INTERNET

Types of Networks
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized by their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of computers that are part of the network.
Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
Personal area network, or PAN
Local area network, or LAN
Metropolitan area network, or MAN
Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are used for everything from sending files
to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different
networks based on their main purpose are:
Storage area network, or SAN
Enterprise private network, or EPN
Virtual private network, or VPN
Personal Area Network
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person within a single building. This could
be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game
consoles and other personal entertainment devices.
Local Area Network
A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very
useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs,
network adapters and Ethernet cables.
Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN
is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can
cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network.
When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or
CAN.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple
smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.
Private Networks
One of the benefits of networks like PAN and LAN is that they can be kept entirely private by restricting some communications to the
connections within the network. This means that those communications never go over the Internet.

Define Internet
A means of connecting a computer to any other computer anywhere in the world via dedicated routers and servers. When
two computers are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of information such as text, graphics, voice, video,
and computer programs.
The Internet grew out of the Advanced Research Projects Agency's Wide Area Network (then called ARPANET)established by the US
Department Of Defence in 1960s for collaboration in military research among business and government laboratories.
Later universities and other US institutions connected to it. This resulted in ARPANET growing beyond everyone's
expectations and acquiring the name Internet.

Internet Protocol
Developed during the 1970s, Internet Protocol (IP) is the fundamental network protocol used across the Internet, home
networks and business networks. Internet Protocol is often used together with the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and referred to
interchangeably as both IP and TCP/IP.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on the Internet. Each
computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the
Internet.
When you send or receive data (for example, an e-mail note or a Web page), the message gets divided into little chunks called packets.
Each of these packets contains both the sender's Internet address and the receiver's address. Any packet is sent first to
a gateway computer that understands a small part of the Internet. The gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards
the packet to an adjacent gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet until one gateway
recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate neighbourhood or domain. That gateway then forwards the
packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.
Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be sent by a different route across the Internet.
Packets can arrive in a different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet Protocol just delivers them. It's up to another
protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to put them back in the right order.

Internet address

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in
a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.[
An IP address serves two principal functions:
host or network interface identification and
Location addressing.
An IP address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each number or set
of digits. Each of the four numbers can range from 0 to 255.
Here's an example of what an IP address might look like: 78.125.0.209.
IP addresses can be either static or dynamic.
Static IP addresses never change. They serve as a permanent Internet address and provide a simple and reliable way for remote
computers to contact you. Static IP addresses reveal such information as the continent, country, region, and city in which a computer
is located; the ISP (Internet Service Provider) that services that particular computer.
Dynamic IP addresses are temporary and are assigned each time a computer accesses the Internet. They are, in effect, borrowed from
a pool of IP addresses that are shared among various computers. Since a limited number of static IP addresses are available, many
ISPs reserve a portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way. This lowers costs and allows them
to service far more subscribers than they otherwise could.
The IP address structure is divided into five address classes:
Class A, Class B, ClassC, Class D and Class E
Class A addresses always have the first bit of their IP addresses set to 0. Since Class A networks have an 8-bit network mask, the
use of a leading zero leaves only 7 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 128 possible network
numbers, ranging from 0.0.0.0 127.0.0.0. Number 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback, used for internal testing on the local machine.
Class B addresses always have the first bit set to 1 and their second bit set to 0. Since Class B addresses have a 16-bit network
mask, the use of a leading 10 bit-pattern leaves 14 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 16,384
networks, ranging from 128.0.0.0 181.255.0.0.
Class C addresses have their first two bits set to 1 and their third bit set to 0. Since Class C addresses have a 24-bit network
mask, this leaves 21 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 2,097,152 network addresses, ranging
from 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.0.
Class D addresses are used for multicasting applications. Class D addresses have their first three bits set to 1 and their fourth bit set
to 0. Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses, meaning that all the values within the range of 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
are used to uniquely identify multicast groups. There are no host addresses within the Class D address space, since all the hosts within
a group share the groups IP address for receiver purposes.
Class E addresses are defined as experimental and are reserved for future testing purposes. They have never been documented or
utilized in a standard way.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications can communicate over a network. A reference model is
a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers
so the digital communication products and software programs they create will interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among
communications tools.

Figure: Seven layers of OSI

PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit
stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and
carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:
Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate the characteristics of the
physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:
What signal state represents a binary 1
How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
How the receiving station delimits a frame
Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:
Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?
How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog)
signaling.
Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:
What physical medium options can be used
How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a given physical medium
DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above
it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer provides:
Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are available.
Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer
by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical medium.
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network
conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:
Routing: routes frames among networks.
Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its frame
transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a
router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses.
Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce
billing information.
Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software residing in the subnet intermediate systems can
recognize them and use them to route data to the destination address.
This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data transmission and intermediate switching technologies
used to connect systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the intervening communications facility (one or

several intermediate systems in the communication subnet).

In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a
node through which data is routed, not the destination station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many
intermediate systems.
TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the
higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers.
The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the network layer. For a reliable
network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only
supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery.
The transport layer provides:
Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not already small
enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments.
Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are available.
Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps track of which messages
belong to which sessions (see session layer).
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message size limits imposed by the network (or
lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each
frame.
The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message start and message end flags, to enable
the transport layer on the other end to recognize message boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the
transport header must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get the pieces back together
in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.
End-to-end layers
Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent nodes, the transport layer and the layers above are
true "source to destination" or end-to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of the underlying communications facility.
Transport layer software (and software above it) on the source station carries on a conversation with similar software on the
destination station by using message headers and control messages.
SESSION LAYER
The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations.
It provides
Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on different machines to establish, use and
terminate a connection, called a session.
Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the network, performing security, name
recognition, logging, and so on.
PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network. This
layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then translate the
common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:
Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. This layer contains a
variety of commonly needed functions:
Resource sharing and device redirection
Remote file access
Remote printer access
Inter-process communication
Network management
Directory services
Electronic messaging (such as mail)
Network virtual terminals

Internet access and applications

Internet access connects individual computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, and computer networks to the Internet, enabling

users to access Internet services, such as email and the World Wide Web. Internet service providers (ISPs) offer Internet access
through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates (speeds).
Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s. By the first decade of the 21st century,
many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. As of 2014, broadband was ubiquitous
around the world, with a global average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s.
Internet Applications
We can roughly separate internet applications into the following types: media, information search, communications, communities,
entertainment, e-business, finance and other applications.
The internet is treated as one of the biggest invention. It has a large number of uses..
1. Communication
2. Job searches
3. Finding books and study material
4. Health and medicine
5. Travel
6. Entertainment
7. Shopping
8. Stock market updates
9. Research
10. Business use of internet: There are different ways by which intenet can be used for business are:
Information about the product can be provided online to the the customer .
Provide market information to the business eg Stock Market
It help business to recruit talented people.
Help in locating suppliers of the product
Feedback and reviews about companies product
Eliminate middle men and have a direct contact with customer .
Providing information to the investor by providing companies back ground and financial information on web site.
(b) Services of Internet
1. Communication:
Email is an important communications service available on the Internet. Pictures, documents and other files are sent as email
attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses
Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. VoIP stands for Voiceover-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication.
2. Data Transfer:
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file can be emailed to customers,
colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. Some of the
example of file sharing are: FTP
TELNET( Remote Computing)
Telnet or remote computing is telecommunication utility software, which uses available telecommunication facility and allows you
become a user on a remote computer. Once you gain access to remote computer, you can use it for the intended purpose. The
TELNET works in a very step by step procedure. The commands typed on the client computer are sent to the local Internet Service
Provider (ISP), and then from the ISP to the remote computer that you have gained access. Most of the ISP provides facility to
TELENET into your own account from another city and check your e-mail while you are traveling or away on business.
The following steps are required for a TELNET session
Start up the TELNET program
Give the TELNET program an address to connect (some really nifty TELNET packages allow you to combine steps 1 and 2 into one
simple step)
Make a note of what the escape character is
Log in to the remote computer,
Set the terminal emulation
Play around on the remote computer, and
Quit.
3. Information:
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous.
The World Wide Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced
with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web,
but it is only one of the hundreds of communication protocols used on the Internet. Internet is interconnection of large number of
heterogeneous computer networks all over the world that can share information back and forth. These interconnected network
exchange information by using same standards and protocols.

Overview of HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)

HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language, and it is the most widely used language to write Web Pages.
Hypertext refers to the way in which Web pages (HTML documents) are linked together. Thus the link available on a
webpage are called Hypertext.
As its name suggests, HTML is a Markup Language which means you use HTML to simply "mark up" a text document

with tags that tell a Web browser how to structure it to display.

Originally, HTML was developed with the intent of defining the structure of documents like headings, paragraphs, lists, and so forth
to facilitate the sharing of scientific information between researchers.
Now, HTML is being widely used to format web pages with the help of different tags available in HTML language.
In its simplest form, following is an example of an HTML document:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>This is document title</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>Document content goes here.....</p>
</body>
</html>

HTML Tags
Tag

Description

<!DOCTYPE...>

This tag defines the document type and HTML version.

<html>

This tag encloses the complete HTML document and mainly comprises of document
header which is represented by<head>...</head> and document body which is
represented by <body>...</body> tags.

<head>

This tag represents the document's header which can keep other HTML tags like
<title>, <link> etc.

<title>

The <title> tag is used inside the <head> tag to mention the document title.

<body>

This tag represents the document's body which keeps other HTML tags like <h1>,
<div>, <p> etc.

<h1>

This tag represents the heading.

<p>

This tag represents a paragraph.

The <!DOCTYPE> Declaration

The <!DOCTYPE> declaration tag is used by the web browser to understand the version of the HTML used in the document. Current
version of HTML is 5 and it makes use of the following declaration:
<!DOCTYPE html>

Heading Tags
Any document starts with a heading. You can use different sizes for your headings. HTML also has six levels of headings, which use
the elements <h1>, <h2>, <h3>, <h4>, <h5>, and <h6>. While displaying any heading, browser adds one line before and one line
after that heading.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Heading Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is heading 1</h1>
<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
<h4>This is heading 4</h4>
<h5>This is heading 5</h5>
<h6>This is heading 6</h6>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

Paragraph Tag
The <p> tag offers a way to structure your text into different paragraphs. Each paragraph of text should go in between an opening

<p> and a closing </p> tag as shown below in the example:

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Paragraph Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Here is a first paragraph of text.</p>
<p>Here is a second paragraph of text.</p>
<p>Here is a third paragraph of text.</p>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

Here is a first paragraph of text.

Here is a second paragraph of text.
Here is a third paragraph of text.

Line Break Tag

Whenever you use the <br /> element, anything following it starts from the next line. This tag is an example of an empty element,
where you do not need opening and closing tags, as there is nothing to go in between them.
The <br /> tag has a space between the characters br and the forward slash. If you omit this space, older browsers will have trouble
rendering the line break, while if you miss the forward slash character and just use <br> it is not valid in XHTML
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Line Break Example</title>

</head>
<body>
<p>Hello<br />
You delivered your assignment ontime.<br />
Thanks<br />
Mahnaz</p>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

Hello
You delivered your assignment ontime.
Thanks
Mahnaz

Centering Content
You can use <center> tag to put any content in the center of the page or any table cell.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Centring Content Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>This text is not in the center.</p>
<center>
<p>This text is in the center.</p>
</center>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

This text is not in the center.

This text is in the center.

Horizontal Lines
Horizontal lines are used to visually break up sections of a document. The <hr>tag creates a line from the current position in the
document to the right margin and breaks the line accordingly.
For example you may want to give a line between two paragraphs as in the given example below:
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Horizontal Line Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>This is paragraph one and should be on top</p>
<hr />
<p>This is paragraph two and should be at bottom</p>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

This is paragraph one and should be on top

This is paragraph two and should be at bottom

Again <hr /> tag is an example of the empty element, where you do not need opening and closing tags, as there is nothing to go in
between them.
The <hr /> element has a space between the characters hr and the forward slash. If you omit this space, older browsers will have
trouble rendering the horizontak line, while if you miss the forward slash character and just use <hr> it is not valid in XHTML

Preserve Formatting

Sometimes you want your text to follow the exact format of how it is written in the HTML document. In those cases, you can use the
preformatted tag <pre>.
Any text between the opening <pre> tag and the closing </pre> tag will preserve the formatting of the source document.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Preserve Formatting Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<pre>
function testFunction( strText ){
alert (strText)
}
</pre>
</body>
</html>

This will produce following result:

function testFunction( strText ){
alert (strText)
}
Try using same code without keeping it inside <pre>...</pre> tags

Nonbreaking Spaces
Suppose you want to use the phrase "12 Angry Men." Here you would not want a browser to split the "12, Angry" and "Men" across
two lines:
An example of this technique appears in the movie "12 Angry Men."

In cases where you do not want the client browser to break text, you should use a nonbreaking space entity &nbsp; instead of a
normal space. For example, when coding the "12 Angry Men" in a paragraph, you should use something similar to the following

code:
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Nonbreaking Spaces Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>An example of this technique appears in the movie "12&nbsp;Angry&nbsp;Men."</p>
</body>
</html>

An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends with a closing tag, where the element
name is preceded by a forward slash as shown below with few tags:

Start Tag

Content

End Tag

<p>

This is paragraph content.

</p>

<h1>

This is heading content.

</h1>

<div>

This is division content.

</div>

<br />

So here <p>....</p> is an HTML element, <h1>...</h1> is another HTML element. There are some HTML elements which don't need
to be closed, such as <img.../>, <hr /> and <br /> elements. These are known as void elements.
HTML documents consist of a tree of these elements and they specify how HTML documents should be built, and what kind of
content should be placed in what part of an HTML document.

HTML Tag vs. Element

An HTML element is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends with a closing tag.
For example <p> is starting tag of a paragraph and </p> is closing tag of the same paragraph but <p>This is paragraph</p> is a

paragraph element.

Nested HTML Elements

It is very much allowed to keep one HTML element inside another HTML element:
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Nested Elements Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is <i>italic</i> heading</h1>
<p>This is <u>underlined</u> paragraph</p>
</body>
</html>

This will display following result:

This is italic heading

This is underlined paragraph
An attribute is used to define the characteristics of an HTML element and is placed inside the element's opening tag. All attributes
are made up of two parts: a name and a value:

The name is the property you want to set. For example, the paragraph <p> element in the example carries an attribute whose
name is align, which you can use to indicate the alignment of paragraph on the page.

The value is what you want the value of the property to be set and always put within quotations. The below example shows
three possible values of align attribute: left, center and right.

Attribute names and attribute values are case-insensitive. However, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends lowercase
attributes/attribute values in their HTML 4 recommendation.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>
<head>
<title>Align Attribute Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p align="left">This is left aligned</p>
<p align="center">This is center aligned</p>
<p align="right">This is right aligned</p>
</body>
</html>

This will display following result:

This is left aligned

This is center aligned
This is right aligned
Attribute

Options

Function

align

right, left, center

Horizontally aligns tags

valign

top, middle, bottom

Vertically aligns tags within an HTML element.

bgcolor

numeric, hexidecimal, RGB

values

Places a background color behind an element

background

URL

Places a background image behind an element

id

User Defined

Names an element for use with Cascading Style

Sheets.

class

User Defined

Classifies an element for use with Cascading Style

Sheets.

width

Numeric Value

Specifies the width of tables, images, or table cells.

height

Numeric Value

Specifies the height of tables, images, or table cells.

title

User Defined

"Pop-up" title of the elements.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for transferring files (text, graphic images, sound, video, and other multimedia
files) on the World Wide Web. As soon as a Web user opens their Web browser, the user is indirectly making use of HTTP. HTTP is an
application protocol that runs on top of the TCP/IP suite of protocols (the foundation protocols for the Internet).
HTTP concepts include (as the Hypertext part of the name implies) the idea that files can contain references to other files whose
selection will elicit additional transfer requests. Any Web server machine contains, in addition to the Web page files it can serve, an
HTTP daemon, a program that is designed to wait for HTTP requests and handle them when they arrive. Your Web browser is an
HTTP client, sending requests to server machines. When the browser user enters file requests by either "opening" a Web file (typing
in a Uniform Resource Locator or URL) or clicking on a hypertext link, the browser builds an HTTP request and sends it to the
Internet Protocol address (IP address) indicated by the URL. The HTTP daemon in the destination server machine receives the request
and sends back the requested file or files associated with the request. (A Web page often consists of more than one file.)

Basic Features
There are three basic features that make HTTP a simple but powerful protocol:
HTTP is connectionless: The HTTP client, i.e., a browser initiates an HTTP request and after a request is made, the client
disconnects from the server and waits for a response. The server processes the request and re-establishes the connection with
the client to send a response back.
HTTP is media independent: It means, any type of data can be sent by HTTP as long as both the client and the server know
how to handle the data content. It is required for the client as well as the server to specify the content type using appropriate
MIME-type.
HTTP is stateless: As mentioned above, HTTP is connectionless and it is a direct result of HTTP being a stateless protocol.
The server and client are aware of each other only during a current request. Afterwards, both of them forget about each other.
Due to this nature of the protocol, neither the client nor the browser can retain information between different requests across
the web pages.
HTTP/1.0 uses a new connection for each request/response exchange, where as HTTP/1.1 connection may be used for one or more
request/response exchanges.

Basic Architecture
The following diagram shows a very basic architecture of a web application and depicts where HTTP sits:

The HTTP protocol is a request/response protocol based on the client/server based architecture where web browsers, robots and
search engines, etc. act like HTTP clients, and the Web server acts as a server.
Client
The HTTP client sends a request to the server in the form of a request method, URI, and protocol version, followed by a MIME-like
message containing request modifiers, client information, and possible body content over a TCP/IP connection.
Server
The HTTP server responds with a status line, including the message's protocol version and a success or error code, followed by a
MIME-like message containing server information, entity meta information, and possible entity-body content.

HTTP methods
The set of common methods for HTTP/1.1 is defined below and this set can be expanded based on requirements. These method
names are case sensitive and they must be used in uppercase.

S.N
.

Method and Description

GET
The GET method is used to retrieve information from the given server
using a given URI. Requests using GET should only retrieve data and
should have no other effect on the data.

HEAD
Same as GET, but transfers the status line and header section only.

POST
A POST request is used to send data to the server, for example, customer
information, file upload, etc. using HTML forms.

PUT

Replaces all current representations of the target resource with the

uploaded content.

DELETE
Removes all current representations of the target resource given by a URI.

CONNECT
Establishes a tunnel to the server identified by a given URI.

OPTIONS
Describes the communication options for the target resource.

TRACE
Performs a message loop-back test along the path to the target resource.

Web servers Web access

A Web server is a system that delivers content or services to end users over the Internet. A Web server consists of a physical server,
server operating system (OS) and software used to facilitate HTTP communication.
A Web server is also known as an Internet server.
A Web server is a program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to serve the files that form Web pages to users, in response
to their requests, which are forwarded by their computers' HTTP clients. Dedicated computers and appliances may be referred to as
Web servers as well.
The process is an example of the client/server model. All computers that host Web sites must have Web server programs. Leading Web
servers include Apache (the most widely-installed Web server), Microsoft's Internet Information Server (IIS) and nginx (pronounced
engine X) from NGNIX. Other Web servers include Novell's NetWare server, Google Web Server (GWS) and IBM's family of
Domino servers.
Web servers often come as part of a larger package of Internet- and intranet-related programs for serving email, downloading requests
for File Transfer Protocol (FTP) files, and building and publishing Web pages. Considerations in choosing a Web server include how
well it works with the operating system and other servers, its ability to handle server-side programming, security characteristics, and
the particular publishing, search engine and site building tools that come with it.

Web servers are able to map the path component of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into:

A local file system resource (for static requests)

An internal or external program name (for dynamic requests)

For a static request the URL path specified by the client is relative to the web server's root directory.
Consider the following URL as it would be requested by a client:
http://www.example.com/path/file.html
The client's user agent will translate it into a connection to www.example.com with the following HTTP request:
GET /path/file.html HTTP/ Host: www.example.com
The web server on www.example.com will append the given path to the path of its root directory. On an Apache server, this is
commonly /home/www (On Unix machines, usually /var/www). The result is the local file system resource:
/home/www/path/file.html
The web server then reads the file, if it exists and sends a response to the client's Web browser. The response will describe the content
of the file and contain the file itself or an error message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable.

Web Security
Web server security is the protection of information assets that can be accessed from a Web server.
Web server security is important for any organization that has a physical or virtual Web server connected to the Internet. It requires a
layered defense and is especially important for organizations with customer-facing websites.
Separate servers should be used for internal and external-facing applications and servers for external-facing applications should be
hosted on a DMZ (demilitarized zone)or containerized service network to prevent an attacker from exploiting a vulnerability to gain
access to sensitive internal information.

Proxy server
In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application program) that acts as an intermediary for
requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a
file, connection, web page, or other resource, available from a different server. The proxy server evaluates the request according to its
filtering rules. For example, it may filter traffic by IP address or protocol. If the request is validated by the filter, the proxy provides
the resource by connecting to the relevant server and requesting the service on behalf of the client. A proxy server may optionally alter
the client's request or the server's response, and sometimes it may serve the request without contacting the specified server. In this
case, it 'caches' responses from the remote server, and returns subsequent requests for the same content directly.
A proxy server has many potential purposes, including:
1. To keep machines behind it anonymous (mainly for security).
2. To speed up access to resources (using caching). Web proxies are commonly used to cache web pages from a web server.
3. To apply access policy to network services or content, e.g. to block undesired sites.
4. To log / audit usage, i.e. to provide company employee Internet usage reporting.
5. To bypass security/ parental controls.
6. To scan transmitted content before delivery for malware.
7. To scan outbound content, e.g. for data leak protection.
8. To circumvent regional restrictions.
9. A proxy server that passes requests and replies unmodified is usually called a gateway or sometimes tunneling proxy.
Proxy servers implement one or more of the following functions:

Caching proxy server

A caching proxy server accelerates service requests by retrieving content saved from a previous request made by the same client or
even other clients. Caching proxies keep local copies of frequently requested resources, allowing large organizations to significantly
reduce their upstream bandwidth usage and cost, while significantly increasing performance.

Web proxy
A proxy that focuses on World Wide Web traffic is called a "web proxy". The most common use of a web proxy is to serve as a web
cache. Most proxy programs provide a means to deny access to URLs specified in a blacklist, thus providing content filtering. This is
often used in a corporate, educational or library environment, and anywhere else where content filtering is desired. Some web proxies
reformat web pages for a specific purpose or audience, such as for cell phones and PDAs.

Content-filtering web proxy

A content-filtering web proxy server provides administrative control over the content that may be relayed through the proxy. It is
commonly used in both commercial and non-commercial organizations (especially schools) to ensure that Internet usage conforms to
acceptable use policy.
Anonymizing proxy server
An anonymous proxy server (sometimes called a web proxy) generally attempts to anonymize web surfing.

Novell Directory Services (NDS)

Novell Directory Services (NDS) is a popular software product for managing access to computer resources and keeping track of the
users of a network, such as a company's intranet, from a single point of administration. Using NDS, a network administrator can set
up and control a database of users and manage them using a directory with an easy-to-use graphical user interface (GUI). Users of
computers at remote locations can be added, updated, and managed centrally. Applications can be distributed electronically and
maintained centrally.
NDS can be installed to run under Windows NT, Sun Microsystem's Solaris, and IBM's OS/390as well as under Novell's
own NetWare so that it can be used to control a multi-platform network. NDS is generally considered an industry benchmark against
which other products, such as Microsoft's Active Directory, must compete.

Novell Directory Services provides the following features that make it an advanced global, distributed, replicated, and partitioned
directory service:

Schema The NDS schema consists of the set of rules governing the structure of the Directory tree. It defines the objects that
can exist in the tree, including how entries may be constructed, which attribute values are permitted, how Distinguished
Names may be built, and other characteristics of use to the Directory itself. These object and attribute rules are specified
through a data dictionary that provides a standard set of data types from which objects can be created.

Naming The NDS name service maps network names to addresses. It is an object-oriented, global information database that
uses a hierarchical name space rather than a flat name space.

Entry management NDS allows administrators to add an entry or an alias to the NDS Directory. The schema dictates where
entries are created and what their attributes can be. To be valid in the Directory, the new entry must hold the attribute Object
Class, which has as its value a valid NDS base class.

Relationship management In the basic NDS, relationships between servers and objects are managed by multivalued
Distinguished Names

Local event services NDS Event Services provides a way to monitor the activity of NDS on an individual server. Event
Services can track local events and global events.

Authorization Novell Directory Services uses a process called access control to authorize users to perform Directory
operations on other entries and their attributes. Access control restricts many different operations, including creating objects,
reading and modifying entry attributes, and comparing attribute values.

Working of Search engine

There are 3 parts to a search engine:

1.

The search engines use robots (also known as spiders) to search the internet for websites.

2.

The results of the spiders' travels are put in an database which is then indexed based on words found and where these words
were found.

3.

The users of search engines search for words or phrases related to what they are looking for and the search engine index
returns related sites.

There are three basic stages for a search engine:

Crawling where content is discovered;

Indexing - where it is analysed and stored in huge databases;
Retrieval - where a user query fetches a list of relevant pages.

The first is the spider otherwise called a robot visits a web page, reads it, and then follows links to other pages within the site. This is
what it means when someone refers to a site being "spidered" or "crawled."

Everything the spider finds goes into the second part of a search engine, the index. The index, sometimes called the database, is like a
giant library containing a copy of every web page that the spider finds. If a web page is different or appears to have changes, then the
site will be re-indexed and this "book" is updated with new information.

The third, and most sophisticated part of a search engine is the ranking software (sometimes referred to as the algo or algorithm). This
is the program that sifts through the millions of pages recorded in the index to find matches to a search and rank them in order of what
it believes is most relevant and retrieve the data to the user.