Class XII/PHYSICS

Colour Code for Carbon Resistors

The value of resistances are usually marked on them according to a colour code. A carbon resistance has usually
four rings or bands A, B, C and D of different colours.
The colours of the first two bands A and B indicate the first two
significant figures of the value of resistance in ohm, while the colour of
the third band C indicates the decimal multiplier. The colour of the fourth
band D (which is either silver or gold) tells the tolerance of the
resistance.
To read the value of the carbon resistance, the following sentence serves
as an aid to memory:

B B ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife

Letter as an
aid to Colour Figure Multiplier Colour Tolerance
memory
B Black 0 0 Gold 5%
10
B Brown 1 10
1 Silver 10%
R Red 2 2 No colour 20%
10
O Orange 3 3
10
Y Yellow 4 4
10
G Green 5 5
10
B Blue 6 6
10
V Violet 7 7
10
G Grey 8 8
10
W White 9 9
10

INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF THE CELL

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL: The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell, when the electric current
flows through it, is known as internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r.

For a freshly prepared cell, the internal resistance is low, but as the cell is put into more and more use, its internal
resistance increases.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F) OF THE CELL: The potential difference between the two poles of the cell in an
open circuit (when no current is drawn from the cell) is called the electromotive force of the cell.
It is also defined as the energy supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge round the complete circuit. It is denoted
by E.
In S.I, the unit of e.mf is Volt or Joule Coulomb-1 (JC-1).

TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF A CELL

The potential difference between the two poles of the cell in a closedcircuit (when no current is drawn from the
cell) is called the terminal potential difference of the cell. It is denoted by V. It has the same unit as that of the
e.m.f.

Expression for the internal resistance

Consider a source of e.m.f connected to a resistance “R” through

which a steady current “I” flows as shown below:
Let the e.m.f of the source is E, the internal resistance of the source
be r.

The current in the circuit is I.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ CURRENT ELECTRICITY Page 1 of 4
Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
E Totalvolta ge
According to Ohm’s Law, I = ( Current = )
R +r totalresis tan ce
The potential drop across the internal resistance is Ir.
Potential difference across resistance R is V.
V = IR
E
V = R
R +r
⇒ V ( R + r ) = ER
⇒ Vr = ER − VR

⇒r =
( E −V ) R
V
E 
⇒ r =  − 1 R
V 
The above is the expression for the internal resistance of cell in terms of e.m.f and terminal potential difference.

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

KIRCHOFF’S FIRST LAW: It states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point in an electrical circuit
is always zero.
In other words, at a junction, current coming in is equal to the current going out.
Kirchoff’s First Law is also called Junction rule or Current Law.
It is based on the law of conservation of charges.

Explanation: Consider a point O in an electric circuit at which currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 are flowing through five
conductors in the direction as shown in the figure.

Sign Convention: The current flowing towards the junction

is taken as positive and the current flowing away from the junction
is taken as negative.
So, I1, I3, and I5 are positive and I2 and I4 are negative. Therefore,
According to Kirchoff’s First law,
I1+(-I2)+ I3+(- I4 )+ I5=0
Or, I1 + I 3 + I 5 = I 2 + I 4

KIRCHOFF’S SECOND LAW: It states that in any closed part of

an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f’s is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of the resistances and the current flowing through them.
It is also known as loop rule or Voltage law.
This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Explanation: Consider a closed electrical circuit ABCD containing two cells of e.m.f’s E1 and E2 and five
resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 as shown in figure.
The following sign conventions are adopted:
 The current flowing in the anti-clockwise direction is positive.
 The e.m.f of the cell is taken as positive, if it sends current in the circuit in anticlockwise direction and
negative, if the current due to the cell flows in the clockwise direction.

Consider the closed part ABCA of the electrical circuit. The cell of e.m.f E1 will send current in the anticlockwise
direction and the cell of e.m.f E2 will send current in the clockwise direction. Thus, E1 is positive and E2 is
negative.
Therefore, the total e.m.f for the closed part ABCA = E1+ (E2) = E1 - E2
Also, in the closed part ABCA, currents I1 and I2 flow in anticlockwise direction while the current I3 flows in the
clockwise direction.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ CURRENT ELECTRICITY Page 2 of 4
Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

The algebraic sum of the product of resistances and current flowing

through them, for the closed part ABCA
= I1R1 + I 2 R2 + ( −I 3 ) R3 = I1R1 + I 2 R2 − I 3 R3

Therefore, according to Kirchoff’s Second Law,

E1 − E2 = I1R1 + I 2 R2 − I 3 R3

Similarly, for the closed circuit ADCA,

E2 = I 3 R3 + I 4 R4 + I 5 R5

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

It is one of the accurate arrangements for measuring an unknown resistance.

Four resistances P, Q, R and X are connected to form a quadrilateral.
A sensitive galvanometer "G” and key K1 are connected between the points
B and D, while a battery of e.m.f E and key K2 are connected between the
points A and C.

P and Q, called ratio arms, are known resistances. R is a variable resistance

(resistance box) and X is the unknown resistance.

The value of R is so adjusted that on closing the key K1 (with K2 closed), the
galvanometer, G, does not give any deflection.

It implies that potential of point ‘B’ = potential of point ‘D’

VB = VD
In this condition, the galvanometer is said to be balanced.

P R
For a balanced bridge, = (principle of Wheatstone bridge)
Q X

Proof: Let I be the current in the main circuit. At A, a current I1 flows through the resistance P and the rest
I- I1 =I2 flows through the resistance R. When the bridge is balanced, the points B and D are at the same
potential and hence no current flows through the galvanometer. Hence, current I1 will flow through Q and I2
through X. At C, the currents I1 and I2get added up to give the total current I.
Let VA, VB, VC and VD be the potentials at points A, B, C and D respectively.
Potential across P, V A − V B = I 1 P --------------- (1)
Potential across Q, V B −VC = I 1Q --------------- (2)
Potential across R, V A − V D = I 2 R --------------- (3)
Potential across X, V D − VC = I 2 X --------------- (4)
When the bridge is balanced, VB = VD. Replacing VD by VB in equations (3) and (4), we have-
V A − V B = I 2 R ---------------- (5)
V B −VC = I 2 X --------------- (6)
From equations (1) and (5), we have- I 1 P = I 2 R --------------- (7)
From equations (2) and (6), we have- I 1Q = I 2 X -------------- (8)
Dividing equation (7) by equation (8), we get-

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ CURRENT ELECTRICITY Page 3 of 4
Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
I1 P I R
= 2
I 1Q I 2 X
P R
=
Q X
Knowing the values of P,Q and R, value of X can be determined.

Merits of Wheatstone bridge:

(i) It is a null method. Therefore, the measurement of resistance made by this method is not affected
by the internal resistance of the battery used.
(ii) The value of unknown resistance can be measured to a very high degree of accuracy by increasing
the ratio of the resistances in arms P and Q.
(iii) As no measurements of currents and voltages is involved, the measurements are not affected
because of the fact that the ammeters and voltmeters are not ideal ones.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ CURRENT ELECTRICITY Page 4 of 4
Prepared by: Sandhya.K