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ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Ductile vs. Brittle failure.
• Fracture testing.
• Fl
Flaws, stress
t concentration,
t ti and
d fracture.
f t
• Fracture toughness.
• Fracture in polymers: crazing.
• Fatigue and crack propagation rate.
• Creep.
1
Ductile Fracture
TS
Recall necking…
engineeriing
stresss
strain
1. Neck formation (subsequent
deformation is confined to the
neck).
2 Small cavity (microvoids)
2.
formation.
3. Further deformations leads to
coalescence of voids into a crack.
4. Crack propagation.
5. Fracture.
3
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• fracture 50μm
50 μm
surfaces
(steel)
100 μm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
sites. 347-56.)
Adapted from D. Johnson 4
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2
Stress-Strain Behavior versus Temperature
• Ductility is reduced with temperature reduction.
Choose materials with D-B transition T far away from its usage T
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Ductile Brittle
3
Why brittle fracture in ceramics?
Recall slip is the mechanism of plastic deformation in
metals.
What happens in ceramics (e.g. ionic crystals)?
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Brittle fracture
No appreciable plastic deformation (catastrophic fracture without
warning).
Rapid
p crack p
propagation
p g ((typically
yp ypperpendicular
p to applied
pp stress).
)
Transgranular: fracture cracks pass through grains.
Intergranular: crack propagation along grain boundaries.
• Intergranular • Transgranular
(between grains) (across grains)
316 S. Steel
304 S. Steel ((metal))
Reprinted w/permission from (metal)
"Metals Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. Reprinted w/ permission
633, p. 650. Copyright 1985, from "Metals Handbook",
ASM International, Materials 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by J.R. Copyright 1985, ASM
Keiser and A.R. Olsen, Oak International, Materials
Ridge National Lab.) Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
4
Brittle Fracture Surface
Chevron marks
From brittle fracture
Origin of crack
Fan-shaped
F h d
ridges
coming from
crack
polymers
Brittle More Ductile
High strength materials ( σy >E/150)
From Callister: Adapted from C. Barrett, W.
Nix, and A.Tetelman, The Principles of
Engineering Materials, Fig. 6-21, p. 220,
Prentice-Hall, 1973. Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle 10
transition temperature
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Ideal versus Real Behavior
σm a
Kt = =2
Stress concentration factor: σo ρt
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6
Flaws and fracture
σm a
Stress concentration factor: K t = =2
σo ρt
w
σmax
• Surface cracks are worse! Avoid sharp
r, h corners!
fillet
13
radius
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Fast Fracture
Fast-Fracture Condition:
K =σ c πa0 = EGc = constant!!
Units of MPa√m
“stress intensity Hard to measure Measureable (fixed)
factor” Internal flaws materials properties
Gc = 2(γs+γp)
• fast fracture occurs when:
1) (in a material subjected to stress σo) a crack reaches some critical size “a”
OR
2) when a material contains cracks of size “a” is subjected to some critical
stress.
• the critical combination of stress σo and crack length at which fast fracture
occurs is a MATERIAL CONSTANT!
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Fracture toughness
8
Plane strain fracture toughness
W
When B becomes large:
Kc is independent of B
2a -> Plane strain conditions
2a
Plane strain fracture toughness:
B
K Ic = Yσ πa
Example
A) Determine if a ceramic material with characteristics
given below will fail at an applied tensile stress of
750MPa.
E = 250GPa
Most severe crack (internal) a = 0.1 mm, ρt = 0.001 mm
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9
Griffith’s Criteria for Fracture and Failure
A=A’=A” etc. Crack sizes, orientations and distributions
It should be almost intuitive that the relative
lengths of cracks will control which crack will
A’ B
A B’ propagate under stress, such can be said of
A the orientation and distribution also.
B
*If cracks each act independently, then, if
A” B” A < B, failure will not occur from A.
*Failure will not occur from A' and B'
because they are parallel to applied
Which will be the stress.
site of failure? *Thus, B-type crack is failure mode, as
it has the highest stress concentration.
Adapted from D. Johnson
10
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
--What is failure stress?
Kc
• Use: σc =
Y πa max
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm
11
Transformation toughening
Density (g/cm3)
Monoclinic 5.6
Zirconia (ZrO2)
Tetragonal 6.1 (metastable)
Fracture of polymers
Thermosets: Brittle fracture via crack propagation (crosslinked and
network
t k polymers
l – covalent
l t bonds
b d have
h to
t be
b broken).
b k )
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12
Crazing
Fracture mechanism in which polymers fracture via localized yielding with
formation of small and interconnected microvoids (different from crack
propagation).
ti )
Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
• Stress varies with time.
--key parameters are S and σm
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Equal tensile and
compressive stress
Asymmetric wrt
zero stress
Random
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Crack propagation rate
What would happen if we were able to examine crack length (a) at
each cycle of stress?
What happens at higher stress?
15
Crack propagation rate
Take log of both sides of the rate equation:
⎛ da ⎞
log⎜ (
⎟ = log A(ΔK )
m
)
⎝ dN ⎠
⎛ da ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = m log ΔK + log A
⎝ dN ⎠
constant
Region II
da
= A(ΔK ) m
dN
Using: ΔK = YΔσ πa
ac
1 da
(Δσ ) ∫ Y
Nf =
Aπ
m m
m/2
ao
am/2 31
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Improving Fatigue Life S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
1. Impose a compressive Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.
surface stress (to suppress
near zero or compressive σm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile σm
larger tensile σm
N = Cycles to failure
--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression
bad better
2. Remove stress Adapted from
concentrators. Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
bad better
3. Polish surface (remove surface cracks) and optimize processing
conditions to minimize internal defects 33
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Creep
• Time-dependent permanent deformation due to static mechanical stress
(usually at elevated temperatures;T > 0.4 Tm for most metals).
• Undesirable and limits lifetime of materials.
• Creep test: apply constant stress at constant T and measure deformation
(strain) over time.
17
Stress and temperature effects
Steady-state creep rate:
•
Increasing T or σ
ε s = K1σ n
Including T dependence:
•
⎛ Qc ⎞
ε s = K1σ n exp⎜ − ⎟
⎝ RT ⎠ Arrhenius behavior at fixed stress 35
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To minimize creep…
First, we need to know what the possible mechanisms are.
Possible solutions:
• U single
Use i l crystals
t l ((usually
ll a costly
tl solution).
l ti )
• Increase grain size.
• Solid solutions.
• Precipitation hardening.
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Concepts to remember
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
-for noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
increased maximum flaw size or rate of loading, or decreased T,
-for cyclic σ: cycles to fail decreases as Δσ increases.
-for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
time to fail decreases as σ or T increases.
37
Adapted from D. Johnsonv
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