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MOTORIZED TWO-WHEELERS IN INDIAN CITIES: CASE STUDY OF PUNE

Anjali Mahendra, Corresponding Author

EMBARQ India, World Resources Institute
156, 3rd Cross, 1st Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore 560011, India
Tel: +91 80-26560027; Fax: +91 80-26560029; Email: amahendra@embarqindia.org
Radha Chanchani
EMBARQ India, World Resources Institute
156, 3rd Cross, 1st Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore 560011, India
Tel: +91 886-727-0500; Fax: +91 80-26560029; Email: rchanchani@embarqindia.org
Nick Ferenchak
University of Colorado-Denver, Civil Engineering Department
3331 Pontiac Street, Denver, CO 80207
Tel: 1-484-213-4163; Email: nick.ferenchak@gmail.com
Word Count: 5,987 words text + 6 tables/figures x 250 words (each) = 7,487 words

Nov 15, 2014

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ABSTRACT
India's motorized two-wheeler market is second only to China in terms of size. While twowheelers provide several benefits to travelers, they also create several challenges. These include
serious safety concerns and dependence on private motorized vehicles. As their numbers
continue to grow in Indian cities, it is important to understand their role in urban transport, the
motivations and profile of their users, the mobility advantages they offer, and the challenges they
present, in order to create well-informed policy and planning decisions to effectively manage the
sector. This research aims to inform the debate using empirical evidence and insights from Pune,
a typical mid-sized Indian city where two-wheelers are a dominant form of transportation.
In Pune, comfort and convenience were seen to be the main reasons for two-wheeler use.
Significantly, two-thirds of the surveyed riders formerly used public transportation, and nearly
80% were willing to shift to public transport if services improved. Evidence suggests that such
pull strategies are a prime condition for push strategies, like price mechanisms (charging real
costs of use) and demand management, to be effective disincentives for two-wheeler use.
Findings suggests that increases in income levels is likely to lead to car ownership, but not
necessarily to a decline in the role or mode share of two-wheelers, given their relative speed and
flexibility in congested Indian conditions. Results revealed a wide income distribution among
two-wheeler users, and ownership was seen to increase with household incomes. Among the
surveyed riders, roughly 20% had been in an accident and only 43% wore a helmet regularly,
though majority were in favor of the helmet law.

Keywords: Two-wheelers, Motorcycles, Developing Countries, India

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INTRODUCTION
The motorized two-wheeler market has been expanding rapidly, particularly in the urbanized
areas of Asia. About 80% of the 300 million two-wheelers worldwide are in Asia, as are 90% of
world two-wheeler sales (1).
Two-wheelers cater to the needs of low and middle income users and help fill the gaps
when public transport systems are inefficient, not integrated, or non-existent (1). The reality is
that many Indian cities lack substantial and efficient public transport systems. As incomes rise,
users of public transport and people limited by their lack of mobility are looking to private
modes of transportation to meet their mobility needs. While car ownership may be on the rise, it
is two-wheelers that are leading the process of mass motorization as millions of people in Indias
growing middle class are able to afford an entry-level two-wheeler. A nation-wide study by the
Indian Ministry of Urban Development found that the share of personalized modes has grown by
leaps and bounds in the past couple of decades, especially two-wheelers at 12% per annum,
while the share of public transport has generally dwindled. Two-wheelers play an important role
in motorized transport in Indian cities of all sizes, with the highest modal shares of about 24-29%
in small to mid-sized cities (2).
However, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), two-wheeler users are
more vulnerable to road accidents and deaths, and have very high levels of air pollution exposure
(1). They are also criticized for contributing to air pollution, traffic congestion, unsafe driving
conditions, and accidents.
The issue of whether two-wheelers should be considered a boon or bane has been
debated by practitioners without being conclusive either way. This is likely because the mode
both offers several benefits to travelers, as well as creates several challenges. Thus, policy
recommendations for the sector in other cities have ranged from not taking any action to banning
two-wheelers altogether. Many road design and regulatory standards implemented in Asian cities
are based on models from Europe and North America, where two-wheeler use is low and traffic
is not as heterogeneous as it is in Asian cities; leading to several conflicts. It is imperative to
begin thinking about motorized two-wheelers in the developing world and Asian context to
understand how to design roads and policies to support sustainable transportation in an
increasingly motorized world.
As two-wheeler numbers continue to grow in Indian cities, it is important to understand
their role in providing urban mobility and the issues associated with them, in order to create
well-informed policy and planning decisions to effectively manage the sector.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS
The objective of this research is to gain a better understanding of: the role of motorized twowheelers in Indian urban transport; the motivations and profile of their users; the mobility
advantages they offer; challenges they present; and policy implications to manage them. While
many studies have been done on the contribution of motorized two-wheelers to urban pollution
and congestion, there has been little research on the unique demographics of two-wheeler users
in Indian cities and why they choose to use two-wheelers instead of other transport modes.
To begin with, a review of literature on the urban two-wheeler sector in India is
conducted to place the discussion in the larger context of growth trends of private motor vehicles
in India. This is followed by the case study of Pune where original survey data, stakeholder
interviews, and first-person observations contribute to an in-depth understanding of the role of

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two-wheelers in a typical mid-sized Indian city, where they are the most dominant and the fastest
growth of this mode is occurring.
Survey Design
The objectives of the survey were to understand which population groups used two-wheelers in
Pune, usage patterns, factors influencing two-wheelers use, and propensity to switch to other
modes of transportation.
The survey was conducted as an intercept survey of a 1000 two-wheeler users over three
months in 2012. This number was decided upon given that for any statistical analysis, 350-400
responses are considered a robust sample even for a very large population size.
The goal was to reach users from all parts of society, and as such, surveyors spoke to
users in a variety of locations, times, and days of the week. The survey was divided into seven
parts: household information, user information, two-wheeler use information, safety, alternative
transport modes, opinion about transportation in Pune, and field notes.
About 72% of survey respondents were male and 28% were female. The respondents
were asked questions about travel modes used by other members in their household as well, in
order to draw correlations between household economic and demographic characteristics with
the mode choice data. Considering all members of the respondents households, the percentage
of males and females represented in the dataset was almost even at about 51% and 49%
respectively. This also allowed some important gender issues related to the use of two-wheelers
to be inferred from the survey data.
Along with the intercept survey, ten in-depth interviews were conducted in Pune with
stakeholders to solicit their views on current and expected future traffic scenarios in the city, the
role of two-wheelers within it, issues concerning two-wheelers, and possible policy options to
manage them. The interviewees included politicians, activists, government officers, and
corporates.
MOTORIZATION RATES AND THE EFFECT OF TWO-WHEELERS
Growth Trends of Two-wheelers and Cars in India
While motorization and vehicle ownership in developed countries is slowing down, it is
increasing at a very fast pace in developing countries, largely due to rapid urbanization and rising
income levels (3). Much of this growth in motorization is from increases in two-wheeler
ownership (Figure 1).

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FIGURE 1 Growth of vehicles in India.

Since the 1980s, motorized two-wheeler growth in India has far outpaced car growth.
While private car ownership increased 7-fold from 1981 to 2002, two-wheeler ownership
increased 16-fold in the same period (4). In 2011-12, close to 13.5 million two-wheelers were
sold, more than five times the number of cars (5). At the time, two-wheelers constituted 72% of
the total registered vehicles in the country, compared to cars which made up 13% (6).
However, a key question that arises with the rapid growth and use of two-wheelers is
whether they accelerate the overall growth of motorization and are a step towards car ownership.
Two-Wheelers: A Step towards Cars?
Growth in two-wheeler ownership could possibly lead to increased car ownership because of
widespread aspirations of owning a private four-wheeled vehicle when income levels rise.
However, there is an income threshold that must be exceeded before cars become affordable to
the average person in many developing Asian countries.
Data indicates that car ownership rises significantly only after incomes are greater than
USD 8,000 per year. At an average income of around USD 1,700 in 2015, India is unlikely to
have car ownership levels of more than 2 per hundred persons and the richer cities in the range of
10-15 per hundred persons. Studies show that the sales ratio between two-wheelers and cars is
not expected to change much in the near future, and data even indicates that with higher twowheeler ownership levels, car ownership levels tend to decrease (7).
A recent EMBARQ India study showed that eleven of the twelve Indian cities studied
have higher two-wheeler motorization, but lower car motorization than is average for middleincome Asian cities (8). It is found that in India, two-wheeler ownership and monthly household
income levels are often not correlated as wealthier households also prefer to own and use twowheelers for short trips (9).
However, a key challenge for sustainable mobility is pressure from increasing
motorization causing a decline in the modal share of public transport.

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Co-Relation between Motorized Mode Shares of Public Transport and Two-Wheelers

In many developing cities, the high mode share of public transport comes from captive users
(10), but does not indicate a high quality transportation system. The reality is that public
transport systems are not of adequate supply and quality in many developing Asian and Indian
cities, and as income levels rise, people are turning to private vehicles ranging from more
affordable two-wheelers to cars in order to meet their mobility needs.
Two-wheelers are an important motorized mode in most Indian cities (Figure 2) (4).
Given the surge in urban population and vehicle ownership in the past 5-6 years, current mode
shares might be even more in favor of private motor vehicles than what is represented in the
figure.
100%
90%

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70%
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Walk

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NMT
2-Wheeler
Public Transport

9
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20%
10%

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Car

0
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IPT

FIGURE 2 Modal splits of Indian cities in 2006.

Note: IPT refers to Intermediate Public Transport or the auto rickshaw typically used in Indian
cities while NMT stands for Non-Motorized Transport.
Kanpur and Lucknow appear to be unique cases with very limited public transport
supply. In the other cities, however, there appears to be a co-relation between the mode shares of
public transport and two-wheelers (with other figures being in more or less similar ranges).
Large metros like Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai have relatively higher public transport shares and
lower two-wheeler shares, while the converse is true in the case of mid-sized cities like Pune and
Ahmedabad that have the highest two-wheelers mode shares of 28-38% (4).
Some key factors influencing two-wheeler ownership and use in Asian cities are their low
costs and fuel economy; maneuverability and ease of parking in congested conditions; shorter
distances or trip lengths; low levels of transit services, walking, and cycling infrastructure (1).
The next section delves deeper into the role of two-wheelers in providing urban mobility,
challenges associated with the sector, and policy implications to manage them, with a discussion
of evidence and insights from the Pune case study.

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CASE STUDY OF PUNE, INDIA

City Profile
Pune is the eighth largest city in India and second largest in the state of Maharashtra after
Mumbai. Crowned with labels like Detroit of India and Oxford of the East, the city is a major
industrial hub particularly for automobile production, and an educational center with an
estimated student population of over half a million. Pune is now emerging as one of Indias top
hi-tech cities, as well as a significant agro-business center (11).
The population of Pune (Municipal Corporation area) was about three million in 2011
with a working population of about 34% (12). Data from 2001 shows that the Pune Municipal
Corporations (PMC) jurisdiction covered an area of 244 square kilometers (94.2 square miles)
with an average population density of 10,412 persons per square kilometer (26,970 persons per
square mile), far lower than other peer group cities like Ahmedabad and Hyderabad. Given the
many educational and work opportunities in the city, it is home to a large young population,
reflected in the median age being close to 24 years and 62% of the total population being under
the age of 30. Pune is the sixth largest metropolitan economy in the country and one of the
fastest growing too. It ranks seventh among Indian cities with the highest family incomes and has
the second highest per capita income (11).
Historically known as the Cycle City of India, Pune is now a city of two-wheelers. The
provision of non-motorized and public transport infrastructure has not been able to keep pace
with rising demands, pushing people towards intermediate and personal modes to meet their
mobility needs. Since the 1960s, while the citys population grew four times, vehicle population
increased 87 times. According to the Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Plan for Pune
prepared in 2005, about 30% of the population and more than 53% of households in Pune owned
a two-wheeler (11). In 2011, two-wheelers constituted 77% of the total registered vehicles in the
city, followed by cars at 19%, three-wheelers at 3%, and buses at 0.5% (12).
The survey and stakeholder interviews conducted in Pune as part of this research present
a better picture of the modal shifts in the city and the motivations behind them.
Survey Results
Table 1 presents the basic household characteristics and vehicle ownership statistics for survey
respondents in Pune, all of whom were two-wheeler users. It is to be noted that currency
conversions for all monetary values (INR to USD) in the paper were done on 2/3/2014 using the
website: http://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/.
TABLE 1 Household Statistics of Pune Survey Respondents
Household Size
Number of adults
Number of children
Monthly household income
(% of respondents)
Number of motorized vehicles
Number of motorized two-wheelers
Number of cars
Number of bicycles

Average
3.7 persons
3.0 adults
0.6 children
Rs. 25,000 to
50,000 [$404-809]
(33% of sample)
1.9
1.5
0.4
0.4

Max
8
8
3
More than Rs.
100,000 [$1,617]
(12% of sample)
10
5
8
3

Min
1
1
0
Less than Rs
10,000 [$162]
(5% of sample)
1
1
0
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Reasons for Two-wheeler Usage and Willingness to Shift to Alternate Sustainable Modes
The majority of both male (55%) and female (60%) surveyed riders said they began using twowheelers as they are more comfortable than the mode they were previously using. Significantly,
the majority (67%) said they used public transportation prior to using two-wheelers, while 14%
cycled and 12% were either car or two-wheeler passengers. Though reasons could vary in
different cities based on a variety of factors, in Pune, comfort, convenience and enjoyment were
the top three reasons for two-wheeler use among both men and women.
The survey also asked what it would take for respondents to switch or consider switching
to more sustainable alternatives. To this, 13% said they would not walk and 44% said they would
not cycle. The top conditions to consider shifting to these alternatives were if the distances to
their destinations were small (which perhaps currently they are not); or for exercise/recreation (if
it was viable to do so). While 20% of respondents said they would not use public transportation,
the remaining 80% gave a variety of scenarios in which they would use it if services improved
(Table 2).
TABLE 2 Considerations to Switch from Two-Wheelers to Sustainable Alternatives

Surveyed two-wheeler users were also asked at what fuel price point they would consider
shifting modes. At the time, the fuel price was approximately Rs. 75 ($1.2) per litre. While 5% of
the respondents could not say, 32% would not consider shifting till prices doubled and 11% till
prices quadrupled or rose even higher, while notably 11% responded with never. This indicates
that fuel price thresholds are fairly inelastic and given the need, even significant increases in
prices may not prove to be much of a disincentive for two-wheeler use.

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Demographics of Two-Wheeler Users and Usage Patterns

Surveyed two-wheeler riders were asked what the primary mode of transport for each member in
their household was in order to analyze the influence of demographic factors like age and gender
(Figure 3).

FIGURE 3 Overall Transport Mode Split by Gender and Age.

Note: the combined mode shares for males and females across each age group total to 100%.
Results reveal that:
Two-wheelers were the primary mode of transport for 55% of all household members
(either as drivers or passengers), for 19% it was cars (as drivers or passengers), and for 15% it
was public transport.
The majority of car and two-wheeler drivers were male; however, there were a notable
number of female two-wheeler drivers between the ages of 18-50.
The majority of two-wheeler and car passengers were female, as were the majority of
public transportation users.
After age 50, the percentage of men and women driving two-wheelers decreased
drastically; shifting to other modes like cars or public transport. Safety concerns, lower comfort,
and the improved purchasing power of an older adult being possible reasons for this.

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Half of those whose household owned at least one car indicated that their primary mode
of transport was a two-wheeler, while the other half relied on the car.
Survey responses also show that for the majority of men (72%) and women (52%) the
primary purpose of two-wheeler use was travel to work, followed by education and
recreation/shopping. It was seen that more women (than men) used them to access education or
for recreation and shopping trips. This is interesting and shows the opportunities provided by the
mode to women, for whom the unreliability of public transportation may be a more significant
problem than for men for reasons of safety and household responsibilities.
Roughly 45% of both male and female respondents said they used a two-wheeler more
than 14 times per week, and 33% used it 10-14 times. An interesting finding was that about 27%
of riders used the two-wheeler in conjunction with another mode on a single trip. Of these, about
43% combined it with the bus, 31% with auto rickshaws, and 20% with walking, pointing to the
potential for integrating two-wheelers with other public and para-transit modes.
Economic Factors
While it is often assumed that many two-wheeler users belong to lower income groups, the
relative speed and flexibility of two-wheelers actually results in a wider income distribution
among users, such that higher income travelers also prefer to use two-wheelers to cover short
distances.
Survey results show that the monthly household income of the majority (33%) of twowheeler users was between Rs. 25,000-50,000 ($404-809), with an equal third below and above
this range. Moreover, two-wheeler ownership was seen to increase with higher household
incomes. Over 90% of the households with a monthly income of less that Rs. 10,000 ($162)
owned one two-wheeler, while the distribution for households with a monthly income of over Rs.
100,000 ($1618) showed 30% of households owning one, 50% owning two and about 20%
owning three two-wheelers.
The monthly personal income for 50% of respondents was in the range of Rs. 10,00025,000 ($162-404) (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4 Monthly Personal Income of Pune Survey Respondents.

As per the survey, the purchase price for new two-wheelers ranged between Rs. 40,00060,000 ($647-970), and about Rs. 20,000-40,000 ($323-647) or less for second-hand vehicles.

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When asked about their monthly expenditure on fuel and maintenance, 42% said they spent up to
Rs. 1000 ($16) per month and 44% spent between Rs. 1000-2000 ($16-32). While these costs
can vary to an extent based on differences in vehicle/fuel price and trip lengths in different cities,
they nevertheless reveal the relatively low capital, operational, and maintenance costs of twowheelers.
Just under a third of the surveyed two-wheeler riders in Pune also owned a car in their
household and their average monthly household income was Rs. 65,650 ($1,060). Close to 80%
of those who currently did not own a car stated interest in purchasing one in the future; the
primary impetus being higher income, cited by 76% of respondents, followed by marriage and
children. Roughly 33% of the respondents who had children, also owned a car.
Challenges Arising From the Rapid Growth of Two-Wheelers
Data from the Pune survey and anecdotal information suggests that the use of two-wheelers can
engender a continued preference for private motorized mobility and lead to car ownership as
income levels rise. However, the experience of other Asian cities like Taipei, research in India,
and survey results from Pune, also suggest that rising income levels and car ownership do not
necessarily lead to a decline in the role or mode share of two-wheelers. Similar trends were also
foreseen by a number of stakeholders interviewed in Pune. While some felt that with higher
incomes, car ownership would rise, others felt that hardly 5-10% of two-wheeler users would
shift to cars as they were still a luxury not so easily afforded by everyone. Yet others felt that
given cars are a status symbol, people may aspire to or own cars in the future, but continue to use
two-wheelers in view of growing congestion and parking problems, or given their costeffectiveness. In fact, they felt there is a possibility that some regular car users may even shift to
two-wheelers for this reason.
With two-thirds of the two-wheeler riders surveyed in Pune saying that they shifted from
public transportation, shows that growth in two-wheeler use has implications for public transport
ridership. This leads to low investment in the public transport sector, which in turn intensifies the
conditions that drive increased use of two- and four-wheelers, in a vicious cycle.
Private motorized vehicles generate numerous external costs that affect the environment
and society as a whole. These include increased accidents and fatalities, fuel consumption, air
and noise pollution, congestion leading to longer travel times, and loss in employee productivity.
Private vehicles also consume most of the road space for movement and public space for
parking, taking away from pedestrians and cyclists. While two-wheelers have a smaller footprint
than cars, both physically and environmentally, they contribute to these issues nonetheless,
especially given their significant numbers in Indian cities (13). Some key challenges associated
with the rapid growth of motorized two-wheelers are discussed below.
Parking Problems
In Pune, parking charges were repealed due to an incorrect concern that parking fees were an
undue hardship on the low-income users that were thought to make up the majority of the twowheeler user population. However, studies show that two-wheeler use is not largely limited to
lower income populations as is commonly perceived, and so policies that have previously been
lax due to the presumed vulnerable nature of the user may not be relevant.
Surveyed riders were asked what they felt were reasonable fees for parking, to which
over 50% said it should be free, while most others responded with Rs. 2 ($0.03) and Rs. 5
($0.08). About 54% of respondents felt that two-wheeler parking was currently not a problem,

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presumably because restrictions are few and it is free of cost. However, more and more space
being consumed by parking is becoming a major issue for the city. This has prompted PMC to
study the trends more closely in order to frame policy and find solutions to the citys growing
traffic and parking issues (14).
Congestion and Restrictions on Two-Wheelers
Growing traffic congestion has led some cities to impose bans on two-wheelers as they are
considered key contributors to this problem. In 2009, Punes Traffic Police Department had
proposed to improve parking facilities, levy congestion and higher parking charges in the citys
core areas, restrict entry of commercial vehicles and even a ban on two and four-wheelers
entering some parts (15). But according to a leading member of a local NGO working on
sustainable mobility and governance issues, the Traffic Police Department whose initiative this
was do not actually have a formal role in traffic planning. The Municipal Corporation who is the
concerned authority did not implement these proposals.
However, there is ambiguity in data regarding the congestion impacts of two-wheelers. In
fact, bicycles and two-wheelers are the most efficient users of road space after buses and
pedestrians (13). Rather than restricting them, appropriate management strategies can be
considered. Moreover, unless public and non-motorized transport facilities are fully-equipped to
cater to mobility needs, banning two-wheelers from parts of cities may result in a shift to cars,
which is all the more undesirable and counter-productive.
Road Safety
Safety is a particularly significant concern with the use of two-wheelers. Data from 2012 shows
that two-wheeler riders account for the largest share (23%) of road fatalities (16) and India
records the most deaths from motorized two-wheeler accidents in the world (17). According to
data from Pune Traffic Police for 2010-11, 50% of all traffic accident fatalities in the city were
two-wheeler riders; only 1% of them were wearing a helmet (18).
Among the two-wheeler users surveyed for this study, about 19% of male and 22% of
female respondents said that they had been in an accident. The average number of accidents was
1.2, while the maximum number reported was 6 in the last three years. Of those who have not
been in an accident, 42% said they wear a helmet regularly, 23% said occasionally, and 35%
responded that they do not wear a helmet. For those who had been in an accident, the numbers
were not very different at 44%, 26% and 30% respectively. Yet, the majority of respondents
(64%) were in favor of compulsory helmet laws. Some of the main reasons given by those
against the law were personal choice; unable to see/hear and therefore unsafe; inconvenient to
carry; and uncomfortable (neck or back pain, suffocation).
Research data strongly supports the fact that helmet use reduces the severity of head
injury and the rate of fatalities in two-wheeler accidents. The effectiveness of a helmet use
regulation is linked to helmet quality, public education, and enforcement. Though the Indian
Motor Vehicles Act has mandatory helmet legislation, for a variety of reasons, Indian states have
not notified the law; and when introduced, are partial in nature (19). The gender bias in
mandating helmet laws for men but not women also increases risks for predominantly nonhelmeted females, as a recent study reveals (17).

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Policy Implications for Managing Two-Wheelers in Indian Cities

This section offers some conclusions based on insights gained from the Pune case study and
interviews conducted with various stakeholders in the city. The discussion provides a basis for
further research and dialogue on the need for management of two-wheelers in Indian cities, along
with possible policy options to do so.
The affordability and convenience of personal mobility offered by two-wheelers have
made them a hugely popular mode of transport in Indian cities, a trend significantly advanced by
the lack of adequate and good quality public transport systems and non-motorized transport
infrastructure in many cities. With the national government supporting the growth of the
automotive industry, this trend appears set to continue. However, the uncontrolled growth of
private motorized vehicles, of which two-wheelers form the major proportion, has many negative
consequences and high social, environmental, and economic costs.
Managing Two-Wheeler Numbers
While some stakeholders interviewed in Pune saw the rapid growth of two-wheelers in the larger
context of urbanization and development planning, others saw it in correlation to the substandard
public transport system in the city. All felt that the two-wheeler, owned across socio-economic
classes, had almost become a necessity today. Current public transport services are unable to
satisfactorily meet the mobility needs of the public, walking and cycling infrastructure is poor,
and the car is still unaffordable by the masses, making two-wheelers the mode of choice.
While there was agreement that the rising number of two-wheelers were a cause for
concern, it was categorically felt that a good, fully equipped public transport system as an
alternative was a prime condition before any thought of restricting or discouraging two-wheelers
could be considered. It was strongly felt that if public transport is improved, at least a section of
people would shift from their private vehicles. This aligns with the result of the two-wheeler
riders survey where nearly 80% were willing to shift to public transport if services improved to
meet their needs. Some stakeholders felt that instead of radical measures, like banning twowheelers from certain parts, it was better to start with smaller initiatives, like vehicle-free days in
certain areas on particular days, or restricting them along the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT)
corridors, thereby giving people a chance to get used to the idea and notice its efficacy.
Stakeholders from the private sector offered views on what possible roles and
responsibilities they could take in addressing the issues of growing private vehicles and traffic in
the city. Some ideas discussed were that companies can reserve parking space for car-poolers
and bicyclists and charge parking fees for other private motor vehicles, at least where special
facilities are provided. They can stop providing incentives to acquire personal vehicles and
instead incentivize travel by public transport or company buses. Companies can actively support
initiatives like Bus or Cycle Days, provide technical or financial support and work with local
authorities to resolve traffic/transport issues in the city. Given that they can influence a large
number of employees and citizens, the role of the private sector in bringing about a change in
attitudes and trends can be significant.
Safety Issues
Safety with respect to two-wheelers was seen as an issue of concern by all stakeholders. On the
one hand, two-wheelers are more vulnerable in mixed traffic conditions, and on the other hand,
they add to unsafe driving conditions owing to their tendency towards traffic indiscipline and
speeding. Concerns were also expressed over the license age for two-wheelers being reduced

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from 18 to 16 years, with many youngsters in their early to mid-teens driving illegally and
raising safety concerns. The perception was that although accidents may have been reduced,
fatalities have increased; thus, many were strongly for the helmet law as it is in public interest.
However, others felt that helmets can be made compulsory on highways but voluntary within the
city. An official from the traffic police expressed that the successful implementation of a helmet
law depends on education and enforcement, and they have admittedly struggled with the
enforcement of this law. Nevertheless, proper pricing of regulatory fines can provide strong
incentives for safer two-wheeler use.
Charging Real Costs of Use
On the issue of parking, views were conflicting. Most stakeholders were against paid parking and
reasons given were that two-wheeler use was not a luxury but a necessity, or that it was unfair to
charge high parking fees when individuals have paid all the taxes. Some felt that there was no
point in restricting facilities given to a vehicle owner. If anything, vehicle ownership should be
restricted in the first place.
Some options for charging the real costs of resources used by two-wheelers and the
negative externalities they cause, include higher taxes and fuel prices, congestion and parking
fees. However, many felt that this would be politically difficult to implement for fear of public
backlash. Moreover, they were of the opinion that given the increased need for mobility and the
currently unmatched benefits that two-wheelers offer, these may not prove to be enough of a
disincentive for their use, even if implemented. This is also reflected to an extent in the survey,
where a number of respondents said they would not shift to more sustainable modes no matter
what the fuel cost, or that they were considered the very last option.
As such, it seems that disincentives or push strategies would only really be effective
when preceded by and combined with pull strategies, such as improving multi-modal public
transport systems and making them affordable and attractive. The potential of integrating twowheelers with other public transport modes can also be explored.
CONCLUDING STATEMENT
In conclusion, it is clear that the issue of managing two-wheelers to maximize the advantages of
the mode and minimize its social and environmental externalities is a crucial and urgent one for
Indian cities. In particular, with rising urbanization and vehicle growth in the mid-sized and
smaller cities of India, it is imperative for local governments and other stakeholders to explore
and implement relevant two-wheeler management strategies.
Lessons can be drawn from the experience of other Asian cities like Hanoi and Taipei
that have successfully implemented reforms and two-wheeler management measures. These have
included: improved infrastructure design and management for roads, traffic, and parking; twowheeler specific (speed/lane) traffic regulation measures; implementation of helmet law; pricing
and incentives to influence user behavior; education; and enforcement. This has proved to greatly
improve road safety and traffic efficiency in these cities. Improved vehicle design/technology
from a safety and environmental perspective is another important action area.
The authors expect that this research will create greater dialogue and debate among
stakeholders regarding these policies, so that innovative solutions can emerge to manage twowheelers in the unique context of Indian cities.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank EMBARQ India for supporting this research. We also thank
Bloomberg Philanthropies for funding the broader work on motorized two-wheelers in Indian
cities, on which this paper is based. A more detailed report is available on the EMBARQ India
website (20).

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