it represents the local eompression ofthe alf-space above the depth hI tums ou this isa good approximation as long asthe Layer thick~ ress fs not too small when compazed with the lateral extent ofthe loaded region "To illustrate is method, suppose we have a uniform circular Toad of ine tensity p, and radius a ating on the surface of an elastic layer over a rig haseaent. We apply the same loading 1 a hal-space with similar elastic con- Settlements in layered soils ur stants. The surface setlement at he conter of the loaded region is given by 43) peat = 9 nge= 0) = Pe ‘and the vertical displacement at r = 0 is given by 6g. 4.10), nde = y= Be faa — yeVEFT ~ = ots - em n= Bs [a0 AVR = atas-1)} So our approximation forthe layer settlement wa the center of the lod ava is = 0)~ ue = Be lyse VEER ala ba Be aa mask VET acto Noe henge of hs xpesin as 40h What we would expoct to find. For intermediate values off, (4.36) gives a ‘reasonably good approximation forthe exact stilement found using Burmise ter’s solution, The maximum degree of ero ison the order of 10% except or eases where the ratio Ma is quite smal. Se the article by Poulos (1967) Jor farther deta Obviously, we ean generalize this approach to consider multiply layered sites. For example, if we have a soft soil layer Iying ona deep deposit of sifer soil as shown in Figure 4.34, we can approxima the seliement w,, as fol lows 0) = a we HG D+ use where 4 are displacements calculated for an elastic haspace with elastic properties » and G), while 1. is the halspae displacement sing eae constants vy and G, The eave displacement (2 = 0) ~ ude = W) 9p= proximates the compression inthe sft lye, while the tind ten #2 (e 2) approximates the conibution to the setlément from the compression of| the underyng sil If more layers are present, we ean approximate the local compression in each wsing hal'pace calculations and then a hem all 0- gether to approximute the total setlement. Forte eieula-load problem thse Ce easMs Applications of fdamental solutions Set val Figure 434 Typical layered problem, calculations are quite simple. For other load geometues, finding the vertical Aisplacement at depth may lead t0 difficult integrations, but in most common ceases tables and graphical solutions can be used to find the displacement, at Teast to an aocuraey consistent with the degree of approximation desired. The ‘book by Poulos and Davis cited in Chapter 1 is a valuable source for these caleulations. 48 Consolidation and settlement In any soil, time may be required for setlements to occur. Thi is especially tiue, of cours, for fine-grained, fully saturated soil, In these soil, the time dependence results from the process of consolidation, Familie to all students ‘of soil mechanics, The analysis of consolidation achieved by Kart Terzaghi in| 1925 has become a cornerstone of geotechnical engineering ‘An important element of Terzaghi's theory was the assumption of one- mensional motions for both the solid-panicle skeleton and the pore fui. In ‘Tereagh’s theory, the soil skeleton is assumed to undergo uniaxial compres sion (dieussed in Section 2.9) where only one stain component (the vertical strain eis nonzero. Only one elastic constant is needed w fully describe the solid-skeleton behavior, a constant similar to that in eg (236). In Terzagh’s theory, the pore fluid is also assumed to move only in the vertical direction, lis motion is governed by Davey's law, and the coefficient of permeability is ‘new parameter required to fully describe the solid-skeletonfpore-water sys tem. Settlement occurs as the pore Mud is squceze fom the matrix of solid paricles. Applied loads on the soil surface are initially supported by hydro stale stress inthe pore fluid, bt flow toward drainage boundaries removes pore fli from the soil, and the load is gradually transfected to the solid- particle skeleton as compression oocurs. These couceps are discussed im every 135° the value of tanai(a ~ tana) will lie somewhere between about ~0:3 and zero. The effect isto reduce the shear stress 1 to a value smaller than we would expect based on the conventionsl analysis of Section 37, In a general sense tis is elstly « good thing. By building up the embankment in layers we have evidently improved its over all stability Rxercses 4.1 Verify equation (4.29 42. Given the Cartesian components of stress for the stip load problem in eqs. (4.27), (4.28), and (4.29), derive the expressions for principal sateses in eg. (4.20), 43. For the patabolic stress distribution applied over a eireular region fon the surface of an elastic half-space given in equation (4.19), find the vertical displacoment w atthe circumference of the loaded, region, Evereses 163 44 A uniform stress pis applied on the surface of an elastic hll-space ‘over a region that is an equilateral triangle with sides of length a as shown below. Find the vertical displacement ofthe hll-space surface at the point marke A gute! wingie seth non ap, 45. An infinitely long strip load of width 2b with pyramid-shaped stress Aistribution shown inthe figure below acts on the surface af & homo. encous elastic half-space. Determine the vertical component of stress ‘78 the point B shown on the figure latin 4.6. Estimate the selement of the ground surface @ distance € from sn ine finite line foad of magnitude @ per unit length forthe ease ofan cas ti layer of thickness i resting on rigid basement rock as shown below. P= Line ood 1 TE | eam16s 4a 48 Applications of fundamental solutions ‘The figure below shows the plan area of a uniform load py acting on the surface of a homogeneous elastic hall-space. Find the setlement of the halfspace surface a the points marked 4, Band C. zu toad relon Suppose the tiangular-shaped region shown inthe figure below sup- ports linearly varying load onthe surfice of a homogeneous elastic half-space. Let py, pa, and pe be the magnitudes of the applied load at the vertices marked A, B, and C. Determine the venical settlement of the half-space surface atthe vertex A. p+ J Aline of thee circular rigid footings are connected by a rigid cross bean a shown below. The central load F imposed on the cross beam ‘causes it and the thee footings tal etl by an amount 3, Use Bouss- 1nesq's Solution forthe rigid circular foundation (eq. (4.25) andthe fol- lowing equation] to estimate the following: 1) the fraction of the load F earied by each Footings li) the load-setlement (F ~ 6) relationship forthe beam and footings expressed as a function of Gx, and. iid cross boom hp se fee ol References 165 4.10 Modify the strip-load solution from Section 4.6 to obain the stess field jn half-space that supports a uniform stress extending from x ~ 0 10 = cs shown inthe figure below. Compare your solution wth the so lution of Goodman and Brown in equations (448) forthe special case where a= 2 nto ate. HET LA > References Moder works cited inthis chapter ae Biot, MA. “General theory of thee dimensional consolidation," Jou: App. Phys, ‘ol. 13, pp. 133-108 1940). Dempsey J.P and Li, Hl, "A iid rectangular footing om a elastic layer.” eo ‘ecimigue, Vol. 39. p, 147-152 (1989). Gitoon, KE The aalteal method in Sil mechanics.” Gotetigue, Vo. 2, p.1is-140 a9), Poulos, H.G.. "Stresses and displacements in an east layerunderain by a rough Figd brs." Geowehnique, Vl 17, pp. 378-810 196), Sadowsky. M.A. “Zveidimensonal probleax der eastiitatstheroie,"Z. Anger: ‘Math. Mech. No.8, pp. 107-121 (1928, ‘Teraghi.K., Enumechanik auf Badenphyalscher Grondtage, Franz Deck. “vienna (1925), Winkler, E, Die Lee von der Elaeictar wid Fesighi, Dominlcus, Prague (186). ‘The work on gravity stesses in earth structures is described Goodman, Band Bron, CB. “Dea ond stresses andthe iastbiiy of hopes,” Jou Sot ech, Found. Di. ASCE, Vol 89, No. SMB, pp. M3134 (1963 ‘The solution forthe uniform load acting on an elastic wedge (4.47) can he traced to the folowing works ‘vy, M, “Sur a giinité dela ale ted apne dans Vetode de la ésstance des bamages ea magonnere" Compt Ren. hebom Acad. Sc Puri, VO. 126, pp. 1235-1240 (898). Fritlunger,P “Drei wicige ebene spannungsstin des Keilfmign hispet” Zel Math. Physi, Vo. 60, pp. 275-285 (1912), Caters $:D, "Plne sain in & wedge with applications to masonry dans” Proc. Roy So. Edinburgh Vol. 3, pp. 292 306 (1913), rr rE PILE ENON TET