CollinDodds Walterscott

DODDS AND ASSOCIATES
EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND
www.doddsandassociates.co.uk
Structural testing of complete

vehicles, aggregates and components
in the laboratory
The Test Engineers Handbook1
Colin J Dodds BSc. PhD.
First Edition
Issue # 01
May 2007
This handbook is provided as part of the in-house training services by Dodds and Associates. It is not intended to be a rigorous
treatise on the subject material, but rather a useful compilation of the techniques and methodologies used by test engineers in a
world class automotive structural test laboratory. Every effort has been made to provide accurate and authoritative information
with regard to the subject material covered. However, this handbook is not a substitute for expert advice or assistance.
Dodds and Associates, 2007

Page 1 of 103
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................4
Forward ..........................................................................................................................5
About the author ............................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................6
1
MODULE CUSTOMER SERVICE ...................................................................8
1.1
Defining the customer profile ........................................................................8
1.2
Creating the customer profile.........................................................................9
1.3
Correlating customer loads with test track loads .........................................10
2
MODULE INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ACQUISITION..................11
2.1
Transducers ..................................................................................................11
2.1.1
Standard transducers ............................................................................12
2.1.2
Custom transducers..............................................................................13
2.1.3
Special transducers...............................................................................14
2.2
Data recording..............................................................................................15
2.3
Pitfalls of data acquisition............................................................................15
2.4
The accelerometer trap .............................................................................17
2.5
Calibration....................................................................................................18
2.6
Documentation.............................................................................................19
3
MODULE FATIGUE .......................................................................................20
3.1
The concepts kept simple.............................................................................20
3.2
Statistical scatter in fatigue life....................................................................24
3.3
Stress concentration factors .........................................................................26
3.4
Effect of mean stress on fatigue life. ...........................................................27
4
MODULE VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND MODES ........................................28
4.1
Single degree of freedom model ..................................................................28
4.2
Higher order models and vehicle modes......................................................30
4.3
Operational modal analysis..........................................................................31
5
MODULE LOAD DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION................33
5.1
A simple look at quasi-static vehicle loads..................................................33
5.2
Preliminary data validation ..........................................................................35
5.3
Analysis in the time domain ........................................................................35
5.3.1
Level crossings.....................................................................................36
5.3.2
Rainflow counting................................................................................37
5.3.3
Joint probability density function ........................................................37
5.4
Analysis in the frequency domain................................................................38
5.4.1
Power spectral density .........................................................................38
5.4.2
Cross spectrum, coherence and phase..................................................39
5.5
Probability analysis......................................................................................40
5.5.1
Normal distribution..............................................................................40
5.5.2
Weibull distribution .............................................................................41
5.5.3
Extreme value distribution...................................................................43
6
MODULE SIMULATION, DATA EDITING AND ACCURACY ................44
6.1
Data editing for test time reduction .............................................................44
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6.2
Defining the accuracy of the laboratory simulation.....................................48
6.3
Laboratory simulation by iterative control methodology ............................51
7
MODULE FATIGUE TESTING......................................................................55
7.1
Constant amplitude loading method ............................................................55
7.2
Test loads by peak-valley extraction............................................................55
7.3
Block cycle loading......................................................................................56
7.4
Evaluating the results of fatigue tests ..........................................................58
7.5
The staircase method of fatigue testing .......................................................60
8
MODULE TEST RIG DESIGN .......................................................................63
8.1
Basic rules of fixture design for component testing ....................................63
8.2
Load frame design example .........................................................................65
8.3
Floor design seismic mass and in-ground reaction mass ..........................67
8.4
Foundation guidelines..................................................................................68
9
MODULE HYDRAULICS AND CONTROL .................................................69
9.1
The hydraulic actuator and servo-valve.......................................................69
9.2
Accumulators and pumps.............................................................................71
9.3
PID Control theory.......................................................................................73
10
APPLICATION FULL VEHICLE TESTING..............................................76
10.1 Full vehicle simulation with multiple inputs ...............................................76
10.2 Vehicle simulation using the 4-poster..........................................................77
10.3 Setting up a 4-post test.................................................................................79
11
APPLICATION SUSPENSION TESTING .................................................84
11.1 General philosophy ......................................................................................84
11.2 Setting up a multi-axes suspension test .......................................................86
11.3 Parameters which affect the accuracy of suspension simulation .................87
12
APPLICATION AGGREGATE TESTING USING THE MAST ...............89
13
APPLICATION COMPONENT TESTING.................................................91
13.1 Wheel knuckle testing..................................................................................92
13.2 Front axle beam testing................................................................................93
13.3 Other component tests..................................................................................95
13.4 The correct use of load cells ........................................................................95
14
MODULE TEST PLANNING AND REPORTING ....................................96
14.1 Test objectives .............................................................................................96
14.2 Test Planning simulator utilisation ...........................................................96
14.3 Test planning - component tests ..................................................................97
14.4 Test reporting ...............................................................................................99
14.4.1
The report.............................................................................................99
14.4.2
Tips on report writing: .......................................................................101
14.4.3
The test log.........................................................................................102
15
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................103

Page 3 of 103
Acknowledgements
The material in this book would not have been available were it not for the
contributions of many colleagues and clients that I have worked with over the years.
Special mention is due to my colleagues and friends at EG&GSK in Detroit (now
Defiance Testing and Engineering 2 ), IST 3 in Darmstadt, Germany, Tata Motors 4 and
Bharat Forge 5 in Pune, India, and many others too numerous to mention.
Thanks are due to IST and MTS 6 for their kind permissions to use the photographs of
vehicle test systems in the applications. Throughout this handbook, the data analysis
and fatigue life estimations were computed using the GlyphWorks 7 4.0 software
package from nCode 8 . Their generous assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
Thanks are specifically due to Dr. Neil Hay (Dodds and Associates and Napier
University, Edinburgh) for his comments and suggestions, and to my wife Eileen who
had the patience to proof read the final document.
Finally, the book would never have been written if I had not broken my quadriceps
tendon in my right knee during one of my recent travels. This made me desk bound
for eight weeks during which I applied myself to this task.
1 May 2007
The written content of this handbook is copyright Dodds and Associates. All rights expressly reserved.
The content of this handbook can be copied and printed in an unaltered form, with copyright acknowledged, on a temporary basis
for personal study which is not for direct or indirect commercial use. Any content printed may not be sold, licensed, transferred,
copied or reproduced in whole or in part in any manner or in or on any media to any person without the prior written consent of
Dodds and Associates.
Dodds and Associates has made every reasonable effort to locate, contact and acknowledge copyright owners of the images in
this handbook and wishes to be informed by any copyright owners who are not properly identified and acknowledged so that we
may make any necessary corrections.
Requests for permission to reproduce material from this handbook should be addressed to:
Dr Colin J Dodds
Dodds and Associates
6 Malbet Park,
EDINBURGH EH16 6SY,
Scotland.
http://www.defiancetest.com/
http://www.instron.com/ist/
4
http://www.tatamotors.com/
5
http://www.bharatforge.com/
6
http://www.mts.com/
7
GlyphWorks is a registered trademark of nCode International
8
http://www.ncode.com/
3

Page 4 of 103
Forward
This handbook captures the experiences of the author over many years, firstly as a young test engineer,
secondly as the manager of a major automotive test facility in Detroit, and latterly as an independent
test consultant. It reviews, details where necessary and summarises the background material for each of
the technologies or methodologies required to operate successfully an automotive structural test
laboratory. These are the core competences that test engineers require. It is assumed that the test
engineers have an educational level equivalent to a degree in engineering or similar scientific subject.
This handbook, together with the applications training provided by Dodds and Associates, will enable
test engineers to achieve world class status. The handbook is also useful for staff in supporting
functions such as engineering personnel working in vehicle design, FE analysis and management who
would like to understand the processes, but who do not have the time to attend formal training.
Automotive structural test technologies

In this first edition, the author has tried to make the information as complete and as comprehensive as
possible. It is always the case that something has been missed, for which the author apologises and will
include in later editions.
About the author

Dr Colin J Dodds is the Director of Dodds and Associates, a company specialising
in automotive vehicle and component structural testing. Dr Dodds graduated in
mechanical engineering and obtained a PhD in vehicle response to random inputs
from the University of Glasgow. He is an expert in automotive laboratory
simulation and fatigue testing with over 35 years experience in the automotive
structural testing industry in the UK, USA, Italy, Germany and Japan. Dr Dodds
has provided training seminars on laboratory simulation and automotive structural
testing to a global client base.

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INTRODUCTION
Laboratory road simulation describes the replication in the laboratory of conditions
experienced by a vehicle in service. In general, this may encompass environmental
conditions (Table 1) such as temperature variation and corrosive chemicals (salt spray,
acid rain, etc.). This handbook, however, is concerned with the simulation of motion
and forces experienced by the vehicle, its aggregates 9 and components. The objective
of such simulations is to assess the structural performance of the product in terms of
fatigue or durability 10 , ride comfort and refinement.
Table 1 Types of service loads
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
LOAD
Road
Drive
Heat/Cold
Physical
Chemical
Operation
DEFINITION
Input from road surface irregularities
Input torques from engine and power train
Input from engine temperature to elastomers
Input such as stones, mud, weather (sun load, humidity)
Input from a chemical processes, acid rain, salt spray, UV
Input from usage frequency, doors closing, switches etc.
A number of options are available for testing a new vehicle design:

testing on the road or test track
testing in the laboratory using a dynamic vehicle simulator test rig
testing a virtual vehicle using computer simulation.
In practice a combination of all three will be used. The attraction of laboratory
simulation is that a degree of accuracy is ensured: the test specimen is the real vehicle
and tests can be carried out in a controlled environment to enhance repeatability.
There will also be savings in time, cost and specimen security. Laboratory simulators
have proved popular for durability testing. Continuous accelerated tests are feasible,
with little human intervention. This significantly shortens the vehicle development
cycle.
Although the desirability of laboratory simulation is clear, there are significant pitfalls.
An incomplete understanding of the loading conditions and reactions, and the
practical limitations of the test rig hardware, may make it difficult to reproduce all the
external loading on the test specimen as accurately as we would wish. Even when
improvements in simulation accuracy are possible, the capital cost of the test
equipment, control technology or test preparation time is often a limiting factor.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide the test engineer with an understanding of
all the technologies and methodologies required to simulate service loads on complete
vehicles, vehicle aggregates or components in the laboratory. The loading conditions
are typically determined by measurements from vehicle road tests. Algorithms that
have been developed over the last 30 years are used to validate, analyse, edit and
reproduce these loads on the product in the laboratory. Where the theory is readily
9
This term is used to mean a vehicle sub-assembly such as the suspension or steering system etc.
Durability is defined as the resistance to gross damage and fatigue.
10

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available in text books we have avoided mathematics. However where the author is
not aware of suitable texts, mathematical derivations are given.
The focus of this handbook, and of most test systems, is on vehicle loads which are
induced via forces originating at the vehicles wheels. The material in this handbook
does not cover the simulation of loads due to the rotating engine and transmission
components, nor does it cover other forms of environmental simulation in the
laboratory such as corrosion, temperature, sun load etc. These are often an essential
part of a complete vehicle simulation 11 .
11
These topics will be covered in a later edition of this handbook

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MODULE CUSTOMER SERVICE
The foundation of all worthwhile and reliable laboratory tests rests on knowledge of
customer loads. In other words, we need to know with some certainty who our
customer is and what our customer does with our product.
The process involves determining a typical or extreme-user customer, measuring and
quantifying a limited, but representative, customer environment and involves
correlating these data with specific test track surfaces at a proving ground.
The methodology enables us to determine the service load environment which
corresponds to a predefined number of kilometres of customer usage. Vehicle
components are instrumented and data are acquired. The road load data are then
analysed. The loading environment is obtained in a statistical sense. The mix of
proving ground surfaces that produces the same loading environment can be
determined. Load data for laboratory tests can now be obtained from test vehicles
running on the correlated proving ground tracks.
1.1
Defining the customer profile
We need the answers to the following questions:

i. Who are the customers?
ii. How long should the vehicle last? (Determined by vehicle marketing)
iii. On what mix of road conditions does the customer drive?
We begin by determining the customer mix and the overall composition of road types,
speeds and loading conditions that are representative of our customer mix. For
example, a study in China in the early 1990s on a mass produced truck was
sponsored by the Second Automobile Works (SAW) in Shiyan/Hubei and the
Ministry for Research and Technology (BMFT), Germany. 12 They developed a
service profile based on the road mix in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Road mix
Road type
City Roads
Winding tarred roads
Country roads
Pothole and off road
Mix
25%
20%
35%
20%
Obviously this mix will have changed in the last 15 years and, in addition, any road
mix will be dependent on vehicle type.
12
G. Fisher, V. Grubisic, B. L. Gu, S. C. Lu and M. Li Determination of design and test spectra for
vehicle components under operational conditions in China Proc. 25th. FISITA Congress, Beijing
October 1994.
Page 8 of 103
Vehicle life will vary according to manufacturer and market. Moreover it will also
vary on the same vehicle by vehicle aggregate. Safety critical components within the
suspension or steering will have a greater life expectancy than body parts. An
example of a life specification could be
160,000 km of 90% percentile customer use
1,000,000 km. of typical customer use
95% percentile user for 100,000 km. per year, and in service for 5 years
1.2
Creating the customer profile
Vehicle life is determined by the fatigue of the individual components, and fatigue is
proportional to cyclic strain levels. Thus any correlation between service loads and
test track loads must be based on parameters that will determine this cyclic strain
history.
No single correlation will exist for the complete vehicle. We need to consider
different vehicle aggregates such as (a) the front suspension, (b) the body and/or
chassis and (3) the power-train structural and mounting components. We can
determine the locations where transducers can be located to define the road loading on
each aggregate and can then define how they are to be calibrated.
Typically, the road data will cover many hours of data collection. The proving ground
track data would cover all available surfaces, possibly around 10-15 tracks and special
events. All of these would be carried out at a minimum of two or three load cases. The
total amount of data collected in an exercise of this type could amount to approximately
1500 raw time history data files of around 5-10GB total size. We require procedures for
managing this exercise to ensure that valid data are collected.
The road data can be categorised into two sets Set A data originating from road inputs or continuous driving. Here the road mix,
vehicle loading and speed are important. These data can be classified by road type
(city, rough road, highway, mountain etc). An important characteristic of these data is
that, under certain circumstances, they can be considered as being part of a stationary
random process and predictions can be made of loading conditions over much longer
time samples.
Set B data originating for driver manoeuvres or specific one-off inputs (pot holes or
man holes, speed bumps, rail crossings, severe cornering, panic braking, kerb hitting
or maximum chassis twisting caused by turning and going up a ramp, etc.) Vehicle
loading is important in each of these specific events. We must agree the classification
of these events and try to estimate the number of occurrences of each classification
per km. For example, you may find that rail crossings occur around 1 in every
1000km of long haul operation. In the case of city driving, however, rail crossings
may occur once in every 50km of operation.

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1.3
Correlating customer loads with test track loads
Using commercially available software which is designed to handle this large volume
of data, we can validate the data and derive the mathematical functions such as
rainflow or level crossings 13 that are used to define the loading environment. A
similar analysis will be performed on the data from each proving ground track.
It is now possible to find the mix of tracks to match the customer data. For example,
we have 6 transducers where the rainflow matrices R1R6 define the loads in the
suspension system. The data from the proving ground is obtained from 10 tracks T1T10. We can now equate the data on the proving ground to that on the road:
A* [T1] + B*[T2] + C*[T3] +
J*[T10] = [Y]
Both [Ti] and [Y] are column matrices containing the rainflow matrices Ri1 Ri6 of
the data originating from the test tracks and customer service respectively. A, B, C--are constants. There are a number of mathematical techniques that can be used to
solve the above equation in terms of the constant multipliers, A, B, C
Obviously, the results of this exercise will be dependent on the accuracy with which
we have defined the customer and his usage pattern. The more data we collect, the
better we can determine the maximum loads. A bus company by the very nature of its
primary product should be able to define users and profiles with greater ease than a
car manufacturer. User profiles are notoriously difficult for a heavy commercial
vehicle as can be seen in figure 1.2
Figure 1.1 Yutong Bus product and Toyota Land Cruiser from Company websites
Figure 1.2 - An example of customer use that is difficult to predict

Is this part of the loading cycle?
13
These functions will be defined in Module 5.3

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MODULE INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ACQUISITION
Good data are defined as:

Those quantities generated throughout a product while in its service environment and
having an effect on durability, acceptability and refinement.
The data acquisition methodology described in this module is based on the process
shown in Figure 2.1. The author has seen too many data acquisitions where, once in
the laboratory, we discover that the data we collected were incomplete or even
incorrect to derive or correlate a laboratory test. Careful planning at the outset is a
prerequisite.
Figure 2.1 The data acquisition process
The test engineer should know what component, aggregate or vehicle he is to test and
have a clear definition of the test objective 14 . Are we to determine the fatigue life of a
component? Do we want to know if an aggregate can exist with no failures for the
equivalent of a 100,000 km customer usage? Have we a vibration problem where the
cause must be determined and fixed? Each test must be understood before we can
decide meaningfully on what data we should collect.
2.1
Transducers
To help plan a data acquisition exercise it is sometimes useful to divide the vehicle
instrumentation into groups where each group is designed to provide specific
information about the vehicle, aggregate or component response.
14
See Module 14
Page 11 of 103
Vehicle or aggregate simulation control transducers that will be used to

supply the TARGET 15 signals for simulation testing. That is, those
characteristics of the vehicle or aggregate that we wish to reproduce accurately
in the laboratory simulation.
Operational modal analysis transducers (usually accelerometers) placed on
the sprung masses, the chassis and body to measure motion in orthogonal
directions. These data can be analysed to determine the vehicle behaviour on
the road. This is a useful tool for vehicle trouble shooting and ensuring that the
dynamic response of the vehicle or aggregate is the same on the road as it is in
the laboratory simulation.
Damage correlation strain gauges on the vehicle frame, body and
components at locations that have been selected based on warranty history or
CAE information. We will determine the accumulated damage at these
locations in any road segment and compare it with the damage accumulated in
the laboratory on the simulated road segment.
Component response strain gauges and/or accelerometers on selected
components to define the loading characteristics for component testing.
Measurement transducers can be divided into three groups
a. Standard transducers
b. Custom transducers
c. Special transducers
2.1.1
Standard transducers
Accelerometers are one of the most useful
transducers on the market they can be located
almost anywhere on the vehicle and measure the
acceleration at their location. They work on the
principle of a single degree of freedom mass-spring
system installed in a case, in which the acceleration
response of the mass is proportional to the case
excitation at frequencies well below the natural
frequency of the transducer. For vehicle structural
studies we always use accelerometers with a response
to dc or zero frequency.
An LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
will measure the relative linear displacement between
any two points. A potentiometer will perform the
same function and tends to be more robust especially
when the rod is replaced with wire, but is not as
accurate as an LVDT.
15
The concept of TARGET signals will be covered in Modules 6.2 and 6.3
Page 12 of 103
Strain gauges will measure the local extension of the

metal to which they are attached. Location and
alignment are important in that we would want to
identify axial, bending or torsional strain.
Furthermore, in most cases the strain gauge will be
located to measure nominal strain.
The WFT (Wheel Force Transducer) 16 is a recent

addition to the standard transducer range. It is fitted
to a wheel of the vehicle and will measure the three
orthogonal loads and moments at the wheel spindle
together with wheel rpm.
2.1.2
Custom transducers
These transducers are normally manufactured inhouse and usually involve modifying, applying strain
gauges and calibrating a vehicle component.
Virtually any vehicle component may be converted
into a custom transducer and the examples shown are:
i. A pancake load cell fitted above and
below an engine mount to measure the
transmissibility of the mount.
ii. A ball joint that has been strain gauged
using 4-guages at 90 separation and
calibrated to measure the lateral and
longitudinal forces at the wheel using the
two orthogonal bending loads on the stem.
In most cases the vehicle component has been altered
from its original design to create the transducer. It
must be replaced at the end of the data acquisition
exercise by a new component.
16
WFTs are manufactured by a number of companies, see for example http://www.kistler.com/

Page 13 of 103
2.1.3
Special transducers
These are a selection of transducers that will measure vehicle properties such as load,
speed, position (GPS), steering wheel angle etc. These may be standard or custom.
Pedal stroke and load set up
Steering wheel torque and angle
Selection of custom load cells

Page 14 of 103
2.2
Data recording
The transducers are connected to signal conditioning equipment which will amplify
and filter the signal for recording. Today most data recorders are digital with sample
rates higher around 1,000Hz. A good field data recorder such as the SoMat, eDAQ
field computer system 17 is an essential requirement for any structural laboratory.
Figure 2.2 SoMat data recorder
The sampling rate and filter settings are important if meaningful information is to be
extracted from the data. As most of our data will be used to determine fatigue life, or
compare fatigue life between road and laboratory, it is the resolution of the turning
points or peaks in the data that will be critical. Good peak resolution can be obtained
at sample rates 10 times the highest frequency of interest in the data. This should not
be confused with Shannons sampling theorem 18 wherein sampling at twice the
highest frequency of the data defines the frequency composition.
Thus if we sample the data at 1,000Hz, then the analysis frequency bandwidth will be
up to 500Hz and the peaks will be resolved up to 100Hz.
2.3
Pitfalls of data acquisition
There are numerous pitfalls that can render the data at worst invalid and, at best,
difficult to work with.
Transducer characteristic or sensitivity Prior to the start of any data acquisition, we

should check to ensure that there is no offset voltage originating from the transducer.
When the vehicle is at rest all transducers produce a zero output. However, some
transducers (e.g. strain gauges) may have an offset due to the addition of a static load
17
18
SoMat Systems UK Ltd www.somat.com

C. E. Shannon, Communication in the presence of noise Proc IRE Vol. 37, 1949. pp10-21
Page 15 of 103
carried by the component. It is good practice to record this offset and then zero the
transducer. The amplifiers should be set for optimum gain in order that full scale
deflection represents about 80% of the maximum values expected. This will maximise
the resolution of the recorded signal. We should also have available the calibration
curve for the transducer so that we can convert volts into strain or acceleration etc.
Amplitude resolution - This is a function of
the bit size of the analogue to digital converter
(ADC). A 16bit ADC is typical today. 16-bit
means there are sixteen digits, all ones or
zeroes, e.g. 1001011011001010. Binary is
base 2; thus, each column can only be one or
zero. 216 = 65,536. This means that each
sample can contain any one of 65,536 unique
values, made up of sixteen ones and zeroes.
Aliasing - This is something we all have seen
in the cowboy movies. As the stage coach
accelerates the spokes on the wheel seem to
slow, stop and then rotate in reverse! This is
due to the frame sampling rate in the film.
When we digitally sample data at a frequency
f
f S then all frequencies up to f N = S will be
2
correctly resolved. However, frequencies in
the data above f N will be seen as occurring
Fs =100Hz
Fs =60Hz
below f N . For example in the figure we have

added two sine waves at 10 and 35 Hz. The
resultant signal was sampled at 100Hz
(correctly resolved). Sampling at 60Hz, the
35Hz is resolved into 25Hz. (35 = 30+5). This
is aliased to 30-5 = 25Hz. Aliasing problems
can be solved by suitable filtering.
Noise Noise is defined as anything we do
not want or an extraneous input! There are
many possible causes of noise, but the most
common in vehicle instrumentation is loose
attachment of the transducer, cable wear or
loose plug. The signal shown is obviously not
correct and the data biased to one side. This is
typical of a poorly attached transducer.
Spikes Spikes can be caused electrically or
mechanically such as in the case of a stone
from the road hitting an accelerometer. Spikes
should be removed from the data prior to any
data analysis.

Page 16 of 103
Drift This is usually due to a fault in the

signal conditioning equipment. The mean
value of the signal at the start of the recording
is not the same as the value at the end on the
recording. There may be a physical cause of
the drift such as a water tank emptying during
the course of the recording where the static
weight of the vehicle changes. If drift is
observed in any of the data channels then the
cause must be identified and fixed, if required,
prior to subsequent data analysis.
It is obvious from the above that it makes sense to carry out some preliminary
analysis during the data acquisition 19 and make corrections as we go along. It is too
late to fix things after we come into the laboratory!
2.4
The accelerometer trap
Any module on data acquisition would not be complete without commenting of two
very common misconceptions:
a. I can use an accelerometer to measure displacement!
b. I can use acceleration to get a measure of the damage in a component!
Generally these statements are wrong. Double integrating an accelerometer signal
gives the displacement shown in figure 2.3. Only with very careful filtering can the
displacement be achieved successfully and, even then, one is at the mercy of the
characteristics of the filters employed.
Figure 2.3 - acceleration and

displacement by double integration
Acceleration and damage are generally not correlated. Damage is a displacement

(strain) phenomenon and, as such, high amplitudes tend to occur at low frequencies.
Acceleration is frequency dependent and the higher the frequency for the same
19
See Module 5.2

Page 17 of 103
amplitude the higher the acceleration. Only in a resonant condition 20 will acceleration
and damage have some correlation.
2.5
Calibration
Collecting data in terms of voltages is of little value unless we can convert these data
into useful engineering units. This is the purpose of calibration. For example, at some
time we have all used a spring measure from which we suspend a mass and read its
weight from a graduated scale in kilograms. The scale has been calibrated by adding
known weights and marking the scale accordingly.
A strain gauge type load cell will give an output voltage proportional to the applied
load. For example, if we place 250kg on the load cell we get an output of 0.2V; when
we place 750kg on the load cell we get a voltage of 0.6V. If we now shunt a 100k
resistor across one of the legs of the Wheatstone bridge 21 in the load cell and an
output of 0.86V is obtained, we can figure out that this change in resistance is
equivalent to a load of 1075kg. We now have a quick and reliable method for
calibrating our load cells. A similar method is used for calibrating strain gauges in
terms of micro-strain.
The calibration of dc-accelerometers is simple: we turn them through 180, going
from a 1g to a -1g output. Other accelerometers need to be calibrated in the laboratory
by applying a sinusoid with known amplitude and frequency (and hence acceleration)
and noting the output voltage. In practice, a calibration curve with the transducer
sensitivity in mV/g is supplied with the accelerometer and this parameter can be used
to convert the output voltage to acceleration.
Other transducers such as the LVDT can be calibrated manually against an accurate
linear measuring rule.
Calibrating custom transducers is more difficult and this is normally carried out in the
laboratory. We build a small test rig in which the transducer is located and a load is
applied using a reference standard load cell. The output of our custom load transducer
is calibrated against this standard. For example figure 2.4 shows the calibration
methodology for a strain gauge on a coil spring. The strut is removed from the car and
placed in a test fixture where the calibration is carried out using an actuator and
standard load cell.
Figure 2.4 Calibration of strain in coil spring in terms of axial load in the strut
20
21
See Module 4
See text in bibliography
Page 18 of 103
Other forms of calibration, which are not specifically designed to convert voltage into
engineering units, are very useful in determining transducer polarity and a physical
understanding of the measured data. These are what the author calls standard
checking procedures (table 2.1) and are recommended prior to the start of any data
acquisition.
Table 2.1 - Transducer checking procedures
1. Record data when the vehicle is stationary then as it moves slowly over a
wooden block, each wheel working independently and then both front and rear
wheels working in parallel.
2. Record data with the vehicle travelling on a smooth surface in a figure of
eight.
3. Record data when we jack up the vehicle until the wheel is just off the ground.
4. Record data during acceleration, constant speed and braking events.
2.6
Documentation
Finally, and as important as collecting the data, we must document clearly what has
been done. A computer disc with data files is of no value if the test engineer does not
know how the data got there, or where and under what conditions the data were
recorded. The data acquisition log should comprise the following:
transducer locations / type /photographs
channel names
transducer serial number
signal conditioning
calibration
gains, filter frequencies
description of measured parameters
test conditions (speed, temperature, wind condition)
road and event log

Page 19 of 103
MODULE FATIGUE
Fatigue is a never ending challenge 22
By the middle of the 19th century it was well established that a failure mechanism
existed for metals that was associated with cyclic loading. The repeated application
and removal of a load considerably below the breaking force for a metal bar would
cause it to fracture after a sufficient number of repeated actions. One of the first
people to study this effect was Whler at a railway works in Prussia and the
phenomenon he studied became known as fatigue. Machines similar to those designed
and used by Whler are still used in fatigue testing today (figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Whler and his rotating bending fatigue machine, 1870
3.1
The concepts kept simple
It is beyond the scope of this handbook to cover the comprehensive theory of fatigue
and the reader is referred to the bibliography for a recommended text book on the
subject. What we will cover are the basics that we need to carry out laboratory tests
and understand and interpret the results correctly.
Tests engineers should become familiar with a fractured surface produced by a fatigue
failure (figure 3.2). Part of the cross-section where the break has occurred has a
relatively smooth surface with small ripples rather like a fingerprint. This is
characteristic of a fatigue failure. The ripples tend to radiate from a point usually on
the surface where a crack has initiated. The crack propagates, opening and closing
with the cyclic loading, until there is insufficient cross-section in the material to carry
22
Photographs reprinted from seminar notes by Dr Ing. Lothar Issler, U. Applied Sciences, Esslingen.
Page 20 of 103
the load and a tensile failure completes the fracture process. There are three phases to
this process:
Crack initiation In the majority of automotive components the crack has
already initiated, caused by a surface defect or inclusion in the material
Crack propagation
Fracture
Figure 3.2 - Fatigue failure of metal rod
Thus we can define fatigue as failure under a repeated load which is lower than the
load to cause failure in a single application. Typically tests are carried out at different
fully reversed loads (figure 3.3) and the load amplitude or stress
S S min
amplitude, max
is plotted against the number of cycles to failure. The applied
2
mean stress is usually zero, but can be a predefined stress if required.
Figure 3.3 Fully reversed load cycle
At this point it is worth noting that text books and papers on this subject are not
consistent in that the loading sequence in figure 3.3 can be defined in terms fully
reversed stress / load or peak load and reversals or cycles to failure. In each case there
is a difference of a factor of two. Throughout this handbook we will use peak
amplitude and cycles to define the loading sequences.
In general, fatigue cracks will always develop as a result of cyclic plastic deformation
in a localized area. In a homogeneous component like a crankshaft or chassis beam
the local deformation will usually start on the surface in the area of locally high stress.
Page 21 of 103
Sometimes component validation is obtained by testing to establish the endurance

limits for bending and torsion. These are the stresses at which the application of
additional cycles will not cause failure. This is a phenomenon exhibited by some
steels but not aluminium. The endurance limit, Se is estimated at a specified
endurance life, Ne (figure 3.4). This endurance life is typically 1E+06 or 1E+07
cycles. If a stress is applied below the endurance limit the component will have a life
much greater than Ne cycles (but not necessarily infinite).
Log
Sa = Sf (2Nf)b
Sa MPa
Se
Ne
Number of cycles, N
Log N
Figure 3.4 - S/N curve
Not all components will be designed with stresses below the fatigue limit. Hence
knowledge of the loading spectrum and the component life curve is necessary to
ensure that the component will not fail in the design service life. There is a well
established methodology for estimating product life from knowledge of the service
loads (figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5 Product life methodology

Page 22 of 103
If we know the coefficients of the Whler fatigue equation (figure 3.4),
Sa = Sf ' (2Nf )b
where,
Sa = stress amplitude
Sf = intercept at 1 reversal
2Nf = reversals to failure
b = slope (fatigue strength exponent)
we can estimate the stress for a given number of cycles.
For example the stress in MPa is calculated as follows:
Thus if we know the stress to which the component is subjected, we can estimate the
number or cycles to failure. We can then design to that limit with a factor of safety.
This is a very simplistic approach. In actual practice we usually use a strain life
approach to calculate fatigue damage in a component.
Firstly, we require the strain life material properties in the form of a S/N curve (figure
3.6a) Components are not usually subjected to sinusoidal loading, but random loading
(figure 3.6b) and we must evaluate the number of cycles in the random loading at
each amplitude. This is achieved using the rainflow counting algorithm 23 (figure 3.6c).
For each strain cycle in the rainflow histogram we have the cycle count, n1 in the
given time history. We know the number of cycles to failure N1 at that strain level
from the S/N curve. The accumulated damage D1, at that strain level is calculated to
be
n
D1 = 1
N1
23
See Module 5.3

Page 23 of 103
Figure 3.6 (a) strain life curve, (b) strain time segment, (c) rainflow histogram
We can now formulate what is known as the Palmgren-Miner linear damage rule in
that the total damage in the time segment defined above will be
ni
Ni
for the i different strain cycle ranges in the rainflow histogram. The life of the
component can be defined as
D=
Life =
3.2
1
D
Statistical scatter in fatigue life
First and foremost it is important to realise that the fatigue life of a component is not
an exact number. It can only be estimated statistically even when the loading input is
deterministic (e.g. a sine wave) and the components are as similar as we can make
them. For a given stress level the life to failure, Nf, of a component is treated as a
random variable with an assumed probability distribution. Normally our estimate of
the B50 life (50% of failures will occur above this value and 50% below) is made on a
small (6-8) number of test specimens. Thus, to obtain an estimate of the life, we
assume that our test results are part of a larger population of test results and that these
results are governed by a probability distribution. Usually a normal, log-normal or
Weibull distribution is chosen.
For example, 57 so-called identical highly polished un-notched aluminium
specimens tested were at 207MP 24 and resulted in failures at different lives (figure
3.7).
24
Sinclair & Nolan Effect of stress amplitude on statistical variability in fatigue life of 75S-T6
aluminium alloy, Trans. ASME Vol. 75, 1953, p 867.

Page 24 of 103
Figure 3.7 Scatter of failed specimens at 107MPa
The best fit distribution in this case was the log-normal distribution giving a mean life
around 20E+06. It is noteworthy that the test results varied by 10 to 1!
At relative high stress amplitudes we can expect a scatter typically less than 2. A
lower stress amplitudes in small un-notched polished specimens we can expect a
scatter of around 30. The larger scatter is caused by the percentage of time it takes to
initiate the crack - at low stresses is takes a long time. However, if the cracks are
already inherent in the specimen a greater proportion of the time involves crack
growth and the scatter for the same failure mode will be around 2 to 4. This is usually
the case in automotive components.
In engineering terms, if we have estimated the life of a component or structure in the
laboratory and have worked out that it is equivalent to 50,000km, then the life could
be half that or twice that at best! At worst it could have failed at 12,500km or
200,000km. One test is not sufficient to establish a good estimate of the mean life. We
need to test at least six (6) specimens before we can have a reasonable estimate of the
mean life. The small sample size is valid if we assume that each failure is part of a
normal distribution. To get a good estimate of the standard deviation requires a much
larger sample size (around 16-20).
This variation in life is real, but seldom recognised especially by the FEA engineers
who will insist in computing life estimates to 3 decimal places!
There are many factors in vehicle components that contribute to the scatter in fatigue
life:
Material variability
Chemical composition
Impurity levels
Discontinuities
Variation in heat treatment and manufacturing
Surface finish (see figure 3.8)
Hardness
Component geometry
Tolerances

Page 25 of 103
Figure 3.8 Effects of surface finish on fatigue life
3.3
Stress concentration factors
Stress concentrations arise from any abrupt change in the geometry of a specimen
under loading. As a result, the stress distribution is not uniform throughout the cross
section. As was said at the outset, we tend to measure nominal strain in a component
(figure 3.9). However, fatigue life estimates based on material strain-life curves
require the local strain or stress as the input variable. Depending on the shape of the
localised area where the high stresses occur, we can estimate the local strain or stress
using a stress concentration factor.
Figure 3.9 Nominal at local stress concept
Stress concentration factors can be found on the web and in many design engineering
text books. For example figure 3.10 shows the variation of the stress concentration
factor for a shaft in bending as a function of the diameters and radius on the filet.

Page 26 of 103
Figure 3.10 Geometric stress concentration factor for shaft with two diameters
(Shigley et al see bibliography)
3.4
Effect of mean stress on fatigue life.
Up until now we have assumed that the loading cycles had a zero mean stress. This is
not always the case and there have been a number of theories put forward for dealing
with the effect of the mean stress. For a detailed study the reader is referred to the
recommended text book. However to understand the concept, without the details of
the various theories, a shift in mean stress moves the S/N curve vertically in
proportion to the mean stress (figure 3.11).
Figure 3.11- Effect of variation in mean stress on the S/N curve
This implies that a compressive stress on the surface of a material, for example as
induced by induction hardening, can have a beneficial effect on the fatigue life.

Page 27 of 103
MODULE VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND MODES
4.1
Single degree of freedom model
The basis of all vehicle dynamics can be understood provided we have a good grasp
of fundamental vibration theory as it is applied to a single degree of freedom system.
Figure 4.1 Single degree of freedom model
Figure 4.2 Forces acting on the mass
The forces and displacements acting on the model in figure 4.1 are shown in figure
4.2. They are:
An inertia force (Newtons law) that is equal to the mass times the acceleration.
A spring force that is equal to a stiffness coefficient, k times the displacement.
A damping force that is equal to the damping coefficient, c times the velocity.
In this simple model all parameters are linear with amplitude and the damping is an
approximate model for viscous damping. We can write and solve the differential
equation that describes all the forces acting on the mass.
m&x& + cx& + kx = F (t )
in
Although the specimen is excited by
a sine wave, the solution of the
Fin (t ) = Fin e it
differential equation requires that
the excitation is of the form, eit
x(t ) = Xei (t )
where (=2f) is the frequency in
(k m 2 + ic ) Xe i = Fin
radians/sec and f is the frequency in
Hz. This represents a complex
1
X
variable which combines a real sine
=
wave with an imaginary cosine
Fin
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
wave. If the reader is unfamiliar
with
the
terminology
and
methodology, reference should be
made to any text book on vibration theory. The classic result is a relationship
between the displacement measured on the mass and the input force excitation,
|(X/Fin)|. This is called the frequency response function, or FRF, and is shown in
figure 4.3.

Page 28 of 103
1.00E-03
0
50
100
150
200
250
1.00E-04
X/Fin
X / F in
The shape of this curve

has some interesting
properties. It peaks at
what is known as a
natural frequency which
is defined as
1 k
fn =
2 m
At frequencies far below
the natural frequency,
the curve is dominated
by the stiffness property.
Similarly, above the
natural frequency the
inertia
property
dominates.
mw2
1/K*
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
Hz
Figure 4.3 Frequency response function, FRF
At the natural frequency

itself, the size and width of the peak are determined by the damping characteristic: the
lower the damping, the higher and narrower the peak.
Damping is the dissipation of energy in a vibrating system. There are a number of
terms that are used to define damping and in this linear analysis we will assume
viscous damping with a damping coefficient, c which defines the relationship between
force and velocity. The units of c are Ns/m.
F
c
Velocity
Critical damping occurs when a dynamic system is

displaced from its static position and returns to this
position without any vibration oscillation. It is defined
as cc = 2 km where k is the stiffness and m the mass

of the system. This can be rewritten as
Figure 4.4 - Relationship between
force and velocity
2k
k
.
=
cc =
n f n
The damping ratio, is the ratio of the value of c to cc and will vary between 0 and 1.
c
= .
cc
Often people refer to the damping ratio in terms of a Q factor. The relationship is
1
Q=
2
The Q factor measures the sharpness at resonance. Typical Q factors are vehicle
suspension = 5 and a solid component like a crankshaft around 100.
Our analysis of the simple model is concluded by noting that there is a phase shift,
between the input force and the displacement. This phase shift results from summing
three forces that are out of phase. The damping force is 90 degrees out of phase with
the displacement and the inertia force is 180 degrees out of phase with the
displacement. Depending of the relative amplitudes of these forces at each frequency,
Page 29 of 103
the phase will vary from 0 to 180 degrees. At the natural frequency the phase shift
between the input force and the displacement is exactly 90 degrees (figure 4.6).
Figure 4.5 Single degree of freedom response

with different damping
Figure 4.6 Phase shift with different damping
The discussion has focused on describing the single degree of freedom model in the
frequency domain. The response of the model can also be described in the time
domain (figure 4.7). The response of the model to a single disturbance, like a step, is
in the form of a transient vibration at the damped natural frequency (close to the
natural frequency). The number of cycles before the transient decays is a function of
the damping ratio.
Figure 4.7 Time domain response with low and high damping
4.2
Higher order models and vehicle modes
Higher order models (figure 4.8) can also used to model the motion of the vehicle.
Figure 4.8 shows a three degree of freedom system where the lower mass could
represent the wheel and axle (the unsprung mass), the middle mass represent a quarter
of the vehicle body on the suspension (the sprung mass) and the upper mass represent
a seat. This model would yield three resonant conditions with the natural frequencies
dependent on the mass and spring rates.

Page 30 of 103
A real vehicle has many degrees of freedom and can be modeled in proprietary
programs such as MD ADAMS 25 . Here engineering teams can quickly build and test
functional virtual prototypes of complete vehicles and vehicle aggregates.
Whether the expertise is obtained from modelling or from testing real vehicles, it is
important that all test engineers have the confidence to recognise the fundamental
vibration modes of any vehicle (figure 4.9). The figures given below are approximate,
but are in the range for most vehicles:
Body bounce and pitch at around 1-2Hz.
Wheel-hop at around 10-14Hz.
Engine rigid body modes at around 6-12Hz.
Chassis bending and torsion around 6-15Hz
When modes clash we have problems. If the chassis bending or torsion mode is
similar to an engine mode or wheel-hop, major fatigue or ride problems will exist.
Wheel-hop occurs when an axle vibrates in the vertical direction with both wheels in
phase and the chassis is more or less stationary.
Figure 4.8 frequency response

characterization for a 3-degree of freedom
model
4.3
Figure 4.9 Response modes for a passenger car
Operational modal analysis
Operational modal analysis is a technique whereby measurements made in the field

can be used to identify the rigid body and flexural modes of the vehicle. The
transducers used in this application are located at appropriate points on the chassis
and on the sprung and unsprung masses. A vibration frequency spectrum 26 is obtained
for each transducer. Frequency spectra for a number of channels are shown in figure
4.10
The major peaks represent structural resonances and will appear in the spectra of
other transducers. By examining the coherence 27 and phase of the cross spectrum
between any pair of transducers, a modal relationship may be established. This will
occur only when the coherence is high and the phase is either 0 (in-phase motion) or
180 (out-of-phase motion). The methodology is described in detail in the paper by
25
MD ADAMS is a simulation software sold by MSC Software Corporation, www.mscsoftware.com

See Module 5.4
27
See Module 5.4
26

Page 31 of 103
Craig and Dodds 28 . This analysis identifies the vehicle modes that are excited on the
road. Once the test vehicle is mounted on the simulator, sine wave excitation is used
to confirm these modes. Figure 4.11 shows the modal frequencies identified in a
frame based vehicle by this method. All were verified correctly and confirmed using
sine wave excitation once the vehicle was on the simulator.
This technique is very useful to identify the frame modes of the empty frame or the
frame plus body attached. The latter will stiffen the frame. The modes identified on an
empty frame by this method are shown in figure 4.12.
Figure 4.10 Response spectra. The majority of distinct peaks will represent a vehicle mode
MODE
Body bounce
Body pitch
Wheel hop
Engine vertical (+lateral)
Engine lateral
Engine fore-aft
Rear axle (vertical)
Rear axle (vertical)
Frame lateral
Hz
1.7
1.9
12.5
8.2
12.3
10.0
8.3
12.5
12.6
10
11
12 13
Figure 4.11 Modal frequencies from road load data
Frame modes
1. 8Hz
2. 11 Hz
3. 18Hz
Figure 4.12 Frame modes on HGV frame with no body attached
28
J. Craig & C. J. Dodds The application of cross spectral analysis in the identification of vehicle
characteristics, Paper C-1-12, FISITA Paris 1974

Page 32 of 103
MODULE LOAD DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Various analysis functions are described in this module. They are not rigorously
defined here and the reader is referred to the bibliography for the mathematical
definitions and any assumptions or preconditions for their use.
5.1
A simple look at quasi-static vehicle loads
Any two wheeled vehicle can be simply modelled as shown in figure 5.1
Figure 5.1 vehicle model
The symbols have the following meaning:

Description
Front total axle load (N)
Symbol
Wf
Rear total axle load (N)

C.G Height (mm)
Wheel base (mm)
Front track width (mm)
Wr
H
L
Tf
Rear track width (mm)
Tr
Front SLR (mm)
SLRf
Rear SLR (mm)
SLRr
Force and moment calculations can now be developed for the forces at the tyre
contact patch in terms of quasi-static vehicle motion.
For example the vertical wheel forces are given by:

Page 33 of 103
A 0.8 g braking event is given by:
A -0.7g lateral turn is given by:
Thus provided we can attribute loads and dimensions to our model we can calculate
wheel loads for simple manoeuvres and can use these data as a sanity check of our
measured loads.
For example, using the data in table 5.1 we can evaluate the wheel loads for a
combination of 0.8g braking and a -0.7 lateral turn (table 5.2).
Table 5.1 Vehicle parameters
Table 5.2 Calculated loads

Page 34 of 103
5.2
Preliminary data validation
Prior to any analysis, and at the end of each session of data acquisition, the data
should be checked for integrity, spikes and the errors. Figure 5.2 gives some examples
of both bad and unusable data, or instances where corrections can be made.
Data from strain gauges on LH 29
and RH coil springs. We would
expect symmetry. One gauge is
not stuck properly.
Bad channel
Good channel
Data from LH and RH suspension

bump stops. Again symmetry
expected. Bad channel identified
as peaks all go to full scale
deflection
Spike in the data and data
corrected to remove same
Drift corrected using a high pass

Butterworth filter
Figure 5.2 - Example of bad data
5.3
Analysis in the time domain
Before carrying out any analysis we should look at the time series data to see if it
makes sense. In figure 5.3 we have 3 channels of data which will be used throughout
the remainder of this module to provide examples of the analysis functions. We have
wheel acceleration, wheel-to-body (WTB) displacement and the strain in the coil
spring.
Firstly, all signals have a zero mean values. We observe that the frequency content of
the acceleration signal is about 10 times higher than that of the WTB displacement.
There are obviously some frequencies that predominate around 1.5Hz in the
displacement signal and 10-12 Hz in the acceleration signal. The WTB displacement
and strain signal look the same, but are out of phase this means that when the WTB
displacement gets larger, i.e. there is a bigger gap between the body and wheel, the
strain in the spring goes negative, implying extension. Spring compression has been
defined as a positive stain. We can see immediately that sign convention is important
29
LH = left hand, RH = right hand

Page 35 of 103
and should be clearly documented for each transducer. Based on these observations
the data look ok.
Figure 5.3 3 channels data, wheel acceleration, wheel to body displacement and coil spring strain
There are a number of analysis tools available to us to interpret these data in the time
domain. The three most commonly used are described.
5.3.1
Level crossings
Level crossing analysis counts the number of times the signal crosses a number of
specified levels with positive slopes above zero and negative slopes below zero.
Fatigue cycles can be extracted from these data, but it is not often done. Today, most
cycle counting is carried out using the Rainflow counting technique (figure 5.5).
However the level crossing shows that the acceleration data are symmetrically
distributed about the mean, whereas the strain data have a different distribution in
jounce (travel between chassis and wheel centre) and rebound.
Figure 5.4 Level crossing analysis

Page 36 of 103
Figure 5.5 Rainflow cycle count for strain signal
5.3.2
Rainflow counting
Rainflow analysis counts strain ranges as closed cycles analogous to the stress strain
closed loop cycles. Starting at A the signal moves to peak B, then it reverses to C and
then to D. A closed cycle has occurred between BC. We then move to E and back to
D with another closed cycle. The signal continues from D to F to G to A with closed
cycles FG and finally AD. Rainflow algorithms can count both the range and mean of
each closed cycle.
Rainflow cycle counting has been shown to give the best estimates of fatigue life and
is now the generally accepted cycle counting method used in time series analysis.
5.3.3
Joint probability density function
Another useful tool is the joint probability density function. It calculates the value of
one signal when the other signal has a specific value. As we can see in figure 5.6 there
is a high degree of correlation between strain and displacement most points are on
the diagonal. This is not the case between acceleration and strain as can be seen in
figure 5.7.
Figure 5.6 JPD between WTB displacement and spring strain

Page 37 of 103
Figure 5.7 JPD between wheel acceleration and spring strain
5.4
5.4.1
Analysis in the frequency domain

Power spectral density
The most useful parameter in the frequency domain is the frequency spectrum or
power spectral density, PSD. It is computed digitally by Fourier Transform, but can
be visualised in an analogue world as equivalent to passing the time series through a
series of parallel band pass filters at equally spaced frequency increments. It yields the
frequency content of the data.
Figure 5.8 PSDs of wheel acceleration, WTB displacement and spring strain
We observe that the WTB displacement and spring strain have a peak at 1.6Hz. This
is a resonant condition in the vehicle and corresponds to the body bounce mode. It
could be body pitch, but more information is required to confirm the mode. The
Page 38 of 103
accelerometer has two modes at 8.8 and 9.6Hz representing the wheel hop frequencies
(wheels in and out of phase). Again more information is required to identify which is
which.
We have to be careful when applying this analysis function as the choice of the
analysis bandwidth, Be will affect the result. This is the equivalent of the bandwidth
in the analogue filter in the analogy.
All programs that compute frequency spectra or PSDs use the Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) algorithm to convert the time series data to the complex frequency domain.
This is carried out on a fixed time segment and is usually specified by the number of
sample points in the fixed segment or frame size. Because of the way in which the
FFT works, all frame sizes are specified as 2n for n = 1, 2. A number of consecutive
frames are calculated and averaged to estimate the PSD.
The resolution bandwidth is given by
Be =
Fs
{ frame _ size}
FS is the sampling frequency of the data
Fs = 500Hz
Frame size = 512
Be = 1Hz
Fs = 500Hz
Frame size = 2048
Be = 0.25Hz
Figure 5.9 Bandwidth selection; Be should be chosen such that the width of any modal response is
clearly defined. The spectrum of the left is poorly resolved.
B
5.4.2
Cross spectrum, coherence and phase
The other commonly used frequency analysis function is the cross spectral density.
This describes the frequency relationship between two signals. It is a complex number.
However, the same information can be presented in terms of the coherence and phase
angle between two signals. The coherence can be considered as the normalised
amplitude of the cross spectrum. Full mathematical definitions can be found in the
books in the bibliography.
It we take any two signals we can compute the cross-spectrum and plot the parameters
in figure 5.10. The plot formats will vary with software package.
The first two graphs show the PSDs for the two channels. They are similar with
corresponding peaks associated with resonant conditions in the vehicle. Each signal is
Page 39 of 103
random and the phase relationship between the frequency components in the signal is
random. This is confirmed in the two phase graphs. However, the coherence between
the signals is high and thus the phase relationship between the two signals is
meaningful. We observe that at the first three resonant conditions the signals are out
of phase.
PSD #1
PSD #2
X-PSD
GAIN
COHERENCE
PHASE #1
PHASE #2
PHASE #1 v #2
Figure 5.10 Cross spectral parameters between 2 signals
5.5
Probability analysis
5.5.1 Normal distribution

There are a number of probability distributions with which the test engineer should be
familiar. Their usefulness will become apparent in the examples. The first of these is
the normal or Gaussian distribution. Figure 5.11 shows an example of a short time
series where the peak distribution has a normal distribution fitted to the data. The
three plots 5.11 b, c and d show the same results in a different format. The peak
values are obviously governed by the normal distribution.

Page 40 of 103
T im e S e r ie s P lo t o f D a ta
3
2
Data
1
0
-1
-2
-3
1
10
20
30
40
50
T im e
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 5.11a - Time series

Empirical CDF of Data
Histogram of Data
Normal
Normal
20
Mean
StDev
N
0.07377
1.049
100
0.07377
1.049
100
80
Percent
15
Frequency
Mean
StDev
N
100
10
60
40
20
0
-2
-1
0
Data
-3
Figure 5.11b Peak histogram with normal

distribution fitted to the data
-2
-1
0
Data
Figure 5.11c Cumulative peak histogram

with cumulative normal distribution fitted to
the data
Probability Plot of Data

Normal
99.9
Mean
StDev
N
AD
P-Value
99
Percent
95
90
0.07377
1.049
100
0.154
0.956
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
1
0.1
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
Data
Figure 5.11d Same data but cumulative distribution plotted logarithmically.
5.5.2 Weibull distribution

The second distribution is the Weibull distribution. Why choose the Weibull
distribution? Distributions are chosen to fit data either because there is a mathematical
reason for it, or other engineers have found that they work well. The Weibull
distribution offers an alternative distribution to the normal distribution when
describing certain types of failure data.
Suppose we have 10 experiments where the specimen time to failure has been
recorded as 105, 200, 390, 500, 700, 950, 1200, 1500, 1750 and 2500 hours, and we
Page 41 of 103
would like to know the mean time to failure. Figure 5.12 shows the data fitted with a
normal distribution and a Weibull distribution.
The Weibull distribution looks the better fit. This can be confirmed by examining the
Anderson-Darling, AD statistic. In both cases it is small, <1, but the AD is smaller for
the Weibull distribution. This indicates that the Weibull distribution is the better fit to
the data.
Characteristics of the Weibull distribution are:
The characteristic life or scale factor occurs at 63.2% and is equal to 1064
hours in this example.
A slope or shape factor between 1 and 4 is typical for fatigue failures. A
shape factor of 3 will give the same result as a normal distribution.
We can determine the percentage of components that would fail in any given
time from the graph, e.g. at 400 hours 24% would fail.
Probability Plot of Time to failure
Normal
99
Mean
StDev
N
AD
P-Value
95
90
979.5
764.0
10
0.266
0.606
Percent
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
-1000
1000
Time to failure
2000
3000
Probability Plot of Time to failure

Weibull
99
Shape
Scale
N
AD
P-Value
80
70
60
50
40
30
1.321
1064
10
0.129
>0.250
24
20
10
5
3
2
1
400
Percent
90
100
1000
Time to failure
10000
Figure 5.12 Normal and Weibull distribution for failure data

Page 42 of 103
5.5.3 Extreme value distribution

Another distribution that is useful in data analysis is the extreme value distribution. A
number of extreme value models are available 30 and the one described here is the
Type 1 or the Gumbel distribution given by
Pr[ X < x] = F ( x) = exp[e ( x ) / ]

That is, the probability that X is less than an extreme value x is given by the double
exponential with parameters and . The parameter, is the location parameter or
mode, in this case i.e. the most likely value of x; the parameter, is the intensity
factor or scale parameter, i.e. the slope of the line when plotted logarithmically.
Suppose that we conduct 5 tests on a proving ground where we measure the maximum
strain on a component (1700, 1716, 1787, 1908, 1964E). We want to know what
would be the maximum strain if we continued the experiment for 100 tests.
The return period is calculated from
T ( x) =
1
1 F ( x)
Thus if T(x) = 100, then F(x) = 0.99.

The extreme value distribution is fitted to the data and the strain at the 99th percentile
noted (2149E). This is the value we would expect if we had continued the tests.
There is another way of looking at this. If a single pass of the proving ground
represented 1000km of customer service then the return period of 100 equates to
100,000km. during which this maximum strain would have occurred.
Probability Plot of Strain
Largest Extreme Value - 95% CI
99
Percent
99
Loc
Scale
N
AD
P-Value
1765
83.58
5
0.360
>0.250
98
97
95
90
2149
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1500
1750
2000
2250
Strain
2500
2750
Figure 5.13 Extreme value distribution showing the maximum strain occurring once in 100 tests
It is clear that this function can predict peak loads from short data samples and will be
useful when it comes to determining loading sequences for component tests.
30
See Bibliography
Page 43 of 103
6
6.1
MODULE SIMULATION, DATA EDITING AND ACCURACY

Data editing for test time reduction
In Module 1 we discussed the methodology that would correlate a series of test tracks
to customer life. We did that by matching the load spectra obtained during service
with those obtained from a mix of test tracks and at different locations in the vehicle.
Thus, if the vehicle were to drive over these test tracks a predefined number of times,
it would be subjected to the same overall loading inputs. Typically, if service life were
200,000 km. and one pass over the test tracks is 10km, we might have found that we
required 1200 passes to match the loading spectra.
There is an inherent test acceleration factor built into this process. The load spectra
are matched at the higher loads and the lower loads tend to be ignored.
200,000km of service life might be equivalent to 10 years. One pass over the test
tracks might take around 30mins. Thus the time for 1200 passes would be 600 hours.
Assume that we drive for 12 hours per day. Our vehicle will cover one life in 50 days
or about 2 months.
We can consider this test a complete life simulation. If we repeat the proving ground
test in the laboratory, with all the proving ground sequences and repeats, it will take
the same time, or slightly shorter, depending on the number of hours per day we run
the simulator. Continuous running on the proving ground or in the laboratory is not an
option. Time is required to fuel the vehicle and change the drivers. All tests also
require time to inspect the specimen at regular intervals.
This long test time is a serious drawback to laboratory testing and one we must try to
avoid. Testing one specimen is not enough and, at two months per simulation test, it is
clear that we need to be able to reduce the test time further if we hope to contribute
useful data into a vehicle development program.
Complete vehicles and major aggregates are dynamic specimens and will respond at
their natural frequencies. Changing the frequency of simulation is not an option. We
cannot just go faster. We could increase the loads and so shorten the test. This would
increase the stress by an equal amount assuming the specimen was linear (unlikely).
All we would need to know is what life under the increased stress conditions
corresponds to the life under service conditions. Unfortunately, the state of our
understanding of fatigue damage to randomly varying stresses leaves this question
unanswered. It is difficult enough to answer for uniaxial stressing on a single material,
but the extension to multi-axial stresses on a variety of materials a very much larger
step!
Thus we require a methodology that can be theoretically justified and proven to work.
One such method has been described by Dodds and Awate. 31 The underlying
assumption is that most proving ground tests are designed to apply simultaneous
31
C. J. Dodds, C. M. Awate and S. M. Panse, Validation of an accelerated test on a 4-post road

simulator SIAT 2007, SAE paper number 2007-26-070
Page 44 of 103
multi-axes loads to most of the vehicle structure. However in the laboratory we either
limit the load inputs (in the case of the 4-post we have only vertical inputs) or limit
the test specimen to part of the vehicle such as the suspension. Under these conditions
it is reasonable to surmise that not all the proving ground inputs will load the
specimen equally. Some may be non-damaging. If we remove them we will be able to
shorten the laboratory test.
In order to carry out the editing process we require the damage correlation strain
gauges. They should be located at critical locations on the body, frame and suspension
components depending on which part of the total vehicle we wish to test in the
laboratory. These locations could be chosen based on information from CAE results,
engineering judgment, previous failure or warranty history of this vehicle or a similar
type vehicle. Data are then collected from the proving ground tracks.
The strain gauge data channels are ranked in descending order based on the maximum
strain range, i.e. the maximum positive peak to the maximum negative peak. Any data
channel where the maximum nominal peak to peak strain (pp-strain) is less than
150s can be considered as non-damaging (life beyond the cut-off) and ignored in
further analysis. This assumption is valid for typical low carbon steel.
The goal of the editing process is to retain 90% to 95% of the damage in the channels
with the maximum pp-strain and, at the same time, reduce the test time to a workable
level. If we were to base the damage editing process on the channels where the ppstrain is small, then it is likely that the retained damage on those channels with a
higher pp-strain will be reduced below the 90% limit.
The editing process starts by deleting any inactive parts of the response data in the test
schedule (figure 6.1). These in active parts are typically where we drive from one test
track surface to another The test schedule is one pass of all required proving ground
tracks that are necessary for customer correlation. The complete durability test is
based on a pre-defined number of repeats of the test schedule.
Figure 6.1- Delete inactive data segments in one

h d l
An editing window, i.e. a time slice of the data is chosen in which the accumulated
damage will be computed in all channels. The size of the window will determine the
edited length of the test schedule in the laboratory. Figure 6.2 shows the effect of
using a different editing window from 0.2 to 2.2 seconds. For 90% retained damage
(Y-axis) the original test schedule is reduced to between 20% and 40% of the original
schedule (X-axis). The choice of window will depend on the similarities in the
frequency spectrum of the original schedule and the reduced schedule (figure 6.3a, b
and c).
Page 45 of 103
The data are then edited using the selected editing window for 90% retained damage.
It is worthwhile pointing out that any time slice selected for editing is applied to all
channels in order to retain the original phase relationships between channels (figure
6.4).
Figure 6.2 Relationship between retained damage (Y) and

percent test time reduction (X) for different editing windows.
Figure 6.3a Time segment (the number in seconds in the

circle) too small frequency content dissimilar
Figure 6.3b Time segment to large frequency content

similar, but reduced test schedule too large at 40% of original
test schedule
Figure 6.3c Time segment acceptable frequency content

similar and reduced test schedule at around 30% of original
test schedule
The selected segments are joined together to obtain the edited test schedule for the
simulation test (figure 6.5). The reduced laboratory test schedule in this example
represented a 67% reduction in test time and retained 90% of the total damage.

Page 46 of 103
Typically we would expect one service life laboratory simulation to take around 200
hours, or 10 days. The author has found from experience that running a simulator at
20hours per day is achievable and economically desirable.
Figure 6.4 Time segments retained (white) containing a

minimum of 90% retained damage in the original test
schedule.
Figure 6.5 Reduced time test schedule for the laboratory

simulation

Page 47 of 103
6.2
Defining the accuracy of the laboratory simulation
Figure 6.6 Simulation concept
Basically, any form of laboratory test or simulation comprises a specimen, a number

of input loads and a number of reactions. We cannot get away from Newtons law
every action produces an equal and opposite reaction! Even when the specimen is not
physically reacted, the reactions are produced by inertial forces. The time series loads
at the point of contact of the loading actuators and the specimen are determined by the
loading requirements and the closed loop control system in the hydraulics. In a
simulation test we define TARGETS which are specimen specific responses from the
proving ground which we would like to reproduce. They could be the acceleration on
the wheel, the strain on the chassis etc. The iterative control concept that is described
in 6.3 enables us to reproduce these strains to a satisfactory degree of accuracy (for
example 10% or better in peak strain)
Is this sufficient? Too many test engineers believe that once we reproduce our
TARGETS we have a good simulation of the specimen in the laboratory. This is not
necessarily so. We may not have the complete vehicle and we certainly do not have
all the loading inputs. We may have a partial specimen to which we apply only partial
loads. Moreover, we may have the reactions to consider! Poor fixtures can destroy the
dynamic response of the specimen and render the damage simulation worthless.
We require an acceptable measure of accuracy that can determine whether our service
simulation is good enough, and ensure that the failures we get in the laboratory are
statistically those we would have found on the road.
An acceptable methodology was presented by Dodds and Awate at Fatigue 2007 32 .
A test program was carried out using a chassis based LCV with front independent
suspension and a rigid rear axle. The major components and aggregates of the vehicle
were instrumented and response data collected on a customer-correlated proving
ground. Nine response measurements, using three different drivers, were made to
investigate the scatter of the damage and the other statistical properties of the
recorded data on the proving ground tracks.
32
C. J. Dodds and C. M. Awate On the statistical properties of component response to road inputs
Proc. 6th International Conference on Durability & Fatigue, Cambridge, March 2007

Page 48 of 103
The damage estimate for each run at each gauge location was calculated using the
same material properties for all locations. Bearing in mind that the damage estimate is
highly influenced by the short data sample, it seemed prudent to normalize the data in
each channel over all runs by dividing by the mean damage. The data revealed that the
majority of the scatter in the damage estimation is within a factor of 2 on the mean,
while the pp-strain is within a factor of 10% on the mean. Figure 6.7 shows the
correlation between pp-strain and damage for these same data points.
The authors proposed that a laboratory simulation target chart be based on the
scatter in these data. We know that fatigue damage over a given road is not a unique
number and there will be scatter. We will take the scatter that is obtained from
multiple passes over the same roads. Thus we will be satisfied if the damage produced
at the same locations on the simulator lies within the targets. We would like the
majority of our correlation channels to lie within a factor of two in damage and 10%
in pp-strain. The remainder should be within a factor of 4 in damage and 20% in ppstrain.
Figure 6.8 presents the achieved simulation target chart for the laboratory
simulation. The damage in selected channels is estimated from the proving ground run
used to derive the drive signals for the laboratory test. This is divided by the damage
in the same channels recorded on the test vehicle on the rig. The authors experience
over 20 years is that, if the ratio of the road/rig damage in the components with
correlation strain gauges in a full vehicle simulation falls within a factor of 2, then the
simulation is very acceptable.
Figure 6.7 Scatter in damage for multiple locations and multiple runs

Page 49 of 103
Figure 6.8 Example of target chart comparing road and laboratory data
At the end of the day, only if we get similar failures in the laboratory to that in the
field will our laboratory test be believed and the results credible. This method of
correlation has produced laboratory tests where 86% of the failures observed in the
proving ground tests were observed in the laboratory tests.

Page 50 of 103
6.3
Laboratory simulation by iterative control methodology
We saw in the last section that an iteration control technique was required to
reproduce accurately the vehicle responses at the targets. This control algorithm has
been widely published. The reader if referred to the paper by Dodds and Plummer 33
for a description of the historical development and for a full list of references.
However, as this algorithm forms the kernel of any simulation laboratory, the theory
behind the methodology will be described here. Table 6.1 summarises the steps in the
process.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 6.1: Stages in the iteration process.

System identification. Excite the vehicle on the test
rig and fit a mathematical model between the known
actuator drive signals and the measured response
signals.
Model inversion. Determine a model which has the
required vehicle response signals as inputs, and in
which the actuator drives are outputs.
Drive signal calculation. Calculate the actuator drive
signals for a specific set of target vehicle responses
using this inverse model. Scale down the drive signals
the full drive signals are not used in order to reduce
the possibility of drive signal errors causing specimen
damage.
Run test. Drive the system with the calculated actuator
drive signals and determine the errors in the vehicle
response. Recalculate the drive signals - pass the
response errors through the inverse model to determine
changes to the actuator drive signals.
Iteration. Repeat stage 4 until the vehicle response
errors are acceptably small.
Conventionally, a frequency domain model of the system is used. The system

identification stage consists of exciting the vehicle with m1 vector ut of uncorrelated
coloured noise actuator drive signals. The vehicle response is sampled to give
n1vector yt, where n m. The Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFTs) of the signal
vectors are then calculated, giving vectors Uk and Yk .
A matrix of spectral estimates relating any two DFT vectors Pk and Qk is given by:
S pq ( k ) =
T
Pk Q k * T
2
(1)
where T is the duration of the signals, and k represents a discrete set of frequency
values. Thus the auto and cross power spectral matrices Suu(k), Syy(k), and Syu(k)
can be determined from the acquired signals.
33
C. J. Dodds and A. R. Plummer, Laboratory simulation for full vehicle testing. - a review Keynote
paper, SIAT 2001.
Page 51 of 103
The frequency domain model is the Frequency Response Function (FRF) matrix
H(k), defined by:
Y ( k ) = H ( k )U ( k )
(2)
From (2), a relationship between the cross power spectrum and the input auto power
spectrum can be determined:
S yu ( k ) = H ( k ) S uu ( k ) (3)
and so the FRF is found from:
1
H ( k ) = S yu ( k ) S uu ( k ) (4)
The final stage of system identification is to check the validity of the model. One
commonly used measure is the multiple coherence function. This is defined as the
ratio of the predicted to measured output auto power spectra:
1
C ( k ) = S yy ( k ) S yy ( k )
(5)
From (2) the predicted output auto power spectrum is given by:
S yy ( k ) = H ( k ) S uy ( k ) (6)
or by substituting for H(k) using (4):
1
S yy ( k ) = S yu ( k )S uu ( k )S uy ( k ) (7)
The coherence indicates to what extent the system output behaviour is explained by
the linear model driven by the known inputs. Poor coherence (substantially less than
1) can indicate poor excitation or non-linearities. It is normal to restrict the frequency
range of model inversion to that which corresponds to high coherency, typically
greater than 0.8, for each output.
Early implementations required the system to be square, i.e. with the same number of
response channels as actuators, in order that the FRF matrix H(k) could be inverted
directly. Current implementations, however, allow more target responses than
actuators. In this case the following pseudo-inverse calculates the actuator drives
giving the least squares best fit response:
U ( k ) = J ( k ) R ( k ) (8)
where the inverse model is:
J ( k ) = H ( k ) T H ( k )
H ( k ) T (9)

Page 52 of 103
and R(k) is the DFT of the target vector. Singular value decomposition is now being
used to perform the same operation with improved numerical stability.
Incorporating a large number of target responses allows global simulation, where a
reasonable match between simulation and in-service response is obtained over the
entire specimen. The simulation is distributed rather than restricted to a few response
locations. In addition, there is scope for selecting different response channels in
different frequency ranges. These can be implemented by pre-multiplying equation
(2) by a frequency dependent weighting matrix giving a revised pseudo-inverse
equation.
Using the inverse model, the initial test run and subsequent iterations are summarised
in Figure 6.9. A manually adjusted gain ki, between 0 and 1, determines the
proportion of any drive signal increment, which is actually used. Due to inaccuracies
in modelling, implementing the full drive signal may risk damaging the specimen.
Figure 6.9: Frequency domain iteration
Variations in current commercial iterative control packages concern the issue of

adapting the vehicle model during the iterative process. This is desirable to ensure
that linearization of what is in reality, a non-linear vehicle occurs around the actual
operating point. Thus, after each iteration, the new set of actuator drive signals and
responses can be used to estimate a new vehicle model. However, as the drive signals
now usually have some cross-correlation, there will be deficiencies in the model.
These can be avoided by constructing a weighted average model incorporating models
from previous iterations and the original model found with uncorrelated drives. An
alternative approach is to randomise the phase of the drive signals calculated in the
first iteration, and then estimate a second model based on the response to these drives.
The final model is a weighted average of the first and second models, where the
weighting depends on the coherence for each model.
In summary, the methodology is shown schematically in figure 6.10.

Page 53 of 103
Figure 6.10 Flow chart for iterative control

Page 54 of 103
MODULE FATIGUE TESTING
The term fatigue testing is used here to define a test where the frequency response of
the specimen does not matter. In other words, the specimen does not exhibit a
dynamic response over the frequency range in which a vehicle operates (0~50Hz with
some sheet metal components responding to 100Hz.). Most automotive components
fall into this category stabiliser bar, knuckle, front and rear axle beam, crankshaft,
con-rod, springs etc. The vehicle tyre acts as a low pass filter and limits the frequency
range of the inputs from the road surface irregularities.
The methodologies used to edit and derive test signals in this case differ from those
described in the previous module.
7.1
Constant amplitude loading method
This is the simplest form of fatigue test where a constant amplitude sinusoidal load is
applied to a component for a fixed number of cycles or until failure occurs. These
tests can be employed to determine the load-life curve for the component, the
endurance limit or what is often termed the bogey limit at a particular load. In the
bogey test a constant amplitude load is applied to a component and the number of
cycles to failure noted. The load may be a design load. A number of specimens are
tested and the number of cycles to failure recorded. The bogie test normally requires
that the specimen does not fail below a minimum number of cycles.
From the proving ground data we are able to estimate the accumulated damage in any
component over the life of the vehicle. The equivalent number of cycles for a sinusoid
at any given load level can be determined knowing the accumulated damage and the
parameters on the Whler life curve.
Sa = Sf ' (2Nf )b
7.2
Test loads by peak-valley extraction
The start point for our loading sequence is still the proving ground. Because the time
series was sampled at a rate high enough to resolve the peaks and valleys, we have a
large number of points between the peaks and valleys which provide no additional
information about these peaks and valleys. These are necessary, however, to maintain
the frequency composition and phase between the channels. For a single channel
component fatigue test we no longer require this additional information. The peaks
and valleys can be extracted from the time series data and so reduce significantly the
amount of data required to define the test.
In figure 7.1 we show a 2 sec. extract of data sampled at 500Hz. The peak valley slice
contains only 36 points compared with 1000 in the original data sequence. This peakvalley information is ideal for input to FE analysis using the static solution method,
and it can be used as a drive signal for an actuator.

Page 55 of 103
Figure 7.1 Original time series and peak valley sliced series
7.3
Block cycle loading
Another method to obtain accelerated test data for use on vehicle components is to
derive a block cycle loading sequence from the proving ground data. Once again this
method disregards frequency and can be used only for single axis component tests.
The method is demonstrated below.
The strain signal is first edited to remove inactive periods (figure 7.2a, 7.2b)
A range histogram is calculated (figure 7.2c, 7.2d) using a small number of
bins (7 in this example)
The accumulated damage is estimated for this signal using appropriate
material properties. In this case mild steel was used and the damage estimated
at 8.5E4.
A block sequence is generated (figure 7.2e) using the top 3-4 bins in the
rainflow histogram to define the amplitude and number of cycles in each block
The damage is estimated from this block sequence using the same damage
calculation as was used for the original data sequence. The estimate here is
8.9E4
The sequence length can be adjusted in the ratio of the damage to obtain the
same damage estimate for the block sequence as was obtained in the original
data.
The frequency of the cycles in the block is determined by how fast the actuator
can move. In this example we have used 10Hz which is also the predominating
frequency in the data. Thus the acceleration factor for the block sequence is
74% - 10 sec block v 38 sec random data (figure 7.2F).
The block is repeated an appropriate number of times to reproduce the proving
ground schedule.
A lot has been written about the sequence effects in block cycle loading. If this is a
concern, then the reader is referred to the text in the bibliography.

Page 56 of 103
Figure 7.2a Unedited strain signal
Figure 7.2b Edited strain signal
Figure 7.2c- Range histogram
Figure 7.2d Numerical values of range histogram
Figure 7.2e Block cycle sequence from top

four bins in range histogram.
Figure 7.2f Original edited data and block cycle

sequence at 10Hz.

Page 57 of 103
7.4
Evaluating the results of fatigue tests
To help understand the nature of fatigue life data, and the need for a minimum
number of samples to ensure that resulting data are meaningful, it is useful to look at
the concepts of what are called the N10, N50 and N90 lives.
The N50 life is the estimated life of a component at a given load level with a 50%
probability of failure and, of course, a 50% probability of non-failure. The fact that
we put a probability on this number implies that we have assumed that the original
test data is governed by a probability distribution. The distribution used most often is
the normal distribution.
Figure 7.3 S/N curve with statistical parameters
Figure 7.3 shows a S/N curve with the N10 and N90 life curves added, assuming a
normal distribution of both life for a given load and for a load at a specified life. It is
important to note that the N10, N50 and N90 lives are evaluated from data obtained
from multiple tests at the same load level.
The scatter at any given load, TN, between the N90 and N10 life, assuming a normal
distribution, is given by
TN = 2.56
If we have n samples, N i , tested at the same load B, we can evaluate the mean and
standard deviation, of the sample. The lives are given by:
N 50 =
N
n
N 10 = N 50 1.28
N 90 = N 50 + 1.28
This concept is explained further in the following example.

Page 58 of 103
Assume tests were carried out on 5 specimens at the same load and the cycles to
failure were 100,000, 84,000, 114,000, 177,898 and 93,892.
Probability Plot of C1
Normal - 95% CI
99
95
90
90
Mean
StDev
N
AD
P-Value
113958
37361
5
0.528
0.088
Percent
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-50000
66078
161838
10
50000
100000 150000 200000 250000 300000

C1
Figure 7.4 Probability plot of bogey test data
We can plot these data with an assumed normal distribution to give us a mean value
of 113,958 and a standard deviation of 37,361.
N50 = 113,958
N10 = 113,958-1.28*37,361 = 66,136
N90 = 113,958+1.28*37,361 = 161,780
The N10 and N90 can also be read directly from the probability plot. This implies that
80% of the tests will fail between the N10 and N90 - a scatter of 2.45:1
We have assumed that each individual test result is a random variable which conforms
to a normal distribution. Thus we are able to obtain the mean value and standard
deviation of the population from a limited number of experiments, often called the
sample size. The accuracy of our estimate of the mean and standard deviation is a
function of the sample size. Table 7.1 relates the sample size (number of tests) to the
accuracy of the estimations.
Table 7.1 Minimum number of tests
Estimate
Approximate mean value

Good estimate of the mean value with
variance
Practical value of standard deviation
Good estimate of the standard deviation
Number of
tests
5-9
13
17
25
If we do NOT carry out the minimum number of tests, then our data are flawed and
the results must be qualified with a statement to that effect. In practice we very rarely

Page 59 of 103
carry out more than about 5-6 tests. As a result, therefore, we should always be
careful expressing any estimate of the standard deviation.
7.5
The staircase method of fatigue testing
The stair case method is a commonly applied testing technique for the evaluation of
endurance limits. The methodology is well defined by Brownlee 34 .
The first test is carried out at a stress level close to the expected endurance limit. If the
specimen fails prior to the number of cycles at which the endurance limit is to be
calculated, the endurance life, (usually 1xE+06 or 1xE+07 cycles) the stress level is
decreased by a small increment and the test repeated. This increment is typically
around 5% of the initial estimate. If the specimen again fails prior to the endurance
life the stress is again decreased by the same increment and the test repeated. If the
specimen exceeds the endurance life, the stress level is increased by the same
increment and the test repeated.
Test data is presented in table 7.2 where 0 represents a no failure situation at the
endurance life and X represents a failure prior to the endurance life.
Table 7.2 Presentation of test results
Stress, S
Test # =
Outcome of test, X = failure, 0 = no failure

1
500
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
475
450
425
X
0
0
0
X
0
X
X
X
0
X
0
NX
N0
NX.R
NX.R2
16
Sum =
11
15
29
The columns to the right of the table contain the following:

Column A
Column B
Column C
Column D
Column E
NX, the number of failed specimens at each stress level

N0, the number of non-failed specimens at each stress level
The rank, R, of the stress level starting at the lowest level.
NX or N0 times the rank, R, depending which of the sum of NX or N0 is
less. Here it is NX
NX or N0 times the rank squared, R2, depending which of the sum of
NX or N0 is less.
Note that the analysis is always carried out on the data set with the smaller number of
results.
S where n is the number
The mean value of a number of variables is given by S =
n
of variables.
34
K. A. Brownlee. et al The Up-and Down Method with Small Samples, American Statistical
Association Journal, Vol. 48, 1953, pp. 262-277
Page 60 of 103
Using the terminology in table 7.2, this is equivalent to S = S 0 +
N x .R where
n
is the step size and S0 is the stress at the zero rank position.
25
Thus the mean value in this example is S = 425 + 15 = 466.7
9
The S50 stress with a 50% probability of survival is S 50 = S where we use (+) if
2
the data are non-failures and () if the data are failures.
In this case that data are failures so, S 50 = 466.7 12.5 = 454.2
The generally accepted formula to estimate the variance of a number of samples is
given by
( S ) 2
2
2
S
(S S ) =
n
(1)
2 =
n 1
n 1
The standard deviation of the samples is = 17.7 in this case.
The estimator of the standard deviation derived by Brownlee et al is given by
n. N x .R 2 ( N x .R )2
= 1.62
0
.
029
+
......(2)
n2
(9 29) 15 2
+ 0.029 = 19.2
In this example this gives a value for = 1.62 25
2
9
It is debatable if one estimator is better than the other, but it does emphasise the
statistical nature of the problem.
Analysis of the data shown in table can also be carried out in MINITAB 35 using what
is called probit analysis. A probit study consists of imposing a stress (or stimulus)
on a number of units, then recording whether the unit failed or not.
If we assume that the test results are governed by a normal distribution then it does
not matter whether we analyse the failed or non-failed data both will give the same
result.
The data input to MINITAB is
Stress
500
475
450
425
35
F
1
4
4
0
NF
0
1
5
5
Trials
1
5
9
5
MINITAB is a statistical analysis package. See http://www.minitab.com/

Page 61 of 103
The graphical output from MINITAB is shown in figure 7.5.

Probability ot failure
Normal - 95% CI
Probit Data - ML Estimates
99
Table of
M ean
S tDev
M edian
IQ R
95
90
S tatistics
455.713
18.0421
455.713
24.3384
Percent
80
70
60
50
40
30
50
20
20
440.5
400
455.7
10
450
Stress
500
550
Figure 7.5 Test results
These data are interpreted as follows

50% of the specimens will fail below 455.7MPa. This is the S50
20% of the specimens will fail below 440.5MPa. This is the S20
The S50 calculated by the staircase method above is 454.2MPa
In this case the standard deviation is estimated at 18.04 which lies between the two
values estimated above.

Page 62 of 103
MODULE TEST RIG DESIGN
Test fixtures can be one of two things:

the weak link between the actuator and the test specimen.
or
an engineering structure that is designed to couple or react the motion or force
between an actuator and the test specimen without distortion
Let us ensure that our definition is always the latter!
Fixtures are an essential part of any test laboratory and they must be deigned properly
if we wish to reproduce the correct stresses in the test specimen. Some examples of
test fixtures are shown in figure 8.1
Figure 8.1 Examples of test fixtures
8.1
Basic rules of fixture design for component testing
Two basic rules should be followed in most cases 36 :

1. The minimum fixture resonance must be greater than the highest test
frequency.
2. Deflections must be small.
36
In some cases we will require a fixture to have a specific stiffness. For example, this would be the
case when we want to restrain the suspension in a fixture which must simulate the bracket or body to
which the suspension is attached in the vehicle
Page 63 of 103
Let us take a simple support frame as an example (Figure 8.2). The basic design is
manufactured from welded steel plate and comprises a front and base plate with two
side ribs for added stiffness. The actuator is attached to the front plate applying the
load, F, or displacement to a specimen (not shown). The frame provides the reaction.
Figure 8.2 Stiff-back design and application
We have three design criteria allowable stress, allowable deflection at the point of
attachment of the actuator, and natural frequency of the overall structure. The fixtures
should be designed with a fundamental frequency around twice the highest operating
frequency. If this design criterion is met, then the stresses are usually not the deciding
factor, assuming the design has taken care to minimize local stresses at holes etc.
The problem arises when we look at the deflection. For the section shown, the
moment of inertia, Ix is given by (approx)
td 3 (2b + d )
Ix =
3(b + 2d )
where t is the plate thickness (small with respect to b and d), b the mean width and d
the mean depth.
The mass of the frame is proportional to the cross sectional area, A, of the members,
A = (b + 2 d )t
FL3
The deflection of the front face of the frame is given by =
3EI
The natural frequency of the frame is given by f n = K
EI
where L is the
AL4
unsupported length of the frame and K a constant.

We can see straight away that, if all other factors remain constant and we change the
plate thickness, t, by one half, we will half the inertia, double the deflection, and not
change the natural frequency. Both the cross sectional area and the inertia change by
the same amount. The maximum stress will also increase when we change the plate
thickness as it is inversely proportional to the inertia. It is also proportional to the
distance of the surface of the plate from the neutral axis which will change.

Page 64 of 103
So a reduction of the plate thickness to optimize the design on a stress basis will
reduce the weight of the fixture, but it will increase the deflection. Does the deflection
of the frame matter?
In displacement control, this deflection will cause errors. We are trying to control the
specimen motion at the contact point of the specimen and actuator rod. The base of
the actuator is moving and the errors will depend on the controlled displacement and
the base motion. Assume a constant sinusoidal force that produces a 0.5mm
displacement in the fixture and vary the amplitude of the controlled displacement. The
error is given in table 8.1 below.
Table 8.1 Displacement error
Controlled
displacement
100
50
10
5
1
Fixture
displacement
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Error
1%
1%
5%
10%
50%
In load control, the actuator will control the load at the load cell, and as far as the
specimen is concerned, that load will be correct. However, if the base is moving, then
the actuator will have to input a greater displacement for a given load. More
importantly, the velocity of the actuator will increase as will the servo-valve flow.
For example, let us assume we have a 50kN actuator with 150lpm valve. Assume that
under a 20kN load the fixture deflects 1.0mm. The actuator is running a 15Hz sine
wave. The additional flow required to overcome the deflection of the fixture is 14 lpm.
This is 10% of the valve capacity.
8.2
Load frame design example
A load frame (figure 8.3) has to be built to support vertical actuators for component
testing.
Figure 8.3 Load frame.

Page 65 of 103
The natural frequency of the cross beam is calculated from:
fn =
C
2
EI
AL4
where C is a constant and depends on the end conditions.

Table 8.2 gives the dimensions and material properties for the beam. Table 8.3 gives
the calculated beam properties.
Table 8.2 Beam properties
Table 8.3 Beam properties
Using the parameters in tables 8.2 and 8.3, the natural frequency in a pined-pined
mode was calculated as 535Hz and in a fixed-fixed mode as 1,213Hz where C=
22.373 (see figure 8.4 and 8.5).
Figure 8.4 Pinned-pinned mode
Figure 8.5 Fixed-fixed mode

Page 66 of 103
The true value will be somewhere in between these two idealised cases.
This frame is ideally suitable for testing up to around 300Hz. At higher frequencies
displacement errors may occur. These depend on the displacement of the beam at its
first bending natural frequency at the location of the actuator with respect to the centre
of the beam. These errors are likely to be small.
In actual practice the design criteria in this case was one of stress as the test loads
were of the order of 250kN.
8.3
Floor design seismic mass and in-ground reaction mass
Test equipment cannot just be mounted on the floor. There are reactions to consider
and the transmission of vibration through the building. There are two accepted
methods of mounting vibrating equipment within a building. In both cases the
equipment is mounted on a large reinforced concrete mass or strong floor. This mass
can then be mounted on the ground either (a) directly or (b) indirectly using springs.
(a) In the case of a strong floor, described as a direct mounted mass or an inground concrete pad, the inherent assumption is that the natural frequency of the
mass sitting directly on the ground must be higher than the highest frequency of
excitation. The excitation frequencies in the fatigue laboratory are in the range 0
to 50Hz. The ground strata are considered as a spring with the stiffness defined by
the soil condition. Figure 8.6 shows a typical natural frequency range for an inground concrete pad on clay soil. Different soil conditions will have different
stiffness. Floor natural frequencies within the machine operating range will
amplify the vibration transmitted to ground.
In the case of a 500ton mass with a mounting frequency of 100Hz, motions of the
mass in the vertical direction, that respond to the inertial loads from a 3-post or 4post simulator, will be less than 10 microns (ignoring damping). However, at all
frequencies in the operating range the forces transmitted to ground will be the
same as the forces generated by the test equipment mounted on the mass. That is,
there will be a one-to-one transmission ratio.
Figure 8.6 - Natural frequency of in-ground

concrete pad on clay soil
These forces can be of the order of 200800kN in the frequency range 1-50Hz.
Depending on the design of the building and
its foundation, these forces will excite
building modes in this frequency range. In a
building designed only for structural testing
this does not normally create a problem.
However, where the building has multiple
floors and contains multi-purpose tasks, or
there are adjacent facilities mounted on the
same foundation strata, there is every
possibility that unacceptable interferences
will occur. It must be remembered that the
transmissibility of a vibrating wave through

Page 67 of 103
the strata will diminish in proportion to the inverse square of the distance from the
source.
(b) In the case of a spring mounted mass, the mass is separated from the building
foundation by springs. The springs are chosen to obtain a low natural frequency of
the mass. This is typically around 0.8-2.0Hz depending on the application.
In the case of a 500ton mass and a mounting frequency of 1.5 Hz, the motion of
the mass, reacting the same inertial loads as previously, will decline from about
5mm at low frequencies to less than 10microns above 40Hz ignoring damping).
The benefit of this method of mounting is that the forces transmitted to the ground
will be significantly smaller than in the case of the directly mounted mass and will
be less than 10kN above 15Hz. This method is essential if we need to ensure that
the forces generated by the equipment are not transmitted to the building.
However, this method of mounting incurs a not insignificant cost for the air
springs, reservoirs, levelling system and installation of the mounting system.
Figure 8.7 - In-ground mass and seismic mass supported by air springs
(between the support columns and bedplate mass).
8.4
Foundation guidelines
The guidelines according to DIN 4150 for damage to buildings are listed in table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Recommended maximum velocities in building foundation

Page 68 of 103
9
9.1
MODULE HYDRAULICS AND CONTROL

The hydraulic actuator and servo-valve
The workhorse of any structural test laboratory is the hydraulic actuator. In essence it is
remarkably simple (figure 9.1). It comprises a piston rod with a central piston inside a
cylinder, and supported at both ends by bearings. A LVDT is contained in a central hole
through the piston rod.
Figure 9.1a Actuator components
Figure 9.1b Inserting the upper bearing onto the

piston rod
Figure 9.1c Hydrostatic rod-end bearing
Figure 9.1d Inserting LVDT
An oscillating force is obtained by applying hydraulic oil under high pressure firstly to
one side of the piston, then to the other, using a servo-valve. An oscillating voltage is
applied to the servo-valve which in turn is converted to a movement of the valve to allow
the oil to pass firstly in one direction, then in the other. The system schematic is shown in
figure 9.2.

Page 69 of 103
Figure 9.2 Actuator and servo-valve schematic.
If we define the symbols and units to be

Actuator force
Supply pressure
Return pressure
Piston Area
Maximum displacement
Maximum velocity
Combined mass of piston & load
F
Ps
Pr
A
Xmax
Vmax
M
kN
bar
bar
cm^2
mm
cm/s
kg
we can develop a series of equations to define the actuator forces and motions.
The pressure balance across the servo-valve is given by ( Ps P1 ) = ( P2 Pr ) and the
pressure drop across the servo-valve by Pv = 2( Ps P1 ) .
The force balance across the actuator piston is given by
P1 A = P2 A + 100 F = ( Ps P1 + Pr ) A + 100 F
(1)
Therefore the pressure P1 required to support an applied force is

Page 70 of 103
P1 =
( Ps + Pr )
F
+ 100
2
2A
(2)
For example, if the supply pressure is 280bar, the return pressure is 10bar and the
actuator piston area is 20cm2, then the pressure to give an actuator force of 30kN will be
220bar. The pressure drop across the valve, Pv will be 120bar.
This pressure drop across the valve will produce a maximum oil flow, Qmax and
Qmax = 0.06 AVmax
(3)
where Vmax is the maximum velocity of the actuator at that dynamic force. If we had
wanted a velocity of 100cm/s at the actuator piston, the flow would be 120lpm.
Servo-valves are classified by the rated low, Qr
at a pressure drop of 70bar across the valve
(figure 9.3)
70
Qr = Qmax
(4)
Pv
The rated flow required for this application is
therefore 92lpm. The standard valve closest to
this rating would be a 125lpm valve.
Thus we can evaluate the equipment required
for any test, provided we know the applied
forces and actuator velocities. The maximum
velocity required for a test is that at the
maximum displacement at the frequency of
excitation. In 99% of our applications we do not
Figure 9.3 Valve flow diagram
require the actuator to supply the maximum
(from Moog product manual)
force at the same time as the maximum velocity.
Force and velocity in a dynamic mechanical system are 90 out of phase, i.e. when the
force is at a maximum, the velocity is at zero and vice versa.
9.2
Accumulators and pumps
Once we know the maximum hydraulic flow required at the valves for a particular test we
can work out the size of pump we require. Pumps are sized to supply a constant average
flow in any particular test situation. All hydraulic systems have in-line accumulators that
store oil at high pressure. This oil is released into the line if the line pressure drops
indicating a need for further flow. This supplies the maximum flow required.

Page 71 of 103
Figure 9.4 Hydraulic pump set
There are two situations we must consider as the average flow in different in each case.
a. Sinusoidal excitation
The average flow is given by
Qave = 0.06Vmax (
2A
(5)
b. Random excitation
The average flow is given by
Qave = 0.06Vrms A
(6)
The constant is a function of the units of the defined variables. Using the example above,
the average flow for sinusoidal loading would be 76lpm and for random loading with a
crest factor 37 of 3 the flow will be 32lpm. There are more maximum peaks per unit time
in a sine wave than in a random signal. Thus we have a higher average flow.
When additional oil flow is required the accumulators will dispense the oil according to
P1V1 = P2V2
(7)
P1 = Normal line pressure

P2 = Minimum allowable line pressure
V1 = Accumulator capacity at steady state
V2 = Expanded capacity once oil is released
Flow required from accumulator,
V = V2 V1 = V1 (
37
P1
1)
P2
(8)
The crest factor is the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value.
Page 72 of 103
9.3
PID Control theory
Figure 9.5 Control schematic
The controller takes the command signals and ensures that the output of the actuator (load
or displacement) follows that command as accurately as possible. The theory is well
documented in the recommended text. We will focus here only on understanding the
effects of varying the control parameters on the process.
We will assume that the process is defined by the single degree of freedom system in
figure 9.6
Figure 9.6 Process model
The response of the system (process) is given by
M&x& + bx& + kx = F (t )
Ms 2 X ( s ) + bsX ( s ) + kX ( s ) = F ( s )
1
X ( s)
=
2
F ( s ) Ms + bs + k
For a unit input force we can calculate the displacement. If M=1, b=10 and k=20 the
displacement to a unit step function is shown in figure 9.7. The steady state value is
obtained when s = 1/20 = 0.05. The difference between this and the command (1 in this
case) is called the steady-state error.

Page 73 of 103
Figure 9.7- Open loop response
Figure 9.8 Closed loop response with proportional

control
Adding a proportional controller has the effect of changing the response equation to
X ( s)
KP
= 2
F ( s ) s + 10s + (20 + K P )
The proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will
reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error. Figure 9.8 shows the closed loop
response with Kp=300. The steady state error has been reduced, but not eliminated, and
the rise time increased. However we now have an overshoot which must be reduced.
An integral control, Ki will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it
may worsen the transient response. A derivative control, Kd will have the effect of
increasing the stability of the system, of reducing the overshoot and of improving the
transient response. However, these correlations may not be exactly accurate, since Kp, Ki,
and Kd are dependent on each other. In fact, changing one of these variables can change
the effect of the other two.
Figure 9.9 Response with derivative control added
Figure 9.10 Response with integral control added

Page 74 of 103
In figure 9.9 we see that adding derivative control, Kd reduces both the overshoot and
damps out the oscillatory response. Adding integral control in figure 9.10, Ki decreases
the rise time and eliminates the steady-state error. We have reduced the proportional gain,
Kp because the integral controller also reduces the rise time and also increases the
overshoot as the proportional controller does (i.e. a double effect).
Figure 9.11 Optimised PID control
Finally, let us add all the control variables to the model and optimise the parameters for
best response.
Kd s 2 + K P s + Ki
X ( s)
= 3
F ( s ) s + (10 + K d ) s 2 + (20 + K P ) s + K i
After several trial and error runs in the model, the gains Kp=350, Ki=300 and Kd=50,
provided the desired response. We have obtained a control loop with no overshoot, fast
rise time, and no steady-state error (figure 9.11).
We can now start testing!

Page 75 of 103
10 APPLICATION FULL VEHICLE TESTING

10.1 Full vehicle simulation with multiple inputs
The simulation in the laboratory of the complete service conditions throughout the entire
life of the vehicle is certainly conceivable, and is a possibility which we must consider.
There are multi-axes simulators currently operating (figure 10.1) and which attempt to
achieve this aim.
Figure 10.1 Full vehicle simulation: long stroke system (top left); 6-inputs per wheel (top right), active
restraints to react cornering and braking loads (bottom left and right)
These simulators use the vehicles inertia as reaction and require long lateral strokes to
simulate the braking and cornering forces. Needless to say, the practicality of designing
such a simulator puts a limit on the braking and cornering forces that can be applied in
this manner. To get around this problem other simulators use what is called active
restraint systems to apply the reaction forces during the cornering and braking events,
whilst leaving the vehicle free during straight line driving.

Page 76 of 103
If we wish to simulate the entire loading from the road we

will require 6 inputs at each wheel (figure 10.2). Whereas
systems with all 6 loading inputs are practical, they are
expensive, especially when we want these inputs at all 4
wheels. They require expensive wheel force transducers to
provide the target data. The test time will be long. Since we
wish to test most of the vehicle aggregates simultaneously,
the possibility of reducing the test time to that similar to a
Figure 10.2 Wheel loads
test on a single aggregate is doubtful. Some of the inputs will
be relevant for some of the aggregates all of the time and cannot be deleted as nondamaging.
There are three forces and three moments that act on a vehicle wheel:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Vertical force though the spindle

Longitudinal force through the spindle
Lateral force at the tyre contact patch
Brake moment about the spindle caused by a force at the tyre contact patch
Camber moment about the spindle
Steer moment about the spindle
For the purposes of suspension durability, the camber and steering moments are of
second order, unless we are looking at components in the steering linkage. For the
majority of the aggregates and components above the suspension, the camber moment
and steering moment are irrelevant when it comes to durability. It makes economic sense,
from a financial and engineering standpoint, to design our laboratory simulations to test
only a partial vehicle with only partial service inputs, using only those that matter. As in
many fields of engineering, we find that we can infer the behaviour of the complete
vehicle from knowledge of the behaviour of its aggregates.
10.2 Vehicle simulation using the 4-poster 38
In fact the durability of the bodies of passenger cars, of the frames of trucks, of the
drivers cab and of the load box is generally determined by torsion or bending in the
vehicle caused by the vertical road load inputs. All of these can be excited using vertical
actuators below the vehicle wheels. A test rig of this type is called a 4-poster.
4-posters have been applied to vehicle durability testing since they were first introduced
in 1962. The test vehicle is normally tyre coupled (i.e. the vehicle tyres rest on wheel
pans attached to the vertical actuators), and the test specimen covers the complete range
of vehicle types from motor cycles to commercial vehicles (figure 10.3). In some
instances, spindle coupling is used, but the advantages here are questionable.
38
I use the term 4-poster generically and it could apply to a rig with 4 to 8 vertical actuators
Page 77 of 103
Van frame and body durability
Truck durability
Car body durability
Spindle coupled truck durability

Figure 10.3 Examples of 4-post tests
Agricultural vehicle durability
Bus durability
The vehicle is unrestrained and free to move. The pitch, roll and twist motions are
simulated. Under these circumstances, around 80% of the loads that contribute to the
fatigue of the body or frame during service life can be simulated in a matter of 10-20
days.
The input signals can originate from:
a. the measured vertical undulations along a specific test surface,
b. test signals derived from the statistical properties of road surfaces,
c. test signals derived from target response measurements at the spindle, and or
elsewhere on the vehicle.
Although the inputs derived from (a) or (b) may not be as accurate for a specific vehicle
as those derived from (c), they have the advantage that they are generic and can be used
on prototype vehicles where measurements are not yet available 39 .
Figure 10.4 shows what can be achieved when simulating a Belgium block (pav) surface
in the laboratory on a framed vehicle.
39
C. J. Dodds, The Laboratory Simulation on Vehicle Service Stress J Engineering for Industry, Vol.
96(2) pp 391-398 May 1974
D. D. Styles and C. J. Dodds, Simulation of random environments for structural dynamics testing
Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 16, No. 11, pp 416-424, November 1976.
Page 78 of 103
Energy level at body twist mode
Simulated v measured results

25.00
20.00
15.00
Desired
10.00
Achieved
5.00
Cross
member
frame rail vehicle roof
Fig 10.4 Vehicle response on 4-post rig to Belgium block input
Whilst advocating the use of 4-posters for body and frame durability, they are not
suitable for testing the majority of the suspension components where the braking and
cornering loads contribute significantly to the overall fatigue damage.
10.3 Setting up a 4-post test
Optimise the servo-loop responses in the frequency range 0.2-30Hz.
Wheel pans chose the design that best fits the application
Each wheel-pan shown in figure 10.5 has its plusses and minuses. If the wheel pan
contains a lateral or longitudinal restraint, as shown in the third from the left, we must
ensure that the actuator can support the horizontal load and moment. The advantage of
these restraints is that they provide some horizontal stability to the vehicle and prevent it
from falling off the simulator. The advantage of a concave wheel pan is that the vehicle
will tend to centre itself during the test. Otherwise some form of external horizontal
restraint is required. The concave wheel pan shown is an extreme! The wheel pan with
the vertical slats is beneficial if we are driving the rig using synthetic road data, as it will
tend to modify the tyre stiffness and better simulate the rolling tyre on the road.
For normal application the flat wheel pan is best suited, provided we can restrain the
vehicle by other methods.
Figure 10.5 - Different wheel pan designs

Page 79 of 103
Vehicle restraints the examples given in figure 10.6-10.9 and are self
explanatory
Figure 10.6 - No vehicle restraint required as the vehicle will land on a floor in line with mid point of
the actuator stroke. Flat wheel pan used.
Figure 10.7 - Support frame with loose ties attached to the vehicle to prevent it falling off. Note the
flat wheel pans with no restraints

Page 80 of 103
Figure 10.8 Horizontal restraints on the wheel pans
Figure 10.9 Fore-aft restraints external to the bus and lateral restraints on the wheel pan.
Transducers - The minimum number of transducers required to provide

the data for the iteration targets is
i. 4 wheel to body displacements

ii. 4 vertical wheel accelerations.
The locations of these transducers are shown in figure 10.10.

Page 81 of 103
Figure 10.10 Target transducers for 4-post test
The damage correlation strain gauges should be placed in areas of

concern in the vehicle such as:
i. spring strains (vertical)
ii. chassis strains (bending and torsion) and body strains
iii. body or cab torsion
iv. gas tank brackets
v. engine mount brackets
vi. etc.
Vehicle configuration we must decide what is appropriate once we
have the vehicle on the simulator and have fixed the restraints. Table 10.1
shows the main configurations. We must also weigh the vehicle for weight
distribution on the road and check same distribution on rig!
Table 10.1 Vehicle set up configurations

Page 82 of 103
Cooling of shock absorbers can best be achieved using a venturi flow

device similar to that shown in figure 10.11
Figure 10.11 Venturi cooling device
In conclusion, 4-post testing, if set up properly, and executed with care, has a number of
benefits over other forms of complete vehicle simulation and proving ground testing:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
It is easy to set up (vehicle can drive on).

It is time and resource efficient.
It is easy to inspect the vehicle during the test.
The loading inputs can be synthesised from road profile data.
Data acquisition for the target data is simple and inexpensive compared
with a data acquisition using a wheel force transducer which is required
for a multi-axes simulator.
The loading inputs can be generated quickly from target data.
The loading inputs are repeatable and reliable.
There are no test downtime delays due to weather.
It is easy to demonstrate vehicle motions and component interactions to
design personnel.

Page 83 of 103
11 APPLICATION SUSPENSION TESTING

11.1 General philosophy
Figure 11.1 Example of suspension test systems
The longitudinal and lateral loads from the road surface undulations, together with the
loads caused by driver manoeuvres (braking, cornering and acceleration), are of great
importance for the durability of the axles and suspension. The majority of the
components in the suspension system are safety critical in as much as a failure could
cause a lethal accident. The reliability of the suspension and it components should be
>99.9% during customer usage, whereas in the body a reliability between 90 and 99.9%
is acceptable. Thus a chassis and body product validation could be defined a one life
with life defined as 100,000 whereas the suspension product validation could be 2 or 3
lives, i.e. 200,000 or 300,000km.
This being the case, it is beneficial to separate the suspension and test it independently
from the remainder of the vehicle.
In general, the axles have to be restrained for multi-axes testing. There are two
possibilities (figure 11.2): (1) the axle is restrained in the body or chassis of the vehicle,
exactly as it is on the road; or (2), the axle is restrained in a test frame. In the former case,
damage to the body of the vehicle may occur prior to any damage occurring in the
suspension and thus rendering the test difficult to complete without continuous repairs to
Page 84 of 103
the body. Moreover, the body development in a new vehicle will generally not run
parallel to the suspension development and bodies may not be available for testing at the
time we wish to test the suspension.
Figure 11.2 Suspension testing using the vehicle body as the restraint (left) and using a test frame (right)
However, in the latter case we need to be careful regarding how we attach the suspension
to the load frame. It cannot be attached rigidly as this will change significantly the
dynamics of the suspension. An attempt must be made to simulate the stiffness in the
vehicle at the attachment point in the local fixtures between the suspension and the fame
(figure 11.3)
Figure 11.3 Example of local fixtures between suspension components and load frame. The fixture on the
right uses a section from the frame of the vehicle.

Page 85 of 103
Depending on the complexity of the suspension, it

may not be necessary to use all 6 inputs at the
wheel to simulate the loading environment in the
suspension components. The majority of the
damage will originate from the three orthogonal
forces and the braking moment. The load paths are
different. The vertical and longitudinal loads will
pass through the wheel centre and into the spindle.
The lateral load acts at the tyre contact patch and
will cause a moment and force at the spindle. The
braking force also acts at the tyre contact patch,
but passes into the suspension through the brake
caliper only when the brakes are applied.
Figure 11.4- Wheel loads
11.2 Setting up a multi-axes suspension test

Normally, we should use the same test specimen for the data acquisition which we
use for the test set-up and iteration to the targets in the laboratory. This will
reduce any errors due to transducer location which may arise if we do not use the
same suspension aggregate in the laboratory. From an overall accuracy point of
view, it may not be acceptable to strain gauge another specimen to derive the
input loads or displacements in the laboratory, or from which to compare the
damage accumulation road to rig. We will introduce additional errors due to the
statistical variability in the suspension components. If we use a wheel force
transducer to define the target data on the road and in the laboratory, we may be
able to use a different test suspension. But we are still faced with the variability of
damage due to the two different specimens.
Polarity is very important, more so than in was in the case of the 4-poster. The
iteration process will not converge if there are polarity differences between the
laboratory test and road data acquisition At time of data acquisition, some simple
tests must be performed to confirm the polarity and sensitivity to load direction of
all the transducers (table 11.1).
Table 11.1 Suggested polarities
Measurement
Displacement
Strain
Load
Velocity
Acceleration
Positive reading
Orthogonal axes right hand rule
Tension
Tension
Orthogonal axes right hand rule
Opposite to direction of motion
The vehicle test weight at each wheel must be measured for each ballast condition.
This will be used to set the correct ride height in the lab. If a three axis load cell is
Page 86 of 103
available, then the three orthogonal wheel loads should be measured at the ride
height with the vehicle at rest.
There must be no fixture resonances in system in the operating region (0.2 to
30Hz). These resonances will be pronounced in the inverse transfer function and
should be mechanically fixed to reduce convergence problems.
Load and displacement limits must always be set to avoid unintentional damage to
the test specimen.
In the case where we have only one corner of a suspension test system available,
we must take care to restrain the other wheel to optimize the amount of the
specimen that is under test. For example, the stresses in the torsion bar will be
lower in a single sided test because the angle of twist will be lower. If we try to
obtain the correct stresses in the torsion bar, then the stresses local to the input
loads will be too high. Different types of restraint should be tried, and the quality
of the simulation assessed by comparing the damage at each strain gauge with that
on the road.
Ensuring the correct static loads on the three axes is important if we are to get the
correct load offset during the test. These loads should be monitored throughout
the test.
In summary multi-axes testing requires a lot more care and attention to detail than
that which is required for 4-post simulation. Incorrect loads or induced damage will
make the test valueless.
11.3 Parameters which affect the accuracy of suspension simulation
The duplication of a components or aggregates durability or fatigue performance in a
laboratory simulation is very dependent on the duplication of the local stress fields which,
in turn, is dependent on the specimen loading and constraints. In addition, tests with
multi-axes inputs have inherent cross-coupling problems. These issues, together with how
well we have performed the data editing and reduction, will determine the quality of the
simulation and our satisfaction with the results. We will address each issue in turn.
1. Loading There are many parameters that will affect the loading, and in
turn, will change the local stress field. They must not change between the
vehicle at data acquisition time and on the rig. When we change
specimens each parameter must be checked.
Stiffness suspension springs, bushes, tires, interfaces etc.
Inertia power-train, body, axle, wheels, spare tyre etc.
Damping shocks, bushes, tyres.

Page 87 of 103
Other jounce distances, trim height, shock and bush temperatures,

contact area etc.
2. Constraints - The test specimen should be constrained in a manner which
distributes the load (and thus the stress) similar to the way it is distributed
on the road. The load distribution is dependent on:
duplicating the stiffness at the specimen-fixture interface,
arranging the constraints and ballast to simulate correct inertial
reactions,
the stiffness and location of the fixtures,
whether compliant constraints are used.
3. Test time reduction This is accomplished by removing all the nondamaging data segments in the target data. However, unless this is done
with care, problems could arise.
The time-editing segment (or window) is chosen such that the
frequency response of the data is changed.
The function used to join edited segments together influences the
frequency response of the data.
Manoeuvring loads are not edited properly. These quasi-static changes
in the time series are important as they alter the geometry of the
suspension, and hence the local multi-axes stress vectors on the
component.
4. Cross coupling problems This may make it difficult to obtain a specific
force or displacement loading. It is usually a problem when we have
inertial or compliant reactions and when we are trying to induce certain
manoeuvring loads.

Page 88 of 103
12 APPLICATION AGGREGATE TESTING USING THE MAST

A multi-axis simulation table (MAST) provides a convenient and useful test apparatus for
many vehicle aggregate tests. It is ideally suited for testing engine mounts, instrument
panels, seats, radiators etc. In fact, it is suited for any aggregate or component that is
separated from the vehicle by some form of elastic component. Large parts of the vehicle,
or a number of smaller components, can be placed on the table and tested simultaneously.
The table is controlled to reproduce the displacements or acceleration profile that was
measured on the proving ground underneath the test specimen.
Figure 12.1 Durability testing of different vehicle aggregates using a MAST

From left to right, top - engine mounts, instrument panels; bottom - radiators, seats
Figure 12.2 MAST
A MAST comprises a lightweight table to which is

attached a number of actuators (figure 12.2). The
table itself has 6-degrees of freedom and, unless
restricted by the number of actuators, will move in
all directions. For the full 6-degrees of freedom we
require only three vertical actuators and the three
horizontal actuators. The fourth vertical actuator is
redundant and only fitted when the load on the table
is large and offset. As vehicles tend not to yaw, most
Page 89 of 103
systems used in automotive applications have only 5-degrees of freedom with only one
horizontal actuator in each direction.
Using the MAST is simple and perhaps the easiest simulator to set up and run. Depending
on the specimen, the motions of the table should represent the motions of the vehicle
directly underneath the component or aggregate of interest. For example, in the case of
seat testing we must select targets that define the motions of the seat rails attached to the
floor of the vehicle. We then reproduce these targets on the table in the laboratory. In the
case of the radiator tests we need the motion of the chassis to which the radiator is
attached.

Page 90 of 103
13 APPLICATION COMPONENT TESTING

Life testing at component level is an important part of the overall vehicle validation
strategy. Our aggregate and full vehicle tests have been designed under a product
validation strategy where the product is tested using accelerated service conditions.
Component testing, on the other hand, focuses more on testing the product under
design loads and, as such, is a design validation. The design loads will contain a factor
of safety. This should ensure that the components that are tested under design
validation procedures should not fail when they are included in the aggregate product
validation.
Since fatigue strength is the primary criterion for automotive component design, these
data must be validated by testing. The component tests are usually simple load control
tests under sinusoidal or block cycle loading where we wish to verify the design
criteria with respect to the load life curves for the material or component.
The predominance of fatigue strength as the primary design parameter for vehicle
components is due to a number of reasons:
i. Customers want longer warrant periods 5 years bumper to bumper.
ii. Product liability a failed component could result in a costly lawsuit and
damages.
iii. Vehicles are becoming more sophisticated with the addition of many
safety, engine and suspension control systems, each adding costs and
weight. Thus the basic mechanical components are driven to a light weight
and minimum cost design using innovative materials or process.
We can conclude that component testing is not only carried out for design validation
purposes but also for cost reduction engineering and the troubleshooting of
warranty failures.
We will look at a number of component tests and use these examples to show some
salient points.

Page 91 of 103
13.1 Wheel knuckle testing

Our first example looks at a component which must be designed to the safe-life
principle. This does not allow for the occurrence of a crack during the required
service life. This component has historically been forged, but cost and weight are
driving manufactures to a lighter and cheaper casting. Casting technology has now
reached the stage where it can produce smaller high strength components to compete
with the classic forged component.
In the majority of cars with McPherson strut type
suspensions the knuckle is restrained at two
places. At the top, it is bolted to the strut. The
bottom of the knuckle is located on a ball joint
(figure 13.1). The steering input is applied as
shown on the lower left of the photograph, and
the spindle rotates on the ball joint and the spring
seat at the top of the strut.
Figure 13.1 Steering knuckle
There are many other suspension designs such as

the ones shown in figure 13.2 (control arm type)
where the mounting is similar to the McPherson
strut arrangement. The exception here is that here
we have an upper and lower ball joint. However,
in solid axle suspensions the steering knuckle is
mounted directly on the axle using the king pin. It
is free to rotate around this pin.
Figure 13.3 Wheel loads
The main loads applied to the spindle are shown

in figure 13.3. The vertical and longitudinal loads
are applied at the spindle centre. However the
Figure 13.2 Knuckle in suspension
lateral and braking loads are applied at the tyre
contact patch and result in a moment and force acting on the spindle.
With the exception of the solid axle most other suspension components comprise
fabricated parts which are tested in aggregate format in the multi-axes suspension
tests discussed in Module 11.
Page 92 of 103
A simple test will restrain the knuckle at the points of attachment to the remainder of
the suspension. The loads are applied through a pushrod onto the spindle centerline
similar to the test set shown in figure 13.4. There are different loading conditions
vertical, lateral and braking. These can be applied individually, or in a combination,
depending on the equipment available and test specification.
Vertical
Brake
Figure 13.4 - Knuckle test
The maximum loads in vehicle suspension components are limited by law. (Example:
maximum heavy goods vehicle axle load in EC is 12ton on the load bearing axles.
The front steering axle is usually around 6-7ton. Testing requires a vertical static load
of 1g and maximum dynamic design load usually of 3g. Thus actuators rated at
150kN (15ton) will cover all truck axle and knuckle tests. Car knuckles require
similar inputs, but the loading is considerably less.
13.2 Front axle beam testing
Front axle beams (FAB) are held by the vehicle springs at the spring pads and are
attached to the knuckles at the king-pin. Front axle beams are usually forgings and are
an integral part of the front suspension of a heavy duty vehicle. They can be tested as
a component or as part of the suspension aggregate. Once again there are a number of
loading conditions vertical, lateral and braking loads which are often applied
individually, or in pairs to validate the design. The FAB carries the vertical wheel
loads at the spring attachment points and the test is a classic 4-pont bending one. The
loads can be applied at the spring pads, or at the spindle, and the reactions applied at
the other. Other tests apply vertical and lateral loads simultaneously, and vertical and
braking loads simultaneously.
Figure 13.5 shows different FAB tests and the fixtures required.

Page 93 of 103
Figure 13.5 - Front axle beam test

TOP- 4-point vertical bending test
MIDDLE Left shows the cylindrical roller between the specimen and load cell to simulate a simple
support.
Right shows a vertical and lateral load test
BOTTOM Another set up for the vertical and lateral load test
Once again the loading requirements are a function of the maximum legal axle loads
times the design safety factor.

Page 94 of 103
13.3 Other component tests

There are many other component tests which are too numerous to mention. However
the principle is the same.
Define the design loads for the component.
Define the factor of safety and hence the test load.
Set up the test and ensure that the load and the reactions are applied
either with simple or built in supports.
Decide the number of cycles that the component must withstand at the
test loads without failure.
Test.
13.4 The correct use of load cells

One of the most important and least understood issues in testing is the correct
measurement of load. In dynamic testing a load cell measures the force applied to its
upper surface. A simple model of a load cell is shown on figure 13.6. The load
measurement is taken from the spring force and converted to an electronic signal.
The measured load is equal to k ( x2 x1 ) . Often x2
is mounted on some base or seismic platform
where the motion is equal or very close to zero.
The force we want to measure is F1, but the force
we actually measure is the force in the spring.
This is dependent on the properties of the dynamic
system and especially the mass. m1
All load cells are designed for a specific
frequency range and mass range. Changing the
Figure 13.6 Simple load cell model
mass m1 will not only change the natural
frequency of the load cell, but will also change the force induced in the spring. To
simplify the understanding let us assume that x2=0 and that there is no damping. The
model simplifies to that in figure 13.7 The force, Foutput, which we actually measure is
related to the force we want to measure, F(t) as follows:
The error term is caused by the inertia force and

correcting for it is called inertia compensation. It is
always good laboratory practice to locate the load cell
Figure 13.7 Load cell
at the fixture side. Here we minimise the direct coupled
moving mass on top of the load cell. If this is unavoidable then the inertia
compensation may be required.

Page 95 of 103
14 MODULE TEST PLANNING AND REPORTING

14.1 Test objectives
We have mentioned throughout this handbook that a clear test objective is essential.
Below is a list of the considerations that impact on the definition of test objective.
For example, our test objective is to carry out ride comfort on a complete vehicle
using sine wave excitation on a tyre input, inertial reaction (4-post) simulator until
the ride meets predefined criteria.
14.2 Test Planning simulator utilisation
Test equipment is capital intensive and, as such, maximum utilisation is a prerequisite
for a good return on investment.
Let us assume that it will take
5 days to instrument parts of a vehicle (2-shift working)
2 days to collect data on the proving ground (10 hour days)
3 days for data verification, analysis and editing (10 hour days)
2 days for iterations (3-shift working)
96
12 days for vehicle or aggregate life test (3-shift working)

These estimates are not unreasonable for a straight forward 4-post test, or a
suspension test, where we will use wheel force transducers to collect the target data.
However timings will depend on the complexity of the instrumentation required, the
number of test tracks included in the schedule, and any difficulties encountered in the
data analysis and interpretation. It is assumed that we can run the test for 20 hours per
day on average with 4 hours per day for inspections.
We can make up a schedule as follows, allow for 1 non-working day per week and 24
laboratory operation, 6 days per week. Task \\ day
Vehicle 1
Instrumentation
Data collection
Analysis & edit
Set-up vehicle on rig
Iterate
Test
Clear rig
Vehicle 2
Instrumentation
Data collection
Analysis & edit
Set-up vehicle on rig
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
5
2
3
2
2
12
1
5
2
3
2
If everything goes according to plan we should be able to complete a vehicle or

aggregate life simulation in a month. In a well run laboratory with 70% utilisation we
should be able to plan for 8 tests per year on the 4-post, suspension or MAST
simulators.
To support that level of activity on the simulators, we can deduce that the
instrumentation and data acquisition will be a bottleneck unless we have available 2-3
teams of equipment and personnel. In the authors experience tests are often delayed
due to the unavailability of the test data. Some companies will out-source part of this
activity to a private test supplier.
14.3 Test planning - component tests
The kernel of any automotive fatigue test laboratory is the servo-hydraulic actuator
which applies the loads and displacements to the test specimen. Capacity planning is
based on the number of actuator days required to fulfil the laboratory mission.
Unfortunately there is no single actuator that will cover the range of input loads
required in automotive testing. In addition, the number of theoretical test days
available from any given actuator must take account of the unavailability of a specific
actuator at a specific time. Most vehicle manufacturers laboratories operate
component testing for 24 hours per day, 6 days per week. We calculate the theoretical
availability of an actuator as follows:
97
Number of test days available/actuator/year = 312

Ave. annual downtime, maintenance = 2%
Test equipment is reliable and downtime, due to equipment failure,
typically occurs once every 4-5 years
Average annual downtime, unavailability = 30%
Actuator unavailability covers unavailability of a specific force
rated actuator due to use on another test. This figure is based on
the authors experience running a test lab with over 100 actuators
of different force ratings for component testing
Thus maximum test days per actuator = 212
We can now estimate the number of actuators required to meet current and future test
forecasts. A component test comprises test set up; test specimen 1; change to next
specimen, test specimen 2 etc. Based on historical data, in many laboratories we find
that:
the average test set up time = 2 days
the average specimen change over = 1 day
the average number of specimens = 6
These data are added to the test run time to obtain the total number of test days per
component test.
For example, if we assume that the test time for each specimen is 2 days, and that
there are 6 specimens, then the number of actuator days required is 20. The last
specimen change over is also counted as we require time to dismantle the test.
98
14.4 Test reporting

14.4.1 The report
The test report is the formal document that concludes the test or data acquisition
exercise etc. In most cases the format will be defined by the company. The test
engineer should make every effort to submit the report within 5-10 days after the end
of the test. The report must show:
the test objective
a description of how we met this objective
the results and conclusions
recommendations.
The report front or title page typically includes the following:
Project number
Test request number
Description
Division
Requester
Project manager
Date
List of test parts
This is then followed by:

Management summary of report example see figure 14.1
Figure 14.1 - Example of the management summary of a report on a simulation test
99
List of contents - example in figure 14.2
Figure 14.2 - Example of the table of contents of a report on a simulation test
Project or test objectives

Formal test procedure that was followed (if available) or detailed step by
step description of what was done
Any data analysis procedures used
Results - if a durability or fatigue test, document all inspection data with
photographs and crack lengths at each inspection interval.
Recommendations and future actions
Lists of equipment used, data tables, photographs and figures, calibration
data, symbols and abbreviations as appropriate.
In each section the use of sketches or photographs is recommended do not spend

time describing something that can be explained in one photograph (see figure 14.3)!
A good report should enable another test engineer to duplicate the same test without
any ambiguity.
100
Figure 14.3 Example of detail required to document the instrumentation set-up
14.4.2 Tips on report writing:

Keep the readers background in mind.
Do not make the readers work too hard.
Be as clear as you can, and direct the readers to the answers to important questions.
Remember that the report is not a story. It is a formal document designed to tell
the reader how you met the test objective.
Avoid phrases like "Clearly, this is the case", or "Obviously, it follows that".
Avoid categorical claims and generalities Keep to the facts.
Use the third person and avoid using I, we etc.
Refer to all figures and tables.
Captions for diagrams are placed below the diagrams, while captions for tables are
usually placed above the tables.
If you have to use colour, make an effort to help the readers who might read a
black and white copy.
101
14.4.3 The test log

The test log is the hour-by-hour" record of the test and is written as the test proceeds.
It documents exactly what happened, and when. Figure 14.4 shows an example of a
test log for a component test. If the project is to test 6 specimens, then 6 test logs will
be produced. The test report is generated from the data in these test logs.
Figure 14.4 - Example of a test log
102
15 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following textbooks are used by the author for reference. They can be
recommended as relevant to the subject matter in the module. Where no text book is
shown, the author is not aware of a relevant text book. Reference here should be made
to published papers, a list of which can be had on request.
Module
1
Reference books
None
Engineering Measurements C. V. Collett, A. D. Hope, Pitman
Metal Fatigue in Engineering Ralph I. Stephens, Ali Fatemi, Robert R.

Stephens, Henry O. Fuchs, Wiley Inter-Science
Theory of Vibration with Applications, Fourth Edition William T.

Thomson, Nelson Thornes
Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, William F. Milliken, Douglas L. Milliken,
SAE International
Random Data, Analysis and Measurement Procedures, Third Edition

Julius S. Bendat, Allan G. Piersol, Wiley Inter-Science
Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis D. E. Newland, Longman
Extreme Value Distributions, Samuel Kotz, Saralees Nadarajah, Imperial
College Press
Applied Statistics for Engineers and Scientists Jay Devore, Nicholas

Farnum, Thomson, Brooks/Cole
Metal Fatigue in Engineering Ralph I. Stephens, Ali Fatemi, Robert R.

Stephens, Henry O. Fuchs, Wiley Inter-Science
Applied Statistics for Engineers and Scientists Jay Devore, Nicholas
Farnum, Thomson, Brooks/Cole
Mechanical Engineering Design Joseph E. Shigley, Charles R. Mischke,

Richard G. Budynas, McGraw Hill
Design of Welded Structures, Omer W Blodgett, The James F Lincoln
Arc Welding Foundation
Automatic Control - C. R. Webb, McGraw Hill
14
none
103

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DODDS AND ASSOCIATES

Structural testing of complete

Dodds and Associates, 2007

Dodds and Associates, 2007

Dodds and Associates, 2007

Automotive structural test technologies

About the author

Dodds and Associates, 2007

A number of options are available for testing a new vehicle design:

Dodds and Associates, 2007

These topics will be covered in a later edition of this handbook

MODULE CUSTOMER SERVICE

Defining the customer profile

We need the answers to the following questions:

Creating the customer profile

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Correlating customer loads with test track loads

Figure 1.2 - An example of customer use that is difficult to predict

These functions will be defined in Module 5.3

MODULE INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ACQUISITION

Good data are defined as:

Figure 2.1 The data acquisition process

Vehicle or aggregate simulation control transducers that will be used to

Strain gauges will measure the local extension of the

The WFT (Wheel Force Transducer) 16 is a recent

WFTs are manufactured by a number of companies, see for example http://www.kistler.com/

Pedal stroke and load set up

Steering wheel torque and angle

Selection of custom load cells

Dodds and Associates, 2007

Figure 2.2 SoMat data recorder

Pitfalls of data acquisition

Transducer characteristic or sensitivity Prior to the start of any data acquisition, we

SoMat Systems UK Ltd www.somat.com

below f N . For example in the figure we have

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Drift This is usually due to a fault in the

The accelerometer trap

Figure 2.3 - acceleration and

Acceleration and damage are generally not correlated. Damage is a displacement

See Module 5.2

Dodds and Associates, 2007

The concepts kept simple

Figure 3.2 - Fatigue failure of metal rod

Figure 3.3 Fully reversed load cycle

Sometimes component validation is obtained by testing to establish the endurance

Figure 3.4 - S/N curve

Figure 3.5 Product life methodology

Dodds and Associates, 2007

If we know the coefficients of the Whler fatigue equation (figure 3.4),

See Module 5.3

Statistical scatter in fatigue life

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Figure 3.7 Scatter of failed specimens at 107MPa

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Figure 3.8 Effects of surface finish on fatigue life

Stress concentration factors

Figure 3.9 Nominal at local stress concept

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Effect of mean stress on fatigue life.

Figure 3.11- Effect of variation in mean stress on the S/N curve

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MODULE VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND MODES