PTC B1.1 Notes - Sub Module 15.9 (Lubricants and Fuels)

PIA Training Centre (PTC)
Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE
Category A/B1
Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels
MODULE 15
Sub Module 15.9
LUBRICANTS AND FUELS
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M15/02
15.9
For Training Purpose Only

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Mar 2014

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Contents
LUBRICANTS PROPERTIES, SPECIFICATIONS, ADDITIVES AND SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
FUELS PROPERTIES, SPECIFICATIONS, ADDITIVES AND SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS ----------------------------------------------------------------------12

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LUBRICANTS PROPERTIES, SPECIFICATIONS, ADDITIVES

AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Introduction
The primary purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction between
moving parts. Because liquid lubricants (oils) can be circulated
readily, they are used universally in aircraft engines.
In theory, fluid lubrication is based on the actual separation of
the surfaces so that no metal to-metal contact occurs. As long
as the oil film remains unbroken, Metallic friction is replaced by
the internal fluid friction of the lubricant. Under ideal conditions,
friction and wear are held to a minimum.
In addition to reducing friction, the oil film acts as a cushion
between metal parts. This cushioning effect is particularly
important for such parts as reciprocating engine crankshaft and
connecting rods, which are subject to shock loading. As oil
circulates through the engine, it absorbs heat from the parts.
Pistons and cylinder walls in reciprocating engines are
especially dependent on the oil for cooling. The oil also aids in
forming a seal between the piston and the cylinder wall to
prevent leakage of the gases from the combustion chamber Oils
also reduce abrasive wear by picking up foreign particles and
carrying them to a filter, where they are removed.
Properties and characteristics of lubricating oils vary with the oil

type. An Oil with the correct specifications must always be used
in each engine because use of the wrong oil could lead to
damaged or failed engine components. With that caution in
mind, consider the following discussion on oil properties and the
various oil types. Typical applications of the different oil types
are discussed, as well as the methods used to grade aircraft
engine oils.
Functions of Lubricating Oil
Lubricating oil is often considered to be the life blood of an
engine. Without it, the friction and wear produced between
moving parts would cause an engine to wear at a very rapid
rate.
In addition to reducing friction, lubricating oil is responsible for
removing a great deal of engine heat. In fact, without an ample
supply of oil, most engines will overheat. Additional functions of
lubricating oils include creating a seal between moving parts,
cushioning impact forces created by combustion, cleaning the
engine, and protecting against corrosion.
These functions are explained as follows:

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Reduce Friction
Many of the metal parts inside an aircraft engine have surfaces
which appear smooth to the naked eye. However, if you were to
microscopically examine those same parts, you would see a
rather rough surface consisting of several peaks and valleys.
When those engine parts rub against one another, the resulting
friction soon wears away the metal.
In order to reduce this friction, a film of lubrication oil is placed
between the moving parts. Oil wets the surfaces, fills in the
valleys, and holds the metal surfaces apart as long as the oil
film remains unbroken. The engine parts then slide over each
other on a film of oil rather than grind together. Therefore,
friction is reduced and part wear is minimized.
The amount of clearance between moving parts is a
determining factor when choosing the proper type and grade of
oil. Oil must adhere to a part sufficiently and be thick enough to
provide an adequate protective film that will not break down and
allow metal-to-metal contact.
Absorbs Heat
In addition to reducing friction and wear, oil absorbs some of the
heat produced by combustion as it circulates through the
engine. The pistons and cylinder walls are especially dependent
on lubricating oil for cooling.

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However, once the oil heats up, a means of cooling the oil must
be provided. Therefore, several engine lubrication systems
contain an oil cooler. An oil cooler is basically a heat exchanger
that transfers the heat contained in the oil to the outside air.
Cushions
The same characteristic of oil that makes it a good sealing
agent also provides a cushioning effect between metal parts.
For example, squeeze film bearing.
Cleans
The oil in a lubrication system also reduces engine wear by
serving as a cleaning agent. As the oil circulates, it picks up
foreign particles such as dirt, dust, carbon, and small amounts
of water. These particles are held in suspension by the oil and
carried to a filter where they are trapped and removed.
Protects Against Corrosion
Metal engine parts which are exposed to moist air and various
chemicals have a tendency to rust or, form other types of
surface corrosion. This is especially true for cylinder walls and
crankshafts which have been hardened by nitriding. The oil film
which coats internal engine parts acts as a barrier, preventing
oxygen and moisture from reaching the metal surface and
causing it to corrode.

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Physical Properties of Oil

In the performance of all the previously mentioned functions, a
portion of the lubrication oil is consumed. The amount of oil
consumed depends on several factors such as engine rpm,
engine temperature, operating clearances, and lubricant
characteristics. Generally, higher rpm and temperatures, larger
clearances and less viscosity correspond to higher consumption
rates. Larger clearances are one reason why reciprocating
engines typically consume more oil than turbine engines.
Theoretically, the perfect engine oil is thin enough to circulate
freely, yet heavy enough to stay in place and maintain a
reasonable film strength. However, in practice, a compromise
must be made and several factors must be considered in
determining the proper grade of oil to use in a particular engine.
Some of these factors include engine operating loads, rotational
speeds of bearings, and operating temperatures. When
determining the proper grade of oil to use there is several
properties which must be considered.
Viscosity
Oil viscosity is measured using an instrument known as the

Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. To measure oils viscosity, a
specific quantity of oil must be heated to an exact temperature.
Then, the number of seconds required for 60 cubic centimeters
of the heated oil to flow through a calibrated orifice is recorded
as a measure of the oil's viscosity. The recorded time is known
as the Say bolt Seconds Universal viscosity or S.S.U. Typical
aviation oils have an S.S.U. of 80, 100, or 120 when heated to
210F.
Of all the factors that impact the viscosity of lubricating oil,
temperature has the greatest effect. In fact, it is not uncommon
for some high viscosity oils to become almost semi-solid in cold
weather. When this happens, engine component drag increases
and oil circulation dramatically decreases. On the other hand,
low viscosity oils can become so thin at high temperatures that
the oil can no longer maintain a solid film. When this happens,
rapid wear and lower than normal oil pressure results. For these
reasons, lower viscosity oils are typically used in cold climates
and higher viscosity oils are used in warm climates.
One of the most important properties of an oil is viscosity, which

is a measure of an oil's resistance to flow. An oil that flows
slowly is viscous, or has a high viscosity. On the other hand, oil
that flows freely has a low viscosity.

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Viscosity Index
In addition to having a viscosity rating, many oils are assigned a
viscosity index, or VI number. The viscosity index is a standard
used to identify oils rate of change in viscosity for a given
change in temperature.
The index itself is based on a comparative analysis of the
temperature-induced viscosity changes of two reference oils,
arbitrarily chosen by the American Society of Testing and
Materials, or ASTM. One oil is assigned a viscosity index rating
of 100, and the other is rated at zero. The smaller the change in
the viscosity for a given temperature change, the higher the
viscosity index.
Specific Gravity
An oil's specific gravity is a comparison of the weight of an oil to
the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified
temperature. For example, water weighs approximately 8
pounds per gallon. Therefore, an oil with a specific gravity of 0.9
weighs 7.2 pounds per gallon (0.9 x 8 = 7.2).
The American Petroleum Institute or API has formulated a
measurement for the specific gravity of oils which is an
expansion of the regular specific gravity scale. The API scale is
considered to be a more accurate measure of an oil's gravity
because it provides more detail on that portion of the specific
gravity where lubricating oils fall.

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However, in most cases, oils API number can be converted to a

specific gravity number using a conversion chart.
Color
Oil color is determined by the amount of light that passes
through an oil sample in a glass container when placed in front
of a light of known intensity.
The color test is conducted with a device known as an ASTM
union colorimeter. The color is then compared to an ASTM color
chart.
A color reference number of 1.00 on the chart is pure white, and
a reference number of 8.00 is darker than claret red. With oils
that are darker than number 8.00, the oil is diluted with
kerosene to form a mixture which is 85 percent kerosene and
15 percent oil by volume. The mixture is then given a color
rating in the same manner as other oils. This can be used to
determine the origin of the oil.
Cloud Point
Another property of lubricating oil is known as cloud point.
Particular oil's cloud point is the temperature at which paraffin
wax and other solids normally held in a solution of oil begin to
solidify and separate into tiny crystals. At this temperature, the
oil begins to lose clarity and appears cloudy or hazy.

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Pour Point
Carbon Residue Test
Oils pour point represents the lowest temperature at which the

oil can flow or be poured. Pour point is an oil property which
determines given oil's ability to lubricate at low operating
temperatures.
In the carbon residue test, a given amount of oil is placed in a

stainless steel receptacle and heated to a controlled
temperature until it evaporates. The container is weighed before
and after the test. The difference in weight is then divided by the
weight of the original oil sample to obtain the percentage of
carbon, by weight.
As a general rule, the pour point of an oil should be within five

degrees Fahrenheit of the average ambient starting temperature
to ensure oil circulation.
Flash Point and Fire Point
An oil's flash point is the temperature at which it begins to emit
ignitable vapors. As temperature increases beyond the flash
point, the oil's fire point is reached and sufficient vapors are
emitted to support a flame.
Volatility
It is the ability of oil to vaporize. This should be less to reduce
oil loss through the seals.
Acidity
It is the measure of oils corrosive tendency. This should be less
to prevent corrosion to the system.
Typical lubricating oil has a fire point approximately 50 to 60F

higher than the flash point. Oil must be able to withstand the
high temperatures encountered in an operating engine without
creating a fire hazard. Therefore, these two temperature ratings
are important when selecting the proper oil for an engine.

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Requirements for Turbine Engine Lubricants

There are many requirements for turbine engine lubricating oils,
but because of the small number of moving parts and the
complete absence of reciprocating motion, the lubrication
problems are less complex in the turbine engine than in the
reciprocating engine. Because of the absence of reciprocating
motion, plus the use of ball and roller bearings, turbine engine
uses a less viscous lubricant.
Excellent qualities of cohesion and adhesion a

characteristic of oil molecules allowing them to stick together
under compression loads and stick to surface under
centrifugal loads.
Gas turbine engine oil must have a high enough viscosity for
good load carrying ability, but it must also be of sufficient low
viscosity to provide good flow ability.
High viscosity index - meaning the oil will tend to retain its
viscosity when heated to its operating temperature.
Wide temperature range - in the order of -60 degrees

Fahrenheit to + 400 degrees Fahrenheit.
Low volatility - to prevent evaporation at high altitudes.

Anti-foaming quality - for more positive lubrication
Low lacquer and coke deposits - keeps solid particle
formation to a minimum
High flash point - the temperature at which oil when heated
gives off flammable vapors that will ignite if near a flame
source. (Resistance to giving off flammable vapors)
Low pour point - the lowest temperature at which oil will
gravity flow.

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Oil Specifications
Most commercial aviation oils are assigned numerical
designations such as 80, 100, or 120 that approximate oils
viscosity. This practice has proven to be much more workable
than using actual Say bolt values to designate viscosity. The
reason for this is that oil viscosity varies enough among
commonly used oils to produce several hundred grades when
using Say bolt values.
To further simplify the oil grading process, a system designed
by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) was designed.
The SAE system scale divides all oils into seven groups,
ranging from SAE 10 to SAE 70. The groupings are based on
an oils viscosity at either 1300F or 2100F. In addition, an SAE
rating with the letter W, such as 20W indicates the oil is
acceptable for use in cold, or winter, climates.
Although SAE ratings are used with most oils, there are still
some oils that carry commercial aviation or military
designations. It is important to note that SAE ratings are purely
arbitrary and bear no direct relationship to other ratings.
Types of Lubricating Oils
Animal oils - The source of these oils is animal in origin, e.g.

lard oil (pig fats), and Tallow oil (Ox or Sheep). These oils are
good at normal temperatures. At high temperatures fatty acids
form which are corrosive.
Vegetable oils - The source of these oils is vegetable in origin
e.g. Castor oil, Olive oils, Rapeseed oil. These oils have low
coefficient of friction as compared to mineral based oils, but
becomes gummy at high temperature. Vegetable based
lubricants have poor chemical stability and tend to oxidize when
exposed to high temperature.
Mineral oils - The source of these oils is refined crude oil. They
consist of paraffinic and naphthanic compounds. These have
been the main lubricating oils for many years. They were good
at slightly high temperatures, but tend to oxidize when they are
exposed to elevated temperatures and form carbonaceous
deposits. These oils also form sludge, which tend to clog the
filters. When exposed to elevated temperatures, mineral oil has
a tendency to oxidize. One of the Mineral oils is MIL-L-60288.
There are four types of oils used for lubrication

Animal oils
Vegetable oils
Mineral oils
Synthetic oils

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Synthetic oils - The higher operating temperatures of modern

gas turbine engines caused synthetic oils to be produced which
is superior in properties and stability to previously mentioned oil
types.

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The low temperature operating characteristics of synthetic oil

make it suitable for cold weather and high altitude operation. Its
viscosity at -20 F is about the same Mineral oil at 0 F. Engines
with Synthetic oils have been successfully started and run at
ambient temperatures as low as -40 F. Synthetic oils have
advantage over Mineral oils with respect to cleanliness. It has
fewer tendencies to deposit lacquer and coke and fewer
tendencies to evaporate at high temperature. Because of their
chemical makeup, synthetic oils have an extremely low internal
friction. In addition, they have a high resistance to thermal
breakdown and oxidation. Because of this, synthetic oils are
ideal for use in turbine engines and can typically go longer
between oil changes.
Some of the disadvantages of Synthetic oils are their softening
effect on rubber and resins, cost, and toxicity. Another
disadvantage is that it tends to blister or remove paint wherever
it is spilled. Painted surfaces should be wiped clean with a
petroleum solvent after spillage.
Synthetic oils are a blend of certain diesters, which are
themselves man-made (synthesized) extracts of mineral,
vegetable, and animal oils. The blending of these diesters with
suitable chemicals in different amounts produces a lubricant,
which meets a prescribed specification of the petroleum industry
and the aviation industry.
Synthetic oils are not compatible with and cannot be mixed with
mineral base oils. In addition most manufacturers recommend
that different brands or types of synthetic oils not be mixed or
mixed only within strict guidelines of same-type and certain
compatible brands.
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There are two different types of synthetic lubricants being used

in turbine engines today:
Type-l (MIL-L-7808) and,
Type-2 (MIL-L-23699).
Type-2 is the most recent synthetic to be developed and is used
in most of the more modem engines. It is designed to meet
current engine requirements and does not necessarily have the
same chemical composition as Type-1. Engines originally
designed to use Type-1 oil are still using this oil. Continuous
modifications to the chemical structure of Type-1 have kept it
essentially the same quality as Type-2. Type-2 was developed
to withstand higher operating temperatures and to have
improved anti-coking characteristics. It does not, however, have
the low temperature range of Type-l.
Type-2 has a low temperature range of-40 F, whereas Type-1
is -65 F. Changing oils from Type-1 to Type-2 is not generally
recommended as the latter may have higher detergent quality
which would be detrimental to older engines.
Synthetic oil is considerably more expensive than mineral oils,
but the extended drain period for synthetic oil appears to
compensate for its higher cost. Any decision to use synthetic oil,
taking into consideration cost factors, must be an individual
matter based on specific operating conditions to determine
whether or not the advantage of the oil justifies its increased
cost.

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Synthetic oil for turbine engines usually is supplied in sealed lquart or I-gallon metal cans. Although this type of container was
chosen to minimize contamination, it has often been found
necessary to filter the oil to remove metal slivers, can sealants,
etc., which may occur as a result of opening the can.
Two common reminders one sees in Oil Company materials
concerning synthetic lubricants are as follows:
WARNING: Synthetic turbine lubricants contain additives, which
are readily absorbed through the skin and are considered highly
toxic. Excessive and/or prolonged exposure to the skin should
be avoided.
CAUTION: Silicone based grease; such as is sometimes used
to hold O-rings in place during assembly, can cause silicone
contamination to the lube system. This contamination can cause
engine oil to foam and result in oil loss through oil tank vents
and also lead to engine damage from oil pump cavitation and
insufficient lubrication.

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Extreme Pressure Lubricants
Oil Additives
Extreme pressure (EP) lubricants, also known as hypoid

lubricants, are specially formulated to provide protection under
high loads. A hypoid lubricant contains additives that bond to
metal surfaces to reduce friction under high pressures or high
rubbing velocities.
Additives are mixed to oils to improve the physical properties of

oils. Some of them are listed below.
A typical hypoid lubricant consists of mineral-based oil

containing loosely held molecules of sulfur or chlorine. A
propeller reduction case is one example where a hypoid
lubricant is needed. The spur-type gears in propeller reduction
cases operate under high tooth pressures and often require EP
lubricants to prevent gear failure.
Oxidation inhibitors - These delay the oxidation process of oil

at high temperatures.
Multi-Viscosity Oils
Viscosity index improvers - Improves resistance to viscosity

changes with temperature.
Multi-viscosity oils were developed to help address some of the

drawbacks of single viscosity oils. For example, if SAE 10 oil is
used in a warm climate, it will get too hot and lose its ability to
maintain an, adequate film on moving parts. On the other hand,
if SAE 30 oil is used in a cold climate, the oil will not circulate
properly, especially when an engine is first started.
Detergents - These chemicals

capability of oil.
improve
the
cleaning
Anti corrosives - Prevents corrosion of engine parts.

Foam inhibitors - Reduces oil foaming
Pour point depressors - Reduces the pour point
Multi-viscosity oils differ from single viscosity oils in that they

provide adequate lubrication over a wider temperature range.
This allows multi-viscosity oils to flow more quickly in cold
weather and keep from thinning in hot weather. Typical multiviscosity oil, such as SAE 15W50, can generally be safely used
over the combined temperature range of SAE 15 and SAE 50
oil.

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Safety Precautions
Synthetic oils are not as stable as conventional petroleum oil in
storage. Large temperature variations should be avoided. Oil
stocks should be used as soon as possible half used containers
must not be used again because it attracts air from the
atmosphere and will change the physical properties. Different
oils from different manufactures should not be used. Synthetic
lubricants have an adverse effect on some types of paints
electrical insulation and elastomer materials.
Deleterious effects on some paints, electrical insulation,

rubber and elastomer. Any spillage on these types of
materials should be cleaned as soon as possible and
completely.
Toxic.
The following precautions should be followed when handling

lubrication oils.
Absolute cleanliness of all servicing equipment is essential.
Only use servicing equipment for one type of oil, ensure the
equipment is marked for the type of oil to be used.
Make sure that the correct type of oil is used. If accidentally
oil is mixed, drain the system completely, flush it and fill with
the correct type.
Only use oil from clean, clearly marked un-opened can,
because synthetic oils are not stable under room conditions.
Servicing should be carried out according to the Maintenance
Manual Chapter 12.

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FUELS PROPERTIES, SPECIFICATIONS, ADDITIVES AND

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Introduction
Fuel may be defined as any substance that will burn and
produce heat. Under normal circumstances, fuel combines with
the oxygen from the air as it burns. In our common experiences
we usually encounter solid fuels such as wood and coal, liquid
fuels such as gasoline and kerosene, and gaseous fuels such
as natural gas, butane; hydrogen, and acetylene. With all these
fuels, oxygen is required for combustion. The oxygen may come
from the air or from a tank of pure oxygen. When pure oxygen is
burned with a fuel, the products of combustion can be much
"cleaner" than when the fuel is burned with the oxygen from the
air, provided that the proper amount of oxygen is mixed with the
fuel.
Furthermore, the technician should understand the importance

of proper fuel control in the operation of an engine and how this
control is accomplished by means of carburetors and fuelcontrol units. The principal requirement is that the fuel-control
unit be capable in providing a correct mixture of fuel and air for
all engine-rating conditions.
The fuels used for aircraft engines are usually gasoline for
piston engines) or a special type of kerosene (for turbine
engines). These fuels have proved to be most practical because
of their availability, low cost, and high heat-producing qualities.
The aviation technician should understand the fuels used for
aircraft engines and should know the safety precautions
required in the handling of such fuels.

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Chemistry of Combustion
From a chemical point of view, the burning of a substance,
whether liquid, solid, or gas, consists of the uniting of one or
more of the elements in the substance with the oxygen that is
present in the atmosphere. This results in the formation of
oxides of the elements that have reacted with the oxygen; this is
called oxidation. The rusting of iron, too, is oxidation, the rust
being the red iron oxide formed.
Thus we see that when 1 molecule of heptane is burned with 11

molecules of oxygen (22 atoms), the products of combustion
are 7 molecules of carbon dioxide and 8 molecules of water.
This action represents perfect combustion.
Oxygen, which is indispensable to combustion, is present in the

atmosphere by volume to an extent of about 21 percent. It
combines with a great number of the elements. In each
instance, the amount of heat liberated is greatly dependent
upon the makeup of the burning substance. Nitrogen and other
gases constitute the remaining 79 percent of the atmosphere by
volume.
These gases, in general, do not enter into the process of
combustion. The chemical actions that take place during the
burning of an aircraft fuel are relatively simple. Gasoline
consists of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) in combinations to form
hydrocarbon molecules. For example, heptane molecules are
represented by the chemical symbol C7H16' meaning that 1
molecule of heptane contains 7 atoms of carbon and 16 atoms
of hydrogen. When heptane is burned with oxygen, the following
action takes place:
C7H16 +
11 02

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7 CO2 +
8 H2O

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Requirements of Gas Turbine Fuels

Fuels for aircraft gas turbine engines must confirm to strict
requirements to give optimum engine performance, economy,
safety, and overhaul life.
In general a gas turbine fuel should have the following qualities:
Be "pump able" and flow easily under all operating conditions
Permit engine starting at all ground conditions and give
satisfactory flight relight characteristics
Give efficient combustion at all conditions.
Have as high a net heating value as possible.
Produce minimal corrosive or other harmful effects on the
fuel system components, combustion System or the turbine
blades
Provide adequate lubrication for the moving parts of the fuel
system.
Reduce fire hazard to a minimum
Be relatively cheap and be available

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Properties of Gas Turbine Fuels

Specific gravity
Volatility
The ratio of unit weight of fuel to an equal unit weight of water.

Specific gravity may vary with changes in temperature. Specific
gravity is also given in degrees API. This is a scale chosen by
American Petroleum Institute in which specific gravity is
expressed in Degrees API; the specific gravity of water is taken
as 10 Degrees API.
It is the ability of the fuel to vaporize. Fuels with too much of this
property has an increased tendency to vapor locking.
Viscosity
This is the friction between two moving layers of the liquid. In
other words it is the ability of the liquid to flow and is measured
in centistokes. This property indicates the lubricating quality of
the fuel. That is important because the fuel system components
such as pumps are lubricated by fuel itself.
Flash Point
This is the temperature at which vapors from the heated liquid
can be ignited by a flame under controlled conditions. This
indicates the Fire Hazard of the fuel as well as quick starting
and relighting ability of the fuel. Should be high.
Freezing point
This is the temperature at which solids form. This value is
important for the operators in cold weather conditions
Reid Vapor Pressure
Pour point
This is the approximate vapor pressure exerted by a fuel when

heated to 37.5C. If this value is high there is a tendency of the
vapors inside the fuel lines creating a high backpressure, which
can block the normal flow. This is called VAPOR LOCKING. If
the vapor pressure is too high evaporation is high. Should be
low.
This is the lowest temperature at which the fuel flows inside a

special test tube. Should be low

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Net heating value

This is the amount of heat released by a unit volume or unit
weight when burned. This should be very high because the
capacity of the fuel tanks is limited.
If net heating value per unit volume or unit weight is high, more
energy can be obtained from less volume and weight of fuel.
This is measured in British Thermal Units (BTU s).
It influences the range of a particular aircraft for where the
limiting factor is the capacity of the aircraft tanks then the
calorific value per unit volume should be as high as possible
thus enabling more energy and correspondingly more A/C
range. The other factors which affect the choice of heat per unit
volume or the type of A/C duration of flight and the required
balance between fuel weight and A/C pay loads
Calorific value
It is the amount of heat released when a unit volume of fuel is
burned. This is also measured in BTU s.
Boiling point
Fuels have a tendency to boil when subjected to high
temperatures or low pressures. Kerosene will boil only at very
high altitudes or temperatures. Boiling point should be high.

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Types of Jet Fuel (Fuel Specifications)

Jet fuels can be divided in to two major groups. They are
Single cut fuels
Wide cut fuels
Single cut fuels mainly consist of fractions collected from one
place of the Distillation Tower and Wide cut fuels are a mixture
(Blend) of fractions collected from more than one place (tray).
JP-4 fuel - Wide cut blend of kerosene gasoline and naphtha.

Low vapor pressure, low freezing point.
Jet A & A 1 - Most commonly used commercial fuels. Both are
kerosene type, low freezing point, and low vapor pressure. The
difference between these two is freezing point Jet A -40C & jet
A-1 -50C.
Jet B fuel - Similar to JP-4 fuel.
The advantage of wide cut fuels is the ability of satisfying most

of the conditions of flight. Due to improved properties compared
to single cut fuels.
The fuels are made using two standards (specifications). The
JP series of fuels have been used by the military and made
according to MIL-J-5624 standard. The commercial fuels such
as Jet A, Jet A-1 and Jet B are made to specification D-1655 of
American Society for Testing and Materials.
JP-1 fuel - Low freezing point kerosene type with low vapor
pressure, good lubrication qualities, high energy content per unit
volume, high flash point.
JP-3 fuel - A blend of kerosene and gasoline (30% and 70%
respectively). Similar to gasoline, low freezing point, improved
starting & high vapor pressure compared to JP-1, tendency for
vapor locking, high fuel loses at altitude, poor lubricating
qualities.

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Jet-A fuel (JP-5) is essentially heavy kerosene similar to

commercial kerosene. It develops more heat than JP-4 and has
a higher specific gravity. It has a lower freezing point than most
kerosenes and a higher flash point. At normal temperatures it
does not give off enough vapor to support combustion; hence it
is a safer fuel than gasoline or jet-B fuel. Jet-A-1 fuel is a
special type made for operation at extremely low temperatures.
Gas-turbine engines will burn any of the jet fuels described;
however, an engine that has been operating satisfactorily on
one type of fuel will probably need fuel-control-unit adjustments
before switching to another type of fuel owing to differences in
specific gravity, volatility, and heat content. .
Since gas-turbine fuels are heavier than gasoline, they will hold
more contaminants in suspension. In the handling of jet fuel,
therefore, it is necessary to provide for adequate filtration to
remove dirt, water, ice particles, microorganisms, and other
contaminants.

Rev. 00
Mar 2014
Category A/B1
Fuels for gas turbine engines cannot be identified by color

because they are not dyed. It is essential, therefore, that the
fueling system for any particular aircraft be controlled in such a
manner that the wrong type of fuel cannot be pumped into the
aircraft tanks.
Fuel Additives
Gas turbine engines require fuel of consistent specific gravity,
heat energy potential and cleanliness.
A fuel supply should be free of:
Undissolved water: This will prevent filter blockages due to
ice formation at low temperatures, while preventing corrosion
and microbiological growths in the storage tanks. The antiicing additives keep any dissolved or undissolved water
content from freezing up without requiring the use of fuel
heating, except at very low temperatures. However, the more
modern engines in use have some form of fuel heating in
circuit at all times.
Solid contaminants: This will prevent filter blockage and
undue rates of wear in the fuel pumps while reducing
corrosion. While the use of suitable filters and agitation of
fuel will go much of the way to head off the above problems,
the use of special additives to minimize them is now
universal in the fuel supply industry.
The Anti-microbiological agents: These agents kill off fungi,
microbes and bacteria. The relevant additives are almost
always added by the manufacturer or the fuel distributor. If
however, this should not be the case, the operator can obtain
commercial additives and mix them in the correct proportions
when re-fuelling the aircraft

15.9 - 18

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category A/B1

Safety Precautions
Special precautions must be taken when handling or storing jet
fuel. The amount of fuel consumed by many gas turbine engine
makes the delivery of clean dry fuel is essential to proper
engine performance. Handling and storage of the fuel thus is of
prime importance to the operation of gas turbine engine.
Static electrical charge accumulation in high with high fuel flow
rates high specific gravity fuel and wider boiling fuel ranges.
Therefore flow rates must be restricted to a specific maximum
depending on the hose diameter, grounding or bonding is
essential
Since Jet fuel tends to soften asphalt and dont evaporate
immediately therefore spillage should be avoided. Large spills
must be clean with large amounts of water and should be
dispersed properly. Jet fuel is toxic therefore skin contact,
ingestion should be avoided.
There are a number of simple precautions, which will reduce the
risk to personnel handling aviation turbine fuel:
Do not use fuel as a skin cleaning agent to remove oil,

grease etc.
Immediately remove any fuel soaked clothing. Clean before

re-use.
Do not breathe fuel vapors. Maintain good ventilation of work
area.
Clean up spills immediately. Prevent contamination of natural
water.
Become familiar with the relevant first aid techniques.
Observe NO SMOKING requirements. Fuel vapors are
potentially flammable.
Approved fire extinguishers should be kept close at hand
when working on fuel systems
Caution: Aviation fuel is toxic

Avoid all unnecessary contact and always use protective
clothing.
Thoroughly wash skin if contact takes place.

15.9 - 19

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

PTC B1.1 Notes - Sub Module 15.9 (Lubricants and Fuels)

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PTC B1.1 Notes - Sub Module 15.9 (Lubricants and Fuels)

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PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels

LUBRICANTS AND FUELS

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels

Page Intentionally Left Blank

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

LUBRICANTS PROPERTIES, SPECIFICATIONS, ADDITIVES

Properties and characteristics of lubricating oils vary with the oil

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Physical Properties of Oil

Oil viscosity is measured using an instrument known as the

One of the most important properties of an oil is viscosity, which

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels

However, in most cases, oils API number can be converted to a

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Sub Module 15.9 Lubricants and Fuels

Carbon Residue Test

Oils pour point represents the lowest temperature at which the

In the carbon residue test, a given amount of oil is placed in a

As a general rule, the pour point of an oil should be within five

Typical lubricating oil has a fire point approximately 50 to 60F

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Requirements for Turbine Engine Lubricants

Excellent qualities of cohesion and adhesion a

Wide temperature range - in the order of -60 degrees

Low volatility - to prevent evaporation at high altitudes.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

PIA Training Centre (PTC)

Module 15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Animal oils - The source of these oils is animal in origin, e.g.

There are four types of oils used for lubrication

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified

Synthetic oils - The higher operating temperatures of modern