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Adrianne Nicole S. Lim

30 September 2016
Problem Set on Rings of Polynomials

1. Let D be an integral domain and x an indeterminate.

(a) Describe the units in D[x].
Note that
D[x] = {an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 : ai R, n N {0}}.
Since n cannot be less than 0, the terms with x cannot have an
inverse (so they are not units). So the only candidates left for
becoming units are ai D.
If D is a field, then the units are ai D. If D is not a field, then
by definition the elements are not units. So the unit in D[x] would
be the unity 1.
(b) Find the units in Z[x].
Similar to (a), the terms with x cannot have an inverse (so they
are not units) since n cannot be less than 0. So the only candidates
left for becoming units are ai Z. But because the elements of
Z are integers, they do not have a multiplicative inverse in Z.
Note, however, that there is a unity 1 in Z; 1 1 = 1 and (1)
(1) = 1.
Thus, the units in Z[x] is 1 and 1.
(c) Find the units in Z7 [x].
Similar to (b), the terms with x cannot have an inverse (so they
are not units) since n cannot be less than 0. So the only candidates
left for becoming units are ai Z7 i.e. ai {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Note that the only element with an inverse is 1.
Thus, the unit in Z7 [x]. is 1.
2. (Degree Rule) Let D be an integral domain and f (x), g(x)
D[x]. Prove that deg(f (x) g(x)) =degf (x)+ degg(x). Show by
example that for a commutative ring R, it is possible that
degf (x) g(x) <degf (x)+degg(x) where f (x), g(x) are nonzero
elements in R[x].

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Proof. Let D be an integral domain and f (x), g(x) D[x]. To show:
degf (x)degg(x) =degf (x)+degg(x)
Suppose f (x) and g(x) are given by the following:
f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
g(x) = bm xm + bm1 xm1 + . . . + b1 x + b0
where ai , bi D, n, m N {0}
Here, note that degf (x) = n and degg(x) = m.
Also note that
f (x) g(x) = Cm+n xm+n + cm+n1 xm+n1 + + c1 x + c0
where ck = ak b0 + ak1 b1 + + a1 bk1 + a0 bk for k = 0, ..., m + n.
Recall the definition of an integral domain: a commutative ring with
unity having no zero divisors is called an integral domain.
Since D is an integral domain and ai , bi D, ck is also in D by closure.
So the coefficients of the product of f (x) and g(x) cannot be zero unless
the coefficients of f (x) and g(x) itself are zero.
Thus, the leading coefficient of f (x) g(x) is m + n.
Hence, degf (x) g(x) = m + n =degf (x)+degg(x).

Remark: If R is a commutative ring (not necessarily an integral domain), it is possible that degf (x)g(x) <degf (x)+degg(x) where f (x), g(x)
are nonzero elements in R[x].
For example, in Z6 [x] :
Let f (x) = 2x2 + x + 1 and g(x) = 3x2 + 5x + 2.
We have
f (x) g(x) = (2x2 + x + 1)(3x2 + 5x + 2)
= 6x4 + 13x3 + 12x2 + 7x + 2 (modulo 6)
= x3 + x + 2.
Notice that
degf (x) g(x) = 3 but degf (x)+degg(x) = 2 + 2 = 4.

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3. Describe the set of polynomials in Z5 [x] having zeros 1, 2 and
3 in Z5 .
First note that Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is a finite integral domain. So Z5 is
a field.
Recall a corollary of the Remainder Theorem:
Theorem 0.1 (The Factor Theorem). Let F be a field, a F , and
f (x) F [x]. Then a is a zero of f (x) if and only if x a is a factor of
f (x).
Using the factor theorem, the polynomials in Z5 [x] having zeros 1, 2, 3
in Z5 is
f (x)g(x),
where g(x) Z5 [x], f (x) = (x 1)i (x 2)j (x 3)k for i, j, k N {0}
and i, j, k are not all zero.

4. Problem 33: For every prime p, show that

z p1 1 = (x 1)(x 2) . . . . . . [x (p 1)] Zp [x].

Proof. Let p be a prime number. To show: z p1 1 = (x 1)(x

2) . . . [x (p 1)] Zp [x]
First not that ap1 = 1 for any a U (p) = {1, 2, . . . p1}. This implies
that every element of U(p) is a zero of xp1 1.
Since U (p) is a field, using the Factor Theorem (that we recalled in the
previous problem),
z p1 1 = (x 1)(x 2) . . . [x (p 1)].
Note that U (p) Zp .
And since 1, 2, ..., p 1 U (p), the resulting polynomial if we expand
(x 1)(x 2) . . . [x (p 1)] would be in U (p), which is in Zp .
Therefore, z p1 1 = (x 1)(x 2) . . . . . . [x (p 1)] Zp [x].

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5. Prove that the ideal hxi in Q[x] is maximal.
Proof. Let hxi be an ideal of Q[x]. To show: hxi is maximal.
Recall that an ideal M of a ring R is maximal if and only if R/M is a
field (i.e. a commutative ring where every element is a unit).
So to prove that the ideal hxi in Q[x] is maximal, we can show that
Q[x]/hxiisaf ield.
First recall a theorem from Chapter 14:
Theorem 0.2 (Existence of Factor Rings). Let R be a ring, and I is
an ideal of R. The set R/I = {r + I r R} is a ring under coset
addition and coset multiplication.
First consider Q[x]/hxi = {f (x) + hxi : f (x) Q[x]} .
Since we are given that hxi is an ideal of the polynomial ring Q[x], it follows from the previous theorem that the set Q[x]/hxi = {f (x) + hxi : f (x) Q[x]}
is a ring.
Next, Q[x]/hxi is also commutative since f (x), hxi Q[x] and Q[x] is
a commutative ring.
Lastly, we need to show that all the elements of Q[x]/hxi are units.
If f (x) has no nonzero constants, then f (x) + hxi = hxi. However, if
f (x) has a nonzero constant c Q, then f (x) + hxi can be written as
c + hxi since the nonconstant elements in f(x) would just be contained
in hxi.
Note that c + hxi has a multiplicative inverse (1/c) + hxi. since c is
rational.
So Q[x]/hxi and hence, hxi is maximal.