122 CHAPTER SIX Flow of Fluids and Bernoulli's Equation ‘Then, we can calculate the area of the twa sections and salve for po nol’) Ay = (12 in)(12 in) = 144 in? A =0§ _ xls? pe = 250 in? ‘a. Then, the density of the air in the round section is, po P= 20x10 gin uve) (Sonn) 1.66 x 10® slugsitt? b. The weight flow rate can be found at section 1 from W = y,Ayv1. Then, the weight flow rate is W= yA ‘ w= 70 x 102 we 2=28) (18) (OH), W= 5100 Ib/h 6.3 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PIPE AND TUBING ‘We will describe several widely used types of standard pipe and tubing in this section. Data are given in Appendices F-I in either US. units or metric units for actual outside diame- ter, inside diameter, wall thickness, and flow area for selected sizes and types. Many more are commercially available. Refer to References 2-5 and Internet resources 2-15. You can see that the dimensions are listed in inches (in) and millimeters (mm) for outside diameter, inside diameter, and wall thick- ness. The flow areas are listed in square feet (ft”) and square ‘meters (m*) to help you maintain consistent units in caleu- lations. Data for inside diameters are also given in ft for the US. Customary System for unit consisten Specifying piping and tubing for a particular applica- tion is the responsibility of the designer and it has a signifi- cant impact on the cost, if, safety, and performance of the system. For many applications, codes and standards must be followed as established by U.S. governmental agencies or ‘organizations such as the following: ‘American Water Works Association (AWWA) American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) ASTM International (ASTM) [Formerly American Society for Testing and Materials] [NSF International (NSF) (Formerly National Sanitation Foundation] International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) min) \qag in) Standards for various international organizatior should also be consulted, such as: International Organization for Standardization (ISO) British Standards (BS) __Europeass Standards (Es German Standards (DIN) Japanese Standards (IIS) 6.3.1 Steel Pipe General-purpose pipe lines are often constructed of pipe. Standard sizes are designated by the Nominal Pipe (NPS) and schedule number. The nominal size is merely standard designation and it is not used for calculati Schedule numbers are related to the permissible operati pressure of the pipe and to the allowable stress of the steel the pipe. The range of schedule numbers is from 10 to I with the higher numbers indicating a heavier wall thi Because all schedules of pipe of a given nominal size have ‘same outside diameter, the higher schedules have a smi inside diameter. The most complete series of steel pipe a able are Schedules 40 and 80. Data for these two sch are given in SI units and in U.S. Customary System unil “Appendix . Refer to ANSASME Standard B31.1: Piping for a method of computing the minimum accept ‘wall thickness for pipes. See Reference I ‘Nominal Pipe Sizes in Metric Units Because of long experience with manufacturing standard pipe a ing to the standard NPS sizes and schedule numbers, continue to be used often even when the piping syst specified in metric units. In such cases, the DN set of eq Tents has been established by the International Stanization (ISO). The symbol DN is used to designate the inal diameter (diametre nominel) in mm. Appendix F the DN designation alongside the NPS designation. example, a DN 50-mm Schedule 40 steel pipe has the dimensions as a 2-in Schedule 40 steel pipe. .2 Steel Tubing 1d steel tubing is used in fluid power systems, con- heat exchangers, engine fuel systems, and industrial processing systems. Standard inch sizes are designated side diameter and wall thickness in inches. Standard fom in to 2 in for several wall thickness gauges are ted in Appendix G.1. Other diameters and wall thick- are available. Data from Appendix G.1 can be used for problems by selecting the equivalent metric con- data listed in the table. Designers working on all-metric systems should specify ‘made to convenient metric dimensions. Appendix G.2 shows data for a sample set of outside diameters Il thicknesses. Many more choices are available. See sppet Development Association (CDA) develops stan~ for copper tubing made to US. Customary unit sizes. are six types of CDA copper tubing offered, and the ‘of which one to use depends on the application, con- the environment, fluid pressure, and fluid properties. met resource 3 for details on all types and sizes avai Tube dimensions are given in the section called Proper- 3 following are brief descriptions of typical uses: "eK: Used for water service, fuel oil, natural gas, and mnpressed air. spe L: Similar to Type K, but with a smaller wall thick- 9¢ M: Similar to Types K and L, but with smaller wall icknesses; preferred for most water services and heat- applications at moderate pressures. pe DWV: Drain, waste, and vent uses in plumbing 1¢ ACR: Air conditioning, refrigeration, natural gas, uefied petroleum (LP) gas, and compressed air, 1¢ OXY/MED: Used for oxygen or medical gas distri- tion, compressed medical air, and vacuum applica- ons. Available in sizes similar to Types K and L, but th special processing for increased cleanliness. sper tubing is availabe in either a soft, annealed con- ‘or hard drawn. Drawn tubing is stiffer and stronger, ins a straight form, and can carry higher pressures. led tubing. easier to form into coils and other special Nominal or standard sizes for Types K, I, M, and are all { in less than the actual outside diameter. The icknesses are different for each type so that the inside and flow areas vary. This system of dimensions is CHAPTER SIX Flow of Fluids and Bernoulli's Equation 123 sometimes referred to as Copper Tube Sizes (CTS). The nom- inal size for Type ACR tubing is equal to the outside diame- ter. Appendix H gives data for dimensions of Type K tubing, including outside diameter, inside diameter, wall thickness, and flow area in both US. and SI units Copper tubing is also available made to convenient SI metric dimensions, and sample data are included in Appen- dix G.2, See Internet resource 13 for data for a more com- plete set of available sizes. 6.3.4 Ductile Iron Pipe ‘Water, gas, and sewage lines are often made of ductile iron pipe because of its strength, ductility, and relative ease of handling, It has replaced cast iron in many applications. Standard fittings are supplied with the pipe for convenient installation above or below ground, Several classes of duc- tile iron pipe are available for use in systems with a range of pressures, Appendix I lists the dimensions of cement lined, Class 150 pipe for 150 psi (1.03 MPa) service in nominal sizes from 4 to 48 in, Actual inside and outside diameters, are larger than nominal sizes. Other internal linings and coatings are available. Internet resource 4 gives data for all sizes, linings, coatings, and classes. Appendix I gives data for a sample of commercially available ductile iron pipe. In a manner similar to steel pipe, the designation for ductile iron pipe is a nominal inch-size that is only approximately equal to the inside diameter. Actual data from the tables must be used in problem solving. For convenience, the inch-based data are converted to equivalent metric data in the appendix table. 6.3.5 Plastic Pipe and Tubing Plastic pipe and tubing are being used in a wide variety of applications where their light weight, ease of installation, corrosion and chemical resistance, and very good flow characteristics present advantages. Examples are water and. gas distribution, sewer and wastewater, oil and gas pro- duction, irrigation, mining, and many industrial applica~ tions. Numerous types of plastic are used such as polyethylene (PE), cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), poly- amide (PA), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), polyvinyli- dene fluoride (PDP), food-grade vinyl, and nylon. See Internet resources 6-9 and 14. Because some plastic pipe and tubing serve the same markets a5 metals for which special size standards have been common for decades, many plastic produets conform to ‘existing standards of NPS, Ductile Iron Pipe Sizes (DIPS), oF CTS. Specific manufacturers data for outside diameter (OD), inside diameter (ID), wal thickness, and flow area should be confirmed. Plastic pipe is also made to convenient metric sizes. Appendix G.3 lists examples of commercially available sizes ‘of PVC plastic pipes. Many more sizes can be found at Inter- net resource 14, In addition to dimensions and flow area, Appendix G.3 lists the pressure ratings for the given sizes.124__ CHAPTER SIX Flow of Fluids and Bernoulli's Equation ‘Commonly used pressure ratings include 6 bar (87 psi), 10 bar (145 psi), and 16 bar (232 psi). Note the relationship between diameter, wall thickness, and pressure ratings in the table, Other plastic piping systems use the Standard Inside Dimension Ratio (SIDR) or Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR). The SIDR system is based on the ratio of the aver~ age specified inside diameter to the minimum specified wall thickness (ID/t). It is used where the ID is critical to the application. The ID remains constant and the OD changes with wall thickness to accommodate different pressures and structural and handling considerations. The SDR is based on the ratio of the average specified outside diameter to the minimum specified wall thickness (OD/t) ‘The OD remains constant and the ID and wall thickness change. The SDR system is useful because the pressure rat- ing of the pipe is directly related to this ratio. For example, for plastic pipe with a hydrostatic design stress rating of 1250 psi (11 MPa), the pressure ratings for different SDR ratings are as follows: SDR __ Pressure Rating 6 50 psi (345 KPa) a 162 psi (427 WP) 7 £0 psi (652 hPa) 135 100 psi (690 kPa) ‘These pressure ratings are for water at 73°F (23°C). In general, plastic pipe and tubing can be found rated up to 250 psi (1380 kPa). See Internet resource 6. 6.3.6 Hydraulic Hose Reinforced flexible hose is used extensively in hydraulic fluid power systems and other industrial applications where flow lines must flex in service. Hose materials include buty! rubber, synthetic rubber, silicone rubber, thermoplastic elastomers, and nylon. Braided reinforce ment may be made from steel wire, Kevlar, polyester, and fabric. Industrial applications include steam, compressed air, chemical transfer, coolants, heaters, fuel transfer, ubti- cants, refrigerants, paper stock, power steering fluids, pro ane, water, foods, and beverages. SAE International Standard J517, Hydraulic Hose, defines many standard types and sizes according to their pressure rating and flow capacity. Sizes include inside diameters of 3/16, % 5/16, 3/8, %, 5/8, % 1, 1M, V4, 2, 24, 3, 344, and 4 in. Pressure ratings range from 35 psig to over 10 000 psig (240 KPA to 69 MPa) to cover high-pressure fiuid power and hydraulic jacking applications to low-pressure suction and return lines and low-pressure fluid transfer applications, See Internet resources 11 and 12. 6.4 RECOMMENDED VELOCITY OF FLOW IN PIPE AND TUBING Many factors affect the selection of a satisfactory velocity of flow in fluid systems. Some of the important ones are the type of fluid, the length of the flow system, the type of pipe or tube, the pressure drop that can be tolerated, the devices, (eg, pumps, valves, tc.) that may be connected to the pipe ‘or tube, the temperature, the pressure, and the noise. ‘When we discussed the continuity equation in Section 6.2, wwe leamed that the velocity of flow increases as the area of the flow path decreases. Therefore, smaller tubes will cause higher velocities and larger tubes will provide lower velocities. Later we will explain that energy losses and the corresponding pressure drop increase dramatically as the flow velocity increases. For this reason itis desirable to keep. the velocities low. Because larger pipes and tubes are more costly, however, some limits are necessary. Figure 6.3 provides very rough guidance for specifying pipe sizes as a function of volume flow rate for typical pumped fluid distribution systems. The data were abstracted from an analysis of the rated volume flow rate. for many commercially available centrifugal pumps oper ating near their best efficiency point and observing the size of the suction and discharge connections, In general, the flow velocity is kept lower in suction lines providing flow into a pump to ensure proper filling of the suction inlet passages. The lower velocity also helps to limit energy losses in the suction line, keeping the pressure at the pump inlet relatively high to ensure that pure liquid enters t pump. Lower pressures may cause a damaging conditi called cavitation to occur, resulting in excessive noise, si nificantly degraded performance, and rapid erosion pump and impeller surfaces. Cavitation is discussed fully in Chapter 13. ‘Note that specifying one size larger or one size sm: than indicated by the lines in Fig. 6.3 will not affect the formance of the system very much. In general, you shot favor the larger pipe size to achieve a lower velocity unk there are difficulties with space, cost, or compatibility wit given pump connection, The resulting flow velocities from the recommen pipe sizes in Fig, 6.3 are generally lower for the smaller pi and higher for the larger pipes, as shown for the followi data, sgalinin | 1023 i007 500 14 2000454