ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine the budgeting behaviors of highschool students
(seniors). Budgeting behaviors were operationally defined as students' spending and financial
planning behaviors. These behaviors were studied by tracking participant expenditures and
income of one (1) month and administering electronic survey questions. The study was
conducted at a large, public, research university, and was designed to answer the following
research questions:
1. How do senior highschool students spend their money?
2. What are the budgeting behaviors of senior highschool students?
3. Are there differences in budgeting behaviors between senior highschool students and junior
highschool students who are in the same campus?
4. Are there gender differences between budgeting behaviors of senior highschool students?
A sample of 30 highschool students (juniors and seniors) who had moved directly from
elementary to highschool participated in the study. Participants tracked their expenses and
income of a one month period using computerized spreadsheets. These data were analyzed to
determine participants' spending behaviors and to examine differences by gender and place of
residence. Participants also responded to survey questions that investigated their budgeting
behaviors. Responses from these questions were analyzed to identify themes about the budgeting
behaviors of juniors and seniors highschool.
The results of this study provided some interesting information about highschool students'
budgeting behaviors. Several conclusions were drawn. First, students failed to budget effectively
because they spent more than they earned. Across all groups, students' expenditures totaled more
than their income. Second, students' comments regarding their budgeting behaviors were found
to reflect either good or poor ratings. This suggests that while some students seem to have welldeveloped financial management skills, others do not. Third, off-campus students differ from oncampus students because they have more budgeting experience. Off-campus students seemed to
have developed these budgeting skills by paying monthly bills associated with off-campus living.
Finally, female students spent money on clothes and beauty items, relied on gifts as sources of
income, and seemed more anxious about budgeting than male students. These kinds of behaviors
may reinforce certain stereotypical beliefs about men and women.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
For highschool students (seniors) (18-22 years old), going to college is often
their first experience living independently. These students may need assistance in
developing a number of skills, both cognitive and personal, to transition successfully into
the college environment. The combination of cognitive and personal skills achieved in

college is a measure of student learning.

Cognitive development in higher education traditionally has been the responsibility
of faculty. Faculty members employ in-class techniques such as classroom lectures, lab
experiments, and group projects to facilitate cognitive development. To promote personal
development, student affairs professionals traditionally have used out of class activities.
For instance, student affairs professionals use students involvement in student
organizations, interactive programs, and small group discussions to facilitate personal
development.
In measuring cognitive development, faculty members use traditional methods such
as tests, written reports, and oral examinations. Since student affairs professionals use less
traditional means than faculty to promote personal development, assessing the personal
development that occurs from activities outside of the classroom has remained more
complicated.

Personal development is promoted through student experiences in leadership roles,

living with roommates, and participating in programs that enhance behaviors students will
need in post-graduate life.
In order to develop measures of personal growth from programs and activities
sponsored by student affairs units, it is important to consider what those units are and how
they are intended to influence personal development. Typical units within student affairs
divisions include: new student orientation, residential life, student activities and
organizations, judicial affairs, career development, counseling services, and health
education. New student orientation assists students in their transition from high school to
college. While orientation programs may vary in length from one or two days to an entire
academic year, they typically address the transition issues first-year students face.

Orientation programs primarily focus on course registration and financial aid, but they also
promote personal development. By offering programs and activities that
address substance abuse, sexual assault, and diversity sensitivity, orientation programs
help students learn life skills they will utilize beyond their first year.
Residence life units also assist students with personal development as part of their
mission. This unit typically strives to provide safe, clean, and educational residence halls
for students. While responsibilities in residence life units vary with each institution, most
units deal with more than simply housing students. In order to address personal
development of residential students, many residence life units offer programs and activities
on communication, interpersonal relationships, reducing conflicts, problem solving, and
time management. Wellness models have also been used in residence halls to effectively
program effectively . Wellness programs involve emotional, intellectual,
social, spiritual, physical, and career development topics. By including
such broad program topics, residence life units address personal development.
Another unit that promotes personal development is student activities and
organizations. This unit typically handles the student activities and recreational interests
that supplement the universitys academic mission. Some student activities offices also
assume responsibility for community service and leadership programs. Leadership
development, communication, and event planning are some of the personal development
skills promoted by student activities and student organization offices.
Judicial affairs units also foster personal development among students. Judicial
affairs units are generally charged to create, interpret, and police campus policies and
standards (Sandeen, 1996). These units are also responsible for students personal
development through participation in the universitys judicial process.
Student affairs professionals in career centers promote personal development

through career development activities . From cooperative education programs where

students intern with companies in their field to mock interviews to resume workshops to
career interests inventories, career development programs help students develop behaviors
that may assist them as they pursue a career.
Students also have emotional needs that the counseling units may address.
Counselors help students learn about themselves, their behaviors, and their interactions
with others. Programs and activities sponsored by counseling centers include workshops
that assist students in dealing with their stress, homesickness, long distance relationships,
and roommate conflicts (Sandeen, 1996).
Health education offices collaborate with various other university and community
services to help promote personal development among students. Health educators
emphasize the importance of good health. Through their programs, students learn about
body image disorders, fitness, nutrition, safer sex, substance abuse, and sun sensibility
among others. Programs inform students so they can make educated decisions about their
health. Students who make healthy lifestyle choices in regard to their physical well being
may avoid health complications in the future.
In general, then, student affairs professionals offer an array of services designed to
promote personal development in a variety of ways. But do these services address all the
skills students need to succeed in post-graduate life? There is some reason to suggest that
certain elements of personal development are not currently addressed in student affairs
practice. One such element relates to financial management.
Students will need financial management skills if they are to succeed after they leave
college. Some students have mastered financial management prior to entering college by
gaining an understanding of budgeting skills through high school courses and/or familial
influences. Other students may rely on parents to manage their money during the college

years. While some college students have mastered basic financial management, others may
graduate from college with a limited understanding of how to manage their resources.
Regardless of their degree of expertise in financial management, many college students
may have limited experience handling their money.
Since few traditional-age college students have lived independently before enrolling
in college, they may not have a clear understanding of expected expenses. For instance,
students may fail to budget for textbooks or parking fines. From telephone bills to car
insurance to entertainment, the expenses of college students vary, but common expenses
can be identified to help students better manage their money. If students do not have an
adequate understanding of expected expenses, they may mismanage their money.
A lack of information about possible expenditures coupled with underdeveloped
financial management behaviors may lead to financial crises. Financial crises can lead to
poor credit ratings, bankruptcy, and unanticipated money shortages. Therefore, student
affairs professionals can significantly help students by giving them information, teaching
skills, and guiding behaviors.
Financial management behaviors include making investment decisions, managing
credit, selecting appropriate insurance plans, and planning a budget by knowing daily
expenses and income (Garman & Forgue, 1988). After acquiring knowledge about day-today
expenses and income, people can estimate future income and expenses, which allows
them to develop financial management behaviors.
Budgeting may be a financial management skill that college students lack. Indeed,
research reveals that more than 50% of college students cannot properly define the word
budget (Buttner, 1997). Therefore, estimating their income (e.g., salary, gifts from
parents), regular expenses (e.g., credit card bills, insurance, food), and unexpected
expenses (e.g., car repairs, hospital bills) may be a challenge for college students.

While budgeting is one challenging component of financial management, overall financial

management may be even more difficult for college students. In fact, research has shown
that students rank finances as a major source of stress (Archer & Lamnin, 1985; Murphy
& Archer, 1996).
Despite the importance of this topic in the lives of college students, limited research
has been conducted on the financial management skills of such students. The few studies
involving the financial management skills of students focus on money management, credit
card debt, and student budgeting. Specifically, scholars have discussed the development of
the money management behaviors among high school students (Murdy, 1995; Rush, 1995;
Schuchardt, Danes, Swanson, & Westbrook, 1991; Susswein, 1995; Varcoe & Wright,
1991). Programs to develop high school students money management knowledge and
behaviors have been established and evaluated (Murdy, 1995; Rush, 1995; Schuchardt,
Danes, Swanson, & Westbrook, 1991; Susswein, 1995).
Research on the overall money management skills of college students shows that
students have very little knowledge about their finances (Anderson, Camp, Kiss, Wakita,
Weyeneth, & Fitzsimmons, 1993; Archer & Lamnin, 1985; Danes & Hira, 1987; Jackson
& Pogue, 1983; Susswein, 1995). For instance, students cannot explain who controls
interest rates on home loans or how they affect their finances (Susswein, 1995).
Another financial management skill, managing credit, has been studied by investigating the
credit card debt of college students (Brobeck, 1992; Danes & Hira, 1986; Murdy, 1995;
Rush, 1995; Susswein, 1995). Sixty-one percent of college students own at least one
credit card (Susswein, 1995), and research suggests that college students manage their
credit cards in different ways. Some remit only the minimum balance due at the end of
each month while others pay their balances in full (Murdy, 1995; Rush, 1995).
Other scholars have examined student budgeting behaviors and offered recommendations

on how to improve student budgeting skills. Lohse (1995) suggested that most college
students are unwise spenders with poor budgeting behaviors who may need guidance in
planning their budgets. Students could learn from budgeting their expenses and income
instead of relying on parents or other care providers to manage their finances (Jackson &
Pogue, 1983; Lohse, 1995; Weinstein, 1982).
Since understanding ones expenditures and income is a component of budgeting,
Nick (1997) studied the spending habits of traditional-aged college freshmen and
sophomores at the same institution as the present study. In this study, participants logged
their spending over a three-week period of time. Participants also answered questions
concerning how and where they learned their financial management behaviors. Among
other results, Nick found that some students spend five times more than their income in a
given month, and that most students learn their financial management behaviors from their
families. However, Nick focused on how and where students spend their money, not
whether those expenses are part of a planned budget. Research examining how students
budget their finances is limited.
Literature regarding college students financial management behaviors and, specifically, student
budgeting behaviors is limited. While Nick (1997) investigated the spending habits of
students, further research should explore student financial planning behaviors. Nick also
only examined lower division students, and few studies have focused on the financial
management of upper division students. Upper division students who have attended
college for at least three years may have developed quality financial management
behaviors that differ from lower division students. Therefore, this study was designed to
address this gap in the existing budgeting literature by studying the budgeting behaviors of
upper division students.
Significance of the Study

Several constituencies might be interested in the results of the present study: chief
student affairs officers (CSAOs), student affairs practitioners, parents, and students. The
results may be useful to CSAOs when they consider new programs. CSAOs review
existing programs and suggest new services which may be needed on campus. The results
of the present study may lead CSAOs to evaluate the programs and activities offered on
their campuses that address students budgeting behaviors. If no such programs or
activities exist, CSAOs may want to use the results of this study to guide the
implementation of such services.
Practitioners who provide programs and services for students may also be interested
in information on upper-division students budgeting behaviors. They may want to use the
results of the present study to address students budgeting behaviors through workshops,
bulletin boards, and conversations.
When students do not budget their money effectively, parents often are required to
compensate for their mistakes. For example, students may underestimate the cost of long
distance phone calls. When telephone bills arrive that students cannot pay, many make
another phone call to their parents to ask for financial help. Therefore, parents may be
interested in the information on students budgeting behaviors that resulted from this
study. The findings may guide their conversations with students about how to effectively
budget monies.
Students could also benefit from results of this study because they may learn from
other students budgeting behaviors. Understanding common college expenditures may
enable students to learn what to include in their budgets. Students may also use the
findings to compare their budgeting behaviors to those of the participants in the study.
This information may assist in developing their budgeting behaviors.
While this study provided practical information to various constituencies, it might

also be used as a catalyst for future research. Future researchers may wish to examine the
budgeting behaviors of students who have completed a personal finance program that
included budget training. The results from such a study might suggest if training affects
budgeting behaviors.
Others may want to investigate students at various institutional types (e.g., small
versus large schools; liberal arts versus research institutions). Different types of
institutions attract different types of students. Researchers may find differences in
budgeting behaviors among students at different types of schools.
Finally, scholars may want to examine the budgeting behaviors of student subgroups
(e.g., student leaders, Greeks, athletes). The results from such a study may suggest
that different experiences affect students budgeting behaviors in different ways.
The present study, then, has significance for both future practice and future
research. Few studies have investigated the financial management behaviors or knowledge
of college students, and even fewer have studied students budgeting behaviors. This study
is significant because it broadens the base of literature on college students financial
management behaviors. By examining college students budgeting behaviors, this study
also informs several interested populations and serves as a catalyst for future research.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of the literature revealed four areas related to the present study. The first
area focused on various elements of money management. These studies examine attitudes
toward money management, money management knowledge, and money management and
technology. Since money management is one aspect of budgeting behaviors, this literature
seemed particularly germane. The second area, credit card debt, was relevant because a

large percentage of college students use credit cards. In the third section of the literature
review, student budgeting was examined because these studies investigated how college
students manage their income and expenditures. In each of these first three areas,
demographic characteristics are noted because the present study focuses on characteristics
of gender and place of residence. The final section examines a recent study on the financial
management of college freshmen and sophomores (Nick,1997). The present study
employed a modified version of Nicks methodology so it was important to review this
particular study in some detail.
Money Management
Money management studies have examined attitudes toward money management,
education on money management for both high school and college students, money
management knowledge, and money management and technology. Each is relevant to the
present discussion.
Attitudes Toward Money Management
Attitudes toward money management reveal the degree of importance people place
on managing their finances. For some, money management may cause stress while others
handle this responsibility with ease. In studying stressors of college students, Archer and
Lamnin (1985) and Murphy and Archer (1996) investigated undergraduates via a survey
that elicited demographic information and responses to two open-ended questions.
Participants described two stressful situations that they faced as college students . In their
responses, participants recalled difficult situations (e.g., when they failed to know the
answers to a test; arguments with their friends). Some responses discussed situations that
involved finances. In fact, when students ranked their most stressful experiences, finances
ranked in the top one or two for over 27% of the participants in each study. Since over a
quarter of the participants identified finances as a source of stress in studies conducted

eleven years apart, these results suggest that money management for college students
serves as a stressor.
In another study involving finances and college students, Heckroth (1993)
measured the money management attitudes of college students to determine how he could
structure a class he was teaching. He surveyed students enrolled in a spring semester class
and a fall semester class. Using a Likert-type scale, the students responded to 16 questions
concerning money management. Results were used to guide class discussion. Most
students agreed that family members should discuss money management. Other students
felt that marketing increases spending. The majority of participants also agreed that saving
should be an important part of money management. However, the students disagreed
about the appropriate time for informing teenagers about family finances, allowances for
teenagers, and paying rent while living at home following graduation. Since students
agreed that families should discuss money management but disagreed about when to
inform younger people about finances, the results imply that students can be confused
about money management.
Another study on attitudes of college students employed the Money Attitude
Scale. This two-part instrument measures attitudes about money on three scales: powerprestige,
complaining-doubting, and retention-time attitudes. The power-prestige scale
measures the degree to which respondents feel that acquiring money is a symbol of
success while the doubting-complaining scale measures the degree to which respondents
agonize or have doubts about money. The retention-time scale measures the ability of
respondents to delay self-gratification. Results revealed that college students report low
power and prestige attitudes, and students receiving need-based financial aid have high
doubting and complaining attitudes toward finances. Such results may reflect a lack of
financial experience or limited incomes on the part of college students (Andersen, et. al,

1993).
Money Management Education
Research on attitudes toward money management suggests that parents should
teach their children money management, and students report that they gain their financial
management behaviors primarily from their families (Moschis & Churchill, 1978).
Therefore, understanding parental perceptions of what and how children learn about
managing their finances seems important.
Danes (1994) conducted one such study, and found that parents believe children
should start budget training at age nine. Such budget training should include earning
income and budgeting how to spend that income. Parents also reported that 12-year-olds
should understand the basic principles of financial management (e.g., intelligent spending,
saving for the future). They believed that only people over age 18 should have credit cards
because younger people have not developed enough financial experience to manage credit
responsibly. Even though budget training should begin early, parents feel that children
should not be involved in or know about the familys financial decisions. Therefore,
studying upper-division students budgeting behaviors after they have been away from
their familys direct supervision for several years seems relevant.
Teaching financial management behaviors to Americas youth has been the topic of
several studies (Murdy, 1995; Rush, 1995; Schuchardt, Danes, Swanson, & Westbrook,
1991; Susswein, 1995; Varcoe & Wright, 1991). Visa and Mastercard, two major credit
card companies, have designed educational courses for high school students which over
10,000 high schools are using (Murdy, 1995). These financial education programs focus
on helping high school students learn financial decision making and budgeting skills, and
fiscal management practices. The Visa program uses computers to help students make a
series of financial decisions for fictional characters. As a result, students learn the

immediate and extended effects of financial decisions. The Mastercard program focuses
on teaching financial behaviors such as the rights of credit card holders, how to avoid
credit fraud, how to secure a financial future, the use of ATM cards, and intelligent
spending habits (Rush, 1995).
Other educational programmers suggest that high school students need to
understand credit card debt better. For instance, students should know how long it takes
to pay credit card balances if they only remit the minimum payment each month. They also
should understand the benefits and costs of credit cards, and the effects that bad credit
ratings may have on future borrowing and careers. By mismanaging credit, students can
impact their future. For example, employers often investigate credit ratings of job
candidates as part of their review of candidate qualifications for positions. If candidates
have poor credit backgrounds, employers may assume they would be irresponsible
employees (Susswein, 1995).
Schuchardt et al. (1991) reported that several states have attempted to design
educational programs for students. These programs focus on how experiential spending
needs to be complemented by financial management literacy. Such programs empower
students by teaching them household budgeting behaviors and credit and savings
management tactics. This study described programs in over 20 states. Nearly 20 other
states offer six-unit courses that cover basic financial knowledge and behaviors as part of
their curricula. In 1990-91, more than 60,000 students participated in these high school
classes.
Taking a slightly different approach, New Yorks program is a collaborative effort
between the states Banking and Education Departments. This program consists of a 50minute video shown in a mandatory economics classes comprised primarily of high school
seniors and a nine-unit curriculum on consumer management for younger teenagers.

While this article described various programs, the researchers failed to assess students
learning from these instructional programs. Therefore, more assessment of money
management education programs seems to be needed (Schuchardt et al., 1991).
Money Management Knowledge
While some studies have investigated how students feel about money management
and how they may acquire money management behaviors, other scholars have researched
students money management knowledge.
A study involving high school students (Theyre ignorant, 1997) found that high
school students could only correctly answer 57% of the questions on a test about financial
knowledge. In this study, a survey was administered to 1,509 high school seniors. The
results revealed a general lack of understanding about money management among
respondents. For example, participants reported that they have no liability if someone
steals their credit card. Even though 72% of the participants had checking or savings
accounts, 32% of respondents stated that they do not have to pay taxes on dividends
earned from those saving accounts. The study also revealed that 58% of respondents
report learning about financial management from their parents while 11% learn such
behaviors in school. If results revealed that students have limited financial knowledge and
students report that they learn about finances primarily from their parents, it is reasonable
to suggest that many parents have limited knowledge about managing finances. Certainly,
national trends that reveal an increased number of personal bankruptcies and inadequate
retirement savings suggest that parents may benefit from some remediation with respect to
managing finances.
Danes and Hira (1987) suggested that very little research has been conducted on
financial knowledge of college students. The researchers investigated college students
credit card, personal loan, insurance, and record keeping knowledge. They found that

students correctly answered 82% of the questions about record keeping, followed by
73% of questions about personal loans, 57% of items about credit cards, and 49% of
questions on insurance. Overall, 75% of the questions were answered correctly. But other
findings raised a question as to whether students apply their financial knowledge to their
financial behaviors. For instance, the participants could define what Annual Percentage
Rates (APRs) on credit cards mean, but did not know the actual APRs on their credit
cards. The results also revealed that males scored better on credit card and personal loan
knowledge while females scored higher on record keeping.
Susswein (1995) reported that college students financial knowledge may need
some remediation. This study found that 70% of those studied did not understand how
one establishes and maintains grace periods for late payments while 78% could not explain
the impact of APRs on loan repayments, and 70% of the juniors and seniors examined
could not state who controls interest rates on loans.
Overall, the research on money management knowledge suggests that people have
limited knowledge about this topic. As a way to gain better money management skills,
people have begun using personal computers and other types of technology to learn how
to manage their money.
Money Management and Technology
Recently, students have started using new technologies to access their funds. This
technology includes banking over the telephone or through a personal computer, using
automated tellers machines (ATMs), and using debit cards that are similar in use to credit
cards but deduct funds from banking accounts rather than borrowing money from credit
card companies. Churaman (1985) found that college students who use various types of
electronic banking features (e.g., ATMs, debit cards) feel they have better financial control
of their money. The results also revealed that students who use electronic features are

classified as spenders rather than savers. Even though students perceive they have more
control over their money, they still do not save.
Several money management software packages are currently on the market. These
include Quicken, Microsoft Money, and several other computer programs that assist in
tracking, budgeting, and managing finances. Since over 85% of the students at the
university under study in the present study own personal computers, the impact of
technology on financial management seems relevant.
Credit Card Debt
With increasing numbers of college students using credit cards (Bradshaw & Lush,
1993), credit card debt studies on college students have concentrated on the use of credit
cards and attitudes toward credit card debt. The findings from credit card debt studies
suggest students use credit cards differently and their attitudes toward credit card debt
vary.
Use of Credit Cards
Credit card use among college students has become widespread. Susswein (1995)
reported that 61% of college students have credit cards and 32% of college students
acquire a credit card before entering college. Furthermore, college students are acquiring
credit cards at a rate that is 20% higher than any other population.
While college students are acquiring credit cards, Murdy (1995) reported that they
seem to manage their credit card debt responsibly. While the average college student who
uses a credit card earns $4,500 per year, 97% of college students pay their bills on time. In
addition, 55% of college students pay off their credit card debt each month, and 90% have
some type of self-earned income.
Other studies, however, refute some of Murdys findings, particularly with respect
to payment practices. Bradshaw and Lush (1993) surveyed 495 college students about

their credit card levels of debt and payment practices. They found that 82% of participants
charge less than $200 per month while 12% charge between $201 and $400 per month.
The researchers also reported that 22% of the respondents pay the minimum payment
required each month, 43% pay more than the minimum but less than half of the total due,
while 27% pay their balances each month in full. The researchers also asked students if
they make their payments on time, and 85% report they do. Another question asked
participants about the number of credit cards they own and how they acquired their credit
cards. Among participants, 50% have three or more credit cards, 20% have two credit
cards, 20% have one credit card, and 12% have no credit cards. Eighty-six percent of the
participants applied for credit cards while 31% received their credit cards through
unsolicited mailings. While this study collected demographic information about the
participants, results of credit card practices by demographic characteristics were not
reported.
Attitudes Toward Credit Card Debt
Understanding attitudes toward credit card debt may suggest how and why people
manage their finances. In a recent study, Brobeck (1992) conducted a national survey to
determine consumers attitudes about four issues pertinent to credit cards: their value in
everyday life; worries about payment; costs; and, need for additional knowledge. The
researcher found that 55% of consumers are worried and 40% are very concerned about
their credit card debt. Most participants envision credit cards as a convenience rather a
necessity. These two findings suggest that even though consumers worry about debt,
credit cards are not considered essential for financial management.
22
In a related study, Danes and Hira (1986) investigated the credit card attitudes of
household money managers. They found that household income and exposure to higher

education correlates positively with credit attitude. Money managers with advanced
education and higher incomes have more favorable credit card attitudes. If a positive
correlation exists between credit card debt attitudes and the amount of exposure to higher
education, then understanding exactly how higher education may impact such attitudes
seems relevant. Furthermore, knowing college students budget behaviors may lead to
further understanding about adult attitudes toward credit cards and money management.
Student Budgeting
In trying to understand how different types of college students budget their money,
Jackson and Pogue (1983) studied students expense budgets. They found that males and
females spend money differently at various times in their academic careers. Female seniors
pay more for rent than male seniors. Also, females are more likely to pay extra for better
living spaces.
Several scholars have offered advice about student budgeting (Lohse, 1997;
Weinstein, 1982). Weinstein (1982) identified how much beyond basic costs of tuition,
room, and board it costs to attend college. The researcher elicited this information by
asking parents, administrators, and students to recall how much they spent beyond the
basic costs. Students expenses were classified into three categories: transportation, books
and supplies, and personal needs. In looking at these categories, Weinstein found that
students financial expenditures beyond the basic costs can exceed $2,000 per year.
The study also elicited information on student incomes which were categorized as either
self-earned or family gifts. Seventy percent of college students rely on self-earned income
23
from either summer jobs or current part-time employment to pay for college expenses. If
the majority of college students depend upon summer savings to cover their expenses
throughout a semester, then these students must possess budgeting skills conducive to

using primarily savings to pay for expenses. Also, since college students tend to be
chaotic budgeters (Weinstein, 1982, p. 102), knowing typical expenditures and sources
of income may assist parents and students to better budget during the college years.
In a more recent study, Lohse (1995) offered further suggestions for student
budgeting that may ease the financial adjustment to college living. Students should know
that their budgets should include expenses for food, telephone use, clothes, cable, on-line
computer access, and transportation. If students live off-campus, then they should add rent
and electric bills to their monthly expenditures. Students should also understand that they
have responsibility for paying bills in their name even if roommates do not reimburse them
on time. Lohse emphasizes that students need to realize the length of time credit card
repayment takes when they only remit the minimum payment each month. For example, if
students charge $1,700 on a credit card and only pay the minimum monthly payment, then
it takes eight years to repay the credit card company (Lohse, 1995).
Lohse (1995) advises family conversations. Family members should discuss what
costs they will cover (e.g., car loans, insurance) and what the student will pay to cover
college expenses. By communicating about financial matters, families may facilitate
planning while avoiding any miscommunication about who covers which costs. Identifying
financial responsibilities among family members may assist students in regulating their
spending habits because they will know what costs they must cover.
24
College Students Spending Behaviors
Studies regarding college students spending behaviors have been limited, but a
search of the literature revealed one such study. Nick (1997) studied the spending habits
of 17 college freshmen and sophomores. The participants expenses and incomes were
tracked for a three-week period of time using log sheets completed by participants. Data

also included other financial documents (e.g., credit card and bank statements).
Participants were interviewed to investigate their financial decision-making skills and to
better understand their financial behaviors.
The results revealed that developmental issues associated with lower-division
students can be identified through their spending habits. For instance, in this study
freshmen spent more on food and entertainment than did sophomores. In fact, some
students spent as much as five times more than they earn in a month. These findings
suggested that freshmen strive to create social ties more than sophomores (Nick, 1997).
Freshmen and sophomore students may not only be adjusting to life away from
familiar people, but also adjusting to managing their finances independently for the first
time. Therefore, understanding the relationship between families and financial decision
making was examined. Nick found that participants who conversed with their families
about finances have better financial behaviors, but most students do not discuss financial
matters outside of the family.
Summary
This review of the literature revealed the trends that have occurred in research
related to financial management. Studies have investigated money management skills by
examining attitudes toward money management, education on money management for
25
both high school and college students, money management knowledge, and money
management and technology. The findings on this topic suggests that while a few
educational programs on money management exist, more programs are needed because
money management knowledge is so limited.
Credit card debt has been studied in terms of credit card use and attitudes toward
credit cards while other scholars have offered suggestions for student budgeting. Results

from credit card studies vary in their reports of consumer behavior and attitudes toward
credit card debt. However, since the college student population acquires credit cards at a
20% higher rate than any other group, additional research may clarify some discrepancies
in recent findings.
Finally, with limited literature on financial management behaviors of college
students, this review identified only one study that investigated spending habits of college
students. Nick (1997) found that college freshmen and sophomores spending habits can
be indicative of their developmental tasks. Along with these developmental tasks, the
results suggest that students overspend by as much as five times more than they earn.
While these studies provide insight into various topics related to student budgeting,
few studies have concentrated on how college juniors and seniors make decisions about
spending money. Furthermore, studies examining financial planning behaviors of college
students are limited. Few researchers have investigated if differences exist between college
students who reside on campus and those who live off campus or between genders. With
so few studies conducted on spending habits and financial planning behaviors of college
students, the present study fills a gap in the literature by investigating these factors. Since
26
Nick (1997) examined lower-division students and the present study focuses upon upperdivision
students, this study adds further to the literature on this topic.
27
CHAPTER THREE
METHODS
The purpose of this study was to examine budgeting behaviors of upper-division
college students. Participants at a large, public, research university recorded their income
and expenses for a three-week period of time, and responded to electronic survey

questions related to their budgeting behaviors. Specifically, this study explored the
following research questions:
1. How do traditional-aged upper-division students spend their money?
2. What are the budgeting behaviors of traditional-aged upper-division
students?
3. Are there differences in budgeting behaviors between traditional-aged
upper-division students who live off campus and those who live on
campus?
4. Are there gender differences between budgeting behaviors of traditionalaged
upper-division students?
Nick (1997) studied the financial management behaviors of traditional-aged freshmen
and sophomores. She investigated students spending habits as well as how and where
students learned their financial management behaviors. In the Nick study, students
recorded their expenditures and income on logs sheets for a three-week period. Nick also
interviewed students to gain further insight about their spending habits and to examine
how and where they learned their financial management behaviors. In her conclusions, she
offered suggestions about how future scholars might wish to study budgeting behaviors of
college students.
28
Using Nicks suggestions, the researcher modified how students tracked their
expenditures and income for the present study in several ways. First, the researcher
required students to use computerized spreadsheets for tracking their expenses and
income. By implementing a computerized spreadsheet, the researcher could better
manage the data from a larger sample size.
Second, the researcher modified Nicks expenditure and income categories. Nick

had created a list of categories into which her participants placed their expenditures and
income to identify where they spent and gained money. Nicks list included categories
such as food, entertainment, and rent. The current study expanded upon this list by
adding subcategories. For instance, while Nicks study did not differentiate between fast
food and restaurant expenditures, the present study made those changes in the categories
of expenses.
Sampling Techniques
Sample
The sample for this study included 32 traditional-aged upper-division students (16
juniors and 16 seniors). Participants were full-time students at the university under study
during the fall semester of 1997. Of these 32 participants, 16 resided on-campus and 16
lived off-campus. A stratified purposeful sample of traditional-aged undergraduates was
selected. Specifically, the sample consisted of 8 junior females, 8 junior males, 8 senior
females, and 8 senior males (N=32). For each of the two academic classifications (juniors
and seniors), four of the males lived on campus and four lived off campus. Likewise, in
each of the two academic classifications, four females lived on campus and another four
lived off campus.
29
For purposes of this study, traditional-aged undergraduates were defined as 18 to
24-year-old students who initially enrolled at the university in the fall following their high
school graduation and who remained continuously enrolled for each year thereafter prior
to the time of the study (October, 1997). On-campus participants had lived on campus
throughout their college careers while off-campus participants had lived on campus only
during their first year in college. By studying on-campus participants who had lived only
on campus while at college, the researcher controlled for any budgeting behaviors that offcampus

living might have facilitated. By studying off-campus participants who lived oncampus
only during their first year in college, the researcher controlled for the length of
time participants had to develop any budgeting behaviors that off-campus living might
have facilitated.
On-campus juniors were defined as full-time students in their third year of college
who graduated from high school in the spring of 1995, and lived in on-campus housing
during the 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98 academic years. Participants who met these
criteria were assumed to have limited experience managing money since they had never
assumed responsibility for paying rent, utilities, or other living expenses associated with
living off campus.
Off-campus juniors were defined as full-time students, in their third year of college
who graduated from high school in the spring of 1995. Since all students at the institution
under study are required to live on campus during their freshmen year, off-campus juniors
lived on campus in 1995-96, but lived in off-campus housing facilities during the 1996-97
and 1997-98 academic years. Participants who matched these criteria were assumed to
30
have more financial obligations since they lived off-campus and paid rent, utilities, and
other living expenses associated with living off campus.
On-campus seniors were defined as full-time students, in their fourth year of college
who graduated from high school in the spring of 1994, and lived in on-campus housing
during the 1994-95, 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98 academic years. Participants who
matched these criteria were assumed to have less budgeting experience since they had
never assumed responsibility for paying rent, utilities, or other expenses associated with
off-campus living.
Off-campus seniors were defined as full-time students, in their fourth year of

college who graduated from high school in the spring of 1994. Since all students at the
institution under study are required to live on campus during their freshmen year, offcampus
seniors lived on campus in 1994-95, but lived in off-campus housing facilities
during the 1995-96, 1996-97, and 1997-98 academic years. Participants who matched
these criteria were assumed to have more budgeting experience since they had lived offcampus
for three years and paid rent, utilities, and other living expenses associated with
off campus life.
For the purposes of this study, academic standing (e.g., 60 credit hours to be
considered a junior) was not used to determine classification because the number of
earned credits did not seem to relate directly to developing budgeting behaviors. The time
students had lived independently and managed their finances was assumed to have a
greater impact on students budgeting behaviors. Therefore, the number of years students
had been in college was used as the primary selection criterion for including participants in
this study.
31
Sample Selection
To select on-campus participants, the Department of Residential and Dining
Programs (RDP) agreed to allow the researcher to recruit participants from residence halls
that housed primarily juniors and seniors. The researcher posted flyers in these halls that
described the nature of the study, the requirements to participate, and the incentive for
participating (see Appendix A). Interested students were asked to call the researcher for
further information.
On-campus respondents who contacted the researcher were screened to see if they
met the selection criteria (e.g., lived on campus for all three or four years, willing to use
email and computers). Although the studys design called for a sample of 16 on-campus

participants, the first 20 students who contacted the researcher and met the criteria for
inclusion in the study were selected. Each of the four additional participants represented
the characteristics of one of the four on-campus subgroups (i.e., on-campus junior female;
on-campus junior male; on-campus senior female; on-campus senior male). The additional
participants ensured the researcher of 16 respondents in the final analysis of data should
minimal attrition among participants occur over the course of the study.
The selection procedure for the off-campus participants varied slightly from the oncampus
selection technique. In the local area surrounding the university under study, rent
varies by apartment complex in terms of what it covers. For instance, some complexes
may include water, cable television, and phone costs in rent rates while other complexes
may include only water. In an effort to study comparable expenses of juniors and seniors
living in off-campus housing, one large apartment complex was identified. Rent at the
complex under study included water, sewage, and trash, but tenants paid telephone, cable,
32
and other utilities independently which meant they were required to have additional
budgeting skills. Off-campus participants were chosen from this complex.
The company that managed the complex gave the researcher permission to post
flyers throughout the complex to solicit participants. The flyers used to recruit on-campus
participants were also used to recruit off-campus participants (see Appendix A).
Off-campus respondents who contacted the researcher were screened to see if they
met the selection criteria (e.g., lived off campus for after their freshmen year, willing to
use email and computers). Again, the studys designed called for a sample of 16 offcampus
participants, but the first 20 students who contacted the researcher and met the
criteria for inclusion in the study were selected. Each of the four additional participants
represented the characteristics of one of the four off-campus subgroups (i.e., off-campus

junior female; off-campus junior male; off-campus senior female; off-campus senior male).
The additional participants ensured the researcher of 16 respondents in the final analysis of
data should minimal attrition among participants occur over the course of the study.
Sample Screening Criteria
The researcher created certain criteria to screen potential participants. During initial
phone conversations with potential respondents, the researcher asked the volunteers a
series of questions to see if they met the criteria necessary for inclusion in the study (see
Appendix B). These questions were designed to identify participants who met the criteria
necessary for inclusion in the sample and who were willing to meet the requirements of
participating in the study.
Criteria for all participants included a willingness to use computers. Since the
participants were required to transpose handwritten log sheets to an Excel spreadsheet,
33
participants needed either to know how to use Excel or be willing to learn how to use this
software package.
Participants also had to be able and willing to use email to submit responses to
survey questions electronically. Periodically, throughout the study, participants were sent
survey questions via email to which they responded. Therefore, participants needed to
either to know how to use email or to be willing to learn how to use it.
At the end of the telephone conversation, the researcher assessed whether callers
met the criteria. If they met the criteria, the researcher informed the respondent about the
participation requirements and incentive for the study. If the respondents continued to
express interest, they were selected to participate and the researcher asked them to choose
one of the three instructional meetings to attend. Names, addresses, phone numbers,
gender, and email addresses of those selected to participate were compiled by the

researcher. Appendix B outlines the protocol the researcher used to screen potential
participants.
The sampling techniques resulted in the selection of 40 participants: 5 female oncampus
juniors; 5 male on-campus juniors; 5 female off-campus juniors, 5 male offcampus
juniors; 5 female on-campus seniors; 5 male on-campus seniors; 5 female offcampus
seniors; and, 5 male off-campus seniors. These steps were taken to ensure that
results from 32 participants could be analyzed even if minimal attrition among respondents
occurred in each cell during the three-week data collection period.
34
Data Collection Procedures
The data collection procedures for this study included Participant Instructional
Meetings and Final Review of Documents. Prior to collecting the data, the Institutional
Review Board for Research on Human Subjects at the campus under study approved the
study.
Participant Instructional Meetings
Participants in the study attended one of three instructional meetings where the
requirements for participation were described. A week prior to the meetings, the
researcher contacted the participants to remind them of the meetings. A protocol was
employed at these meetings to avoid any differences in instruction, and the sessions were
audiotaped to ensure that such differences did not occur. The researcher decided that
having smaller and more intimate training sessions to explain the procedures and answer
questions outweighed any disadvantages of conducting multiple training sessions. The
protocol used to guide the instructional meetings is provided in Appendix C.
During the meetings, the researcher reiterated the studys purpose and reviewed
the requirements and responsibilities of participants. The researcher also provided

participants with a timeline for the study and supplied the participants with log sheets and
computer disks for transposing the handwritten log sheets to a spreadsheet format.
The researcher explained that the participants would be required to record all
expenditures and income on log sheets over a three-week period of time (October 24November 19, 1997). Appendix D provides an example of the log sheets given to the
participants. The participants were also required to transfer the information from their
handwritten log sheets to an Excel spreadsheet on disks provided by the researcher. They
35
were told that the researcher would identify a location and time to collect the log sheets
and computer disks at the end of the data collection period.
To ensure that respondents understood how to transfer information to the Excel
spreadsheet, the researcher provided the participants with directions on how to access the
spreadsheet stored on the disk given to them (see Appendix E). The researcher also
distributed a list of computer labs on-campus that participants could use to enter data onto
their disks (see Appendix E). Using a computer and a projection screen, the researcher
demonstrated to the participants how to transpose the handwritten log sheets to the Excel
spreadsheet.
Participants were told to categorize their expenses and income and were provided a
list of categories of expenses and sources of income which they were to use when
completing the handwritten log sheets (see Appendix F). These categories were modified
from Nicks (1997) study by adding categories and providing subcategories to existing
categories. These modification were made to obtain more detailed responses. For instance,
Nick had a theme for food, but did not distinguish between fast food and restaurant
expenses. Therefore, she assumed that food expenses over $10 were placed in the
restaurant subtheme while food expenses under $10 were placed in the fast food

subtheme. In the present study, participants chose subcategories that further described the
food theme.
Participants were instructed to check their email accounts during the three-week
data collection period and to respond to five open-ended questions related to the study
which would be sent to them. The researcher provided the participants with the dates that
questions would be sent (see Appendix G). Participants were informed that follow-up
36
questions might be emailed to them by the researcher to clarify their initial responses or
gather additional information. Therefore, participants were instructed to answer questions
as thoroughly as possible within 48 hours of receiving them.
The researcher chose to ask questions electronically rather than to conduct
personal interviews partly because of recent literature on electronic surveys. Several
studies on using electronic means of collecting data have shown that participants may feel
less inhibited and be more likely to disclose sensitive information when communicating
electronically versus through personal interviews (Kiesler & Sproull, 1986; Synodinos &
Brennan, 1988; Waterton & Duffy, 1984;). Participants may be more likely to disclose
because of a false sense of anonymity in computer responses. The researcher discussed
this false sense of anonymity with participants. While the researcher told participants that
all efforts to protect their confidentiality would be taken, they were made aware of that a
certain amount of risk was associated with their participation.
The researcher explained to the participants that distribution of the electronic
survey questions would be accomplished by using a blind nickname list so recipients could
not identify other participants in the study. The researcher entered each participants email
address into a nickname file that was used when sending the survey questions via email.
When using a nickname file, the researcher also suppressed the participants email

addresses in the nickname file. Therefore, when participants received emails from the
researcher, they would only see the name of the nickname list instead of the addresses of
all participants. By suppressing the email addresses, the researcher protected the identity
of participants and attempted to minimize any contact among participants.
37
The remainder of the instructional meeting was used to answer participants
questions. Since answering some questions would confound the study, the researcher
answered only questions that would not affect the purpose of the study. For instance, the
researcher answered questions about specific categories on the log sheet while questions
about what other studies on the subject of student budgeting behaviors had found were
not answered. Participants were told that all questions that might confound the study
would be answered at the end of the study. The instructional meeting was audiotaped to
ensure that such questions were answered at the end of the study.
Finally, participants signed an informed consent agreement (see Appendix H) to
complete and return the log sheets and computer disks as well as to respond to the email
survey questions. Upon signing this agreement, participants were given $10 of the total
$40 incentive, with the promise of a remaining $30 incentive at the completion of the
project if they met all the requirements of the study. If participants failed to complete their
responsibilities, they were required to reimburse the researcher the $10 initial incentive
and were ineligible to receive the balance of the incentive.
Final Review of Documents
Throughout the study, the researcher contacted the participants via email weekly
to inquire about data collection and to answer any questions. During the third email
message, the researcher informed the participants of dates and times when the researcher
would be available to collect the handwritten log sheets and computer disks. Participants

were then asked to respond as to when they would deliver the materials.
When the participants submitted the handwritten log sheets and computer disks, the
researcher checked the computer disks for accuracy while the participants reviewed their
38
printed responses to the survey questions. The researcher asked any questions to clarify
information pertaining to the handwritten log sheets and disk, and gave the participants an
opportunity to expand upon or modify their logheets and Email responses. Once the
participants reviewed their data and the researcher ensured that the information was
complete, the researcher paid the participants the balance of their incentive, $40.
Data Analysis
The data in this study were collected to examine the participants budgeting
behaviors and financial planning behaviors. In analyzing the data, two processes were
needed: spreadsheet analysis and electronic survey analysis.
Spreadsheet Analysis
Information on where upper-division students spend their money was analyzed
using computerized spreadsheets. All spreadsheets were reviewed for the frequency of
entries and common items were placed into categories.
On the computerized spreadsheets, participants categorized all entries as either
Expenditures or Income. Each entry was then assigned to a theme or a subtheme within
that category. For example, in the Expenditures category, participants assigned all entries
to one of several themes (e.g., Food, Utilities, Entertainment) and one subtheme within
that theme. The Food theme had three subthemes: Grocery, Restaurant, and Fast
Food. If participants bought lunch at a fast food establishment, they logged this
transaction as an expenditure in the Food theme and in the Fast Food subtheme.
In a similar manner, themes for participants income were established, and

participants placed income into various themes and subthemes. For example, the theme
Gift had three subthemes: Birthday, Holiday, and Allowance. If family members
39
gave participants a monthly allowance, then the participant transcribed that as an Income
in the Gift theme and in the Allowance subtheme.
Using these data, a number of calculations were performed. The total amount of
expenses and income per participant were calculated as well as the average number of
transactions per theme and subtheme. Calculations also were performed to find the total
expenses and income within each category.
Once calculations for all individual respondents had been completed, participants
were grouped by type of residence (on- versus off-campus) so that comparisons might be
made between the two groups. Data were then sorted by gender so the researcher could
investigate differences in the spending habits between male and female participants.
However, since the sample was not randomly selected no inferential statistics could be
utilized to compare these data.
Electronic Survey Analysis
The primary purpose of the electronic survey was to collect data concerning
participants budgeting behaviors. For purposes of this study, budgeting behaviors were
defined as students spending habits and financial planning behaviors. While the
spreadsheets collected data about spending habits, the five electronic survey questions
collected data related to various aspects of financial planning behaviors. Every 4 days
throughout the study, the researcher sent participants an email message containing a
question that addressed their budgeting behaviors.
The first electronic survey question dealt with participants knowledge of where
they spent their money. Participants listed their expenditures and described how they made

decisions about those expenditures. The next two survey questions addressed saving for
40
the future. For example, participants were asked to describe their last unexpected expense
and how they handled it. The final two questions examined participants spending plans.
For example, participants were asked to describe the circumstances surrounding a
situation where they could not pay a bill on time. A list of the survey questions and their
relationship to the research questions in the present study is provided in Appendix I.
Upon receiving responses to the survey questions from participants, the researcher
reviewed the responses to insure that participants provided adequate information to
address the research questions. Follow up questions to students responses were sent if the
researcher needed additional information. After reviewing the responses, the researcher
printed them, deleted the message from his electronic file, and removed all identifying
characteristics to ensure confidentiality of the participants. Each printed message was
coded to reflect which sub-groups of the sample it represented (e.g., female, on-campus,
junior).
To analyze the data collected from the electronic survey, a document analysis was
conducted. The researcher carefully examined the survey responses for repeated words,
phrases, and concepts. These repeated words and phrases were grouped according to
common ideas and assigned to themes. For instance, each time participants mentioned
borrowing money from family members, roommates, friends, or significant others, these
comments were placed in the Borrowing theme. Each time participants wrote about
savings or investments, these comments were placed in a Savings theme.
Within each theme, the researcher reviewed each comment and assigned each a
rating of either good, neutral, or poor budgeting behavior. While an already
established instrument that prescribes what constitutes good, neutral, and poor

41
budgeting behaviors would have been ideal, no such instrument or list of characteristics
exists because few scholars have researched the budgeting behaviors of college students.
Since college students differ in their employment, income, and expenses from other adults,
using established instruments that describe the budgeting behaviors of other adults did not
seem appropriate. Therefore, this rating system was designed specifically for this present
study. For example, participants were asked to describe the circumstances surrounding a
situation where they could not pay a bill on time. If participants responded that they had
not paid the bill on time because they had forgotten about the bill, these comments were
assigned a rating of poor because they indicated that participants had misplaced a bill
that they eventually would have to pay and their comments suggested they did not have a
good grasp of their monthly expenses.
Another example of this rating system further illustrates how analysis was
conducted. Participants responded to a question concerning handling extra money. If
participants responded that they invest money by placing extra money in a money market
account, then these comments were assigned an a rating of good because they suggest
that the participants possessed financial planning skills.
Some comments received a neutral rating. For example, participants described
handling extra money. If they stated, I used it to pay more than my usual credit card
payment, then these comments received a neutral rating because the comments suggested
ambiguous financial planning skills. That is, the respondents used the extra money for a
good purpose, but, by indicating they only pay a portion of their credit card bill each
month, suggest that they do not have good financial management skills.
42
After all components had been assigned to themes and ratings within those themes,

the frequency and percentage of each rating for each theme were calculated. The results
were then analyzed by the different groups in the study: male versus female and oncampus
versus off-campus. This enabled the researcher to compare frequencies and ratings
between groups, and respond to the third and fourth research questions posed in this
study.
Authenticity and Trustworthiness
Authenticity refers to the consistency with which data collected relate to the
research questions posed in a study (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This studys authenticity
was enhanced in two ways. First, survey questions were reviewed by several experts to
ensure they would elicit information pertinent to the research questions. This qualitative
technique, called peer review, is one way of enhancing authenticity.
Second, the researcher conducted member checks. Member checks, a technique
frequently used in qualitative research, allow participants opportunities to modify their
responses or to evaluate whether researchers identified the major themes of their
responses (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In this study, member checks were conducted when
participants reviewed their handwritten log sheets and survey responses to modify or
expand upon that information.
Trustworthiness refers to the truthfulness of the data. While there is no way to
know whether respondents have been honest, certain steps can be taken to enhance
trustworthiness. For instance, Miles and Huberman (1994) suggest that collecting data
from two or more sources enhances trustworthiness.
43
Trustworthiness in this study was enhanced in two ways. First, data were collected
by analyzing several documents. By having participants track their spending on log sheets
and respond to electronic survey questions, the researcher obtained two forms of data.

These two data sets provided the researcher information to compare when drawing
conclusions.
Trustworthiness was also enhanced by collecting data common to the population.
Since all students spent money during this three-week period of time, numerous other
participants could have been selected to participate in the study and similar data would
have emerged.
Summary
This study was designed to investigate upper-division college students spending
habits and financial planning behaviors. In order to obtain data, the researcher used a
combination of techniques. Through computerized spreadsheets that reported participants
spending habits, and responses to survey questions about participant financial planning
behaviors, the data collected enabled the researcher to respond to the four research
questions posed in this study.
44
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
To explore the budgeting behaviors of traditional-aged upper division college
students, participants maintained spreadsheets of their expenditures and income for a
three-week period and responded to five electronic survey questions. Results from the
study are presented in this chapter. This chapter begins with a description of the sample
including modifications to sampling techniques. Second, changes to the data collection
procedures involving the analysis of spreadsheets are provided. Next, the results from the
expenditure and income spreadsheets are presented for the all participants and groups
(oncampus,
off-campus, men, women). In terms of the electronic survey, changes in the

analysis of those responses are described. Then, quotations are provided to demonstrate
how responses were rated. Finally, the results from the electronic survey responses are
presented for all participants and groups (on-campus, off-campus, men, women).
Description of the Sample
Solicitation of on-campus participants occurred according to the procedures
outlined in Chapter Three, with one exception. While a sufficient number of on-campus
students expressed interest, the number of on-campus students who attended the
instructional meetings did not meet the total number of participants needed for the study.
After contacting those who either failed to attend an instructional meeting or could not
attend a meeting due to a scheduling conflict, the researcher conducted six individual
instructional meetings to obtain the 10 women and 10 men needed for the sample.
45
In order to gain a clear understanding of students budgeting behavior, the
researcher sought a minimum of 32 students to participate in the study (four groups of
eight students). To address possible attrition during the course of the study, an additional
participant was chosen for each subgroup (on-campus junior men, on-campus junior
women, on-campus senior men, on-campus senior women, off-campus junior men, offcampus
junior women, off-campus senior men, off-campus senior women) which
increased the potential number of participants to 40.
Once the 40 participants were recruited and instructed on the data collection
procedures, the researcher used electronic survey responses to monitor possible attrition.
All participants answered the five electronic survey questions. However, an on-campus
junior male and an off-campus senior female failed to return their spreadsheets. The
researcher attempted to reach the participants via telephone and email to collect this data
but was unsuccessful in those efforts. Therefore, the data from these two participants were

considered incomplete and not included in the analysis. Overall, data from 38 participants
were included in the analysis of the results. For purposes of analysis, each group included
a total of 19 participants (on-campus, off-campus, men, and women).
Analysis of Spreadsheets
The researcher used email to assist in data collection. Participants received an
email message concerning when and where the researcher would be available to collect
their spreadsheets during the week of November 17, 1997. To meet their scheduling
needs, participants chose from the given times to deliver the spreadsheets and review their
survey responses. Once all the participants delivered the spreadsheets and reviewed the
survey responses, the data analysis began. First, the spreadsheets were analyzed.
46
Data on where upper-division students spend their money were analyzed using
computerized spreadsheets. On these spreadsheets, participants categorized all
transactions they conducted during the data collection period as either Expenditures or
Income.
Participants received a list of types of expenditures and income which they used to
assign their expenditures and income to themes and subthemes. In general, participants
complied with this procedure, though there was one exception. Some students placed
selected expenditures in the Miscellaneous theme because they felt these transactions did
not belong in another theme. While some of these expenses were not appropriate for the
given themes, selected expenses logically fit in the established themes. For example, one
participant spent money on jewelry which was not readily identified among the themes
provided to the participants. Therefore, it remained in the Miscellaneous theme.
However, some participants failed to place items into obvious themes. For instance,
several participants paid for a modem pool service. Since a modem pool service is a

regular expense typically paid monthly, this expense should have been placed in the Bills
theme. Participants may have overlooked the Bills theme when assigning this
expenditure. In such cases, the researcher reassigned the expenses to the more appropriate
themes. Since the number of expenditures which were reassigned to themes was limited,
the reassignment of these expenses did not alter the overall results in any significant way.
All Participants
Throughout the three-week period of data collection, the participants reported
1,868 expenditure transactions totaling $18,341.86, or an average of $9.82 per
transaction. These expenditure transactions were assigned to six themes. For example, in
47
the Food theme, the participants conducted 1,375 transactions totaling $7,387.96. Food
transactions accounted for 40% of all expenditures.
Within these six themes, expenditure transactions were placed into subthemes. For
example, in the Food theme, six subthemes existed. Of the 1,375 transactions in the Food
theme, participants conducted a total of 930 transactions in the On-Campus Dining
subtheme totaling $4,019. 95. The average expenditure per transaction in the subtheme
was $4.32 per transaction. Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided
on Table 1.
The participants reported 143 income transactions totaling $15,070.04 during the
three weeks of data collection. This reflects an average of $105.38 per transaction. These
income transactions were placed into three themes. For example, in the Employment
theme, the participants reported 40 transactions totaling $6,106.36, or 41% of all income.
Within the three themes, certain transactions were assigned to subthemes. For example, in
the Employment theme, two subthemes were identified. Of the 40 total transactions
assigned to the Employment theme, participants reported 32 transactions in the Part-time

subtheme totaling $5,318.12. Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided
on Table 2.
On-Campus Participants
The On-Campus participants reported 1,048 expenditure transactions totaling
$7,724.47, or an average transaction of $9.82. Each transaction was assigned to one of
six themes. For example, in the Food theme, the participants reported 818 expenditure
transactions totaling $3,757.62. With an average of $4.59 per transaction, this accounted
48
for 49% of the expenditures of On-Campus participants. Within these themes, certain
expenditure transactions were placed into subthemes. For example, in the Food theme, six
Table 1
Expenditure Summary for All Participants (N=38)
____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of
Expenses
Average
Expenditure
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
___
Food
Grocery store $1,313.46 75 $17.51

Fast Food 739.52 168 4.40

On Campus Dining 4,019.95 930 4.32
Restaurant $776.41 72 10.79
Snacks 339.85 114 2.98
Alcohol 198.77 16 12.42
Subtotal $7,387.96 (40) 1,375 $5.37
Monthly Bills
Rent 2,574.57 10 257.46
Electric 240.50 8 30.06
Phone 639.00 21 30.43
Modem Pool 13.87 2 6.94
Cable 206.07 8 25.76
Credit Card 997.24 18 55.40
49
Subtotal $4,671.25 (25.4) 67 $61.82
Table 1 (continued)
Expenditure Summary for All Participants (N=38)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of
Expenses
Average
Expenditure

per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Automobile
Loan Payment $596.65 3 $198.88
Gasoline 657.92 64 10.28
Maintenance 166.66 7 23.81
Parking Fines 115.00 4 28.75
Rental Car 19.70 1 19.70
Subtotal $1,555.93 (8.4) 79 $19.70
Entertainment
Movies $148.99 22 6.77
Video Rentals 49.19 15 3.28
Music 282.14 17 16.60
Bars/Dance Clubs 72.73 11 6.61
Bowling 61.46 14 4.39
Organization Dues 107.00 5 21.4
Subtotal $721.51 (3.9) 84 $8.59
50
General
Hygiene Products $479.60 48 $9.99
Table 1 (continued)
Expenditure Summary for All Participants (N=38)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses

Amount (%)
Frequency
of
Expenses
Average
Expenditure
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Clothing $1,166.30 39 $29.91
Laundry 112.25 34 3.30
Gifts 785.93 52 15.11
School Supplies 485.34 41 11.84
Subtotal $3,029.42 (16.5) 214 $14.16
Miscellaneous
Banking fees $11.20 1 $11.20
Crafts 73.17 5 14.63
Greek paraphernalia 25.72 1 25.72
Haircut 15.00 2 7.50
Halloween costume 75.82 3 25.27
Jewelry 682.92 1 682.92
Pet supplies 76.54 3 25.51
Postage 11.42 3 3.81
Tanning salon 4.00 1 4.00
51

Subtotal $975.79 (5.3) 19 $51.36

Total $18,341.86 1,868 $9.82
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 2
Income Summary of All Participants (N=38)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Income
Amount (%)
Frequency of
Transactions
Average Income
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Employment
Part-time $5,318.12 32 $166.19
One-time 788.25 8 98.53
Subtotal $6,106.36 (40.5) 40 $152.66
Gifts
Birthday $10.00 1 $10.00
Holiday 5.00 1 5.00
Allowance 5,055.00 20 252.75
Family 1,738.33 36 48.28
Subtotal $6,808.33 (45.1) 58 $117.39
Loan

Tuition refund $450.00 2 $225.00

Acquaintance 648.35 15 43.22
Summer savings 1,057.00 28 37.75
Subtotal $2,155.35 (14.3) 45 $47.90
52
Total $15,070.04 (100) 143 $105.38
_____________________________________________________________________
subthemes were identified. Of the 818 expenditure transactions in the Food theme, the
on-campus participants reported a total of 643 expenditures transactions in the
On-Campus Dining subtheme totaling $2,698.85. These expenditures averaged $4.20 per
transaction. Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided on Table 3.
The on-campus participants reported 78 income transactions totaling $5,600.13
that averaged $71.80 per transaction. These transactions were assigned to three themes.
For example, in the Employment theme, the participants reported 27 transactions totaling
$3,799.68 which accounted for 67% of the income transactions conducted by On-Campus
participants. Within these themes, income transactions were placed into subthemes. For
example, in the Employment theme, two sub-themes existed. Of the 27 income
transactions in the Employment theme, the participants reported a total of 21 transactions
in the Part-time subtheme totaling $3,531.43 that averaged $168.16 per transaction.
Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided on Table 4.
Off-Campus Participants
The Off-Campus participants reported 820 expenditure transactions totaling
$10,617.39. The average expenditure per transaction was $12.95. These expenditure
transactions were assigned to six themes. For example, in the Food theme, the participants
reported 557 transactions totaling $3,630.34 which accounted for 34% of all transactions

conducted by Off-Campus participants. Within these themes, certain transactions were

assigned to subthemes. For example, in the Food theme, six subthemes existed. Of the
53
557 expenditures in the Food theme, the on-campus participants reported a total of 287
transactions in the On-Campus Dining subtheme totaling $1,321.10. The expenditures
Table 3
Expenditure Summary of On-Campus Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency of
Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Food
Grocery store $321.16 31 $10.36
Fast Food 248.48 53 5.37
On Campus Dining 2,698.85 643 4.20
Restaurant 210.93 29 7.27
Snacks 218.9 59 3.71
Alcohol 23.30 3 7.77
Subtotal $3,757.62 (49) 818 $4.59

Monthly Bills
Rent 0 0 0
Electric 0 0 0
Phone $216.64 10 $21.66
Modem Pool 0 0 0
Cable 0 0 0
Credit Card 587.24 10 58.72
54
Subtotal $803.88 (10) 20 $40.19
Table 3 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of On-Campus Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme
Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency of
Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Automobile
Loan Payment $343.65 2 $171.83
Gasoline 254.82 32 $7.96

Maintenance 33.07 2 $16.54

Parking Fines 115.00 4 $28.75
Rental Car 19.70 1 $19.70
Subtotal $766.24 (9.9) 41 $18.69
Entertainment
Movies $86.74 17 $5.10
Video Rentals 24.60 8 3.08
Music 134.00 10 13.40
Bars/Dance Clubs 34.45 5 6.89
Bowling 18.00 7 2.57
Organization Dues 10.00 1 10.00
Subtotal $307.79 (4) 48 $6.41
55
Table 3 (continued)
Expenditure Summary for On-Campus Participants (N=19)
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of
Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction

______________________________________________________________________________
____
General
Hygiene Products $164.14 20 $8.21
Clothing 472.04 14 $33.71
Laundry 62.75 22 $2.85
Gifts 264.71 27 $9.80
School Supplies 242.25 24 $10.09
Subtotal $1,205.89 (16) 107 $11.27
Miscellaneous
Crafts $73.17 5 $14.63
Greek paraphernalia 25.72 1 25.72
Haircut 15.00 2 7.50
Halloween costume 75.82 3 25.27
Jewelry 682.92 1 682.92
Postage 6.42 1 6.42
Tanning salon 4.00 1 4.00
Subtotal $883.05 (11) 14 $63.08
56
Total $7,724.47 (100) 1048 $7.37
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Table 4
Income Summary of On-Campus Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Income

Amount (%)
Frequency
of
Transactions
Average
Income per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Employment
Part-time $3,531.43 21 $168.16
One-time 268.25 6 44.70
Subtotal $3,799.68 (67) 27 $140.73
Gifts
Allowance $360.00 5 $72.00
Family 737.39 29 25.43
Subtotal $1,097.39 (20) 34 $32.28
Loan
Tuition refund $50.00 1 $50.00
Acquaintance 253.06 10 25.31
Summer savings 400.00 6 66.67
Subtotal $703.06 (13) 17 $41.36
Total $5,600.13 (100) 78 $71.80
______________________________________________________________________
57

assigned to this subtheme averaged $4.60 per transaction. Details on the remaining themes
and subthemes are provided on Table 5.
In terms of income, the Off-Campus participants conducted 65 transactions
totaling $9,469.93 that averaged $145.69 per transaction. These transactions were
assigned to three themes. For example, in the Employment theme, the participants
reported 13 transactions totaling $2,306.69 and that reflect 24.3% of all transactions
reported by this group. Within these themes, income transactions were assigned to
subthemes. For example, in the Employment theme, two sub-themes were identified. Of
the 13 income transactions in the Employment theme, the participants reported a total of
11 transactions in the Part-time subtheme totaling $1,786.69. These transactions averaged
$162.43 per transaction. Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided on
Table 6.
Male Participants
The male participants reported 913 expenditure transactions totaling $9,128.29, or
an average of $10.00 per transaction. These transactions were assigned to six themes.
For example, in the Food theme, the participants conducted 698 expenditure transactions
totaling $4,084.85. This reflected 44.7% of all transactions reported by male participants.
Within these themes, transactions were assigned to subthemes. For example, in the Food
theme six subthemes existed. Of the 698 expenditure transactions in the Food theme, the
male participants conducted a total of 531 expenditures transactions in the On-Campus
Dining subtheme totaling $2,593.63. This reflected an average of $4.88 per transaction.
Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are provided on Table 7.
58
Table 5
Expenditure Summary of Off-Campus Participants (N=19)

______________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Food
Grocery store $992.30 44 $22.55
Fast food 455.04 115 3.96
On Campus dining 1,321.10 287 4.60
Restaurant 565.48 43 13.15
Snacks 120.95 55 2.20
Alcohol 175.47 13 13.50
Subtotal $3,630.34 (34) 557 $6.52
Monthly Bills
Rent $2,574.57 10 $257.46
Electric 240.50 8 30.06
Phone 422.36 11 38.40
Modem Pool 13.87 2 6.94
Cable 206.07 8 25.76
Credit Card 410.00 8 51.25

Subtotal $3,867.37 (36) 47 $82.28

59
Table 5 (continued)
Expenditure of Off-Campus Participants (N=19)
____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
___
Automobile
Loan Payment $253.00 1 $253.00
Gasoline 403.10 32 12.60
Maintenance 133.59 5 26.72
Subtotal $789.69 (7) 38 $20.68
Entertainment
Movies $62.25 5 $12.45
Video Rentals 24.59 7 3.51
Music 148.14 7 21.16
Bars/Dance Clubs 38.28 6 6.38
Bowling 43.46 7 6.21

Organization Dues 97.00 4 24.25

Subtotal $413.72 (4) 36 $11.49
General
Hygiene Products $315.46 38 $8.30
Clothing 694.26 25 27.77
Laundry 49.50 12 4.13
Gifts 521.22 25 20.85
60
Table 5 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of Off-Campus Participants (N=19)
______________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency of
Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
______
School Supplies $243.09 17 $14.30
Subtotal $1,823.53 (17) 117 $17.04
Miscellaneous
Banking $11.20 1 $11.20
Pet supplies 76.54 3 25.51

Postage 5.00 2 2.50

Subtotal $92.74 (0.8) 6 $15.46
Total $10,617.39 (100) 820 $12.95
______________________________________________________________________________
______
61
Table 6
Income Summary of Off-Campus Participants (N=19)
____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Income
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Income
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
___
Employment
Part-time $1,786.69 11 $162.43
One-time 520.00 2 260.00
Subtotal $2,306.69 (24.3) 13 $177.44
Gifts
Birthday $10.00 1 $10.00
Holiday 5.00 1 5.00
Allowance 4,695.00 15 313.00

Family 1,000.94 7 142.99

Subtotal $5,710.94 (60.3) 24 $237.96
Loan
Tuition refund $400.00 1 $400.00
Acquaintance 395.29 5 79.06
Summer savings 657.00 22 29.86
Subtotal $1,452.29 (15.4) 28 $51.87
Total $9,469.93 (100) 65 $145.69
___________________________________________________________________
62
Table 7
Expenditure Summary of Male Participants (N=19)
______________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Food
Grocery store $446.79 34 $13.14
Fast food 329.93 69 4.78

On Campus dining 2,593.63 531 4.88

Restaurant 360.81 27 13.36
Snacks 168.42 22 7.65
Alcohol 185.27 15 2.35
Subtotal $4,084.85 (44.7) 698 $5.85
Monthly Bills
Rent $1,604.17 6 $267.36
Electric 37.07 4 9.27
Phone 338.44 9 37.60
Modem Pool 13.87 2 6.94
Cable 61.85 5 12.37
Credit Card 100.00 3 33.33
Subtotal $2,155.40 (23.6) 27 $76.13
Automobile
Loan Payment $4,253.00 1 $253.00
63
Table 7 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of Male Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditures of

Transactions
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Gasoline $312.51 27 $11.57
Maintenance 74.23 2 37.12
Subtotal $639.74 (7) 30 $21.32
Entertainment
Movies $54.93 10 $5.49
Video Rentals 29.16 8 3.65
Music 136.68 13 10.51
Bars/Dance Clubs 25.24 5 5.05
Bowling 41.96 8 5.25
Organization Dues 8.00 2 4.00
Subtotal $295.97 (3.2) 46 $6.43
General
Hygiene Products $186.96 18 $10.39
Clothing 364.68 9 40.52
Laundry 48.25 16 3.02
Gifts 287.30 22 13.06
School Supplies 284.26 18 15.79
Subtotal $1,171.45 (12.8) 83 $14.11
64
Table 7 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of Male Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________

Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Miscellaneous
Haircut $15.00 2 $7.50
Jewelry 682.92 1 682.92
Pets 76.54 3 25.51
Postage 6.42 1 6.42
Subtotal $780.88 (8.5) 7 $111.55
Total $9,128.29 913 $10.00
______________________________________________________________________________
____
65
As for income, the male participants reported 65 income transactions totaling
$6,381.18, or an average of $98.18 per transaction. These income transactions were
assigned to three themes. For example, in the Employment theme, the men reported 13
transactions totaling $3,288.30 that reflected 52% of their income transactions. Within
these themes, income transactions were placed into subthemes. For example, in the
Employment theme, two sub-themes were identified. Of the 13 income transactions in the
Employment theme, the participants reported a total of 10 income transactions in the

Part-time subtheme totaling $2,618.30 that averaged $261.83 per transaction. Details on
the remaining themes and subthemes are provided on Table 8.
Female Participants
The female participants reported 955 expenditure transactions totaling $9,213.57
that reflect an average of $9.65 per transaction. These expenditures were assigned to six
themes. For example, in the Food theme, the participants reported 677 expenditure
transactions totaling $3,303.11. The expenditure transactions in this theme reflect 35.8%
of all expenditures by women. Within these themes, certain expenditure transactions were
assigned to subthemes. For example, in the Food theme six subthemes were identified. Of
the 677 expenditure transactions in the Food theme, the female participants reported a
total of 399 transactions in the On-Campus Dining subtheme that totaled $1,426.32 and
averaged $3.57 per transaction. Details on the remaining themes and subthemes are
provided on Table 9.
66
Table 8
Income Summary of Male Participants (N=19)
______________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Income
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Income
per Transaction

______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Employment
Part-time $2,618.30 10 $261.83
One-time 670.00 3 223.33
Subtotal $3,288.30 (52) 13 $252.95
Gifts
Holiday $5.00 1 $5.00
Allowance 930.00 7 132.86
Family 865.88 16 54.12
Subtotal $1,800.88 (28) 24 $75.04
Loan
Tuition refund $400.00 1 $400.00
Acquaintance 167.00 7 23.86
Summer savings 725.00 20 36.25
Subtotal $1,292.00 (20) 28 $46.12
Total $6,381.18 (100) 65 $98.18
_____________________________________________________________________
67
Table 9
Expenditure Summary of Female Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency

of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Food
Grocery store $866.67 41 $21.14
Fast food 409.59 99 4.14
On Campus dining 1,426.32 399 3.57
Restaurant 415.60 45 9.24
Snacks 171.43 92 1.86
Alcohol 13.50 1 13.50
Subtotal $3,303.11 (35.8) 677 $4.88
Monthly Bills
Rent $970.4 4 $242.60
Electric 203.43 4 50.86
Phone 300.56 12 25.05
Cable 144.22 3 48.07
Credit Card 897.24 17 52.78
Subtotal $2,515.85 (27.3) 40 $62.89
68
Table 9 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of Female Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________

Theme/Subtheme Expense
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Automobile
Loan Payment $343.65 2 $171.83
Gasoline 345.41 37 9.34
Maintenance 92.43 5 18.49
Parking fines 115.00 4 28.75
Rental car 19.70 1 19.70
Subtotal $916.19 (9.9) 49 $18.70
Entertainment
Movies $94.06 12 $7.84
Video Rentals 20.03 7 2.86
Music 145.46 4 36.37
Bars/Dance Clubs 47.49 6 7.92
Bowling 19.50 6 2.92
Organization Dues 99.00 3 33.00
Subtotal $425.54 (4.6) 35 $11.82
General

Hygiene Products $292.64 20 $9.75

69
Table 9 (continued)
Expenditure Summary of Female Participants (N=19)
____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Expenses
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Expenditure per
Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
___
Clothing $801.62 30 $26.72
Laundry 64.00 18 3.56
Gifts 498.63 40 12.47
School Supplies 201.08 23 48.74
Subtotal $1,857.97 (20) 141 $17.18
Miscellaneous
Banking $11.20 1 $11.20
Crafts 73.17 5 14.63
Greek paraphernalia 25.72 1 25.72
Halloween costume 75.82 3 25.27
Postage 5.00 2 2.50

Tanning 4.00 1 4.00

Subtotal $194.91 (2.1) 13 $14.99
Total $9,213.57 (100) 955 $9.65
______________________________________________________________________________
___
70
As for the income of female participants, they reported 78 transactions totaling
$8,688.86. This reflected an average of $111.40 per transaction. These income
transactions were assigned to three themes. For example, in the Employment theme, the
participants reported 28 income transactions totaling $2,818.07. The income transactions
in this theme reflected 32.1% of all income transactions reported by women. Within these
themes, income transactions were assigned to subthemes. For example, in the Employment
theme, two sub-themes identified. Of the 28 income transactions in the Employment
theme, the participants reported a total of 22 transactions in the Part-time subtheme
totaling $2,699.82, or an average of $122.72 per transaction. Details on the remaining
themes and subthemes are provided on Table 10.
Electronic Survey Analysis
The primary purpose of the electronic survey was to collect data concerning
participants budgeting behaviors. For purposes of this study, budgeting behaviors were
defined as students spending habits and their financial planning behaviors.
To analyze the data collected from the electronic survey, a document analysis was
conducted. The researcher carefully examined the survey responses for repeated words
and phrases. These repeated words and phrases were grouped according to common ideas
and assigned to themes and, in some cases, subthemes.
Participants responded to five questions. The first question was asked to gain

knowledge about the spending behaviors of participants while the other four questions
pertained to their financial planning behaviors. After analyzing the first question, the
71
Table 10
Income Summary of Female Participants (N=19)
_____________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Income
Amount (%)
Frequency
of Transactions
Average
Income
per Transaction
______________________________________________________________________________
____
Employment
Part-time $2,699.82 22 $122.72
One-time 118.25 6 19.71
Subtotal $2818.07 (32.1) 28 $100.65
Gifts
Birthday $10.00 1 $10.00
Allowance 4,125.00 13 317.31
Family 872.44 20 43.62
Subtotal $5,007.44 (58) 33 $151.74
Loan

Tuition refund $50.00 1 $50.00

Acquaintance 481.35 8 60.17
Summer savings 332.00 8 41.50
Subtotal $863.35 (9.9) 17 $50.79
Total $8688.86 (100) 78 $111.40
______________________________________________________________________
72
responses did not provide sufficient information to evaluate spending behaviors and did
not add to the data provided in the spreadsheets. Therefore, only the four questions
pertaining to budgeting behaviors are reported.
When analyzing the electronic survey responses, the researcher used comments as
the unit of analysis. A comment was defined as a string of phrases or sentences that
focused on a single topic. Therefore, a comment may have consisted of one or more
sentences but each comment addresses only a single topic. If the topic changed, then a
new comment was identified.
The seven themes identified from the analysis were: Anxiety, Best Value, Credit,
Managing Extra Money, Monthly Budgeting, Planning, and Relationships. Within the
Credit theme, Credit Card Management and Credit History subthemes were identified. In
the Planning theme, Investments and Savings were subthemes while the Relationships
theme included Family, Debtors, and Friends subthemes. Within each theme and subtheme,
the researcher reviewed each comment and assigned each a rating of either good,
neutral, or poor budgeting behavior. The following description of each theme and
subtheme illuminates how data were assigned.
Anxiety
The Anxiety theme included those statements from participants that reflected the

tension surrounding money management issues. Because of the nature of the theme, none
of the participants comments were rated as reflecting good budgeting behaviors. For
example, if participants had stated that they worry about emergencies so much that they
save money monthly for unexpected emergencies, such a comment might reflect good
budgeting behaviors. However, no participants used such language in their responses.
73
Comments regarding Anxiety that were rated by the researcher as reflecting neutral
budgeting behaviors included the following:
Not having money at the end of the month doesnt bother me. Ive never had extra
money. If I did, it would be weird to concern myself now. I get by and know one
day I will have extra money. Im an engineering major so Ill make plenty later.
(On-campus Male)
My friends dont worry about how much money we have. We pay our bills. We
buy things when we want them. It is just a means to an ends when it comes to
worry about money. (On-campus Female)
The following comments in the Anxiety theme were rated by the researcher as
reflecting poor budgeting behaviors:
I always pay my bills late which worries me because I just dont know how to
manage getting everything done plus pay bills. Again, Im really busy and
sometimes just lose the bills. It does worry me that Im not that responsible. I
guess I just need to learn how to do things like that. (On-campus Male)
I want to pay for things before I have the money but I worry about never being
able to get them. So I use my credit card and worry about how Im going to pay
for it. It is a constant cycle of guilt about money that I dont have. (Off-campus
Male)

Best Value
The Best Value theme emerged from comments participants offered that reflected
their awareness of prices and comparison shopping. Comments that reflected good
budgeting behaviors in the Best Value theme included:
Almost on a weekly basis I choose to buy the CDs [compact discs] after checking
at [name of store] and [name of store]. I work hard for my money and want to get
the best deal in town. These are the two cheapest places on CDs but they [sic] one
is sometimes even cheaper than the other. (Off-campus Male)
I usually eat in the dining hall because they offer a buffet style where I can eat
whatever I want as much as I want. It is all for the same price and I want to get the
best for my buck. (On-campus Male)
74
Other comments about Best Value reflected neutral budgeting behaviors, as the
following quotations illustrate:
Since I shop around, I know how much things cost, but I dont always buy the
things that I should based on price. I go more for preference. Regardless of the
price, if I want something I usually buy it, but large purchases like TVs and cars I
searched around. I just dont think there is a great correlation between me
shopping around and the eventual purchase price. (Off-campus Female)
I search for coupons every Sunday morning in the newspaper to save money but I
often use the coupons on things I dont need or use. I guess I try to find the
bargain but get swindled into buying things I dont readily use simply because they
are discounted. (On-campus Female)
Some comments in the Best Value theme were also rated as reflecting poor
budgeting behaviors. The following statements illustrate such:

Shopping around takes a lot of time. I shop a lot but Id rather go for saving time
than money. Im really busy with school and end up making decisions about
purchases rather impulsively without really researching. Its probably not good but
it is what I do. (On-campus Male)
I eat where is convenient [sic] regardless of the price. I could eat in the dining halls
but they are far away from my classes. So, I eat in the Student Center even though
it [sic] more expensive and I have a meal plan. I just cant walking [sic] further
than I must when I have the money and the Student Center is so close. (Oncampus
Male)
Credit
In the theme of Credit, participants commented about borrowing money and
repaying the lender. Comments reflecting credit were assigned to two subthemes: Credit
Card Management and Credit History. The following two sections provide descriptions
and examples of these subthemes.
75
Credit Card Management
In the Credit Card Management subtheme, participants comments described how
they handled credit card charges and payments. Comments classified in the Credit Card
Management subtheme that illustrate good budgeting behaviors included the following:
I pay off my credit card every month because I know that the interests [sic]
accrues very rapidly. Since I use it only when I have the money in the bank to pay
the balance at the end of the month, it seems foolish to have to pay the bill
and the accrued interest. (On-campus Male)
The only credit card I allow myself to have is one that requires you to pay the total
amount in full at the end of the month. I can choose not to pay the total

amount but they fine me. I cant see paying a fine to a credit card company who
makes enough money. (Off-campus Male)
Comments in the Credit Card Management subtheme were also assigned neutral
ratings. Examples of such comments reflecting neutral budgeting behaviors included:
I only charge for convenience. I dont need to charge. Im just lazy. It is just easier
than going to the bank or remembering to carry a checkbook. Plus, I hate going
inside the gas station to pay when I can just charge it at the pump. (Off-campus
Male)
I only use my credit card for emergencies because my parents told me that Im not
responsible enough or make enough money to have credit card. I have applied for
one anyway. Why do they have to know? (On-campus Male)
The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in this subtheme.
Comments that reflected poor budgeting behaviors included statements like the
following:
I couldnt pay my credit card bill because I spent frivolously all month. I bought
things on a road trip that I needed but I didnt realize it would become so
expensive. I guess I just charged without thinking. Its very easy to do, you know.
They dont give you a balance each time. (On-campus Female)
76
I spoiled my boyfriend to a great anniversary which I couldnt afford. So, I
charged it, but couldnt pay the bill later that month. It doesnt matter because we
had a great time and he means the world to me. The credit card company makes
enough money. (Off-campus Female)
Credit History
In the Credit History subtheme, participants offered comments that reflected credit

ratings that might impact their ability to gain credit in the future. Due to the nature of this
theme, no comments were rated as neutral budgeting behaviors. For example, if
participants had stated they had poor credit ratings but will be seeking advice on how to
regain good credit ratings, then this comment would have been rated as reflecting neutral
budgeting behaviors. However, no participants reported such comments.
Comments in the Credit History subtheme rated as reflecting good budgeting
behaviors included the following:
I know when I leave college that I will want to buy a car or a house or a boat. So,
I need to have a good credit history for people to trust me with their money and
that I will pay them back on time. (Off-campus Male)
It is important for me to establish a good credit record because employers look at
that when hiring. My advisor told me this my freshmen year and Ive never
forgotten how much it would suck to not get a job because my credit history
wasnt good. So, I always pay my bills on time and keep my balances clear on the
credit cards. (Off-campus Female)
The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in this subtheme, including
the following:
I have hurt my credit rating by forgetting to pay some bills. I dont really care
because I can always borrow money at a higher interest rate or see what my family
can do for me. Right now, I just want to get through college. Paying bills really
doesnt matter if it keeps me from studying. (On-campus Female)
77
I did it myself. I am afraid that I ruined my credit so bad that will give me any [sic].
There is not much I can do about it now. I try my best to pay bills and keep the
debtors from calling me, but it just happens that I forget about a bill sometimes. I

dont do it on purpose. I dont really have a good system when paying bills either.
(On-campus Female)
Managing Extra Money
From the comments offered by participants, a Managing Extra Money theme
emerged. Comments assigned to this theme reflected how participants handled extra cash
when they had such. Comments that reflected good budgeting behaviors included the
following statements:
The last time I had extra money was when my CD [Certificate of Deposit]
matured. I decided to use the money to purchase another CD and a state bond. I
cant see splurging quite yet when I can wait to spend that extra money on
something big like a car. (On-campus Male)
I received extra money when I had paid off my credit card the month before and
didnt have to make that monthly payment. In my budget, such a difference makes
a difference and I decided to use the extra money to just spend when I wanted
something. I remember going to 7-11 late one night and getting some Ben and
Jerrys. Its the small things that I sometimes cant afford. (Off-campus Female)
Comments were also assigned neutral ratings in this theme, as the following
quotations illustrate:
My grandfather gave me $5 when I left home last weekend. While this doesnt
seem like a lot, it is the thought that counts. He doesnt have a lot of money and in
his day $5 was significant. Plus, he thinks I should have extra cash. (On-campus
Male)
The last time I had extra money I got a birthday present from my aunt. It was $20
and I really didnt expect it. She rarely gives anybody in our family money, but I
liked having extra money around and especially since I rarely get money for

presents. (Off-campus Female)

The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in this theme.
Comments that reflected this poor rating with respect to Managing Extra Money included:
78
I forgot that the employer I worked for didnt pay me for babysitting the last time.
So, I got a check with an additional $20. I cant believe that I forgot to get paid,
but it really was his fault as much as it was mine. You should remember to pay
your employees. (On-campus Female)
I miscalculated when balancing my checkbook. Needless to say Im not a math
wizard. Luckily, I screwed up in a positive way and have an extra $50 sitting in my
checking account. I didnt even know until I tried to deposit money and the teller
gave me my balance. (On-campus Female)
Monthly Budgeting
Comments assigned to the Monthly Budgeting theme refer to those comments that
illustrated creating and following a monthly budget. Comments rated as good budgeting
behaviors included statements such as the following:
I use my computer to manage the finances so I know what to expect each month.
Therefore, I dont really ever not know that a bill is going to arrive. I also know
how much I spend on items such as food, entertainment, and auto. The computer
program does it all for you if you just put the info [sic] into the computer. (Oncampus
male)
I keep a journal of how much I spend each week. Im very anal about my money
and dont spend a lot because I dont make a lot. I know my bills so surprises
dont occur very frequently. The journal helps me plan for the next month. (Offcampus
female)

Comments in Monthly Budgeting theme were also rated as neutral, such as the
following:
I simply check my balance at the ATM [Automated Teller Machine], but I always
have a running tab in my head. Ive never been wrong so I cant see why Id
change. However, if unexpected expenses come along, Id know if I had enough to
cover it. (Off-campus female)
If I budgeted better, then I really wouldnt ever have to ask others for money. I do
try, but dont have a good system. I tried to track how much I spend before and it
worked but I couldnt keep up with it. (Off-campus male)
Comments reflective of poor budgeting behaviors in the Monthly Budgeting theme
included the following:
79
I always have unexpected expenses and no cash to pay for them. Once I pay my
bills, I just think of the rest as extra. I end up in lots of trouble that way because I
dont have enough to cover bills I forgot about. (Off-campus Female)
Im not very good with money and dont claim to be, but I guess I need to improve
because my budgeting skills arent working out. For instance, I really did have a
few late bills this month because I had spent the money on a road trip with some
friends. (Off-campus Male)
Planning
In the Planning theme, comments illustrated how participants proposed to handle
their finances in the future. Comments reflecting planning were assigned to two
subthemes: Investments and Savings. The following two sections provide descriptions and
examples of these subthemes.
Investments

In the theme of Planning, a subtheme involving Investments emerged. Comments

assigned to this subtheme included any comment that described efforts by participants to
profit by investing. Due to the nature of this theme, no comments were rated as poor
budgeting behaviors. For example, if participants had stated that they invested large
amounts of money in the stock market without knowing anything about the stock market,
then this comment would have been rated as reflecting poor budgeting behaviors.
However, no participants reported such comments.
Comments in the Investment subtheme did reflect good budgeting behaviors, such
as the following:
Sometimes I use extra money to invest in the stock market. Stocks are usually
chosen after a study of the past performance that have the ability to be a good long
term investment and produce high dividends. (On-campus Male)
80
If I need extra cash, I would cash in a CD [Certificate of Deposit] even though I
might lose some of the investment. I have several investments so it would just be
one of them that would suffer. Then, I would put it back and remember that I
shouldnt use my investments for emergency cash. (On-campus Male)
The researcher also assigned comments to a neutral rating in the Investments
subtheme. Comments reflecting a neutral rating included language such as the following:
I do have some extra money from time to time. To tell you the truth, I would like
to invest my extra money, but I dont know how or a lot about the stock market or
bonds or other forms of making your money grow while doing nothing physically.
(On-campus Male)
My extra money just sits in my checking account. One semester Ill take a class to
teach me how best to save it. Until then Im OK with letting it just sit there until I

need it for something. It is a very comfortable feeling to know it is there but Id

like it to make more money. (Off-campus Female)
Savings
A second subtheme, called Savings, also emerged within the Planning theme.
Comments assigned to the Savings subtheme included those reflecting the efforts by
participants to save for the future. Examples of comments that reflected good budgeting
behaviors included the following:
I chose to deposit the money in the bank account so that when I needed it later in
the semester it would be there. I always need money for unanticipated costs. So, I
like having the money available so I dont need to scramble around for it. (Oncampus
Male)
It makes me feel good to have a certain amount of money in my wallet to go spend
some, and still have some money. I never want to be broke because then I couldnt
watch my money grow. I probably make more from the interest in my savings
account than I do working my job in [name of the employer]. (On-campus Female)
In the Savings subtheme, comments reflected neutral budgeting behaviors. The
following quotations illustrate such comments:
81
I put it in my wallet until something came up that I needed. I try to save money
and not buy too much stuff that I need because I know that one day I will need it.
Ive learned from my mistakes in the past. (Off-campus Male)
I choose to put the extra money in the checking account immediately so I dont
cash it and spend it. This way I avoid it altogether. Well, not tonight that is. I
cashed a check from my Dad and spent it at Wal-Mart on candles and condoms.
(On-campus Female)

The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in the Savings subtheme.
Examples of comments reflecting poor budgeting behaviors included the following:
After my father deposited money into my account I got a statement from the bank.
He put in $50 more than I needed. That was the green light for me. I decided it
was okay to take a friend for a nice dinner. (Off-campus Female)
Saving is not something I want to do because I would not have enough to do other
things. I really want to live a certain way. I dont make enough to save so it would
really inhibit me. Plus, I dont ever have extra money. (Off-campus Male)
Relationships
In analyzing the comments, a Relationships theme emerged. Comments placed in
this theme included comments that mentioned involving others in their budgeting
behaviors. Within the Relationships theme, three subthemes emerged: Family, Debtors,
and Friends. The following sections provide descriptions and examples of these
subthemes.
Family
In the theme of Relationships, a subtheme involving Family emerged. Comments
assigned to this subtheme included those mentioning any family involvement in budgeting
behaviors. Examples of comments reflecting good budgeting behaviors included the
following:
My father has always invested my extra money. He even invested my money when
I was a child. He taught me how to look for good stocks on Sunday mornings and
82
I really live quite comfortably as a college student because of these talks. (Oncampus
Male)
My mom and dad really want me to be independent so I try to budget my money

so I dont disappoint them. I use my bills from last year to gauge my expenses for
this year. This is what my mom does and it works for me, too. (On-campus Male)
Comments reflecting a neutral rating in the Family subtheme included statements
such as the following:
We dont talk about money in my family. So, I dont know if I could start talking
to them if I couldnt pay a bill on time. I dont think they would mind but it is just
not a subject weve ever brought up. Well, except when they complain about how
much school costs. (Off-campus Female)
My family is pretty financially comfortable but no one ever talks about how much
we have. My dad is a doctor and my mom is a lawyer. We live in a nice house,
drive nice cars, but I dont have any idea how much money they make. It might
sound strange but its my family. (Off-campus Male)
The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in this subtheme, including
the following:
If I ever get into a situation where I need money for a bill that is late or about to
become late, then I would pick up the phone and call home. They bail me out of all
kinds of situations and why should this one be any different. I dont have money to
save and they do. So, Id call them. (On-campus Male)
I ask my dad for money and he always gives it to me. Why would I stop now? I
mean it is his responsibility to help me when Im in college. Ill take care of him
when hes older. Now, it is my turn. (Off-campus Female)
Debtors
A subtheme involving Debtors emerged in the Relationships theme. In this
subtheme, comments illustrated how participants interacted with people with whom they
owed money. Because of the nature of this subtheme, no comments were rated as

reflecting good budgeting behaviors. For example, if participants had stated they
communicated with debtors to make sure they reported their payment early because they
83
would be out of the country, then such comments would have been assigned a good
rating. However, no participants reported such comments.
Examples of comments reflecting neutral budgeting behaviors included the
following:
I wrote the credit card company a letter explaining, but I wasnt exactly honest
with the date. I wrote that it was sent quite a few days prior to when it was, but
told the truth that I didnt receive it in time to make the payment. (Off-campus
Female)
I talked to the people in the Bursars Office about not being able to pay my tuition.
My parents [sic] payment didnt get here on time. The people in the office put me
on the budget tuition plan and I really appreciated their kindness. (On-campus
Male)
The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in the Debtors subtheme.
Comments reflecting a poor rating included:
After they sent me several letters I called the credit card people and told them I
didnt have the money. Id send it when I could. You cant get blood out of a
turnip, ya [sic] know. They didnt like it but they had to deal with it. (Off-campus
Male)
When I had moved home last summer, I didnt change my address on a bill. It got
sent to school and then forwarded to me. By the time I got it, it was 60 days late
and the company called but I didnt have the money. I told them the check was in
the mail but it wasnt until the next week when I got paid. (On-campus Male)

Friends
In the theme of Relationships, a subtheme involving Friends emerged. Comments
assigned to this subtheme included those mentioning how friends impacted the budgeting
behaviors of participants. Comments reflecting good budgeting behaviors included:
I let some of my friends borrow some money because he has done it before and
pays back with interest. Hey, maybe Ill open a bank. I really dont mind it and I
make extra money off of it. This is how I got extra money. (On-campus Male)
84
I always give my roommate an itemized list of the utilities and rent when it is my
turn to do the bills. We rotate between us. I guess we trust each other but are
visual people who need to see the money in writing. (Off-campus Male)
Examples of comments illustrating those assigned to a neutral rating in the Friends
subtheme included the following:
My friends and I were planning to take a road trip but I canceled because I did not
have enough money. They were pretty upset but, like I said, a girl can only do so
much with a college budget. I think my friends understood eventually that it was a
money thing and not a social thing. (On-campus Female)
If I needed to borrow money, I would probably get it from my boyfriend. He never
loans me money but I know he would if he had it. He does a co-op each year so he
has it but I never have asked because Ive never really needed anything that bad.
(Off-campus Female)
The researcher also assigned comments to a poor rating in this subtheme, including
the following:
I borrowed $5 from my friend because I didnt have it. It is not a bundle of cash so
I havent paid them back. If they mention it to me Ill payback [sic] but they

havent so I havent volunteered to payback [sic]. (On-campus Female)

If I didnt have enough money to pay a bill, Id ask some of the friends who owe
me money. I never feel comfortable asking them because I know they are strapped
for cash. I dont want to burden them but I would if I didnt have the cash to pay
my own bills. (Off-campus Female)
Electronic Survey Results
During the three-week data collection period, the 38 participants responded to
four electronic questions inquiring about their budgeting behaviors. The participants
provided 570 comments in response to the four questions. Of those, 402 were used to
evaluate budgeting behaviors and 168 comments were discarded because they did not
pertain to budgeting behaviors. In this section, the results are described for five groups of
respondents: all participants, on-campus, off-campus, male, and female participants.
85
All Participants
Overall, participants offered 402 comments pertaining to budgeting behaviors.
These comments were assigned to seven themes (Anxiety, Best Value, Credit, Managing
Extra Money, Monthly Budgeting, Planning, Relationships). This enabled the researcher to
identify which themes and subthemes merited the greatest attention from participants. For
example, of the 402 total comments, 55 (13.6%) comments dealt with Credit. Within the
Credit, Planning, and Relationship themes, subthemes were developed. For example, of
the 55 comments in the Credit theme, 46 comments reflected Credit Card Management
while 9 comments described Credit History. The total number of comments in each theme
and/or subtheme were rated as reflecting good, neutral, or poor budgeting behaviors. For
example, of the 46 comments in the Credit Card Management subtheme, 12
were rated as good, 5 as neutral, and 29 as poor. Details about the remaining themes and

subthemes are described in Table 11.

On-Campus Participants
The on-campus participants provided 191 total comments pertaining to budgeting
behaviors. These comments were distributed among the themes and subthemes. For
example, of the 191 total comments, 26 (13.6%) comments dealt with Credit. Within
some themes, subthemes were developed. For example, of the 26 comments in the Credit
theme, 23 comments reflected Credit Card Management while 3 comments described
Credit History. The total number of comments in each theme and/or subtheme were rated
as reflecting good, neutral, or poor budgeting behaviors. For example, of the 26 comments
86
Table 11
Electronic Survey Summary for All Participants (N=402)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Good
Comments
n
Neutral
Comments
n
Poor
Comments
n
Total
Comments
n (%)

______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Anxiety 0 7 16 36 (8.9)
Best value 6 3 4 13 (3.2)
Credit
Credit card management 12 5 29 46
Credit history 5 0 4 9
Subtotal 17 5 33 55 (13.6)
Managing extra money 29 12 17 58 (14.4)
Monthly budgeting 36 17 29 82 (20.3)
Planning
Investments 23 6 1 30
Savings 19 6 13 38
Subtotal 42 12 52 68 (16.9)
Relationships
Family 23 18 19 60
Debtors 0 6 11 17
Friends 5 3 5 13
Subtotal 28 27 35 90 (22.3)
Total 179 101 186 402 (100)
________________________________________________________________________
87
in the Credit Card Management subtheme, 7 were rated as good, 4 as neutral, and 12 as
poor. Details for the remaining themes and subthemes are described in Table 12.
Off-Campus Participants

A total of 212 total comments pertaining to budgeting behaviors were offered by

off-campus participants. For example, of the 210 total comments, 29 (13.8%) dealt with
Credit. Subthemes were identified within numerous themes. For example, of the 29
comments in the Credit theme, 23 comments reflected Credit Card Management while 6
comments described Credit History. The total number of comments in each theme and/or
subtheme were rated as reflecting good, neutral, or poor budgeting behaviors. For
example, of the 23 comments in the Credit Card Management subtheme, 5 were rated as
good, 1 as neutral, and 17 as poor. Details about the remaining themes and subthemes are
illustrated in Table 13.
Male Participants
The male participants offered 208 total comments pertaining to budgeting
behaviors. For example, of the 208 total comments, 30 (14.4%) comments dealt with
Credit. Within several themes, subthemes emerged. For example, of the 30 comments in
the Credit theme, 24 comments reflected Credit Card Management while 6 comments
described Credit History. The total number of comments in each theme and/or subtheme
were rated as reflecting good, neutral, or poor budgeting behaviors. For example, of the
24 comments in the Credit Card Management subtheme, 9 were rated as good, 2 as
neutral, and 13 as poor. Details for the remaining themes and subthemes are provided in
Table 14.
88
Table 12
Electronic Survey Summary for On-Campus Participants (N=191)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Good
Comments

n
Neutral
Comments
n
Poor
Comments
n
Total
Comments
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Anxiety 0 7 16 23 (12.0)
Best value 5 2 4 11 (5.7)
Credit
Credit card management 7 4 12 23
Credit history 1 0 2 3
Subtotal 8 4 14 26 (13.6)
Managing extra money 20 6 4 30 (15.7)
Monthly budgeting 8 5 14 27 (14.1)
Planning
Investments 13 0 0 14
Savings 13 1 8 22
Subtotal 26 1 8 35 (18.3)
Relationships

Family 9 9 13 31
Debtors 0 0 4 4
Friends 3 1 0 4
Subtotal 12 10 17 39 (20.4)
Total 79 35 78 191 (100)
________________________________________________________________________
89
Table 13
Electronic Survey Summary for Off-Campus Participants (N=210)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Good
Comments
n
Neutral
Comments
n
Poor
Comments
n
Total
Comments
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Anxiety 0 2 11 13 (6.1)

Best value 1 1 0 2 (0.9)

Credit
Credit card management 5 1 17 23
Credit history 4 0 2 6
Subtotal 9 1 19 29 (13.8)
Managing extra money 9 6 13 28 (13.3)
Monthly budgeting 28 12 15 55 (26.1)
Planning
Investments 10 6 0 16
Savings 6 5 5 16
Subtotal 16 11 5 32 (15.2)
Relationships
Family 14 9 6 29
Debtors 0 6 7 13
Friends 2 2 5 9
Subtotal 16 17 18 51 (24.2)
Total 79 50 81 210 (100)
______________________________________________________________________
90
Table 14
Electronic Survey Summary for Male Participants (N=208)
________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Good
Comments
n

Neutral
Comments
n
Poor
Comments
n
Total
Comments
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Anxiety 0 4 9 13 (6.2)
Best value 4 1 3 8 (3.8)
Credit
Credit card management 9 2 13 24
Credit history 3 0 3 6
Subtotal 12 2 16 30 (14.4)
Managing extra money 14 5 8 27 (12.9)
Monthly budgeting 24 6 13 43 (20.6)
Planning
Investments 17 3 0 20
Savings 16 3 4 23
Subtotal 33 6 4 43 (20.6)
Relationships
Family 5 12 8 25

Debtors 0 4 9 13
Friends 3 2 1 6
Subtotal 8 18 18 44 (21.2)
Total 95 42 71 208 (100)
________________________________________________________________________
91
Female Participants
A total of 194 total comments pertaining to budgeting behaviors were submitted
by female participants. For example, of the 194 total comments, 25 (12.8%) comments
dealt with Credit. Within some themes, subthemes emerged. For example, of the 25
comments in the Credit theme, 22 comments reflected Credit Card Management while 3
comments described Credit History. The total number of comments in each theme and/or
subtheme
were rated as reflecting good, neutral, or poor budgeting behaviors. For instance, of the
22 comments in the Credit Card Management subtheme, 3 were rated as good, 3 as
neutral, and 16 as poor. Details for the remaining themes and subthemes are illuminated in
Table 15.
Summary
The results reported in this chapter revealed very interesting patterns and trends
that can be used to respond to the research questions posed in this study. A discussion of
these results and their implications for future practice and research are provided in the
final chapter
92
Table 15
Electronic Survey Summary for Female Participants (N=194)

________________________________________________________________________
Theme/Subtheme Good
Comments
n
Neutral
Comments
n
Poor
Comments
n
Total
Comments
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Anxiety 0 7 16 23 (11.8)
Best value 2 2 1 5 (2.5)
Credit
Credit card management 3 3 16 22
Credit history 2 0 1 3
Subtotal 5 3 17 25 (12.8)
Managing extra money 15 7 9 31 (15.9)
Monthly budgeting 12 11 16 39 (20.1)
Planning
Investments 6 4 0 10

Savings 3 3 9 15
Subtotal 9 7 9 25 (12.8)
Relationships
Family 18 6 11 35
Debtors 0 2 2 4
Friends 2 1 4 7
Subtotal 20 9 17 46 (23.7)
Total 48 39 76 194 (100)
________________________________________________________________________
93
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this study was to examine the budgeting behaviors of traditionalaged
college juniors and seniors. Participants living on-campus were compared to those
living off-campus and differences between men and women were explored as well. Data
were collected by having participants track their expenditures and income over a threeweek
period and respond to five electronic survey questions.
To gain a better understanding of the results and how they relate to this discussion,
two additional tables were created. The first (Table 16) summarizes the expenditures and
income of participants by theme and group. The second (Table 17) summarizes the results
of the electronic survey by theme and group. The discussion in this chapter is divided into
four sections. First, the research questions posed in this study are examined with respect
to spending, income, and comments regarding budgeting behaviors. Second, implications
of the results for future practice and research are explored. Third, the limitations to the
study are discussed. Finally, some conclusions about the investigation are drawn.

Results Used to Respond to Research Questions

The first question posed in this study examined how college students spend their
money. Data to respond to this question can be found in the analysis of the spreadsheets.
During the three-week period of data collection, students reported that they spent
$18,341.86 while their reported income amounted to $15, 070.04. Therefore, the
participants spent $3,271.82 more than they received. Further discussion that examines
types of expenditures and sources of income suggest some trends in these findings.
94
Table 16
Summary of Expenditures and Income Results by Theme and Group
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________
Theme On-Campus
n (%)
Off-Campus
n (%)
Male
n (%)
Female
n (%)
All
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________
Expenditures
Food $3,757.62 (49) $3,630.34 (34) $4,084.85 (45) $3,303.11 (36) $ 7,387.96 (40)

Monthly Bills 803.88 (10) 3,867.37 (36) 2,155.40 (24) 2,515.85 (27) 4,671.25 (25)
Automobile 766.24 (10) 789.69 (7) 639.74 (7) 916.19 (10) 1,555.93 (8)
Entertainment 307.79 (4) 413.72 (4) 295.97 (3) 425.54 (5) 721.51 (4)
General 1,205.89 (16) 1,823.53 (17) 1,171.45 (13) 1,857.97 (20) 3,029.42 (16)
Miscellaneous 883.05 (11) 92.74 (1) 780.88 (9) 194.91 (2) 975.79 (5)
Total $ 7,724.47 (100) $10,617.39 (100) $ 9,128.29 (100) $ 9,213.57 (100) $18,341.86 (100)
Income
Employment $3,799.68 (68) $2,306.69 (24) $3,288.30 (55) $2,818.07 (28) $ 6,106.36 (41)
Gifts 1,079.39 (19) 5,710.94 (60) 1,800.88 (30) 5,007.44 (50) 6,808.33 (45)
Loan 703.06 (12) 1,452.29 (15) 863.35 (15) 1,292.00 (12) 2,155.35 (14)
Total $5,582.13 (100) $9,469.92 (100) $5,952.53 (100) $9,980.86 (100) $15,070.04 (100)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________
*percentages may not total 100 due to rounding
95
Table 17
Summary of Electronic Survey Results by Theme and Group
______________________________________________________________________________
_________
Theme On-Campus
n (%)
Off-Campus
n (%)
Male
n (%)
Female

n (%)
All
n (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________
Anxiety 23 (12) 13 (6) 13 (6) 23 (12) 36 (9)
Best Value 11 (6) 2 (1) 8 (4) 5 (3) 13 (3)
Credit 26 (14) 29 (14) 30 (14) 25 (13) 55 (14)
Managing Extra Money 30 (16) 28 (13) 27 (13) 31 (16) 58 (14)
Monthly Budgeting 27 (14) 55 (26) 43 (21) 39 (20) 82 (20)
Planning 36 (19) 32 (15) 43 (21) 25 (13) 68 (17)
Relationships 39 (20) 51 (24) 44 (21) 46 (24) 90 (22)
Total 192 (100) 210 (100) 208 (100) 194 (100) 402 (100)
______________________________________________________________________________
_________
* percentages may not total 100 due to rounding
96
Within the expenditures category, students spent more money on food (40%),
monthly bills (25%), and general expenses (16.5%) than on other types of purchases.
General items included purchases such as clothing, hygiene products, and school supplies.
These findings suggest that students make purchases that satisfy their basic needs. Basic
needs are described as goods and services needed to function in society, and include things
like food, clothing, and shelter. In this study, the greatest amount of student expenditures
related to fulfilling their basic needs.
Although most funds were spent on basic needs, students did spend money on nonessential
items. In this study, students spent money on automobiles, (8%), entertainment

(4%), and miscellaneous items (5%). Miscellaneous items included purchases such as
jewelry, haircuts, and Greek paraphernalia.
Since students chose to purchase items that primarily met their basic needs, this
might suggest that college students budget their funds and do not live a lavish lifestyle.
Furthermore, students seemed aware that they could not afford items beyond those that
met their basic needs. If they had failed to realize that they had insufficient funds to afford
non-essential purchases, the data would have reflected more funds spent on such items.
These findings might suggest that students know what kinds of purchases are
reasonable given their financial situation. This conclusion is consistent with previous
research that found that students do not develop good budgeting behaviors unless they
identify their typical expenses (Danes & Hira, 1987). By identifying typical expenses,
students can better allot their money to needed areas.
However, although the students in the present study might be aware of the type of
expenses they can afford, their total expenses still exceeded their total income. Further
97
examples of income and sources of income shed light on the disparity between what
students spent and what they received.
In examining total income, several interesting results emerged. For instance,
students received comparable amounts of income from gifts (45%) and employment
(40%) while loans (14%) were a lesser source of income. This finding is inconsistent with
earlier studies where students reported the majority of their income came from
employment (Weinstein, 1982).
Income considered gifts included primarily allowances and holiday gifts while
income from employment included wages from part-time and one-time jobs. The fact that
similar amounts of income were attributed to gifts and employment might suggest that

students share financial responsibilities with their primary caregivers, typically parents. For
instance, parents might pay for certain items while students must cover the cost of other
items. This finding suggests that students and parents share financial responsibility for
covering the costs at college. This is consistent with previous research (Lohse, 1995)
which revealed that students and their parents both assume responsibility for funding
college expenses.
While the results regarding income show some type of shared responsibility,
students expenditures still exceed their income. It would seem, then, that students have
taken some steps to develop good budgeting behaviors by trying to become more
financially self sufficient. However, they did not minimize their expenditures to match
their income.
It is possible, of course, that both students and parents planned to cover the
disparity between monthly expenses and income through savings accumulated over the
98
summer. However, students were asked to record income used during the data collection
period from summer savings and only $1,057.00 was assigned to this subtheme. So, it
would seem that if they plan to use summer savings to compensate for excessive spending,
they are going to do so only once all other sources of income have been exhausted. Since
data were collected in October and November, near the start of the academic year, it is
possible the participants planned to turn to summer savings closer to the end of the
academic year. Such a plan, however, suggests potential flaws for post-student life when
students work full-time and do not have savings from summer jobs to compensate for
overspending during other months of the year. Since all participants in the study were
junior and seniors, hence nearing graduation and assuming full financial responsibility for
their lives, the fact that they are spending more than they earn is somewhat disturbing.

In summary, students spend most of their money on necessities rather than nonessential
items. Such decisions might suggest positive budgeting behaviors. Students
receive nearly as much income in the form of gifts as they earn from employment,
suggesting that they play a somewhat active role in their financial lives, certainly a good
developmental experience. While these two findings provide evidence that students may
have positive budgeting behaviors, their expenditures still exceeded their income. Such a
finding strongly suggests that while students may engage in some behaviors that reflect
positive budgeting skills, further development will be required before they might be
considered fully in control of their financial lives.
The second research question focused specifically on how students budget their
money. Data from the electronic survey results are interpreted to respond to this question,
and provide some interesting results. The researcher rated 186 comments as reflecting
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poor budgeting behaviors, 179 as reflecting good budgeting behaviors, and 101 neutral
behaviors. These findings suggest a fairly significant disparity among participants. The
majority of their comments reflect budgeting behaviors at one extreme or the other (good
versus poor).
For example, some students commented that they invested their extra money into
CDs, but other students reported that they did not need to budget their money because
their families were responsible for their financial well being. This suggests that some
students had good budgeting skills that included such things as planning, savings, and
investing. Meanwhile, other students possessed poor budgeting skills, failed to plan or
save, and continued to rely on others for financial support. Again, since participants were
nearing graduation, the fact that so many of their comments were rated as reflecting poor
financial management skills may be cause for concern.

Comments regarding relationships (22%) that students relied upon for financial
assistance were the most frequent types of comments reported in the survey. These
comments primarily dealt with familial relationships. Since the majority of comments about
family relationships reflected poor budgeting behaviors, it would appear that family
members may inadvertently influence students budgeting behaviors in a negative way.
This might be explained by the fact that many students do not consider themselves
financially independent. Therefore, they might displace responsibility when they fail to
properly budget and use their families as safety nets. The following comment from a
participant supports this contention:
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I know that if I cant pay a bill on time that I would call my parents. If they were
unable to help me or refuse to for some reason, then I would call other relatives.
My grandparents, especially my grandmother, would be happy to bail me out of
financial trouble. (On-campus Male)
It would seem that students rely not only on parents, but on other family members when
they need money.
This is an important finding because it illustrates that others may be compensating
for the mistakes of students. By compensating for students erroneous behaviors, students
may not be held accountable for their actions. If those family members or other individuals
who have routinely bailed students out of financial difficulties cease to provide such
support once students graduate, problems may ensue. When students stop receiving such
financial assistance, they may have to quickly learn budgeting behaviors in order to survive
financially.
Another interesting theme that emerged regarding budgeting behaviors involves
budgeting finances on a monthly basis. Even though monthly budgeting was the second

most frequently mentioned theme, and accounted for 20% of all comments offered by
students in the electronic survey, the number of comments that reflected good budgeting
behaviors (36) did not differ dramatically from comments that reflected poor ones (29).
Again, there seems to be a great disparity between good and bad budgeting behaviors.
This finding is particularly important because it demonstrates that not only do students
possess a wide variety of behaviors with respect to their overall budgeting skills, but also
in terms of their monthly budgeting skills. These findings contradict those revealed in prior
research. In previous studies (Theyre ignorant, 1997; Murdy, 1995; Susswein, 1995;
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Danes & Hira, 1987), students were reported to have similar behaviors when it came to
money management. In the present study, students comments reflected either
exceptionally good financial skills or poor financial skills.
Overall, students budgeting behaviors were found to vary, which is important
because few previous studies have suggested that students differ in terms of their
budgeting behaviors. Results also revealed that students rely upon others for financial
support, which might be limiting the money management skills they are learning while in
college. This could cause problems for students once they assume full responsibility for
their behaviors upon graduation.
The third research question posed in this study examined the difference in
budgeting behaviors of students based upon place of residence. Data from both the
analysis of spreadsheets and survey comments provide insights into this question.
Overall, on-campus students spent 27% more than they received while off-campus
students only spent 11% more than they received which might suggest certain difference in
budgeting behaviors. This difference in budgeting behaviors may be explained by the fact
that off-campus students spent considerably more on bills (36%) than on-campus students

(10%). Obviously, students who live off-campus pay bills such as rent, cable, and
electricity bills on monthly basis. Conversely, on-campus students usually do not have as
many monthly bills because the cost of items such as rent, cable, and utilities are
incorporated into the room payment that is paid at the beginning of each semester. While
these issues explain such differences in the amount expended on monthly bills, they also
suggest found important implications for students.
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Since on-campus students pay fewer bills on a regular basis, they may have more
limited experiences with budgeting than their off-campus counterparts. This lack of
experience may hinder the development of budgeting behaviors. Scholars have suggested
that students need to practice their financial skills in order to improve them (Lohse, 1995;
Murdy, 1995; Rush, 1995). It is reasonable to suggest, therefore, that junior and seniors
who live on-campus may not develop the financial management skills needed to
successfully manage their money after they graduate from college. They may have to learn
certain budgeting skills in order to handle paying more monthly bills. Therefore, they may
need some remediation in order to develop the budgeting behaviors that off-campus
students might have already developed.
Another intriguing finding that may reflect how on-and off-campus students differ
involved how much they spent on food. Specifically, the expenditures for food by oncampus
students (49% of all expenditures) were considerably higher than those made by
off-campus students (34%). This result is surprising because students who live on campus
at the university under study are required to buy meal plans. Since the dining halls serve
large numbers of customers and buy items in bulk, the researcher had assumed that the
food expenses for on-campus students would be lower. This was not the case for
participants in the present study. Therefore, on-campus students may need to find a

balance between food costs and their other expenditures because spending so much on
food may not be reasonable after graduation. Again, this finding suggests that on-campus
students need to learn more money management skills.
Finally, a superficial glance at the findings suggests a difference in spending on
miscellaneous items between these groups. On-campus students spent $883.05 on
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miscellaneous items which accounted for 11% of their total expenses while off-campus
students spent only $92.74, or 1% of their total expenses on such items. However, a male
who lived on campus purchased a watch for $683.00 during the data collection period.
This caused an anomaly in the data. Without the purchase of the watch, the on-campus
students would have spent only $200.05, or 3% of their total expenses on miscellaneous
items. While this figure still represents a larger total for the on-campus group, the
purchase of the watch explains most of this difference.
While certain differences existed between on-and off-campus students regarding
their spending, two interesting findings reflect differences in the sources of income. First,
employment by on-campus students accounted for 68% of their income while it accounted
for only 24% of income among off-campus students. This suggests that on-campus
students are either working more or earning higher wages than their off-campus
counterparts.
One factor that may affect the employment of on-campus students might be the
availability of jobs. Many institutions offer students jobs in on-campus offices, and
students living on-campus may be likely to take such positions because the workplace is
conveniently located in proximity to their living space. Other than proximity, students may
be attracted to on-campus jobs because they often provide flexible hours and a relaxed
work setting. These attributes are more conducive to the life of college students who may

be trying to balance academics, jobs, and a social life.

Conversely, off-campus students might find that balancing a job along with their
academic and social life may be more difficult because they already assume more
responsibilities than their on-campus counterparts. The evidence from this study already
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suggests that off-campus students have more financial responsibilities than on-campus
students. But off-campus students also have additional responsibilities that on-campus
students may not have to face, like commuting to classes, cleaning an apartment or house,
or shopping for groceries. Such additional responsibilities may limit the time off-campus
students can commit to jobs and reduce the amount of money they receive from
employment.
This contention is consistent with the fact that off-campus students received most
of their income from gifts (60%) while on campus students only received 19% of their
income from gifts. Since gifts included allowance, family contributions and holiday gifts, it
seemed that off-campus students work less and rely upon parents or others to cover a
portion of their expenses.
This finding has implications in terms of students budgeting behaviors because
such familial support may hinder the development of proper budgeting behaviors. Some
scholars suggest that students need to feel accountable for their finances in order to learn
quality budgeting skills (Lohse, 1995; Weinstein, 1982). If parents or others provide the
majority of income for off-campus students, they may never feel fully accountable for their
finances. By serving as a financial safety net, parents may in fact be hindering students
development of good budgeting behaviors.
The conclusions drawn from the analysis of spreadsheet are supplemented by
the comments that on-and off-campus students provided in the survey regarding budgeting

behaviors. Two primary differences emerged from the data that seem particularly
intriguing. First, off-campus students offered more comments about monthly budgeting
(26%) than did on-campus students (14%). This suggests that off-campus students are
105
more aware of a need to budget than on-campus students, and that off-campus students
possess certain budgeting behaviors that on-campus students may not. The difference in
the number of comments pertaining to monthly budgeting may be the result of a more
immediate need by off-campus students to budget because they must remit payments on a
more regular basis. While off-campus students seem to exhibit more of an awareness of
budgeting behaviors, the researcher cautions against any conclusion that off-campus
students have good budgeting behaviors. Even though they offered certain comments that
suggest knowledge about quality budgeting behaviors, evidence from their expenses and
income clearly shows that off-campus students do not employ particularly good budgeting
skills and spend more than they earn. However, this finding does suggest that off-campus
students are more aware of budgeting which may lead to having good budgeting behaviors
in the future.
The second interesting difference between these two groups involved anxiety.
Comments regarding anxiety by on-campus students accounted for 12% of all their
comments while anxiety was the topic for only 6% of the comments for the off-campus
group. Since most of the evidence discovered from this study suggest that on-campus
students budget less, receive less income, and work more, the fact that they are more
anxious about money matters seems consistent with the other findings not only in this
study but also in previous studies (Murphy & Archer, 1996; Archer & Lamnin, 1986)
which reported that students rated financial management as one of their most anxietyproducing
responsibilities.

Another possible explanation for this finding is that on-campus students experience
more anxiety about financial matters but they do not possess the skills to alleviate that
106
anxiety. Since on-campus students live in an environment where most of their basic needs
are met and paid for in advance, they do not have the opportunity to practice their
budgeting behaviors. If they were allowed to practice these skills, they might learn how to
properly budget which might, in turn, ease their feelings of anxiety about money matters.
Overall, the primary differences between on-and off-campus students dealt with
budgeting and anxiety. In both cases, off-campus students may have demonstrated a better
grasp of budgeting behaviors while feeling less worried about financial matters. Oncampus
students, on the other hand, may need to gain further experiences to enhance their
budgeting behaviors and decrease their anxiety about budgeting.
While differences existed between on-and off-campus students, the results also
illustrated differences between male and female students, the focus of the final research
question posed in the study. Data from both the spreadsheets and analysis of the survey
comments suggest some important differences in budgeting behavior by gender.
The differences between male and female students in terms of their budgeting
behaviors seem to both confirm and contradict some traditional gender stereotypes.
Overall, the expenditures of men exceeded their income by 65% while women only spent
8% more than their income. Such a dramatic difference in the spending habits of men and
women may question some of the stereotypical notion surrounding money and gender. For
instance, women have been stereotyped as irrational spenders while men have been
portrayed as primary providers who have more self control with respect to spending. The
differences in the ratios between spending and income among men and women in the
present study challenge these stereotypes.

107
While the overall spending habits of males and females in this study may challenge
certain gender stereotypes, other results confirm common notions about gender and
money. For instance, males spent more on food while women spent more on general items
that included clothes and cosmetic products. Specifically, food expenses by males for
accounted for 45% of all their expenditures while women spent only 36% of their money
on food. On the other hand, women spent 20% on general items (e.g., clothing, cosmetics)
while such items accounted for only 13% of the mens expenses.
Perhaps men eat more than women. Such an explanation reinforces the
stereotypical notion that females eat less than men because society expects them to be
dainty and thin, and perpetuates the stereotype that men eat gluttonously with little regard
for nutritional value. While these results do not identify whether students eat healthy
foods, the results do reflect a certain trend toward stereotypical beliefs about how much
men and women spend on food.
As for the differences among general items, females outspent males (20% of all
expenses versus 13% of all expenses). Purchasing more items such as clothes, cosmetics,
and personal hygiene products, might suggest a greater emphasis on personal appearance
among women. Stereotypically, it is believed that women need to look and dress a certain
way in order to gain social acceptance. In order to conform, women have traditionally
been thought to spend more money on clothes and beauty items. Since differences
between males and females with respect to their purchases of such items exist, the
researcher concluded that the females were conforming to stereotypical behaviors in which
they paid more attention to personal appearance their male counterparts.
108
A final difference in spending between males and females may appear to suggest a

typical gender-based behavior, but an anomaly in the data actually explains this difference.
The data suggest that men spent considerably more money (9%) than women (2%) on
miscellaneous items. The actual difference, however, can be explained by a single
purchase. A male purchased a watch that cost $683.00 during the data collection period.
Without this single expenditure, males would have spent $97.88, or 1% of the total
expenses on miscellaneous items. This revised figure would closely parallel the spending
by females on miscellaneous items..
Not only did males and females differ considerably in terms of how they spent their
money, their sources of income also varied. Overall, females received $4,055.33 more in
income than males. This difference might be explained by the fact that the females relied
upon outside sources for their income while males relied primarily on jobs.
Specifically, income related to gifts represented 50% of all income for women, but
only 30% for men. Since most gifts came from family members in the form of allowance, it
seems that women rely upon their families for financial assistance more than men. This
suggests that some rather traditional behaviors on the part of women. Traditionally,
women have been taught that they should rely upon their parents to meet their financial
needs until they marry a man who will fulfill those needs. Therefore, they do not need to
develop sound budgeting behaviors. Females in the present study relied heavily upon gifts
and still spent more than they earned, suggesting traditionally stereotypical behaviors
associated with women and money. This finding suggests that greater strides may be
needed to assist women in developing their budgeting behaviors.
109
While women have traditionally relied upon others, men have been taught that they
should become self-reliant in respect to their finances because they will need to provide for
their future families. One way to become more financially self-sufficient is to become

gainfully employed. The findings of this study suggest that men are doing exactly that.
During this study, men earned 55% of their income from jobs while employment
accounted for only 28% of the income reported by women. This suggests that men feel
more of a need to contribute to their financial well being than women. This might suggest
that men are training to become primary providers for their families. While some people
argue that traditional roles with respect to gender and self support have become less rigid
in recent decades, the findings of this study suggest that males rely more on themselves for
financial support while women continue to rely more on others.
Additional stereotypical behaviors between men and women were revealed in their
comments pertaining to budgeting behaviors. Specifically, comments related to anxiety
were mentioned more frequently by female students (11%) than male students (5%). This
suggests that females worry about budgeting behaviors more, perhaps because they may
not feel comfortable depending on others for their financial support. Since women
received most of the income from allowances and gifts , they may have perceived a need
to exert more control over their financial situation. However, traditional socialization
encourages women to let others take care of their needs, so they may not take actions to
control their finances. This may produce feelings of anxiety.
Another finding that seems to support stereotypical beliefs about gender roles
involves comments regarding planning. Males not only mentioned planning behaviors
more often than females (21% v. 13%) but these comments were also rated as reflecting
110
better budgeting behaviors than similar comments offered by females (33 good for men, 9
good for women) (see Table 14 and Table 15). Therefore, the researcher concluded that
men exhibit good planning behaviors more often than women, a fact which seems to
support the stereotype that men are responsible for financial planning. Again, the results

suggest that traditional gender roles still exist regarding money.

Overall, the differences between men and women support and challenge
stereotypical notions regarding gender and finances. Since mens spending exceeded their
income to a greater extent than womens spending exceeded their income, the findings
challenged the notion that women manage money less wisely than men. On the other hand,
because men worked and planned financially more than women, and women felt more
anxious about money, and relied more on others for financial support, certain stereotypical
behaviors about gender and money management were confirmed in this study.
Implications
The results of this study provide sufficient data to form implications about future
practice and research in the area of student budgeting. In terms of practice,
the results suggest a need to educate all students about managing their resources, since for
all groups expenditures exceeded income. However, on-campus and female students in
particular seem to need such education. In order to meet the needs of these students,
institutional practices could be designed and implemented to foster development of
budgeting skills.
For example, institutions might enhance the development of budgeting skills by
integrating materials on financial planning into academic courses than have not
traditionally addressed financial skills. Students taking a class on human nutrition might be
111
required to prepare a meal on a budget or submit a budget for a meal, or a food budget for
a month. While a course on nutrition does not normally address financial management,
good budgeting behaviors can be learned by integrating such activities into the curriculum.
Second, an office on campus might be established to handle students financial
management issues. The mission of this office might be to counsel and educate students

about how to manage their money and to provide programs about budgeting skills.
Personnel working in this office could include full-time financial counselors, graduate
students, or volunteers who were trained in financial counseling. Such an office might also
be developed in partnership with local banks and other financial institutions. Banks have
students as customers. Perhaps they would provide training and/or volunteer staff for the
office since their personnel already possess expertise in financial counseling. The university
could contribute to this partnership by providing the office space and overhead costs
associated with any such office. Banks may want to join this partnership because if
students develop better budgeting skills they may be less likely to overdraw their accounts
or more likely to open savings or other kinds of accounts. As for the benefits to colleges
and universities, students who have better budgeting skills may be less likely to leave
school due to financial problems and more likely to pay their fees in a timely manner. Both
college administrators and bank officers should seriously consider providing financial
advising services to students in order to better facilitate their development of quality
budgeting behaviors.
A third implication focuses on the need for students who live on campus to gain
more experience and better budgeting behaviors. The results revealed that even though
on-campus students had fewer bills, they spent more than they received in comparison to
112
off-campus students. This means that they may experience considerable transitional issues
once they move off campus. In order to minimize these challenges, residence life units
might want to provide on-campus students opportunities where they can practice and/or
learn how to budget their finances.
Residence life units can offer such opportunities by sponsoring programs that
address issues of budgeting and financial management. These programs could be presented

by financial counselors, faculty members, or qualified resident advisors. Programs should

be designed to promote on-campus students awareness that financial management and
budgeting responsibilities change when you move into off campus facilities. Therefore,
when they move off campus, on-campus students might not face major adjustments when
required to pay bills regularly.
While on-campus students struggle with budgeting, women in general also battle
with these behaviors. Services at institutions that primarily serve and advocate for women
may wish to take a role in helping women overcome stereotypical gender roles that might
prevent them from developing quality budgeting behaviors. Such a role might include
offering financial counseling support groups for women that would empower them to
overcome traditional gender roles. These support groups might include not only
interactive presentations about financial management, but also discussions concerning
financial issues. Presentations by financial counselors might consist of topics such as
saving, investing, budgeting, and communicating about money as it relates to women.
Discussions might assist women in assessing their financial skills while providing positive
feedback on how they might improve their skills. These discussions might be led by a
counselor who is knowledgeable about and sensitive to the needs of women
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While the implications for professional practice are extensive, the results from the
present study also suggest topics for future research. While this study provided
information about various constituencies, future researchers may want to investigate the
budgeting behaviors of other student sub-groups. For example, studies on how minorities
spend money and manage their finances might provide interesting information.
Future researchers may also want to examine students in regard to their parents
socioeconomic status. For example, one participant in the present study commented that

his family was rather wealthy and he did not need to budget his finances. Investigating the
differences between levels of parental income may further describe how the influence of
parents and home are reflected in student attitudes about budgeting.
Finally, a single study that examines the budgeting behaviors of freshmen,
sophomores, juniors, and seniors might provide data about all undergraduates. The present
study, when coupled with the Nick (1997) study revealed results about all four groups, but
the methods used in the two studies varied somewhat and data were collected in different
years. If students budgeting behaviors were explored using an identical methodology and
data collection that occurred simultaneously among all groups, results might reveal further
information about student budgeting skills and behaviors.
Limitations
As with all research, the present study had several limitations. First, the study was
limited because only students at one four-year institution were examined. Had participants
at other types of schools been involved (e.g., community college students), the results
might have been different. The results of this study are not generalizable to college
students at other institutions.
114
Second, this study used traditional-aged college juniors and seniors. Had older
participants been involved in this study, the results might have differed. The budgeting
behaviors of these students are not generalizable to non-traditional-aged students.
Finally, assumptions that guided this study may have influenced the results. For
instance, the researcher assumed that the participants would provide authentic data. If this
assumption was inaccurate, then the results of this study are further limited.
Despite these limitations, this study provided information to student affairs
practitioners concerning the budgeting behaviors of college students. This design also

provided a methodology that might be employed by others who wish to study financial
matters related to college students. Overall, the present research gave further insight into
how college students handle their finances.
Final Conclusions
In conclusion, the results of the present study provided some interesting
information about the behaviors of college students with respect to their budgeting
behaviors. Several conclusions might be offered. First, students failed to budget effectively
because they spent more than they earned. Across all groups, students expenditures
totaled more than their income. Furthermore, the percentages of expenditures and income
showed that on-campus and male students spent far more than off-campus or female
students.
Second, students comments regarding their budgeting behaviors were found to
reflect either good or poor ratings. This suggests that while some students seem to have
well developed financial management skills, others did not. This contradicts some scholars
who argued that all college students had rather limited budgeting skills.
115
Third, off-campus students differ from on-campus students because they have
more budgeting experience. Off-campus students seemed to have developed these
budgeting skills by paying monthly bills associated with off-campus living. Most
important, on-campus students need to gain more budgeting experiences in order to
minimize the transitional issues they will face when moving off-campus.
Finally, female students spent money on clothes and beauty items, relied on gifts as
sources of income, and seemed more anxious about budgeting than male students. These
kinds of behaviors may reinforce certain stereotypical beliefs about women. The amount
spent on clothing and beauty items suggests that females still feel a special pressure to

look a certain way. Their reliance on gifts for the majority of their income suggests that
females behave in a fairly traditional manner and rely either on their parents or significant
others for their financial security. Finally, female students feel far more anxious about
budgeting which might be explained by the fact that they want control over their finances
but continue to rely on others for support.
In conclusion, student affairs professionals offer dozens of programs to students in
order to promote personal development. From new student orientation to residence life to
counseling services, professionals provide opportunities for students to develop new skills
that may facilitate their personal development once they leave college. However, programs
addressing financial management skills have been overlooked in the realm of services
needed to promote personal development among students.
The results of this study suggest that college students have difficulty budgeting
their finances. If financial management skills are not taught while in college, students may
continue to struggle with their finances long after they leave college. Therefore, it would
116
seem prudent for colleges and universities to develop programs and services to promote
such financial management skills. Such efforts might help students in significant ways as
they leaves campuses and enter the adult world.
117
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freshmen and sophomores: A qualitative study. Unpublished masters thesis, Virginia
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121
Appendix A: Flyer to Solicit Participants
122
NEED $40??
Are you a junior or senior?
Do you use Email?
Do you use a computer regularly?

 Are you willing to keep records of your

finances for four weeks?
If you are interested in participating, please call
me. I need help with my graduate research
project.
Andy232-1249 Andy232-1249
_______________________________________
Andy232-1249 Andy232-1249
_______________________________________
Andy232-1249 Andy232-1249
_______________________________________
Andy232-1249 Andy232-1249
_______________________________________
123
Appendix B: Protocol of Initial Screening
124
Protocol for Initial Screening
Screening Criteria
The researcher will ask the following questions to determine if respondents meet the
requirements to participate in this study.
Are you a full-time student?
YES NO
What is your gender?
MALE FEMALE
When did you graduate from high school?

1995 1994 OTHER

Did you come to college the fall after your high school graduation?
YES NO
What academic years did you live on campus?
1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98
What years did you live off campus?
1995-96 1996-97 1997-98
Have you ever used Excel? If not, would you be willing to learn some basic behaviors?
YES NO
Do you have a computer?
YES NO
Would you be willing to use a computer lab?
YES NO
What kind of computer do you use most often?
PC MAC
Do you have an Email account? If not, would you be willing to use Email to meet the
requirements of the study?
YES NO
****DID THE RESPONDENT MEET THE CRITERIA TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY?
****
YES NO
125
Participant Requirements
If the researcher assesses that the respondent meets the criteria, then the researcher will
inform the respondents of the following participation requirements for the study:

Would you be willing to attend an hour-long informational meeting about the study? At
this time, you will receive $10 of the $40 incentive.
YES NO
Would you be willing to maintain a log of your income and expenditures for three-week
on a log sheet that will be provided at the informational meeting, and transfer this
information to a computer spreadsheet?
YES NO
Would you be willing to respond to five questions via electronic mail that pertain to how
you manage your finances?
YES NO
Participant Information and Instructional Meeting
If respondents affirmed they would complete these tasks, then the researcher collected
their information and asked them to choose an instructional meeting to attend.
NAME:____________________________________
ADDRESS:______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
TELEPHONE NUMBER:_________________________
EMAIL:______________________________
INSTRUCTIONAL MEETING: 1 2 3
126
Appendix C: Instructional Meeting Protocol
127
Instructional Meeting Protocol
I. Introductions
A. Researcher and researchers background

II. Purpose of the Study

A. To gather information about the financial management behaviors of traditionalaged
juniors and seniors.
B. Financial management behaviors include spending habits and planning behaviors.
Hence, these participants will be asked to engage in certain activities that will
assist the researcher in examining spending habits and planning behaviors.
III. Computerized Spreadsheets
A. Distribute the log sheets, computer disks, and handouts on how to use
spreadsheets.
B. Explain how to access spreadsheets.
C. Identify on-campus computer labs
IV. Electronic Surveys
A. Explain that questions will be sent every four days and responses should be sent
within 48 hours.
B. Explain that follow up questions may be asked to gather additional information.
Other
A. Explain how candor and honesty is needed in this project.
B. Ask participants if any of them have received any financial management training.
C. Answer any questions. Explain that some questions may not be answered because it
may affect the results, but any such questions will be answered at the end of the
study.
Conclusion
A. Have participants sign informed consent forms
B. Distribute $10 of the incentive.
C. Have the participants sign receipts for the $10 incentive.

128
Appendix D: Blank Log Sheet and Sample of Completed Log Sheet
129
EXPENSES AND INCOME
TRACKING SHEET
Subject #:______________ Sheet #:______
DATE Expense/Income EXP Type INC Source Amount Item, What For
E/I SEE TYPE
LIST
130
Sample of Completed
EXPENSES AND INCOME
TRACKING SHEET
Subject #: OCJ1 Sheet: 1
DATE Expense/Income EXP Type INC Source Amount Item, What For
E/I SEE TYPE LIST
10-24 E Fast Food 4.75 Lunch
10-24 E Hygiene Product 5.32 Razor
10-24 E On-campus Dining 4.19 Dinner
10-24 E School supplies 13.90 Computer disks
10-24 E Snacks .75 Candy bar
10-24 E On-Campus dining 2.14 Coffee
10-24 I Birthday gift 50.00 Gift from Mom
10-25 E On-Campus Dining 2.11 Breakfast
10-25 I Birthday gift 25.00 Gift from Dad

10-25 E On-Campus Dining 3.92 Lunch

10-25 E Restaurant 7.95 Dinner
10-25 E Movies 6.00 At the Cinema
10-25 E Alcohol 15.00 Birthday Party
10-26 I Part-time job 82.10 2 weeks pay
10-26 E Gas 12.00 Fill my car
10-26 E Fast Food 3.96 Lunch
10-26 E Laundry 2.25 3 loads
10-26 E Other 3.14 Magazine
10-26 E Video Rentals 5.05 2 Movies
10-26 E Fast Food 3.00 Dinner
10-26 E Bar/Dance Club 15.00 Dancing
10-27 I Birthday gift 20.00 Gift from Aunt
10-28 E On-Campus Dining 4.13 Breakfast
10-28 E School supplies 82.19 Calculator
10-28 E On-Campus Dining 3.92 Lunch
10-28 E Snacks 1.50 Soda, chips
10-29 E Clothing 42.19 Sweater
10-29 E Clothing 89.12 Shoes
10-30 E Lunch 3.92 Lunch
10-30 I Part-time job 82.10 Check
10-30 E Other 35.00 Aerobics classes
10-30 E Fast Food 4.40 Dinner
131
Appendix E: Handout How to Access the Computerized Log Sheet and Locations of OnCampus

Computer Labs
132
Accessing Computerized Log Sheet
1. Place the given disk in the computer.
2. Select the Excel program on the computer.
3. Pull down File and select Open.
4. Select the drive that will allow the computer to read the floppy drive. On most
computers, this will be the A drive.
5. The computer should show one file Logsheet.
6. Highlight Logsheet and open the file using the open command.
Using the Spreadsheet
The spreadsheet has already been formatted to look exactly like the paper log sheets
you used to record this information.
Once you have accessed the file, use the arrow keys on the keyboard and fill in the
appropriate spaces according to your paper log sheet.
As you are updating the file, please continuously save the file to the disk.
To save the file, pull down the File option and select Save As. You can verify that
the computer is saving the document on the correct disk and in the appropriate file.
After verifying it is the correct disk and file, simply press return. If another drive
appears, then refer to the instructions above or ask for assistance from the computer
lab staff.
On-Campus Computer Labs
Lab Location Operating Hours
West Ambler Johnston 4th floor 24 hours a day
Hillcrest Hall Basement 24 hours a day

Newman Library2nd floor Mondays-Thursdays

8AM-Midnight
Fridays 9AM-7PM
Saturdays 9AM-7PM
Sundays 9AM-Midnight
133
Appendix F: Type Lists of Expenses and Income
134
Types of Expenses and Income
When completing the log sheets, please use these categories whenever possible to
describe the type of expense or income. If an expense you incur does not fit into one of
these categories, or income you receive does not fit under one of the sources listed, write
in notes about the item on your handwritten log sheet and your spreadsheet. Please be as
detailed as possible.
Expenses
Food
Grocery Store
Fast Food
On-Campus Dining
Restaurant
Snacks
Alcohol
Utilities
Rent
Electric Bill

Phone Bill
Water Bill
Cable Bill
Automobile Expenses
Loan Payment
Gas
Repairs and maintenance
Non-Automobile Travel Expenses
Airplane
Train
Bus
Entertainment
Movies
Video Rentals
Music
Bar/Dance Club
Bowling
Organizational Dues
Insurance
Health Insurance
Car Insurance
Life Insurance
General Items
Hygiene products
Clothing

Laundry
Gifts (if so please state your relationship with the recipient)
School supplies
Other
135
Income
Jobs
Full-time employment
Part-time employment
One-time employment
Gift
Birthday
Holiday
Allowance
Loan
Tuition Refund
Cash Advance from a Credit Card
From an Acquaintance (please describe your relationship with this person)
Savings
From Summer Employment
Other Savings
Other
136
Appendix G: Electronic Survey Handout
137

Electronic Survey
The following is a list of dates when the five questions will be sent to you via Email. Each
question will be sent by 8AM on the day listed. If you have any problems retrieving the
message or any other questions, please contact me immediately at 232-1249. Please
remember to respond to the question within 48 hours after receiving the message.
Thanks.
Date Sent Date You Need To Respond
Question #1: Thursday, October 30 Sunday, November 1
Question #2: Monday, November 3 Wednesday, November 5
Question #3: Thursday, November 6 Saturday, November 8
Question #4: Sunday, November 9 Tuesday, November 11
Question #5: Wednesday, November 12 Friday, November 15
138
Appendix H: Informed Consent
139
VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY
Informed Consent for Participants of Investigative Projects
Title of Project: Budgeting Behaviors of Traditional-Aged Upper-Division College Students
Investigator: W. Andrew Wilson
I. The Purpose of this Research/Project
The purpose of this study is to examine how students manage their finances. Data
is collected by asking 40 students to keep records of their expenditures and income over a
three-week period of time and to respond to five electronic survey questions. The study is
designed to gain a better understanding of the budgeting behaviors of college students at a
large, public, research university.

II. Procedures
As a participant, you will be asked to complete the following:
1. To attend one of three informational meetings (October 20, 21, and 22, 1997) lasting
an hour to an hour and a half.
2. To maintain a log via computerized spreadsheet of your expenses and income for a
three-week period of time (October 24 to November 19, 1997).
3. To respond to five electronic survey questions within 48 hours of the question being
sent.
4. To submit the computerized spreadsheets and to review your electronic survey
responses (approximately 15 minutes). At this time, the researcher will ensure the
completeness of the submitted data.
III. Risks
The risks to the participants in this study are minimal. Some participants may
experience some unease in revealing information about their finances. If participants feel
overly anxious, then they will be encouraged to seek assistance from University
Counseling Center. By removing all names from documents and properly destroying all
records one year after the completion of the study, the researcher will minimize this risk.
IV. Benefits of this Project
By participating in this study, subjects may benefit from tracking their expenses
and income. This experience may help them gain a better understanding for how they
budget their finances. Subjects will also receive a total cash incentive of $35 if all
requirement and participation are met.
V. Extent of Anonymity and Confidentiality
Confidentiality will be maintained. Once your computerized spreadsheets have
been received and reviewed for complete information, your identity will be eliminated

from all records. As for the electronic survey questions, the researcher will use a blind
distribution list to protect the identity of subjects when sending the questions. Once the
electronic survey questions have been verified for complete answers, the researcher will
140
eliminate respondents names from the documents. Both the computerized spreadsheets
and electronic survey responses will be coded based on gender and place of residence.
The computerized spreadsheets and survey responses will be maintained by the
researcher for one year after the completion of the study, and then destroyed. The
researcher and the chair of the researchers thesis committee will be the only individuals
with access to the data.
VI. Compensation
The incentive for participating in this study is a cash award of $40. An initial
payment of $10 will be made to participants at the end of the instructional meeting. The
balance of the incentive will be issued at the conclusion of the data collection period, once
all relevant document have been secured by the researcher.
Compensation to participants will be made only if they complete all requirements
of the study. If participants fail to meet any of the requirements, the participants agree to
return the initial incentive ($10) and are ineligible to receive the balance of the incentive
($40).
VII. Freedom to Withdraw
Subjects are free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Subjects
are free not to answer any question that they choose without penalty.
VIII. Approval of Research
This research project has been approved, as required, by the Institutional Review
Board for Research Involving Human Subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, by the College of Human Resources and Education, and the Department of
Educational Leadership and Policy Studies.
IX. Subjects Responsibilities
I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.
X. Subjects Permission
I have read and understand the Informed Consent and conditions of this project. I
have had all my questions answered. I hereby acknowledge the above and give my
voluntary consent for participation in this project.
If I participate, I may withdraw at any time without penalty. I agree to abide by the
rules of this project.
_________________________ _________________________
Signature Date
141
Should I have any questions about this research or its conduct, I may contact:
_____________________________ 232-1249
Andrew Wilson Phone
Investigator
_____________________________ 231-9700
Dr. Joan B. Hirt Phone
Faculty Advisor
_____________________________ 231-9359
Dr. Tom Hurd Phone
Chair, IRB
Research Division
.

142
Appendix I: Electronic Survey Dates Sent, Questions, and Relevant Research Question
143
Electronic Survey Dates Sent, Questions, and Relevant Research Question
Date Sent Survey Question Relevant Research Question
10-30-97 Think about your expenses over How do upper-division
the last two days. Then, make a students spend their money?
list of these expenses. Once you
have made this list, describe how
you decided to make those choices
about where you spent your money.
11-3-97 Think about the last time you had What are the budgeting
an unexpected expense (e.g., car behaviors of upper-division
repairs, parking fine). Then, students?
describe how you handled it.
11-6-97 Think about the last time you What are the budgeting
had extra money. Examples of behaviors of upper-division
this extra money could come be students?
disposable income at the end of a
month, an unexpected gift, or a raise
in wages. Describe what you did with
the extra money.
11-9-97 Think about the last time you What are the budgeting
borrowed or asked for money. behaviors of upper-division
Examples of borrowed money students?

could be from bank loans, gifts,

or cash advances. Describe the
circumstances surrounding that
situation and how you handled it.
11-12-97 Think about a time when you either What are the budgeting
couldnt pay a bill on time or thought behaviors of upper-division
you may have to pay a bill late. Then, students?
describe how this situation occurred
and how you handled it.
144
W. Andrew Wilson
Current Address: As of May 9, 1998:
P.O. Box 185 Rt. 2 Box 630
Blacksburg, VA 24063 Walterboro, SC 29488
(540) 232-1249 (803) 538-2428
wawilson@vt.edu
EDUCATION MA in Education in Student Personnel Services
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA May 1998 (Expected)
THESIS: Budgeting Behaviors of Traditional-Aged Upper-Division
College Students
BA in Psychology, Summa Cum Laude, Honors Degree
Winthrop University, Rock Hill, SC May 1996
THESIS: Perfectionism Levels in Humans with Body Image Disorders
WORK EXPERIENCE
Residence Life Education

Graduate Hall Director, Graduate Assistantship, Slusher Wing, Virginia Tech, August 1997Present
Responsible for the overall leadership, administration, and facilities management of a First Year
Experience residence hall of 303 co-ed first-year students.
Selected, trained, supervised, and evaluated six resident advisors.
Served as the primary advisor for the hall council that consisted of six officers and 16 hall
representatives.
Advised staff members on effective programming and presented programs with staff members.
Utilized staff development activities to further train staff members.
Coordinated the collaboration between resident advisors and live-in academic mentors and
computer
consultants.
Participated in the Head Staff on-call rotation that provides crisis response and intervention to
8,500
on-campus students.
Managed budgets for residence hall programming and hall council activities.
Graduate Hall Director, Graduate Assistantship, Vawter Hall, Virginia Tech, May 1997-August
1997
Selected, trained, supervised, and evaluated six resident advisors in a co-ed hall of 330
undergraduate summer school students.
Participated in the on-call rotation as a direct respondent for intervention for on-campus
housing.
Advised staff members on effective programming during summer school sessions.
Managed the summer programming budget.
Created and presented professional and staff developments.
Hired, trained, and supervised 20 night monitors.
Served on two Area Coordinator Search Committees.

Intern, Residential Programs, Virginia Tech, May 1997-August 1997

Created training modules and activities for Resident Advisor Training that involved 150 staff
members.
Designed a hiring timeline for current and new positions in the department.
Researched and reported on supervision models in student affairs.
145
Wilson (2 of 3)
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Community Assistant, Graduate Assistantship, Virginia Tech, August 1996-May 1997
Advised five residence hall governments on budgeting, programming, and facilities
management.
Managed a $4400 budget for five residence halls and hall governments.
Hired, trained, and supervised 40 night monitors and 6 fitness room monitors.
Compiled payroll records for night monitors and fitness monitors.
Assisted in training and supervising 48 resident assistants.
Coordinated community-wide programming on alcohol, sexual assault, study skills, gender
issues,
and effective communication.
Evaluated candidates during the resident advisor selection process.
Taught and evaluated a credit-bearing Introduction to Residence Education course for 24
experienced
resident advisors.
Co-supervised an undergraduate office assistant on daily responsibilities.
Resident Assistant, Winthrop University, January 1994-May 1995
Served as a campus resource, university liaison, policy enforcer, facilities manager, and hall
council

member for 45 upper-division residents in a coed residence hall.

Developed and presented 35 educational programs using the Wellness Model.
Student Transition Programs
First Year Experience Course Facilitator, Virginia Tech, August 1997-December 1997
Assisted with the implementation of a credit-bearing course of 275 first-year students.
Facilitated and evaluated a small-group class of 20 first-year students.
Presented programs on common issues facing first-year students.
Mentored the small-group class students.
Assisted in the grading of the small-group class members.
Freshman Peer Mentor, Winthrop University, August 1995-December 1995
Developed and presented programs for 16 first-semester freshmen on college survival skills.
Served as a counselor, role model, and resource.
Participants had a 11% higher retention than the control group.
Orientation Assistant, Winthrop University, February 1995-July 1995
Participated in extensive communication, problem solving, and institutional structure training.
Educated over 800 first-year students as to the academic, residential, and social workings of the
university.
Successfully facilitated students in group discussions.
Health Education
Intern, University Student Health Services, Virginia Tech, January 1997-May 1997
Selected, trained, and advised paraprofessional Wellness Promotion Team members.
Presented and designed educational and interactive programs on smoking cessation and stress
management.
Conducted and reported a needs assessment of nontraditional students.
146

Wilson (3 of 3)
______________________________________________________________________________
_____
Intern, University Counseling and Health Center, Winthrop University, August 1995-February
1996
Planned, budgeted, advertised, and implemented World AIDS Day observance for the
university and
tri-county area.
Assisted in the implementation and recruitment efforts for an 11-member peer education
program.
Researched, developed, marketed, and presented wellness programs on mens issues, nutrition,
sexual
assault, substance abuse, and time management
Greek Life
Kappa Sigma Fraternity Officer, Vice-President, Winthrop Chapter, January 1993-May 1996
Coordinated the judicial, risk management, and scholarship.
Responsible for the 60-man chapters efficient functioning.
Assisted in composing a comprehensive application for the Fraternitys highest award for
overall
chapter excellence.
Greek Week Chairperson, Greek Life Office, Winthrop University, April 1995-October 1995
Planned eight events centered around various competitions to foster unity between fraternities
and
sororities.
Responded to questions concerning rules, points, and judging.
Undergraduate Admissions
Admissions Ambassador, University Admissions, Winthrop University, August 1994-May 1996
Answered questions from prospective students and their families.

 Facilitated discussions between current Winthrop students and prospective students.

Guided over 75 campus tours.
PRESENTATIONS
Wilson, W.A. (1996). A new look at in-take: Perfectionism levels in clients with body image
disorders. New York: American Psychological Association Conference.
Andersen, D. L. & Wilson, W.A. (1997). Speaking out: An assertive communication training.
Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech Residence Hall Federation.
Wilson, W. A. & Nick, H.A. (1997). Financial management of undergraduates. Memphis, TN:
Southern Association of College Student Affairs Conference.
Wilson, W.A. (1998). You never know who you are talking to: Being sensitive to people with
hidden identities. Roanoke, VA: Human Rights Campaign Conference on Civil Liberties.
HONORS
National Merit Scholar
Phi Kappa Phi (Academic Honor Society)
Psi Chi (Psychology Honor Society)
Order of Omega (All-Greek Honor Society)
American Legion Award (Most Outstanding Graduate)
Winthrop Trustees Award (Highest GPA of Honors Program Graduates)
Eastman Kodak Graduate Fellowship
B. F. Skinner National Award for Outstanding Undergraduate Research