Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
MODULAR STRUCTURES
GUIDED BY:
SOUMYA MISS
ASST PROFFESSOR,
UKFCET, KOLLAM
PRESENTED BY:
FAIZAL.A.M
7TH SEMESTER
CIVIL ENGINEERING
UKFCET, KOLLAM
1
Contents
Introduction
Features
Comparison
Design concept
Components
Types of precast system
Design consideration
Equipments
Assembling
scheduling
Advantages
Limitations
Conclusion
references
Introduction
Features
The division and specialization of the human
workforce.
The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment,
usually automated, in the production of standard,
interchangeable parts and products.
Compared to site-cast concrete, precast concrete
erection is faster and less affected by adverse
weather conditions.
Plant casting allows increased efficiency, high
quality control and greater control on finishes.
4
Comparison
Site-cast
no transportation
the size limitation is
depending on the elevation
capacity only
lower quality because
directly affected by weather
proper, large free space
required
Precast at plant
Precast Columns
Precast Walls
Precast stairs
Design considerations
final position and loads
transportation requirements self load and
position during transportation
storing requirements self load and position
during storing (avoid or store in the same position
as it transported / built in)
lifting loads distribution of lifting points optimal
way of lifting (selection of lifting and rigging tools)
vulnerable points (e.g. edges) reduction of risk
(e.g. rounded edges)
10
Large-panel systems
Frame systems
Slab-column systems with walls
Mixed systems
11
1. Large-panel systems
box-like structure.
both vertical and horizontal
elements are load-bearing.
one-story high wall panels
(cross-wall system /
longitudinal wall system / two
way system).
one-way or two way slabs.
12
2. Frame systems
Components are usually
linear elements.
The beams are seated on
corbels of the pillars usually
with hinged-joints (rigid
connection is also an
option).
Joints are filled with
concrete at the site.
13
3.Lift-slab systems
- partially precast in plant (pillars)
/ partially precast on-site (slabs).
- one or more storey high pillars
(max 5).
- up to 30 storey high
constructions.
- special designed joints and
temporary joints.
-slabs are casted on the ground
(one on top of the other) then
lifted with crane or special
elevators.
14
Lift-slab procedure
Is route permission
required?
16
Equipments
cranes:
mobile crane
tower crane (above
3stories)
lifting tools:
spreader beams
wire rope slings
rigging tools:
eye bolt
shakles
hooks
17
Assembling.
Column to column connection
18
19
Beam-slab joints
20
21
Advantages
Quick erection times
Possibility of conversion, disassembling
and moving to another site
Possibility of erection in areas where a traditional
construction practice is not possible or difficult
Low labor intensivity
Reduce wastage of materials
Easier management of construction sites
Better overall construction quality
Ideal fit for simple and complex structures
22
Limitations
size of the units.
location of window openings has a limited variety.
joint details are predefined.
site access and storage capacity.
require high quality control.
enable interaction between design phase and production planning.
difficult to handling & transporting.
23
Scheduling
some approximate data for installation
emplacement of hollow core floor slabs - 300 m2/day
erection of pillars/columns - 8 pieces/day
emplacement of beams - 15 pieces/day
emplacement of double tee slabs - 25 pieces/day
emplacement of walls - 15 pieces/day
construction of stair and elevator shafts - 2 floors/day
24
Examples.
Conclusion
oThe use of prefabrication and preassembly is estimated
to have almost doubled in the last 15 years, increasing by
86%.
oThe use of precast concrete construction can significantly
reduce the amount of construction waste generated on
construction sites.
o Reduce adverse environmental impact on sites.
o Enhance quality control of concreting work.
o Reduce the amount of site labour.
o Increase worker safety .
o Other impediments to prefabrication and preassembly
are increased transportation difficulties, greater
inflexibility, and more advanced procurement
requirements.
27
LARGE SPAN
STRUCTURES
LARGE SPAN STRUCTURES
In general, long span systems tend towards a handfull of basic types, relying on principles of bending, compression,
tension to carry roof or oor loads over large distances.
Large-span structures create unobstructed, column-free spaces greater than 30 m (100 feet) for avariety of functions.
The most common types are :
simple beam
space frame
gable frame
folded plates
cable stayed
truss
pre-stressed beam
suspension
pneumatic
arch
castellated beam
or
Materials suitable for various forms of long span and complex structure
span and complex structure
1. All reinforced concrete including precast
2. All metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel, stainless steel or alloyed
alumimum,
3. All timber
4. Laminated timber
5. Metal/RC combined
6. Plastic-coated Textile material
7. Fiber reinforced plastic
SHELL STRUCTURES
A SHELL STRUCTURE IS A THIN
CURVED MEMBRANE OR SLAB
USUALLY OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE THAT FUNCTIONS
BOTH AS STRUCTURE AND
COVERING.
1.Domes
2.Shell Barrel Arch / Vault
3.Translation shells
4.Ruled Surfaces shell
DOMES
Are hemispherical in shape.
Used as roof structure.
Constructed of stone , concrete &
brick.
Supported on circular / regular
polygon shaped walls.
Have certain height & diameter ratio.
Have very small thickness.
Can b constructed with or without
lanterns.
Are of 2 types:
i. Smooth shell domes & ii Ribbed
shell domes
SMOOTH SHELL
DOMES
TYPES OF DOMES
SPHERICAL DOMES
CYLINDERICAL DOME
TRIANGULAR DOME
RECTANGULAR DOME
TRANSLATION SHELL
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID
Is a special case of translation shell.
Obtained by sliding a vertical parabola with
upward curvature on another parabola with
downward curvature in a plane at right angles to
the plane of first.
Carries load on 2 directions.
Diagonal element sags in tension
Other element is an arch which is in compression.
Consist of saddle surface.
TRUSSES
A truss is a structural frame based on the geometric rigidity of the triangle.
Linear members are subjected only to axial tension and compression. They
support load much like beams but for larger spans.
To prevent secondary shear and bending stresses from developing, the
centroidalaxes of the truss members and the load at a joint should pass
through a common point
Howe Truss
It is made of combination of wood and
steel.
The vertical members or tension members
are made of steel.
It can be used for spans from 6-30m.
Pratt Truss
Pratt Truss is made of steel.
These are less economical than the Fink
Trusses.
Vertical members are tension and diagonal
members are compression.
Fink Trusses are very economical form of roof
trusses.
It can be used for spans from 6-10m.
Fan Truss
It is made of steel.
Fan trusses are form of Fink roof truss.
In Fan Trusses, top chords are divided into
small lengths in order to provide supports for
purlins which would not come at joints in Fink
trusses.
It can be used for spans from 10-15m.
VIERENDEEL TRUSS
The Vierendeel truss/girder is characterized by having only vertical members between the top and bottom chords and is a
statically indeterminate structure. Hence, bending, shear and axial capacity of these members contribute to the resistance
to external loads.
The use of this girder enables the footbridge to span larger distances and present an attractive outlook.
However, it suffers from the drawback that the distribution of stresses is more complicated than normal truss structures.
Elements in Vierendeel trusses are subjected to bending, axial force and shear , unlike conventional trusses with
diagonal web members where the members are primarily designed for axial loads
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Vierendeel trusses are moment resisting. Vertical members
near the supports are subject to the highest moments and
therefore require larger sections to be used than those at
mid-span. Considerable bending moments must therefore
be transferred between the verticals and the chords, which
can result in expensive stiffened details.
ADVANTAGES
The joints may be heavy, but the absence of diagonals makes
this form suitable for storey-height construction.
Using standard computer programs, the analysis is not
difficult, However the system does allow full storey-height
construction without obstruction to openings.
DISADVANTAGES
Vierendeel trusses are usually more expensive than
conventional trusses.
Their use limited to instances where diagonal web
members are either obtrusive or undesirable
but the resulting joints are often very heavy in
appearance.
TENSILE STRUCTURES
Tension
Compression
Tensile structures are characterized by the
prevalence of tension force in their structural
systems and by limitation of compression
Forces to a few support members. Thus
These lightweight structures do not require
The considerable amount of construction
Material to absorb the Buckling and bending
Moments in compression members.
Pneumatic Structures
The term pneumatic structures includes all
the lightweight structures in which the load
bearing capacity is achieved by means of air
under pressure.
They are mainly subdivided into two
categories: the buildings characterised by a
single layer, stabilised by a slight difference in
pressure between the inside and the outside
of the structures, and the building envelopes
stabilised by air under pressure enclosed
between two or more membrane layers.
Air-supported structures provide a cost effective alternative for seasonal wide span coverings, nevertheless,
the reduced resistance under bad weather conditions combined with high costs due to great pressure losses,
reduced insulation, maintenance and the seasonal mounting and dismounting costs can progressively reduce
the initial convenience over the entire life span
Cables
Cables can be of mild steel, high
strength steel , stainless steel or
polyester or aramid fibres.
Structural cables are made of a series
of small strands twisted or bound
together to form a much larger cable.
The tensioned members are termed as
cables are group of wires, strands or ropes.
A wire is a continuous length of steel that
has a circular cross section. Cables do not
loose strength in
case of failure of one wire. The wires in the
strand are zinc coated and stranded into
helix whichforms a regular cross section.
Stadiums
Stages
Covered malls
Walkways
Play areas
Entrances
Atriums
Sports arenas
Airports
As fabric cladding panels
Fabric structures being mainly fabric and cables have little or no rigidity and therefore must rely
on their form and internal pre-stress to perform the this function.
As a rule of thumb spans greater than 15 metres should be avoided however, much greater spans
can be achieved by reinforcing the fabric with webbing or cables.
Loss of tension is dangerous for the stability of the structure and if not regularly maintained will
lead to failure of the structure.
SPACEFRAMES
SPACE FRAME
IV A
A three-dimensional structures.
IV A
IV A
2)
i.
Skeleton (braced) frame work e.g. domes, barrel vaults, double and multiplier grids,
braced plates. They are more popular. They are innumerable combinations and
variation possible and follow regular geometric forms.
ii.
Stressed skin systems e.g. Stressed skin folded plates, stressed skin domes and
barrel vaults, pneumatic structures.
iii.
IV A
TUBES
1)
2)
CONNECTORS
1)
2)
Nodus Connector
It can accept both rectangular and circular hollow sections and that the
cladding can be fixed directly to the chords.
IV A
3)
Triodetic Connector
4)
The jointing is connect by slitting the end of the tube or rod with the
joint fin.
Load Distribution
Some space frame applications include:
Tension
MBS SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
IV A
METHOD OF SUPPORT
1. Support along perimetersThis is the most commonly
used support location. The supports of double layer grids
may directly rest on the columns or on ring beams
connecting the columns or exterior walls. Care should be
taken that the module size of grids matches the column
spacing.
2.
3.
IV A
Column-free spaces
Design freedom
IV A
4. Versatility
Space frames possess a versatility of shape
and form and can utilize a standard module to
generate various flat space grids, latticed shell,
or even free-form shapes. Architects
appreciate the visual beauty and the
impressive simplicity of lines in space frames.
MBS SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
IV A
IV A
The method chosen for erection of a space frame depends on its behavior of load
transmission and constructional details, so that it will meet the overall requirements of quality,
safety, speed of construction, and economy.
The scale of the structure being built, the method of jointing the individual elements, and the strength and rigidity of
the space frame until its form is closed must all be considered.
2. BLOCK ASSEMBLY METHOD
1- SCAFFOLD METHOD
Individual Elements are Assembled in Place at
Actual Elevations, members and joints or
prefabricated subassembly elements are
assembled directly on their final position. Full
scaffoldings are usually required for this type of
erection. Sometimes only partial scaffoldings
are used if cantilever erection of space frame
can be executed. The elements are fabricated at
the shop and transported to the construction
site, and no heavy lifting equipment is required.
The space frame is divided on its plan into individual strips or blocks. These
units are fabricated on the ground level, then hoisted up into its final
position and assembled on the temporary supports. With more work
being done on the ground, the amount of assembling work at high
elevation is reduced. This method is suitable for those double-layer grids
where
the stiffness and load-resisting behavior will not change considerably after
dividing into strips
or blocks, such as two-way orthogonal latticed grids, orthogonal square
pyramid space grids, and the those with openings. The size of each unit
will depend on the hoisting capacity available.
IV A
JOINTING SYSTEMS
The jointing system is an extremely important part of a space frame design. The joints for the space frame are more important than the
ordinary framing systems because more members are connected to a single joint
Also, the members are located in a three dimensional space, and hence the force transfer mechanism is more complex
The type of jointing depends primarily on the connecting technique, whether it is bolting, welding, or applying special mechanical
connectors. It is also affected by the shape of the members.
This usually involves a different connecting technique depending on whether the members are circular or square hollow or rolled steel
sections.
Requirements considered for designing the jointing systems :-The joints must be strong and stiff, simple structurally and mechanically, and
easy to fabricate without recourse to more advanced technology and joints of space frames must be designed to allow for easy and
effective maintenance
All connectors can be divided into two main categories: the purpose-made joint and the proprietary joint used in the industrialized system
of construction
Purpose-made joints-usually used for long span structures where the application of standard proprietary joints is limited.
Example -cruciform gusset plate for connecting rolled steel sections.
All the connection techniques can be divided into three main groups: (1) with a node
(2) without a node, and (3) with prefabricated units.
TERMINOLOGIES
Aspect ratio: Ratio of longer span to shorter span of a rectangular space frame.
Braced (barrel) vault: A space frame composed of member elements arranged on a
cylindrical surface.
Braced dome: A space frame composed of member elements arranged on a spherical surface.
Depth: Distance between the top and bottom layer of a double layer space frame.
Double layer grids: A space frame consisting of two planar networks of members forming the top and bottom layers parallel to each other
and interconnected by vertical and inclined members.
Geodesic dome: A braced dome in which the elements forming the network are lying on the great circle of a sphere.
Lamella: A unit used to form diamond shaped grids, the size being twice the length of the side of the diamond.
Latticed grids: Double layer grids consisting of intersecting vertical latticed trusses to form regular grids.
Latticed shell: A space frame consisting of curved networks of members built either in single or double layers.
Latticed structure: Astructuralsystemintheformofanetworkofelementswhoseload-carrying mechanism is three-dimensional in nature.
Local buckling: A snap-through buckling that takes place at one point.
Module: Distance between two joints in the layer of grid.
Space frame: A structural system in the form of a flat or curved surface assembled of linear elements so arranged that forces are transferred
in a three-dimensional manner.
Space grids: Double layer grids consisting of a combination of square or triangular pyramids to form offset or differential grids.
Space truss: A three-dimensional structure assembled of linear elements and assumed as hinged joints in structural analysis.
IV A
Steel Trusses
Arunima G
Prabhnoor S
Raunak R
Saurabh K
Sudhanshu M
Tanvi G
Steel Trusses
Introduction
Steel trusses were taken up as against wooden trusses because the scarcity of quality timber was increasing
in many areas.
Steel is also a superior building construction material when compared to wood. Unlike timber, it is a
homogenous and isotropic material, i.e. it has same characteristics in all directions.
Another major advantage steel provides in roof trusses is that it is much lighter and often more economical in
large roof systems.
Tension
Steel Trusses
Roof truss design
The following are the conditions that influence the design of a roof truss:
1. Loads:
Roof trusses are especially adapted to such buildings where they support the roof and still afford a clear space without the use of
intermediate columns. They support loads of various kinds, such as the dead load, due to the weight of material used in constructing
and covering the roof, the wind load, the snow load, and frequently the weight of plastered ceilings, as well as loads from
attic floors and from suspended platforms and galleries. In laying out the stress diagrams, all these loads are considered, and
both members and details are then proportioned to withstand the various stresses produced. Purlins, that rest on and connect the
trusses at their panel points, or points at which the main rafter and the web members intersect. These purlins support the rafters of
the roof, on which the wood sheathing and roofing material are placed. In iron and steel construction I beams and Z bars are
generally employed. Great care should be taken to avoid, as far as possible, the accidental stresses to which trusses are so often
subjected during erection, and which can scarcely be calculated.
2. Slope of Roof:
The character of the roofing material must be considered in determining the direction of the upper chord.
For instance, when shingles are used, the pitch should not be less than 1 of rise to 2 of run, while with slates if the pitch is less
than 1 to 3, the wind is liable to blow the rain under the slate, thereby causing leaks. A slope of 1 to 2, however, is preferable for slate,
although, when occasion requires, the minimum pitch of 1 to 3 may be employed. Corrugated iron is liable to leak if laid with a
pitch of less than 1 to 3, while in a gravel and tar roof, if the slope is greater than 1 to 4, the heated tar is apt to run down
and collect at the lower portion of the roof, leaving the upper part exposed and unprotected, and rain falling on such a roof flows
off so quickly that the pebbles are washed out of the roofing.
Flat clay tile set in asphalt may be used on flat roofs, but clay and metal tile simulating corrugated or Spanish tile are usually
laid with a pitch somewhat greater than 1 to 2.
Steel Trusses
Roof truss design
3. Distance between Trusses:
The fact that the economy of the design is so largely dependent on the spacing of the trusses, makes it necessary that an
effort be made to ascertain the distance that may most economically exist between them. This is especially the case when the
building over which they are to be placed is of such a character that the spacing of the trusses governs, or, at least, affects the
exterior design. Often, too, the engineer is restricted by the fact that the size of the lot must be considered when determining the size
of the building, and hence, the distance between the trusses is influenced to a certain degree, particularly when architectural effect is
desired.
4. Material used:
The general design of a truss is influenced by the material employed in its construction, and the choice of material is influenced by
its cost and availability, as well as by the span of the truss and the loadsthat come on it. When the span exceeds 80 feet, and the loads
are comparatively heavy, steel is usually the best material to use; but if steel is unavailable, timber may be used for trusses having
spans as great as 150 feet. When timber trusses have as great a span as this, they are usually arched, and built in pairs. While steel may
be used for the construction of trusses of all spans,great and small, the designer is frequently compelled to use timber because the
cost of the work is limited.
5. After the general dimensions of the roof truss have been determined, if economy is to be considered, the cost must be
investigated. Should the conditions admit a choice of several designs, it is often desirable to estimate the cost of each, and
adopt the one whose construction costs the least. In designing trusses it is generally cheaper to use stock sizes of timber or steel
shapes, for by so doing, even though the members are of a larger size than actually required, the work is usually facilitated to such
an extent that the time required in its performance is materially reduced, which is frequently a factor of the utmost importance.
Steel Trusses
System options
Steel sections are available in many different extrusion types and systems, the following may be used for steel roof trusses:
Small angle bars may be welded directly onto each other forming very
light trusses up to about 12 m span.
Steel tubes are readily available throughout the world and at reasonable
prices, since they are also used for steel pipes and piping systems.
The jointing of the round surfaces is difficult; butt and fillet welding of
properly cut and shaped tubes is possible but slow and expensive.
When using tubes, the number of connections per truss should be
reduced as much as possible.
Steel Trusses
System options
Rolled sections truss:
Rolled sections other than angle bars used in truss designs are the
channeland universal beams.
Half-section universal beams are particularly useful in truss design but are
not readily available.
RHS are particularly expensive and are not readily available in many
countries.
JOINING DETAILS
TYPICALLY, THE JOINT CONNECTIONS ARE FORMED BY BOLTING OR WELDING THE END MEMBERS
TOGETHER TO A COMMON PLATE, CALLED A GUSSET PLATE.
PINNED/BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Generally in steelwork construction, bolted site splices are preferred to welded splices for economy and
speed of erection.
OVERHANG The extension of the top chord beyond the heel joint.
OVERALL HEIGHT - - A vertical measurement taken at the midpoint
of a truss from the bottom of the Bottom Chord to the peak.
PANEL The chord segment between two adjacent joints.
PANEL POINT The point of intersection of a chord with the web or
webs.
PANEL LENGTH - The horizontal distance between the centerlines of
two consecutive panel points along the top or bottom chord.
PEAK Highest point on a truss where the sloped top chords meet.
SLOPE (PITCH) The units of horizontal run, in one unit of vertical rise
for inclined members. (Usually expressed as 3:12, 5:12, etc.)
SPLICE POINT The location where the chord member is spliced to
form one continuous member. It may occur at a panel point but is
more often placed at 1/4 panel length away from the joint.
WEBS Members that join the top and bottom chords to form the
triangular patterns that give truss action. The members are subject
only to axial compression or tension forces (no bending)
WEDGE - THE TRIANGULAR PIECE OF LUMBER INSERTED BETWEEN
THE TOP AND BOTTOM CHORDS, USUALLY TO ALLOW THE TRUSS TO
CANTILEVER.
Metal Roof Truss Advantages and Disadvantages of Metal Roof Truss Structures.
Metal roof trusses, just like wood trusses, have their advantages and disadvantages. Some builders prefer to the metal roof
truss because the building of a structure is all about precision and metal has a more precise measurement than wood.
Safety is also an issue when deciding to use a metal roof truss or a wood truss system, building codes and other procedures
may require certain trusses.
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
7. King post truss:
It is the simplest form of roof truss, a triangular frame consisting
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
Steel roof trusses are available in many different forms and systems, the following may be used for steel roof trusses:
1. Fink truss:
1/3
1/3
1/3
USING SIMILAR TRIANGLES, THE LENGTH (X) OF THE TOP CHORD IS DETERMINED. X/42 = 13.89/12
X = (42 X 13.89) 12 = 48.615 OR 4 . TRUSSES ARE BUILT ON A FLAT SURFACE AND THE PIECES
ARE CUT TO SUIT THE LAYOUT MARKS.
USES :
FINK TRUSSES ARE USES FOR SHORT SPAN STRUCTURES
MAXIMUM 9.
TRUSSES ARE USED FOR PITCHED ROOF IN HOMES.
DISADVANTAGE :
FINK TRUSSES ARE NOT USES FOR LONG SPAN (USE FOR ONLY
SMALL SPAN)
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
2. Queen post truss (Fan Truss):
It is useful as a rectangular space is desired in the center of the room ,
are used.
Two vertical posts are provided in 2 sides at a distance which are
termed as queen posts.
Straining beam and straining seal is used to keep the queen posts in exact
position.
Top ends of two main rafters are joined with thequeen posts heads. It
Principal Rafter
Queen Post
Fan truss
Double Fan
The fan truss has three or four members fanning out from a common
point at the bottom of the truss.
The double fan has two common points where members fan out.
4. Cambered Fink
With Fink or Fan trusses having an inclination for the rafter not exceeding 30 degrees it is
more economical to employ a horizontal chord or tie since it obviates bending of the
laterals.
Raising the bottom chord, also materially increases the strains in the truss members,
hence it increases the cost.
A truss whose bottom chord has a rise of two or three feet, presents a better appearance,
however, than one with a horizontal chord, and for steep roofs, it will generally be fully as
economical to raise the bottom chord because of the shortening of the members.
Trusses with raised ties are designated as Cambered."
Double-Fan truss
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
6. Howe truss:
The method of increasingthe number of triangles, as shown ,
may go on indefinitely and the naturaloutcome is the howe truss. This
truss maybe extended to very large spans by increasingthe number of
panels, but it is not suitable for steep roofs, because as the span
increases,the length of the struts towardthe centre becomes so great as
to requiretimberof large size. For long trusses the usual rise is oneseventh of the span. With long spans, it is customaryto reduce the shear
at the heel of the truss by placing the compression member nearest the
wall more nearly vertica
l.
The Howe Truss was and sometimes even now is used in steel bridges.
It's impressive strength over long spans contributedto its overwhelming
popularityas a railroadbridge.
The design of Howe truss is the oppositeto that of Pratt truss
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
8. Pratt truss:
Pratt its similarity to the Howe truss, and the points of
Sway bracing
Portal strut
and bracing
Struts
Deck
Floor beams
Representation of a Pratttruss showing jointing
Stringers
Steel Trusses
Truss forms
9. Flat Warren truss:
truss bridge.
- There is less blockage of view.
- The constituents of a Warren truss bridgecan be assembledpiece wise.
SAWTOOTH TRUSS
A variation of the North light truss is the sawtooth truss which is used in multi-bay
buildings. Similar to the North light truss , it is
typical to include a truss of the vertical face
running perpendicular to the plane of the sawtooth truss.
SPAN:
5m to 8m
MATERIAL : steel or timber
EXAMPLES
ADVANTAGES
The major advantage of installing a saw-tooth roof truss on a structure is the
uniform diffusion of light throughout the space below it.
Saw-tooth roofs prevent the influx of direct sunlight while providing
northern light.
In saw-tooth design, every bay has an angled skylight. Less glare and
unwanted heat also offer better working conditions, increased production
DISADVANTAGES
The complex design and various building materials needed will make the
sawtooth roof much more expensive than other roof types.
Its also a high maintenance roof.
Adding windows, valleys and varying slopes creates a higher chance for
water leaks. For this reason, sawtooth roofs arent advisable in heavy
snowfall areas.
APPLICATIONS
o
o
o
o
o
Lofts
machine shops
Warehouses
factories
Residences
SHELLS
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
GROUP MEMBERS
ANJALI KOLI
ANOUSHKA SHARMA
KANISHKA SHARMA
LIPIKA AGGARWAL
SHUBHAM GUPTA
TEJASVI KAUR
INTRODUCTION
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its geometry, being a
three-dimensional solid whose thickness is very small when compared with other
dimensions. A shell structure is a thin, curved membrane or slab, usually of reinforced
concrete, that functions both as structure and covering, the structure deriving its
strength and rigidity from the curved shell forms.
Essentially, a shell can be derived from a plate by two means : by initially forming the
middle surface as a singly or doubly curved surface and by applying loads which are co
planar to a plates plane which generate significant stresses. Shell structures
predominantly resist loads on them by direct compression. That is without bending or
flexure.
Since most materials are more effective in compression than in bending, shell
structures result in lesser thickness than flat structures
TYPES:
Single curvature shells, curved on one linear axis, are part of cylindrical or cone in the
form of barrel vaults and conoid shells.
Double curvature shells are either part of a sphere, as a dome, or a hyperboloid of
revolution.
Shells belong to the family of arches, vaulted halls and domes. We can understand that a
vault is a shell with one singly curved surface and a dome is a shell with doubly curved
surfaces.
A saddle shell has also doubly curved surfaces, but with a difference. If we cut a dome in
two directions at right angles to one another, both cuts are convex curves. If we cut a
saddle shell in the same way, one curve is convex and the other is concave.
Examples ;
Hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids
Shells are generally made out of reinforced concrete : from 40m (130 ft) to 73 m in
span. However, people have materialize the form of shells with space frames, lattices
and membranes, allowing larger spans (up to 200 meters.)
HISTORY
The Roman Pantheon, as it stands today in the centre of the city of Rome, really is a
remarkable and imposing structure. The Pantheon is a masterpiece of ancient shell
construction and has withstood for almost two-thousand years. Today, the span of 43 m still
impresses the engineering profession. The Pantheon, built in the early 2nd century A.C.,
approximately 125, is the largest unreinforced dome in the history.
MEMBRANE BEHAVIOUR
The membrane behaviour of shell structures refers to the general state of stress in a shell element that consists
of in-plane normal and shear stress resultants which transfer loads to the supports. In thin shells, the
component of stress normal to the shell surface is negligible in comparison to the other internal stress
components and therefore neglected in the classical thin shell theories. The initial curvature of the shell
surface enables the shell to carry even load perpendicular to the surface by in-plane stresses only.
The carrying of load only by in-plane extensional stresses is closely related to the way in which membranes
carry their load. Because the flexural rigidity is much smaller than the extensional rigidity, a membrane under
external load mainly produces in-plane stresses. In case of shells, the external load also causes stretching or
contraction of the shell as a membrane, without producing significant bending or local curvature changes.
Hence, there is referred to the membrane behaviour of shells, described by the membrane theory.
Carrying the load by in-plane membranes stresses is far more efficient than the mechanism of bending which is
often seen by other structural elements such as beams. Consequently, it is possible to construct very thin shell
structures. Thin shell structures are unable to resist significant bending moments and, therefore, their design
must allow and aim for a predominant membrane state. Bending stresses eventually arise when the
membrane stress field is insufficient to satisfy specific equilibrium or deformation requirements.
Cylindrical Shell
Conical Shell
BARREL VAULTS
Cylindrical shell used in the roof are also known as barrel shell or vault
These may be of
multiple
numbers joined
together to
increase
strength
SANGATH, AHMEDABAD
SPHERICAL DOMES
A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere.
There are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. A dome
can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can be supported by columns or piers that
transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives. A lantern may cover an
oculus and may itself have another dome.
A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution,
meaning an arch rotated around its central vertical axis.
Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have
been constructed from mud, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over
the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and
governmental traditions that have likewise developed over time.
The word "cupola" is another word for "dome", and is usually used for a small dome
upon a roof or turret. "Cupola" has also been used to describe the inner side of a dome.
Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without
windows that support a dome. A tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a
dome's oculus, supporting a cupola.
BEHAVIOUR
As with arches, the "springing" of a dome is the point from which the dome rises. The
top of a dome is the "crown". The inner side of a dome is called the "intrados" and the
outer side is called the "extrados". The "haunch" is the part of an arch that lies roughly
halfway between the base and the top.
A masonry dome produces thrusts down and outward. They are thought of in terms of
two kinds of forces at right angles from one another.
Meridional forces (like the meridians, or lines of longitude, on a globe) are compressive
only, and increase towards the base, while hoop forces (like the lines of latitude on a
globe) are in compression at the top and tension at the base, with the transition in a
hemispherical dome occurring at an angle of 51.8 degrees from the top.
The thrusts generated by a dome are directly proportional to the weight of its
materials. Grounded hemispherical domes generate significant horizontal thrusts at
their haunches.
Concave from below, they can reflect sound and create echoes. A dome may have a
"whispering gallery" at its base that at certain places transmits distinct sound to other
distant places in the gallery. The half-domes over the apses of Byzantine churches
helped to project the chants of the clergy.
Another is to use arches to span the corners, which can support more weight. A variety
of these techniques use what are called "squinches". A squinch can be a single arch or a
set of multiple projecting nested arches placed diagonally over an internal corner.
Squinches can take a variety of other forms, as well, including trumpet arches and niche
heads, or half-domes.
The earliest domes were built with mud-brick and then with baked brick and stone.
Domes of wood were allowed for wide spans due to the relatively light and flexible
nature of the material and were the normal method for domed churches by the 7th
century.
Wooden domes were protected from the weather by roofing, such as copper or lead
sheeting. Domes of cut stone were more expensive and never as large, and timber was
used for large spans where brick was unavailable. Brick dome was the favoured choice
for large space monumental coverings until the Industrial Age, due to their convenience
and dependability.
Grid shells were pioneered in the 1896 by Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov in
constructions of exhibition pavilions of the All-Russia industrial and art exhibition 1896
in Nizhny Novgorod.
EXAMPLE
GEODESIC DOME
Walter Bauersfeld built the first geodesic dome in
1922 for a planetarium in Jena, Germany.
Buckminster Fuller developed his geodesic dome
for low-cost housing 1942.
A basic geodesic sphere, referred to as single
frequency, consists of 20 spherical triangles that
form pentagons. Dividing single frequency into
more units forms hexagons.
Frequencies: 1
2
3
4
EXAMPLE
US pavilion Expo 67 Montreal
Architect: Buckminster Fuller & Shoji Sadao
The 250 feet diameter by 200 feet high dome
roughly presents a three-quarter sphere, while
geodesic domes before 1967 were hemispherical.
The dome consists of steel pipes and 1,900 acrylic
panels. To keep the indoor temperature
acceptable, the design included mobile triangular
panels that would move over the inner surface
following the sun. Although brilliant on paper, this
feature was too advanced for its time and never
worked. Instead valves in the centre of acrylic
panels enabled ventilation.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
HPR dome, Walla Walla, USA
Architect: Environmental Concern, Inc.
Engineer/builder: Temcor
Aluminum dome of 206 diameter and 42 ft depth
(span/depth ratio 4.9), weighs less than 3 psf.
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID
Formed by sweeping a convex parabola along a
concave parabola or by sweeping a straight line over a
straight path at one end and another straight path not
parallel to the first.
Structural behaviours
Depending on the shape of the shell relative to the
curvature, theere will be different stresses.
Shell roofs, have compression stresses following the
convex curvature and the tension stresses following
concave curvate.
PROPERTIES
CONCRETE SHELL
The material most suited for construction of shell structure is CONCRETE because it is
a highly plastic material when first mixed with water that can take up any shape on
centering or inside formwork.
Small sections or reinforcement bars can readily be bent to follow the curvature or
shells.
Once cement has set and the concrete has hardened the R.C.C membrane or slab acts
a strong, rigid shell which serves as both structure and covering to the building.
Folded plates
Domes
Barrel shells
Translation shell
CENTERING OF SHELL
ADVANTAGES
Concrete shells are naturally strong structures, allowing wide areas to be spanned
without the use of internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed interior.
The use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost and a
construction cost, as concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into compound
curves.
The resulting structure may be immensely strong and safe; modern monolithic dome
houses, for example, have resisted hurricanes and fires, and are widely considered to
be strong enough to withstand even F5 tornadoes.
Very light form of construction, to span 30m shell thickness required is 60mm.
Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting system.
DISADVANTAGES
Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often have issues with sealing. If
not treated, rainwater can seep through the roof and leak into the interior of the
building.
On the other hand, the seamless construction of concrete domes prevents air from
escaping, and can lead to buildup of condensation on the inside of the shell. Shingling
or sealants are common solutions to the problem of exterior moisture, and
dehumidifiers or ventilation can address condensation.
Shuttering problem
Greater accuracy in formwork is required
Good labour and supervision is necessary
Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.
FOLDED PLATES
Nikhita Khurana
Pulkit Chawla
Tanvi Yadav
Dhruv Khurana
INTRODUCTION
FOLDED PLATES is one of the simplest
shell structure.
SHELL STRUCTURE
BAY
WIDTH
OF
BARREL
VAULT
BAY WIDTH OF
FOLDED PLATES
BEHAVIOUR
RIDGE
COMPONENTS
The principle components in a folded plate structure are illustrated in the sketch below. They
consist of,
1)
2)
3)
4)
A strip across a folded plate is called a slab element because the plate is designed as a slab in that
direction.
The span of the structure is the greater distance between columns and the bay width is the distance
between similar structural units.
If several units were placed side by side, the edge plates should be omitted except for the first and last
plate.
If the edge plate is not omitted on inside edges, the form should be called a two segment folded plate
with a common edge plate.
The structure may have a simple span or multiple spans of varying length, or the folded plate may
cantilever from the supports without a stiffener at the end.
Inclined plates
Edge plates
Span
Stiffeners
Columns
At first, the external forces are transferred due to the structural condition of the plate to the
shorter edge of one folding element.
There, the reaction as an axial force is divided between the adjacent elements which results in a
strain of the structural condition of the slabs. This leads to the transmission of forces to the bearing.
FORMS
OF FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES
By using folded structures different spatial
forms can be made.
Frame
folded
structures
represent
constructional set in which the elements of
each segment of the folds mutually occupy
a frame spatial form. This type of folded
structure is spatial organization of two or
more folds in the plane.
The shape of folded structures affects the transmission of load and direction of relying of folded
structures. Based on these parameters, folded plate systems are further classified into :
1. linear folded plate structure
2. radial folded plate structure
3. spatial folded plate structure
LINEAR FOLDED
PLATE STRUCTURE
RADIAL FOLDED
PLATE STRUCTURE
SPATIAL FOLDED
PLATE STRUCTURE
Combined folded constructions are carried out over the complex geometric basis, formed by the
combination of simple geometric figures, rectangles and semicircles on one side or both sides.
This type of folded structure can be derived in the plane or as a frame (cylindrical) structure, and
represents a combination of folded structure above the rectangular base and of the radial
construction.
and linked folding edges where parallel and skew up folds and
down folds alternate.
USES
Storage buildings
Swimming pools
Gyms
Airports etc.
ADVANTAGES
since they are of concrete, such roofs have inherent resistance to fire, deterioration and to
atmospheric corrosion.
They allow large spans to be achieved in structural concrete. This allows flexibility of planning and
mobility beneath.
Where ground conditions require expensive piled foundations the reduced number of supporting
columns can be an economic advantage.
The plates are required to be thicker than the shells, and there are more firms who will tackle
constructing them without excessive prices, increasing competition and sometimes making the
cost more competitive than for cylindrical shells.
DISADVANTAGES
APPLICATION
The need for acquiring the larger range and more cost
effective structure led to the emergence of this type of
structure.
HIGH RISE
BUILDINGS
PRESENTED BY :
KARTIK KUMAR
PAYAL GUPTA
PRACHI ARORA
MEGHA KASHYAP
NEETU SHARMA
ARJUN
MOHIT GUPTA
The building must achieve all building laws related to internal spacing.
The Building must apply modern technological systems.
It must constructed using suitable structure systems.
Application of all civil defense requirements related to safety and fire fighting.
Provision of all services (car parking ,fire fighting water tanks ,water supply tanks, etc).
Fire escape stairs should consist of 2 flights each flight must not be less than 90 cm wide.
Fire escape staircase must connect to outside of the building.
Ease of access of all floors to civil defense units.
The building must be constructed out of fire resistant materials (or materials with a high rate of fire
resistance).
The main stair case flight must not be less than 135 cm wide.
The main staircase & elevators should be present in every main core of the building.
Provision of sufficient parking slots to the number of the building users.
Basement floors with all the suitable systems to the required use.
Reinforced Concrete
Snow
Load
Wind
Load
Dead &
Live Load
Earth Quake
Load
Structural Loads
Gravity loads
Dead loads
Live loads
Snow loads
Lateral loads
Wind loads
Seismic loads
Special load cases
Impact loads
Blast loads
Seismic Loads
Wind Loads
FRAMED-TUBE STRUCTURES]
The lateral resistant of the framed-tube structures is provided by
very
stiff moment-resistant frames that form a tube around the
perimeter
of the building.
The basic inefficiency of the frame system for reinforced concrete
buildings of more than 15 stories resulted in member proportions
of prohibitive size and structural material cost premium, and thus
such system were economically not viable.
The frames consist of 6-12 ft (2-4m) between centers, joined by deep
spandrel girders.
Gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior column or
walls.
When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frame aligned in the
direction of loading acts as the webs of the massive tube of the
cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the
flanges.
The tube form was developed originally for building of rectangular
plan, and probably its most efficient use in that shape.
Dewitt chestnut
Sears Tower,
Chicago.
TUBE-IN-TUBE SYSTEM
This variation of the framed tube
consists of an outer frame tube,
the Hull, together
with an internal elevator and
service core.
The Hull and core act jointly in
resisting both gravity and lateral
loading.
The outer framed tube and the
inner core interact horizontally as
the shear and flexural components
of a wall-frame structure, with the
benefit of increased lateral
stiffness.
The structural tube usually adopts
a highly dominant role because of
its much greater structural depth.
Construction materials
Materials used for high rise buildings: concrete, steel, glass, cladding material, high alumina
cement used for roofs & floors. It contains bauxite instead of clay, cement, Portland cement of
lime stone, silica.
Advantages are:
Plasticity
Easily availability
Easy in casting
Non corrosive
Can be cast in situ
Disadvantages are:
Cost of form
Dead weight
Difficulty in pouring
Building.
o High Rise Building-A building Having
height more then 15m As per National
Building Code 2005 of India is called
High Rise Building.
PRESENTATION OUTLINE
Definition of shear wall
Position
Design provisions
Behavior
Case studies
201
RC STRUCTURAL WALLS
Known as shear walls
Designed to resist lateral forces
204
of building
205
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Thickness 150 400 mm
or
Stiffness
Soil structure interaction effects
Period of structure
15
SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR
CONTD
Ductility
SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR
CONTD
CONCLUSIONS
Shear walls are efficient in resisting earthquakes
More efficient with increased ductility