The Anthropological Study of Religion

The Anthropological
Perspective
Defining Religion

Disciplinary and
Theoretical Approaches
to Religion

Shaman among the Shuar,

Amazon rainforest, Ecuador

The Anthropological Perspective

Anthropologists approach the study of religion
from a decidedly different perspective than most
other social scientists:
1. Anthropologists recognize that human societies
are systematic sums of their parts or integrated
wholes. Thus, in order to understand one
segment of societies, we must study all
segments. This approach is called holism

The Anthropological Perspective

2. To study religion from a holistic approach,
anthropologists gather information from each of
its four fields whenever appropriate: cultural
anthropology, physical anthropology,
archaeology and linguistics
3. The study of contemporary religions is mainly
the job of cultural anthropologists, who conduct
fieldwork and write descriptive studies of
human societies called ethnographies

The Anthropological Perspective

4. Anthropologists may
participate in a
cultures ceremonies,
rituals and rites,
adopting an emic
approach. Others may
choose to observe
without much
participation, favoring
an etic approach
instead

Anthropologist Alberto Villoldo observes

a Peruvian shaman as he prepares for work

The Anthropological Perspective

5. Regardless of whether they are
studying modern cultures of those
of the past, anthropologists strive to
practice cultural relativism
adopting a non-judgmental
approach to our fieldwork
For anthropologists studying
religion, the goal is to study what
people believe, not whether or not
what they believe is true or right

Female shaman with

ceremonial drum

The Anthropological Perspective

6. Anthropologists focus on what many would
consider small-scale, non-western or
traditional cultures more than other
disciplines
7. Because anthropologys focus on religion is
global in scope and unconstrained by time,
they are able to effectively compare religions
cross-culturally

Defining Religion
The approaches to defining religion can be
labeled as analytic, functional and essentialist
Analytic definitions focus on the way religion
manifests itself or is expressed in a culture.
These types of definitions are favored by
anthropologists, who minimally are able to
describe religion in terms of what is visible
behaviorally

The institutional dimension

(the organization and leadership)
The ethical dimension
(customs and moral rules)

The narrative dimension

(myths, creation stories,
worldview)

The 6 Dimensions of Religion

(according to Ninian Smart)
The experiential dimension
The social dimension
(religion involving
(religion as a group
experiences of a sacred
activity that brings
reality beyond ordinary
people together)
experience)
The ritual dimension
(rites of passage and other
important activities)

Defining Religion
Analytical definitions may
also stress the core beliefs of
any religious system
Edward Tylor defined
religion as animism, or the
belief in spirit beings (gods,
souls, ghosts, demons, etc.)

Rock art depicting wandjina/

Wondjina, cloud or rain spirits
that created or influenced the
world while people were sleeping
in Aboriginal mythology

Defining Religion
Melford Spiro defined
religion as an institution
consisting of culturally
patterned interactions with
culturally postulated
superhuman beings
Although slightly different,
both definitions focus on
how religious thought is
manifested in terms of
thought or action

Defining Religion
Functional definitions are concerned with the role that
religion plays in a society (its function)
For example, some argue that religion can be defined
as the collection of mechanisms by which people
reduce anxiety by providing explanations and meaning
Others define religion functionally as a way in which
social cohesion is enforced by bringing members
together for rituals and providing a foundation for their
collective beliefs

Defining Religion
An essentialist definition looks at what is the
essential nature of religion. It emphasizes the
idea that religion is the domain of the
extraordinary things that are beyond the
natural or commonplace
Essentialists would say that religion is a system of
beliefs and behaviors that deal with the
relationship between humans and the sacred
supernatural

Defining Religion
Its important to recognize that
none of the definitions mentioned
are necessarily right or wrong
Each definition stresses, or places
the greatest importance, on one
portion of religion instead of
others
Which portion gets stressed largely
reflects the specific discipline of
the researcher

A Cubs fan cries after her prayers

for a World Championship go
unanswered.....again

Disciplinary Approaches to Religion

These definitions (analytical, functional,
essentialist) are influenced by the specific
training or general outlook of those who
propose them
In general, three disciplines lead to specific
ways to define religion and how to explain
why is exists: the psychological, sociological
and anthropological approach

Discipline-Based Approaches to
Religion: Psychology
The psychological approach suggests that
religion functions to reduce anxiety in
individuals
A good example of this is Spiros belief that
religious behavior reduces unconscious fears
or Malinowskis assertion that religious rites
reduced anxieties brought on by a specific
crisis

Above: Haitians pray following devastating

earthquakes. Above Right: the rubble following 9/11
is fashioned into a cross and was used for
religious services. Religious adherence increases
dramatically following tragedies such as these

Discipline-Based Approaches to
Religion: Psychology
Freud also made these
arguments, but additionally
thought that religion was a
neurotic need that people
would eventually outgrow
Each of these arguments center
on the mind of the individual
and views religion or religious
practices as a way to meet
psychological needs

Discipline-Based Approaches to
Religion - Sociology
Sociological approaches to
religion stress the societal origins
of religion. Instead of focusing
on the individual, they focus on
what religion does for groups of
people
French sociologist Emile
Durkheim argued that religion
was a natural outgrowth of
societal living. When groups of
people live together, they
develop collective beliefs that
promote group solidarity

Discipline-Based Approaches to
Religion - Sociology
According to Durkheim, members of a society
create religious objects, rituals, beliefs and
symbols in order to integrate their cultures
While this approach provides explanations for
religion in state-level societies with large
populations, it cannot be used alone to explain all
religions. Some human societies number in the
hundreds or less, and they practice religion too

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Theory
Anthropologists have approached the study of
religion in many ways, but most of the
approaches can be broken down into five
broad types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The evolutionary approach

The marxist approach
The functional approach
The interpretive approach
The psychosocial approach

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Evolutionary
The evolutionary approach was most popular
during the late 1800s and early 1900s
This approach was founded on the idea that
religions evolved from the simple to the complex
This evolution was a natural consequence of
human nature; religions became better adapted
to achieving their purpose over time

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Evolutionary
This approach is useful in some ways; there is
evidence that religions have changed over
time and that some characteristics of modern
religions arent seen in the religions of past
societies
However, what early anthropologists
considered more primitive religions werent
necessarily less adaptive than later religions

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Evolutionary
Right: Hopi and Shinto
priests. One is from a
tribe, the other from a
modern state. One is
not more effective
than the other to the
people who ask them
for religious
assistance.

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Marxist
Marxist approaches to religion reflected the arguments
of Marx, who saw religion as a construction of those in
power
Marx felt that religion did not reflect the true
consciousness of people but a false consciousness
designed to divert peoples attention from the miseries
of daily life
These miseries were a consequence of exploitation of
the masses by those in power, specifically those
adopting a capitalistic system

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Marxist
Marx argued that religion was a
way in which the masses are
taught to be obedient, making
them easier to control politically
and economically
Anthropologists adopting this
approach tend to be those
focusing on states and other
complex forms of social
organization

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Marxist
Critics of the Marxist approach
argue that in many societies,
religion is a personal relationship
with the supernatural
Egalitarian societies, in which
there are no permanent positions
of authority, still have some form
of religion

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Functional
Functional approaches to religion developed
in the early 1900s and is still popular among
anthropologists (its is the primary approach
used in your text)
Anthropologists adopting a functional
approach ask What does religion do?

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Functional
Emile Durkhiem saw religion as the answer to
the problems of living in groups larger in size
than the nuclear family
Society in general was problematic, with
religion serving to promote a collective
conscious, or a system of beliefs that act to
contain natural selfishness of individuals and
promote social cooperation

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Functional
Both Durkheim and another anthropologist,
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, saw society like an
organism in which the parts act to maintain
the whole
Religion was seen as an integrative force in
society, serving to promote communication
and instill values that promote broader
cooperation among members of large groups

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Functional
Another functional approach was
promoted by Bronislaw
Malinowski, who argued that
religion functioned to meet basic
human needs
For example, magic is a logical
system that people turn to in times
of emotional stress or uncertainty
Critics of this approach argue that
religion is much more than a
means to an end and that the
meaning of religion by those who
practice it is ignored

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Interpretive
A direct response to the functional approach, the
interpretive approach stresses the importance of
meaning in religion
Anthropologists such as Clifford Geertz argued
that people practicing religion may not be aware
of functional laws. People arent likely doing the
things they do because of conscious knowledge
of broader purpose in a functional sense

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Interpretive
Instead of broad function, Geertz argued
anthropologists should look for webs of
significance that people create and are caught
up in.
By studying religious symbols and their
significance, anthropologists can identify
systems of meaning the broad reasons why
people feel what they are doing is useful

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion - Psychosocial
Psychosocial approaches focus on the individual and
the specific psychological processes that are related to
beliefs
Freud and his followers saw religion as a defense
mechanism, an attempt to distort reality to avoid
conflict and reduce anxiety
For example, Freud argued that humans project images
of their parents onto spirit beings so that the guidance
and support their parents provide them earlier in life
will be sustained later in life

Anthropological Approaches to
Religion
Although followers of one particular approach
wont like to admit it, each of these approaches
offers a useful explanation of religion
As with the definitions of religion discussed
earlier, each of these approaches is right to
some degree
Anthropologists argue to what degree a specific
approach is useful, not whether one is any good
at all

The Anthropological Study of Religion

The Anthropological
Perspective
Defining Religion

Disciplinary and
Theoretical Approaches
to Religion

Shaman among the Shuar,

Amazon rainforest, Ecuador