This article is about an overview of the term as used in calculus.

For a non-technical overview of the

subject, see Differential calculus. For other uses, see Derivative (disambiguation).

The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a tangent line to that function, drawn in red. The slope of the tangent line is
equal to the derivative of the function at the marked point.

Topics in Calculus

Fundamental theorem
Limits of functions
Continuity
Mean value theorem

[show]Differential calculus

[show]Integral calculus

[show]Vector calculus

[show]Multivariable
calculus

In calculus (a branch of mathematics) the derivative is a measure of how a function changes as its input
changes. Loosely speaking, a derivative can be thought of as how much a quantity is changing at a given
point; for example, the derivative of the position of a vehicle with respect to time is the instantaneous
velocity at which the vehicle is traveling. Conversely, the integral of the velocity over time is how much the
vehicle's position changes from the time when the integral begins to the time when the integral ends.

The derivative of a function at a chosen input value describes the best linear approximation of the function
near that input value. For a real-valued function of a single real variable, the derivative at a point equals
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. In higher dimensions, the derivative
of a function at a point is a linear transformation called thelinearization.[1] A closely related notion is
the differential of a function.

The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. The reverse process is

calledantidifferentiation. The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same
as integration.
 Contents
[hide]

• 1 Differentiation and the derivative

○ 1.1 Definition via difference quotients

○ 1.2 Example

○ 1.3 Continuity and differentiability

○ 1.4 The derivative as a function

○ 1.5 Higher derivatives

○ 1.6 Inflection point

• 2 Notations for differentiation

○ 2.1 Leibniz's notation

○ 2.2 Lagrange's notation

○ 2.3 Newton's notation

○ 2.4 Euler's notation

• 3 Computing the derivative

○ 3.1 Derivatives of elementary functions

○ 3.2 Rules for finding the derivative

○ 3.3 Example computation

• 4 Derivatives in higher dimensions

○ 4.1 Derivatives of vector valued functions

○ 4.2 Partial derivatives

○ 4.3 Directional derivatives

○ 4.4 The total derivative, the total differential and

the Jacobian

• 5 Generalizations

• 6 See also

• 7 Notes

• 8 References
 ○ 8.1 Print

○ 8.2 Online books

[edit]Differentiation and the derivative

(Click for larger image) At each point, the derivative of is the slope of a line that is tangent to the curve.
The line is always tangent to the blue curve; its slope is the derivative. Note derivative is positive where
green,negative where red, and zero where black.

Differentiation is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent output y changes with respect to
the change in the independent input x. This rate of change is called the derivativeof y with respect to x.
In more precise language, the dependence of y upon x means that y is a function of x. This functional
relationship is often denoted y = ƒ(x), where ƒ denotes the function. If x and y are real numbers, and if
the graph of y is plotted against x, the derivative measures the slope of this graph at each point.

The simplest case is when y is a linear function of x, meaning that the graph of y against x is a straight
line. In this case, y =ƒ(x) = m x + c, for real numbers m and c, and the slope m is given by
where the symbol Δ (the uppercase form of the Greek letterDelta) is an abbreviation for "change in."
This formula is true because

y + Δy = ƒ(x+ Δx) = m (x + Δx) + c = m x + c + m Δx = y +mΔx.

It follows that Δy = m Δx.

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the function ƒ is not linear (i.e. its
graph is not a straight line), however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies:
differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of change at any given value of x.

Rate of change as a limiting value

Figure 1. The tangent line at (x, ƒ(x))

Figure 2. The secant to curve y= ƒ(x) determined by points (x, ƒ(x)) and (x+h, ƒ(x+h))
 Figure 3. The tangent line as limit of secants

The idea, illustrated by Figures 1-3, is to compute the rate of change as the limiting valueof
the ratio of the differences Δy / Δx as Δx becomes infinitely small.

In Leibniz's notation, such an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx, and the derivative
of y with respect to x is written

suggesting the ratio of two infinitesimal quantities. (The above expression is read as "the
derivative of y with respect to x", "d y by d x", or "d y over d x". The oral form "d y d x" is
often used conversationally, although it may lead to confusion.)

The most common approach[2] to turn this intuitive idea into a precise definition uses
limits, but there are other methods, such as non-standard analysis.[3]
[edit]Definition via difference quotients
Let ƒ be a real valued function. In classical geometry, the tangent line at a real
number awas the unique line through the point (a, ƒ(a)) which did not meet the graph
of ƒtransversally, meaning that the line did not pass straight through the graph. The
derivative of y with respect to x at a is, geometrically, the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of ƒat a. The slope of the tangent line is very close to the slope of the line through
(a, ƒ(a)) and a nearby point on the graph, for example (a + h, ƒ(a + h)). These lines are
calledsecant lines. A value of h close to zero will give a good approximation to the slope
of the tangent line, and smaller values (in absolute value) of h will, in general, give
betterapproximations. The slope m of the secant line is the difference between
the y values of these points divided by the difference between the x values, that is,
This expression is Newton's difference quotient. The derivative is the value of the
difference quotient as the secant lines approach the tangent line. Formally,
the derivative of the function ƒ at a is the limit

of the difference quotient as h approaches zero, if this limit exists. If the limit
exists, thenƒ is differentiable at a. Here ƒ′ (a) is one of several common
notations for the derivative (see below).

Equivalently, the derivative satisfies the property that

which has the intuitive interpretation (see Figure 1) that the tangent line
to ƒ at a gives the best linear approximation

to ƒ near a (i.e., for small h). This interpretation is the easiest to

generalize to other settings (see below).

Substituting 0 for h in the difference quotient causes division by

zero, so the slope of the tangent line cannot be found directly.
Instead, define Q(h) to be the difference quotient as a function of h:

Q(h) is the slope of the secant line between (a, ƒ(a)) and
(a + h, ƒ(a + h)). If ƒ is a continuous function, meaning that its
graph is an unbroken curve with no gaps, then Q is a
continuous function away from the point h = 0. If the

limit exists, meaning that there is a way of

choosing a value for Q(0) which makes the graph of Q a
continuous function, then the function ƒ is differentiable at the
point a, and its derivative at a equals Q(0).

In practice, the existence of a continuous extension of the

difference quotient Q(h) to h = 0 is shown by modifying the
numerator to cancelh in the denominator. This process can be
long and tedious for complicated functions, and many
shortcuts are commonly used to simplify the process.
[edit]Example

The squaring function ƒ(x) = x² is differentiable at x = 3, and

its derivative there is 6. This result is established by writing
the difference quotient as follows:

Then we obtain the derivative by letting .

The last expression shows that the difference

quotient equals 6 + h when h is not zero and is
undefined when h is zero. (Remember that
because of the definition of the difference quotient,
the difference quotient is never defined when h is
zero.) However, there is a natural way of filling in a
value for the difference quotient at zero, namely 6.
Hence the slope of the graph of the squaring
function at the point (3, 9) is 6, and so its derivative
at x = 3 is ƒ '(3) = 6.

More generally, a similar computation shows that

the derivative of the squaring function
at x = a is ƒ '(a) = 2a.
[edit]Continuity and differentiability
 This function does not have a derivative at the marked
point, as the function is not continuous there.

If y = ƒ(x) is differentiable at a, then ƒ must also

be continuous at a. As an example, choose a
point aand let ƒ be the step function which returns
a value, say 1, for all x less than a, and returns a
different value, say 10, for all x greater than or
equal to a. ƒ cannot have a derivative at a. If h is
negative, then a+ h is on the low part of the step,
so the secant line from a to a + h will be very steep,
and as h tends to zero the slope tends to infinity.
If h is positive, then a + h is on the high part of the
step, so the secant line from a to a + h will have
slope zero. Consequently the secant lines do not
approach any single slope, so the limit of the
difference quotient does not exist.[4]

The absolute value function is continuous, but fails to be

differentiable atx = 0 since the tangent slopes do not
approach the same value from the left as they do from
the right.
However, even if a function is continuous at a
point, it may not be differentiable there. For
example, theabsolute value function y = |x| is
continuous at x = 0, but it is not differentiable there.
If h is positive, then the slope of the secant line
from 0 to h is one, whereas if h is negative, then
the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is negative
one. This can be seen graphically as a "kink" in the
graph at x = 0. Even a function with a smooth
graph is not differentiable at a point where
its tangent is vertical: For instance, the
function y = 3√x is not differentiable at x = 0.

In summary: in order for a function ƒ to have a

derivative it is necessary for the function ƒ to be
continuous, but continuity alone is not sufficient.

Most functions which occur in practice have

derivatives at all points or at almost every point.
However, a result of Stefan Banach states that the
set of functions which have a derivative at some
point is a meager set in the space of all continuous
functions.[5] Informally, this means that
differentiable functions are very atypical among
continuous functions. The first known example of a
function that is continuous everywhere but
differentiable nowhere is theWeierstrass function.
[edit]The derivative as a function
Let ƒ be a function that has a derivative at every
point a in the domain of ƒ. Because every
pointa has a derivative, there is a function which
sends the point a to the derivative of ƒ at a. This
function is written f′(x) and is called the derivative
function or the derivative of ƒ. The derivative
of ƒ collects all the derivatives of ƒ at all the points
in the domain of ƒ.
Sometimes ƒ has a derivative at most, but not all,
points of its domain. The function whose value
at a equals f′(a) whenever f′(a) is defined and is
undefined elsewhere is also called the derivative
of ƒ. It is still a function, but its domain is strictly
smaller than the domain of ƒ.

Using this idea, differentiation becomes a function

of functions: The derivative is an operator whose
domain is the set of all functions which have
derivatives at every point of their domain and
whose range is a set of functions. If we denote this
operator by D, then D(ƒ) is the function f′(x).
Since D(ƒ) is a function, it can be evaluated at a
point a. By the definition of the derivative
function, D(ƒ)(a) = f′(a).

For comparison, consider the doubling

function ƒ(x) =2x; ƒ is a real-valued function of a
real number, meaning that it takes numbers as
inputs and has numbers as outputs:

The operator D, however, is not defined on

individual numbers. It is only defined on
functions:

Because the output of D is a function,

the output of D can be evaluated at a
point. For instance, when D is applied to
the squaring function,
D outputs the doubling function,

which we named ƒ(x). This

output function can then be
evaluated to get ƒ(1) =
2, ƒ(2) = 4, and so on.
[edit]Higher
derivatives
Let ƒ be a differentiable
function, and let f′(x) be its
derivative. The derivative of f′
(x) (if it has one) is written f′′
(x) and is called the second
derivative of ƒ. Similarly, the
derivative of a second
derivative, if it exists, is
written f′′′(x) and is called
the third derivative of ƒ.
These repeated derivatives
are called higher-order
derivatives.

A function ƒ need not have a

derivative, for example, if it is
not continuous. Similarly,
even if ƒ does have a
derivative, it may not have a
second derivative. For
example, let
An elementary
calculation shows
that ƒ is a differentiable
function whose
derivative is

f′(x) is twice the

absolute value
function, and it
does not have a
derivative at zero.
Similar examples
show that a
function can
have kderivatives
for any non-
negative
integer k but no (k
+ 1)-order
derivative. A
function that
has k successive
derivatives is
called k times
differentiable. If
in addition the kth
derivative is
continuous, then
the function is said
to be
of differentiability
class Ck. (This is a
stronger condition
than
having k derivative
s. For an example,
see differentiability
class.) A function
that has infinitely
many derivatives
is calledinfinitely
differentiable or s
mooth.

On the real line,

every polynomial
function is infinitely
differentiable. By
standard differenti
ation rules, if a
polynomial of
degree n is
differentiated n tim
es, then it
becomes
a constant
function. All of its
subsequent
derivatives are
identically zero. In
particular, they
exist, so
polynomials are
smooth functions.

The derivatives of
a function ƒ at a
point x provide
polynomial
approximations to
that function
near x. For
example, if ƒ is
twice
differentiable, then

in the sense
that

If ƒ is
infinitel
y
differen
tiable,
then
this is
the
beginni
ng of
the Tayl
or
series f
or ƒ.
[edit]In
flecti
on
point
Main
article: I
nflectio
n point

A point
where
the
second
derivati
ve of a
function
change
s sign
is
called
an infle
ction
point.[6]
At an
inflectio
n point,
the
second
derivati
ve may
be
zero, as
in the
case of
the
inflectio
n
point x=
0 of the
function
y=x3, or
it may
fail to
exist,
as in
the
case of
the
inflectio
n
point x=
0 of the
function
y=x1/3.
At an
inflectio
n point,
a
function
switche
s from
being
a conve
x
function
to being
a conca
ve
function
or vice
versa.

[edit]N
otatio
ns
for
differ
entiat
ion
Main
article:
Notatio
n for
differen
tiation
[edit]L
eibni
z's
notati
on
Main
article:
Leibniz'
s
notatio
n

The
notation
for
derivati
ves
introduc
ed
by Gottf
ried
Leibniz
is one
of the
earliest.
It is still
commo
nly
used
when
the
equatio
n y = ƒ(
x) is
viewed
as a
function
al
relation
ship
betwee
n depe
ndent
and
indepen
dent
variable
s. Then
the first
derivati
ve is
denote
d by

Hi
gh
er
de
riv
ati
ve
s
ar
e
ex
pr
es
se
d
us
in
g
th
e
no
tat
io
n

for
the
nth
de
riv
ati
ve
of
y=
ƒ(
x)
(wi
th
res
pe
ct
to
x).
Th
es
e
ar
e
ab
br
evi
ati
on
s
for
mu
ltip
le
ap
pli
cat
ion
s
of
the
de
riv
ati
ve
op
er
ato
r.
Fo
r
ex
am
ple
,

With
Leibniz'
s
notation
, we can
write the
derivativ
e of y at
the
point x =
a in two
different
ways:

Leibniz's
notation
allows one to
specify the
variable for
differentiation
(in the
denominator).
This is
especially
relevant
for partial
differentiation
. It also
makes
the chain
rule easy to
remember:[7]

[edit]Lagrange
s notation
Sometimes
referred to
 as prime notatio
[8]
one of the mos
common modern
notations for
differentiation is
due to Joseph-
Louis
Lagrange and us
the prime mark, s
that the derivativ
of a function ƒ(x)
denoted ƒ′(x) or
simply ƒ′. Similar
the second and
third derivatives
are denoted

  and  

Beyond this poin

authors use Rom
numerals such a

for the fourth der

whereas other au
the number of de
parentheses:

The latter notatio

yield the notation
derivative of ƒ —
most useful when
about the derivat
function itself, as
 Leibniz notation c
cumbersome.
[edit]Newton's
Main article: New

Newton's notatio
differentiation, al
notation, places a
function name to
derivative. If y =

  and  

denote, respectiv
derivatives of y w
notation is used a
for time derivativ
independent vari
represents time.
in physics and in
disciplines conne
as differential eq
notation become
high-order deriva
very few derivativ
[edit]Euler's n
Euler's notation u
operator D, which
function ƒ to give
The second deriv
and the nth deriv

If y = ƒ(x) is a de
often the subscri
the D to clarify th
variable x. Euler'
  or   ,

although this sub

the variable x is u
this is the only va
expression.

Euler's notation i
solving linear diff

[edit]Computi

The derivative of
be computed from
considering the d
computing its lim
derivatives of a fe
known, the deriva
more easily comp
derivatives of mo
simpler ones.
[edit]Derivativ
functions
Main article: Tab

Most derivative c
require taking the
functions. The fo
some of the mos
a single real varia

 Derivatives o

where r is any re

wherever this fun

then
.

and the function

this rule recovers

 Exponential a

 Trigonometri

 Inverse trigon

[edit]Rules for
Main article: Diffe
 In many cases, c
using differentiat

 Constant rule

 Sum rule:

for all functions ƒ and g and all real numbers a and b.

 Product rule:

for all functions ƒ and g.

 Quotient rule

for all functions ƒ and g where g ≠ 0.

 Chain rule: If

.
[edit]Example

The derivative of

is

Here the second

ln(x) and exp(x) =

[edit]Derivativ

See also: Vector

[edit]Derivativ
A vector-valued f
split up into its co
coordinate functi
the tangent vecto

Equivalently,

if the limit exists.

function.

If e1, …, en is the
the linearity prop

because each of

This generalizatio
[edit]Partial de
Main article: Part

Suppose that ƒ is

ƒ can be reinterp

In other words, e

Once a value of x
In this expression

The above proce

This is the partia

"dee".

In general, the pa

In the above diffe

and, by definition

In other words, th
derivatives.

An important exa
variable xj. At the

This vector is cal

a vector field.
[edit]Direction
Main article: Dire

If ƒ is a real-valu
the x direction an
 The directional

Let λ be a scalar
the v direction. B

If all the partial d

This is a consequ

The same definit

[edit]The total
Main article: Tota

Let ƒ be a functio
approximation to
then, because v
length of v in eac

Suppose now tha

transformation th

Here h is a vector in Rn, so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on Rn. However, ƒ′(a)h is a
vector in Rm, and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on Rm. The linear transformation ƒ′(a),
if it exists, is called the total derivative of ƒ at a or the (total)differential of ƒ at a.

If the total derivative exists at a, then all the partial derivatives of ƒ exist at a. If we write ƒ using
coordinate functions, so that ƒ = (ƒ1, ƒ2, ..., ƒm), then the total derivative can be expressed as
a matrix called the Jacobian matrix of ƒ at a:
 The existence of

The definition of
This 1×1 matrix s

Up to changing v

The total derivati

the total derivativ

[edit]General

Main article: Deri

The concept of a

of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition. However, this innocent
om R² to R² (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex

ector space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in R³. The derivative (or differential) of a
map between the tangent bundlesof M and N. This definition is fundamental in differential geometry and has many uses —

e, called the Gâteaux derivative, and of the differential, called the Fréchet derivative.

s and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as theweak derivative. The idea is to embed the