Hubblesconstantisameasureoftherateofexpansionoftheuniverse.

Itisrelatedtothe
ageoftheuniverse.
Cosmicbackgroundradiationisapatternofbackgroundradiationfromspacethat
representstheafterglowoftheheatoftheearlyuniverse.Todayitisintheformof
microwaves.
Thetermbigbangreferstotherapidexpansionoftheveryearlyuniverse.
Accretion:Expansionandcooling,gravitationalattraction,lossofkineticenergy
Theluminosityofastaristhetotalenergyradiatedbyastarpersecond.
Thebrightnessofastaristheintensityoflightasseensomedistanceawayfromit.Itisthe
energyreceivedpersquaremetrepersecond.
Ablackbodyisonethatabsorbsallradiationfallinguponit.Whenitbecomeshotterthan
itssurroundings,itbeginstoradiateelectromagneticenergyofitsown.
Blackbodyradiationistheelectromagneticradiationemittedbyablackbody.
AHertzsprungRusselldiagramisagraphofastarsluminosity(astheverticalaxis)
plottedagainstitstemperatureorcolour.
ThemainsequenceisadiagonalbandfromtheupperleftcornerofanHRdiagramtothe
lowerrightcornerofthediagram.Moststarsareinthisgroup.
TheredgiantsisthegroupofstarsintheupperrightcorneroftheHRdiagram.These
arecool,giantstars.
ThewhitedwarfsisthegroupclosetothelowerleftcorneroftheHRdiagram.Theseare
exceptionallysmall,hotstars.

There are three types of nuclear radiation: alpha (helium nucleus), beta
(electron) and gamma (high-frequency electromagnetic radiation).
These vary in ionising and penetrating power, as well as in the effect of electric
and magnetic fields upon them.

Any nuclear reaction that results in an increase in binding energy per nucleon will
release energy. This includes fission (splitting) of large nuclei and fusion (joining)
of small nuclei.
The matter within the Sun is extremely hot and highly ionised, forming a state of
matter known as a plasma.
Emissions from the Sun include electromag- netic radiation, as well as the solar
wind with the interplanetary magnetic field.
The Sun displays a number of features, including granulation, spicules, sunspots,
flares, prominences, coronal holes and coronal mass ejections.
Sunspots are regions of lower temperatures and strong magnetic activity.
Many of the features of the Sun increase and decrease in frequency according to
the 11-year solar cycle. The corresponding periodic vari- ation in the number of
sunspots is called the sunspot cycle.
Electromagnetic radiation from the Sun is selectively absorbed by molecules
within the Earths atmosphere.
The solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field link to, and distort, the Earths
magnetic field (called the magnetosphere). The magnetosphere deflects the solar
wind around itself, but also manages to capture some of the ions of the solar
wind.
Solar wind ions captured by the Earths mag- netic field form the outer Van Allen
belt. High- energy ions captured as a result of cosmic rays form the inner Van
Allen belt. Currents within these belts produce magnetic effects of their own.
During a solar maximum, the emissions from the Sun can fluctuate erratically.
These fluctu- ations have an impact on the Earth, producing effects such as
geomagnetic storms, possible satellite failure, possible power-grid failure, com2

munication difficulties and unusual auroras.