@

A Systematic Approach
A. Poupon, Schlumberger Technical Services
C. Clavier, SPE-AIME, Schlumberger-DollResearch Center
J. Dumanoir, Schlumberger-DollResearch Center
R. Gaymard, Schlumberger Technical Services
A. Misk, SPE-AIME, Schlumberger Well Services

Introduction
During the past 7 years methods have been developed
for interpretation of clean and shaly sands using comhLnatiQns of sonic, density, and neutron logs, along
with resistivity and auxiliary logs.1-4 Corrections for
the presence of light hydrocarbons in the formation,
which affect the log readings of the sonic, density, and
neutron logs, were also developed.5 For these methods
the shale parameter values are either assumed or
deduced from the log readings in adjacent shale beds.
This is satisfactory as long as the shales have uniform
properties. Frequently this is not so, and the log
analyst is faced with determining the properties of the
shales occurring in the shaly sands.
Intuitively it would seem that sands and shales
deposited in sequence during a continuous sedimentation cycie shouid posse% ioggi~g ~~~pe~Lks d~kd @
their common geological background. The study of
neutron and density logs made in sand and shale
sequences has substantiated this. From this study a
conceptual model of shales and shaly sands has
evolved that is consistent with geological considerations 7 as well as logging tool responses, and in turn
has led to the interpretation method described here.
The method maims rnmxirnum use of all the following logs: neutron, density, resistivity,* gamma ray, SP,
microresistivity, sonic, and caliper. Some of these logs
may be omitted (microresistivity, sonic, caliper, and
The resistivity
logs used
determination
of R, according

should
to the

be those
best adapted
local conditions.

for

either SP or gamma ray); however, doing so decreases

the reliability of the results.
Formation clay content is determined from several clay indicators and the formation is anaiyzed
for shale, quartz, water, hydrocarbon content, and
changes in sand-grain mineralogy. In favorable cases
an estimate of hydrocarbon density is made.
The associated computer program, SARABAND, **
solves the interpretation, crossverifies the input data
and results and determines automatically many of the
required parameters. The interpretation results of
main interest are listed in special tabulations and
displayed on a film especially coded for easy
identification.

The Sand and Shale Models

Fig. 1 is a neutron-density frequency crossplot generated by a computer. The plotted values of +x and
#D = the apparent porosities from neutron and
density logs. Each of the one- or two-digit numbers
on the plot represents the total number of readings,
over a 390-ft interval in a sand-shale sequence, having
the values of +x and +D corresponding to the location
of the number.
The distribution shown on Fig. 1 is ~pical of sandshale sequences. Most of the data belong to two
groups: Group A, identified from gamma ray or SP

the

.A trademark

of Schlumberger.

, A prima~ feature of this interpretation method is that it uses all the logging data in a
coherent manner. The formations are anaiyzed jor ciay, shaie, quartz, -water,
hydrocarbon content, and changes in sand-grain mineralogy. Even where hole conditions
are adverse, reliable results can be achieved through extensive crosschecking for likeness.
JULY, 1970

J?T

wi7

&~~dibJ

. . .

.90 . . . . . . .*

----

I
I

.:

.*

. . ...*

c
(QUARTZ
OR
SILT)

~R~

~LA~

MINERALS
Fig. 2The

Clays are also radioactive, depending on the

amount of Potassium 40 or other radioactive elements they contain in their structure or in impurities.
Because of their ion-exchange capacities the clays in
the shales contribute to lower resistivities and reduced
SP in shaly formations.
The clay mineral under formation conditions is
referred to as wet clay. The wet-clay point, deter-

. . . . . *.**....*

model.

shale

.
.
.

9
,

.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.
.
.

..
.

..,

...

.*...

t ..
.

/ .

./~

. /
~-

.
.

.6.

.
.
.

..0....
.

***

+f
: ~?

:
..

...

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gas
Sand

0.,...0..
. .
.

..
.

*O...,..

9
1

. . . . .

_,$$

.***.*.*

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

I
. I

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

ah:*

.
.
.
.

:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

..... ..
:J&yi@&-&
.; ,,. tei
,?
I

J;&

.
.
.

. . . .,,

. . . . :,:;:;

,
.

.
.
.

n. . . . . . . . .
.
.
.

.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.?0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
:

.
.
.
.
.

.s0

WATER

***...

.aa

..

1.0 . .

logs as sands and shaly sands; and Group B, which

are shales. Typically, few points plot in Area C.
To understand the distribution of points on Fig. 1
let us consider the constituents present and their log
responses. Neglecting for the moment any hydrocarbons, the constituents are the matrix rock, the pore
water and the shale.
For sandstone the matrix rock is quartz: #JD= O
and #W= O (quartz point in Fig. 2). The water point
isat+D=l,#N=l.
of
clay minerals,
w, mi,,tllres
$hdes a%
water and silt. Silt is a very fie-grained material that
is predominantly quartz but may include feldspar,
calcite and other minerals.g It usually has a greater
radioactivity than sands. 10~ tie average, silt has the
same neutron- and density-log properties as the matrix
quartz and therefore can be expected to plot at the
quartz point.
There are three main types of clay minerals (Mites,
montmorillonites, kaolinite), which may be associated in varying amounts and may have widely variable
properties. The least variable is their density, which
for dry clays ranges between 2.5 and 3.1, with an
average value of about 2.75. Clay contains chemically
bound hydrogen; thus dry clays have hydrogen indices (equivalent to +,) between 0.13 and 0.35.
These values plot on Fig. 2 in the area, CM, indicated
for dry-clay minerals. (The exact location of the
dry-clay point is not critical.)

.
I

Ill

.6.

ii

m.:

:Sho. pM:i;

.
:,:. . . . . . . . . . . . ...*.. /
.304

.. 00.

O*....

M*

+rrl~
Fig. INeutron-density
R6R

crossplot showing typical grouping of points for a sand-shale

JOURNA1.

sequence.

OF PFTRC)l.E(

JM TI?CHNOL .OGY

mined from the +N #D crossplot is located on the

line joining the dry-clay point and the water point.
On Figs. 1 and 2 this point is Cl. Its location characterizes the amount of water, W.].,, in the wet clay:
~ ,,, = distance from dry-clay point to Cl
c
distance from dry-clay point to water point
This water is bound to the clay and is not free to move.
Consequently, although the hydrogen index of the
shale is relatively high, its effective porosity is practically nil.
In Fig. 1, the close grouping of the shale points
around the line passing from Cl to the origin suggests that shales behave like a mixture of two main
components of nearly constant composition. These
components are taken to be wet clay and silt. In Fig.
2 let Point X correspond to such a shale. Then the
silt index (S1), or relative amount of silt in Shale X, is
computed from the position of X:
S1 = d~tance from X to Cl
distance from origin to Cl
Several relatiomhips implied in the foregoing discussion can now be formalized:
V,h = V*ilt+Vcit]y

(])

SI = v*,l,/v.h , . . . . . . . (2)
V=,*Y=V,~(l
SI) , . . . . . . (3)
+D,fi = +DcIw(1 SI) ,

0 (4)

#N8h

#NclaY

(1

>

(5)

where the Vs are fractions of bulk formation volume,

S1 is silt index, and the subscripts sh, silt, and clay
refer to shale, silt, and wet clay, respectively.
Refernng to Fig. 1, the line (+D = @ joining the
quartz poin~ Q, and the water point is termed the
clean-water-sand line. We see that shaly-sand Group
A extends from a shale point, ShO, upward to a zone
(representing gas sands) above the clean-water-sand
line. The trend of Group A close to the Sh,-Sd line
suggests that the sands are essentially associated with
a single type oj shale, She, which is the siltiest of the
shale group. This is consistent with sedimentation
principles; silty shales contain coarser elements than
clays and are more likely to settle in the higher-energy
environment associated with sand deposition than are
the fine clays.
In this example the clean sands have nearly constant porosity (Point Sal), a feature often encountered
in recent deposition. This porosity, +~~, corresponds
to the intergranular or framework porosity of the
sand. Adding either dispersed or laminated shales to
this sand should displace the data points inside the
triangle Q, Sd, Sh, (Appendix A). However, many
shaly-sand points fall to the right of the line Sd-ShO.
This can be explained by the fact that shales may also
form a part of the sand framework (shale grains
replacing sand grains) without decreasing the intergranular -porosity. The shales distributed in this manner are called structural shales.
The fact that the shaly-sand group of Fig. 1 has a
clearly defined boundary to the right (the dashed
JULY, 1970

curve, Sd-She) indicates that the relative amounts of

dispersed, laminated and structural shales are not
independent. More details concerning the shale distribution in sands and its effects on porosity are given
in Appendix A.
Another typical feature noted in Fig. 1 is the
absence of data points in Area C, the area between
the shaly-sand and the shale groups. This agrees with
the concept of sand-shale association discussed above.
A level plotting in this area is not likely to be representative of this association; rather it probably corresponds to a ditlerent lithology (lignite, for example),
or more commonly to distortions of logging data
(borehole enlargement mudcake effect, hole rugosity,
etc.). This has been verified on many logs.
Thus a neutron-density crossplot of logging data
recorded over a sand-shale sequence may contain
three classes of data points:
1. The shaly-sand class, A, limited on the right
by the dashed curve.
2. The shale class, B, clustered around the shale
line between the wet-clay point and Sh,.
3. The unlikely class, C, located between the
first two groups.
Points of the unlikely class, before being analyzed, require confirmation, and perhaps corrections.
Each of the three classes requires its own interpretation logic. However, because the boundaries
between classes are not clear-cut, the method of
interpretation must be general enough to provide a
smooth transition from class to class. This is achieved
by applying the same set of equations for the three
classes, but using the shale properties appropriate for
each class.
For the shaly-sand class, the associated shale is
of the type corresponding to Point ShO.
For points falling outside the shaly-sand class,
the properties of the associated shale may vary from
level to level. These properties are those of a shale
detlned by the point of intersection of the shale line
with a curve having an equation of the same form
as the dashed curve of Fig. 1. This curve passes
through the data point and the clean-sand point (see
Fig. 3).

.5

+13

Q7
Fig. 3-identification
of the shale type associated with a
data point located outside the shaly-sand area.

The main features of the method may now be outlined. In water zones, porosity, shaliness and silt
index are computed from neutron and density logs.
In hydrocarbon zones shaliness must be evaluated
using clay indicators.s Other needed parameters
such as&0,.7, ~wl=,, S1O(silt index of shale Sh,) and
+~~ (maximum porosity of the clean sads) rire picked
from actual neutron-densNy crossplot such as Fig. 1
covering the interval to be studied. I?mf and & are
determined in the usual manner.
Porosity and hydrocarbon density at each level are
then computed using neutron and density logs and an
Se. value, The sonic log is used to detect gas and overpressured zones, compute the amounts of different
types of shales in shaly sands, and correct erroneous
data when the hole conditions are bad.
After computing water saturation, permeability is
estimated from the porosity and irreducible water
saturation values.

Log Interpretation Relationships

+N = # + ~cl,

Density

(6)

This expression is obtained from Eq. 16-12b of

Ref. 4. In terms of the clay parameters, Eq. 6 is

#D = + + ~c,w$Dclw
.

interms

&o) (+Nh

i)

(7a)

of P*as shown in

ResMMiea
In shaly sands:

(9)
These expressions are somewhat empirical.z Their
general form has been verified by laboratory expenments.~s
Throughout the rest of the paper the following
values will be taken: a = 0.8, m = 2, n = 2.
By analogy with the relation R. = aRJ42, R~I~Y
can be related to R,h in shales by
RcIa,

@3--n
Equations
Where appropriate, interpretation equations will be
stated in terms of both shale properties and clay
properties. The equations in terms of clay properties
are useful because the wet-clay properties are invariant over large intervals. The values of a number of
the coefficients in the equations are determined by
statistical correlations (see the section entitled Organization of the Computer Program).

+M can also be expressed

Appendix B @q. B-4).

Apparent Poroaities
The apparent porosities, +D, +. and +S, are computed
by the usual relations on the basis of a matrix rock
of the expected lithology (normally quartz in sands
and shaly sands).
Where the matrix rock also contains heavy minerals, such as pyrite, calcite, or dolomite, +D and +B
will be decreased and +x sometimes increased. These
features are used for detecting changes in litholog.

+Nela, + + (1 -

9(1+2*=.).

S,.)

+(1

(+Dh

1)

(6a)

R,h = (l_s~2
(RI,,)..
(R*h)==(lsI)2

(lo)
11)

where R. Iay and (RcltJ,~ are obtained by s~tistic~

COKdations over the shale sections between & or
(&i&~ and the corresponding value of silt index.
The validity of Eqs. 10 and 11 has been established
by taking the values of R* and (&&o they give, and
from ~~Ysis
the values of +, Vc]ay,and SI obti~
of neutron and density logs, and using them to reconstruct the values of Rt and R,o in water sands and
shaly sections.
The dashed curve in the right-hand track of Fig. 7
is an example of such a reconstructed Rt curve. It
shows good agreement with the original deep induction curve (solid curve) in the water-bearing zones at
the top of and in the shales. In the hydrocarbonbearing zones at the bottom, the reconstructed curve
deflection is equal to R.. (R* = 0.25 at formation
temperature, and in the clean section+ = 22 Perceng
Fz 16, and R. s 16 X 0.25 = 4.) The sh~e msistivities range from about 1.3 to 4.0. The latter value
corresponds to the siltiest shales, which should be like
those in the shaly sand. Thus it happens that the
reconstructed curve indicates Ro = 4.0 in both clean
and shaly portions of the lower sand.
Comb&g
Eqs. 8 and 10, and Eqs. 9 and 11, we
have, in terms of the clay parameters,

To evaluate the hydrocarbon effect it is convenient

to express #DJJin terms of hydrocarbon density, ph.
See Eq. B-5 in Appendix B.

#JN =

#1 +

~sh 4N8h

(1+24s=0).

#J (1

t$m) (~Nh

1)

(7)

This expression is simiiar to Eq. 16-11 of Ref. 4

except for the addition of the last term 2+S.0, which
takes into account the excavation effect (Appendix
C). In terms of the clay parameters,
870

v.],, (1 SI)S=O + + S20

1
x=

Neutron

(9a)

RcIw

In the absence of an R,. log, s=. may be approximated from S. by

ls=o=K,

(lslO)

(12)

where K, is usually assumed to be 0.5. Eq. 12 is the

result of laboratory experiments14 and has been verified from Iogs on a statistical baais.15
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

curve passing through the data point (Fig. 3). The

equation of thk line is given in Appendix A as

Radio8cthity
The gamma ray is compensated for the absorption in
the formation by multiplying it by the bulk density.
Both the silt and clay are considered to be radioactive.
Thus,

1.

=A+vc1J3&+c
[

(13)

The coe5cients A, B and C are evaluated in the

shale sections and equivalent water-bearing formacorrelation between (GR w) ad
dom by S~MCd
the corresponding values of SI ~d VC1.Yderived fro~
the analysis of the density and neutron logs (see later
discussion of the sweep system).
Spontaneous Potential
SP reduction due to shaliness is assumed to be related
to the clay content by the following relation developed
in Appendix D

The parameters Spsd and SPs~ (values oi SP iii dean

sand and pure shales) and KI are obtained by statistical correlation between the SP values and the right
member of Eq. 14.

sonic
The sonic log is affected by lack of compaction and
responds to porosity and shale content. However, dispersed shales are seen by the sonic log as if they were
water. Thus,
+S =

c, (4 +
.

~dis)

(~lam + ~str) +s*h

.

(15)

The compaction factor CP is obtained by comparison of @sand ~~ values in clean, liquid-filled sands.
In gas sands, ~s may be appreciably larger than
expressed by Eq. 15.
UGIUIWU
UI
~s~hiS -.fiemt-lh
+s.h

+Sclay

SI*+ssilt

(16)

where +s. I.Y and +S,jIt are obtained by statistical correlation between actual values of #JS and S1 in the
shale group.

Interpretation Procedures
Determination of Silt Index
As already explained, the composition of the shale
associated with a shaly-sand level is determined from
%
a crossplot of the computed porosities, @D ~d

taken from water-bearing sands or corrected jor

hydrocarbon and lithology eflects.
For a water-bearing shaly sand, or for corrected
data, Eqs. 6a and 7a reduce to
$D

~cIaY

4N = 4 + V.].,

4Dclay

(6b)

4Nclay

(7b)

from which # and Vol., are mmputed.

The silt index is defied by the shaly-sand border
TI JI.Y.

1970

[1

+=

v. lay

(lV:;;)

1S1

)1

(A-7)

S1 can now be computed using the values of @ and

Vc,,y determined above.
The computed value of S1 is accepted if it is smaller
than S1,, the silt index of shale ShO.If not, S10becomes
the silt index.
Computation of+, S-, Ph, and S.
Let us consider Eq. 6a for the density, Eq. 7a for the
neutron, and Eq. 9a for the residual hydrocarbon as
shown by the microresistivity. The three equations
relate four unknowns: ~, V. I*Y,S.. and Ph> ~d therefore require an additional piece of information for
their solution. This will be the value of V~W, obtfied
from the clay-indicator system. It is now possible to
compute 4, S.0 and Pfi,and therefore the hydrocarbon
effect on 4X and t#ID.
In the initial stages of the comptttatbn, the si!t
index is presumed to be S10, corresponding to the
shale
ShO$because this is the shale normally associated with shaly sand. After hydrocarbon correction,
S1 is recomputed using Eqs. 6b, 7b and A-7. If the
new S1 value does not check with the one previously
used, the complete interpretation procedure is repeated using the new value. The final results are used
in Eq. 8a to solve for the water saturation.
In practice the interpretation logic is more complicated because of the limitations of the clay-indicator
system and the possible interference of changes of
Iithology and bad log readings.
The Clay Indicator System
Clay indicators are log readings or relations involving
log readings that give estimates of V. I., that are equ~
to or greater than the true values. If (Vclay), is the
minimum value obtained from all the clay indicators
used, then the true value of Vclayis less than or equal
to (VC1.JI. In practice, (V~IJ, is used as the best
estimate of V.*~Yunle~ it is proved to be tOO large.
during interpretation.
Following are the clay indicators used.
1. Gamma Ray (V.,,,)., is derived from Eq.
in sands
13. The gamma ray will overestimate VC18Y
coniahhg .mdioactive material other than shales.
2. Spontaneous Potential (V~l,,)SP is derived
from Eq. 14. The SP may overestimate V.] a, when
bed tlickness or shallow invasion reduces the SP
deflection.
3. R t in Hydrocarbon Zones In zones of irreducible water saturation, Eq. 8 can be written:
1

(Vw),rr
V.h + (Vto)irr
=

Rsh

0.8RW 17)

A study of logs through sand-shale sequences indicates that

(Vw)irrs(Vw)irr (for clean sand) + K, Vsk , (18)
.,
. . n i k..+ mztv differ lod~.
where Kz N usualIy close to u. L, W. --z -.
871

In clean sands (VW)irr remains constant and is

is
be
Whequal to [0.8R,0/(Rt)~#,
where (~t)max
.-,
. ..
A._
/,,
,
est R t value m MndS. by suDwmiurig ~v w,irr kin ~q.
18 into Eq. 17 and replacing ~.sh by V,,,Y/(l S1),
a value (v. Iay)Rt can be computed. This me~od Wfll
overestimate V, I~Yexcept in zones of irreducible water
saturation.
4. Saturation Ratio The saturation ratio S=~/S,i.
must always be equal to or greater than 1. By equating
SWand S.. in Eqs. 8a and 9a, a v~ue of V.J.Y maybe
& v~ligj C@ when Rzo> Rt.
- - ..+.~
mmp
u LGU. Thi
a . ..s meth~
-- --It will overestimate Vcl.r unless S.0 = Sw.
5. Limit of Hydrocarbon Eflect An upper limit
of VCI.Yis found by assuming the hydrocarbon density
to be at least equal to its smallest expected value,
(Ph)min,

which

is determined

a Preliminary

interpre-

tation of the cleanest levels of highest porosity in the

same zone of the reservoir.5
Referring to Fig. 5, which is explained in the next
section, and assuming (P~)~i. to be 0.22, the intersection Of the curve ~k = ().22 with the proper S=otine
determines a point (Point C). Vc,,, from this indicator
is the amount of clay required for the data point with
saturation S~oto fall on the line Q-C after its correction for shaliness.
Several of the clay indicators require knowledge of
4, S~~,or S1. At the start of the interpretation these
are approximated and the VclaYvalue found is approximate. Later, when interpretation results become
available, more accurate values of Vcl*Ycan be computed.
Graphical IJhstratfon of Interpretation
The interpretation logic may be better understood by
following on a neutron-density crossplot a representation of what happens to the data.
Eqs. 6a and 7a maybe rewritten in the forms:

@N= @(1 a) + v.,., #Nc,ay ,

(7C)

where /3 and a are the hydrocarbon-effect factors for

the density and neutron. These are plotted as functions
of S,. and ph in Fig. 4. In Fig. 5 the curves of Fig. 4
,
-4 +L
- -n,
t.nn.
are tracea at the @ U1
t,,=
,lWJ.lUS1--....=
-. -&dsm=;ti CrOcGP!~t
0

P
.,

4A

tA
=-f I

,s

.1

.2

I
1111

.3

1
.

.30

SHADED A*CA SHOWS

.:

I
+.

w
I

.4

-.
*=t. .15
II

.5

.s

I
.7

.0

.*

for use in correcting $+D and @Nfor hydrocarbon etiect.

First, a value (VC1,Y),is computed from the clay
indcato.m assumin$? SI = S1 = !?&.Then the point to
be interpreted (Po~nt A) is corrected for the amount
of clay (V.j~Y)l. Thk is done by moving parallel to the
shale line a distance equal to (V ~1aY), times the distance from quartz point to Cl. Point. B thus found
represents the formation with all the clay replaced by
quartz (equivalent clean sand). (See Fig. 5.)
Case 1 The shale-corrected point (Point B) falls
well above the clean-sand line. This may be explained
by the presence of iight hydrocarboris. If the preseiicc
of hydrocarbons is confirmed by the saturation equations,* (vCI,Y), is taken to be a correct evaluation of
V~,,, and the point must then be corrected for the
effect of hydrocarbons. A line is drawn from the
origin of the plot through the shale-corrected Point B.
The intersection of this line with the correct value of
S70 gives the hydrocarbon density, ph (Point C). + is
found by drawing a line parallel to the hydrocarboneffect line, C-D, until it intersects the clean-water-sand
line (Point E). The original Point A may now be cor1ected for the effect of hydrocarbons by adding the
vector, BE, just drawn. This vector represents the
actual hydrocarbon effect on the original data point
(Point A). Point F, found in this manner, represents
heari~u
sand, It can now be
Wuw.-w---D
-an ~qiiivdk.. .1 -* ..,~+~f
analyzed to determine its silt-index value.
Should the presence of hydrocarbons not be confirmed by the saturation equations, it is logical to
suspect that Vc1*Ywas overestimated. Accordingly,
(V,,.,), is decreased in small steps (with Point B
moving back towards Point A) until the presence or
k Pop.fi.E.~~
hy
the saturac L..dl---abseiiee OLllY
-a. .hfimc
UVS.O
.. w
tion equations.
Case 2 The shale-corrected point falls approximately on the clean-water-sand line. This corresponds
to the normal case where the clay-indicator system
gives an accurate evaluation of Vcla, and there is no
appreciable hydrocarbon effect (water sands, most oil
sands, and shales). Consequently, the level can be
analyzed directly for porosity, clay, and silt content.
Case 3 The shale-corrected point falls below the
clean-water-sand line. This is illustrated in Fig. 6 by
the ifii~~ pe~nt .A., which after being corrected for
(VC,,Y),plots as Point B.
Because (v, ,.,), cannot underestimate Vcl.,, the
initial Point A must be in error. This may be due to
erroneously high values of ~~ because of thick mudcake or bad hole conditions or because +D is too low
as a result of locally increased grain density.
Which of these alternatives is correct is now resolved by comparing 4N, corrected
... -.for shale, to the
maximum porosity compatible with (v ci~?)l(Eq. A-7).
If the corrected +x exceeds this limit, +X is assumed
to be at fault and is decreased until Point B, moving
horizontally, falls on the clean-water-sand line. In this
case the correction is applied to the neutron reading
before the point is analyzed for siltiness. If, on the
other hand, the corrected +X falls below that limit,
A
0 =
From

Fig. 4--Hydrocarbon
g7~

effect

on neutron

and density

first

approximation

of

@ is

given

in

clean

formations

bys

1.0

logs.

V (fIx
this

1$112)/Z where

starting

point,

6X
more

and

@D are

accurate

evaluated

values

at

mint

are obtained

iteration.

JOURN.AI.

OF

PFTROLF(TM

TECHNOL.OGY

6.
by

#Wis considered reliable and the position of B below

the clean-water-sand line is assumed to be due to the
presence of some secondary heavy mineral in the sand
matrix. The secondary mineral most likely to be encountered is usually known from local experience.
Point B is corrected by moving it in the direction
~n~ it reaches the
. . . ..-.
expected f~i siich i+ .m;mt=ral*
line (Point E on Fig. 6). The corresponding
+,
=
+.
change in grain density is computed. The original
Point A may now be corrected for the effect of lithology change by adding the vector BE. The resulting
point (Point F) represents an equivalent quartz shaly
sand of the same porosity and clay content as the
original point, and therefore may be analyzed for
siltiness.
This correction for lithology change assumes negligible hydrocarbon effect. It would be too small in
gas-bearing formations.
Treatment of Data in the Unlikely Area
Points falling in the unlikely area are regarded as
suspicious and are checked against other logs less
affected by borehole conditions; i.e., sonic, SP and
gamma ray. Borehole effects act to decrease the
s!wdiness va!ue mnputed from the neutron-density
crossplot. Consequently these points are treated as
follows. If the crossplot indicates a lower shaliness
than the SP and/or GR, the density and the neutron
values are corrected until the shale computations yield
The direction
of correction
is vertical
most heavy
minerals.
It is approximately
and 450 NW for calc!te.

for anhydrite,
at 60 NNW

pyrite,
and
for dolomite

consistent values. Then, if the porosity from the

neutron is still greater than the porosity deduced from
the sonic (after correction for lack of compaction),
the neutron porosity is lowered until it matches the
sonic porosity. However, this correction is applied
only to the cleaner sands where the neutron may have
been affected by mudcake or rugosity (whereas the
density log is compensated for these eilects).

The Computation Program

The method of interpretation requires the handling of
many parameters and equations, and involves many
integrations and cross-verifications. Therefore it is well
suited for computer processing. Another benefit from
the use of high-speed computers is that the statistical
approach may be used to determine automatically
some of the coefficients in the interpretation relationships. A computer program, designated as SARABAND, has been written to perform the required
processing.
Automatic Calibration of Clay
Indicators and Logging Parameters
Automatic determination of coefficients and parameters has several advantages. (1) It permits the use of
more redried reiatioitsll@s for logging p-roperties than
would be possible if the scaling coefficients had to be
picked by eye. Thus, more detailed clay-indicator
relationships may be used. (2) The use of statistical
methods insures the best possible calibration of these
coefficients. (3) The results are less dependent on the
log analysts skill.

.7
6

IP

1
B::
.3
.2
.1

.15

$D

+D .,O

.05

.05

,10

.15

.20

.25

.30

h-
Fig. Mraphical
pro~ed~r~ase

JULY. 1970

illustration of interpretation
of light hydrocarbons.

Fig. =sraphical
procedure-case

illustration of interpretation
of change of matrix Ikhoiogy.
873

Care is taken to eliminate from the statistics levels

that do not conform to the shaly-sand model. Thus
for use
points Ming in the un&eiy ~it%i iwe rejected
in calibration. Moreover, the log analyst provides
many limit values, and the program computes others.
This safeguards the automatic calibration of the scaling coefficients against the possible intluence of misleading data (tight limestone, zones of anomalous
radioactivity or SP, etc.).
Most of the statistical correlations are based on the
assumption that the data points represent water-bearing zones of proper lithology, or have been corrected
for hydrocarbon efiects. However, it is not known
initiaUy which zones are water-bearing. Also, some
of the correlations involve use of the results of the
analysis (+, VA S1, etc.). For these reasons, the automatic calibration of the unknown coefficients is made

LI:OL15CY$$X%1

Fig.

fr

>

874

1.0!?:

omparison of SP, GR x P*, and R~ reconstructed

results of the computation (dashed curv~)
h the original data (solid curves).

in two sweeps, as will be explained. The first sweep

gives a preliminary calibration and the second gives a
final calibration.
Quality Tests by Reconstruction of Log VahMS
Using the computed values ~, S~O*V. 1a, ad SI i! iS
possible to compute values of GR and SP according
to Eqs. 13 and 14.
These reconstructed values are compared statistically with the actual log data for all shaly-sand levels.
For each curve a figure of merit (based on the standard deviation) is determined that reflects the reliability
of the ~omsponding clay ~dicator and, consequently,
the quality of the k~erpretation in hydrocariion-bearing zones.
In the left-hand and middle tracks of Fig. 7 the
dashed curves are reconstructed SP and GR values
that can be compared with the original values, shown
as the solid curves.
The Sweep System
Fig. 8 shows the organization of the computer program. The logging data in the interval smdied are
processed in three sweeps in a continuous operation.
On the first two sweeps the unknown coefficients aie
calibrated. The final interpretation is made on the
third sweep.
The hput data include such values as @NclaY> #JDc IaY,
S1,, and ~m., determined from the neutron-density
crossplot. During the first sweep unlikely data are
bypassed and remaining data are analyzed for ~, V~l,Y,
and S1 without correction for hydrocarbon or MhSP
and
+ .:-A-. -.~.~ .mm
ology ettects, and sLaU~.,&~
. .. nn
-- ~l~.j

shale resistivities. Because this analysis is accurate in

shales, water-bearing zones and most oil zones, the
statistics yield a good approxiinatbn
of the coefficients in the gamma ray and SP clay-indicator
equations.
During the second sweep, using these approximate
clay-indicator equations, each data point (~N, @ is
corrected for hydrocarbon or lithology effects before
being analyzed for improved values of +, VciaYand
S1. From these values and t%, SP and GR are reconstructed. .On the basis of the reconstruction merit
figures it maybe decided to discard one of these clay
indicators for the final interpretation. Statistics are
run anew on gamma ray, SP, shale resistivity and
sonic data. The coefficients thus determined are the
ones used in the final sweep.
In Sweep 3 all levels are interpreted. The data of
the unlikely area points are checked and corrected if
necessary. Then each data point is corrected for hydrocarbon or lithology effecc using the final calibration of the clay indicators to compute V=1.Y.
The corrected point is analyzed for S1. Sw is computed, and SP and GR are reconstructed to obtain
the final figures of merit. The shale distribution is
computed (Appendm A) as well as the permeability
(Appendix E). The results of the interpretation (~,
VC,~Y,S1, S=O,SW,Ph,~) are combined to obtain various answers, including the following.
1~. vc*#qg~~~E-A@s~s V-, pm=,+, v*~, v,, *Y,
V,, 1,,probable shale distribution, ctim~ative Porosity,
and permeabfity index,
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

INPUT
LOG DATA

PAi&ETERs

SWEEP 3
Im~ATION

SWEEP 2
FINA~RATION

SWEEP 1
PREIJMIN~IBWTION

~Y

Y
BYPASS
! uNLIKELY
DATA1
(

/
BYPf@s
t~IJKELY
DATA!

CORRECT @N, j6D FOR i

HYDROCARBON EFFECT.
or LITHOLOGY
EFFECT I

COMPUTE

S1 FROM

cORRECTED

~,

@D

I
I
i

SP
Statistics

(sp,h) 1

(sPad)l

4
SHALE RESISTIWTY
sTATISTICS .
(Rc1mJ2 =
(Rch;)xo 2

SP
-- . -. .-.-
rj~mrlal 1/
(sp.h)2
(sP,d)2

GAMMA My
STATISTICS
/

AZ

euA
T
s---

.m.

%/,

nlST~BUTION:
----
-----

PERMEABILITY

ECONSTRUCT SP, GR, ~

FROM $, V.hc slt sxo

(K1)2

(Kl)l

cOMPUTE

1
SHALE RESISTI~TY
cl ATlST1f7s
/
----------(RCI~y) 1 ~
(Rclay)xO 1

PIUNT. .--RECONSTRUCTION
--..
MJ5K11 EJUUK&

c1

GORRECT @ , @ FOR
HYDROCARBON EFFECT
EI?FECT
or LITHOL~Y

RECONSTRUCT
SP & CR
FROM fh V,ht SI

B1

CHECK & JORRECT

IUNLIKELY
DATAi
I

+.

COMPUTE @, v-h, sI
FROM fbN, ~D

Al

LOG DATA

AMMETERS

LOG DATA

.RAMETERS

.EEEEEzl
/

B2

C2
0

SONIC
Statistics
Cp

~
/

sELECT MINIMuM
VALUE OF ph
NR EACH ZONE
Fig. 8-Organization

of program.

875
JULY, 1970

HWXX3X

mlMA1tON
cwclmmics

TH

W! OSIIV ANAW51S
% OF WLX VOL.

mm
-+

I )

M
k

--rdF-

.1 0

~ w-+

s.
0

---------

%,

Shr

.25 ,s

WLK VOL. ANALYSIS

U OF OULKVOL.
.
.. I
Cl.y Ouwtx Pwdl,

M*,

0 1

5
Pm2
.

Example of Computed Log

-:

.!

:.:
~~;:
t

Fig. 9--Example
of continuous
main interpretation
0-7/

2. Fluid Analysis and Identification SW,VW, Vh,

cumulative hydrocarbon iii place, SrO, {Vi?co, p~ (for
residual hydrocarbons).
3. Control lnjormalion Reconstructed SP and
GR, reconstructed resistivities assuming 100 percent
water saturation, identification of the clay indicator
used in the computation, identification of levels of
unlikely data requiring correction, and identification
of levels with high matrix density.
These answers are recorded level by level on magnetic tape, from which selected results may be displayed on a printed listing or recorded on an optical
log.

presentation
results.

of the

Fig. 9 is an example of a continuous presentation of

the results of main interest. A special camera provides
,..
>.-- ..WH.
:+L
difbrfmt
Wlecfic
rfi.
a rum recorumg
U --X=.
WU1U6.
.W.
---------r.
.
example, in the right-hand track
~rea~
on fie
]O~.
For
(Track 4), which presents the analysis of the formation in porosity, quartz and clay, each area on the
log representing one of these constituents has its
characteristic coding. (Note that the quartz curve includes the silt of the shales.)
Track 3 presents the porosity analysis in terms of
water volume and porosity. The area between the
porosity curve and the water curve is indicated as
hydrocarbon.
In Track 2 are shown an Sw curve, a hydrocarbonvolurne curve (equal to &r X ~) and a hydrocarboneparation
f *ese
Weight curve (Shr x 4 x Ph). e
curves is an indicator of whether the hydrocarbon is
oil or gas. For example, the sand in the upper section
at 4,508 to 4,528 ft is gas-beafig) as ~dicated by
the large separation of these last two curves. The
sands in the lower section are indicated by the curve
separation as oil sands. The middle section is obviously water-bearing.
In Track 1 are recorded bulk volume fraction of
shale (Vsh) and permeabil@ (k). The permeability
scale is logarithmic.
In the depth track, pips are shown for integrated
porosity and integrated volume of hydrocarbons.
Every tenth pip is enlarged. The distance between two
consecutive porosity pips, for example, represents 1 ft
of 100 percent porosity, or 7,758 bbl of pore volume
per acre.
This example is from a typical shaly-sand section
in an offshore Louisiana well. The V.h curve (along
with information from the clay-quartz-porosity analysis) presents some interesting features that can be
related to the depositional conditions.
The upper sand shows a V,h profile that would
NAP
the
t-irrwression
?XW.
..=..
--=--=
. . . .
characterize it as a biiki
from bottom to top of greater shaliness to less shah
Curves
(Tracks
1 ~d
4>
ness on the ~sh ml Vc]ay
. .
..
- -+:-- ehmq
respectively). The sands m me tilddlc- ~e~uv~
. ...
011 the V.h curve
that
seems
~picd
i*er
Zi character
of a deltaic marine fringe buildup or a marine transgression over a delta. The shaliness profiles of the
sands in the lower section suggest that they are channel sands. Fig. 10 shows a listing of results from an
interval in the lower section.
jn?TRN.Al

()!= PETROLELThf

TECHNOLOGY

2
G
.I
o

Nomenclature
a=

coefficient in porosity-formation factor

relation: F = a/&
A, B,C= coefficients in Eq. i 3 reiating deiisit~compensated gamma ray reading to
volume fractions of silt and clay
present
c, = sonic log compaction factor @q. 15)
fjI = gas indicator (Appendix E)
GR = reading of gamma-ray log
k= permeability
K, = coefficient in Eq. 12 relating SZOto SW
K, = coefficient in Eq. 14, which gives SP
reduction due to shaliiess
K, = coefficient in Eq. 18 for (VW)i,, in shaly
formations
m= exponent in porosity-formation factor
relation: F = a/&
n = exponent in saturation equatiorc
S. = FRw/Rt
Rcl.y = resistivity of wet clay
(Rcl.,),o = resistivity of wet clay close to the borehole
Rmf = mud filtrate resistivity
RO= resistivity of 100 percent water-saturated formation
R,~ = shale resistivity
(R,h~ = resistivi~ of shale close to borehole
= true resistivity of noninvaded part of
formation
(RJ~= = highest Rt value in sands
Rw = formation water resistivity
R.. = resistivity of flushed zone close to borehole
&, = residual hydrocarbon saturation
s. = water saturation
(SW),, = irreducible water saturation
s,. = water saturation in the flushed zone
S1 = silt index (= V,i 1t/Vah)
S10 = silt index of shale plotting at point Sh~
on neutron-density crossplot
sP,d = SP deflection in clean sands
Spsh = SP deflection in pure shales
bulk volume fraction of wet clay in
=
vol.,
formation
(VCIW)GR= ~~la, aa indicated by gamma-ray log
(Eq. 13)
(vclaY)Rt = V.,., as indicated by resistivity log (Eq.
10a)
(~clw)sP = Vc,,, as indicated by SP (Eq. 14)
(v=,.,), = An upper limit of Vc,,, found by considering all shale indicators
V*,. = amount of dkpersed shale (formation
volume fraction)
Vh = amount of hydrocarbons (formation
volume fraction)
amount of hydrocarbons close to bore=
(Vh)ro
hole (formation volume fraction)
=
amount
of laminar shaie (formation
Vluo
volume fraction)
Vm = amount of matrix material (formation
volume fraction)
878

V.h= amount of shale (formation volume

fraction)
= amount of silt (formation volume fraction)
1/
=
~mnnmt
of
structural shale (formation
~ Str
-------volume fraction)
v. = amount of water (formation volume

v.,,,

i.,--.\
..\
11 ab Uuu]

~ =

# max

~. =
#NclaY

~Nh =

#N~f =
~Nh =

irreducible water (formation volume

fraction)
bulk volume fraction of water in formation close to borehole
volume fraction of wet clay that is water
hydrocarbon-effect factor for neutron
log @q. 7C)
hydrocarbon-effect factor for density
log @q. 6c)
transit time reading of the sonic log
At value for the mud filtrate
At value for the (zero-porosity) matrix
rock
bulk density reading of the density log
density of the hydrocarbon
density of the (zero-porosity) matrix
rock
density of the mud filtrate
porosity from density log:
~D = (%I fJb)/(Pma Pmf)
apparent porosity of clay from density
log (+D)cI.Y= (%. PclaY)/(%a
l%nf) #D ~rd~ak
of point c1 on neutron-density crossplot
apparent porosi~ of the hydrocarbon
from density log
apparent porosity of shale from the
density log
~D coordinate of the siltiest-shale point,
ShO
fluid-filled, interconnected porosity (i.e.,
porosity not containing dispersed
shale)
the maximum porosity of clean sands
in a sand-shale interval. GeneraI.Iy
the porosity corresponding tc Point
Sd on the neutrondensity crossplot
porosity from the neutron log
apparent porosity of clay from the neutron log. ~~ coordinate of Point Cl
on neutron-density crossplot
apparent porosity of the hydrocarbon
from the neutron log
apparent porosi~ of the mud filtrate
from the neutron log
app~nt
porosity
Of Shale from the
neutron log

- .x=.+.
fif P&nt qh rtn ueutron+N.hO = #N &61 UAU.bW..- w.-.- .+ .

density crossplot
& = porosity from the sonic log
& = (At Atm)/(Atmf Atma)
=
- -m= =WIt nnrd
tv of ~!ay from the sOrliC
a~r--u.
=V...,..-=
_
+5.1*Y
log
+S,h

apparent porosity of
SOIliClog @q. 16)

shale from

the

JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

&.8h0 = +,

value Corresponding to point Sh, on

neutron-density crossplot

@S*ilt

apparent porosity of silt from the sonic

log
& = sand framework porosity (total porosity
including both fluids and dkpersed
shale in pores) of dkpersed shaly
sand (no laminar shale)
=

Ac*mowlW@eiiti
We wish to express our appreciation to the oil company for releasing the logs used in the example. We
also wish to thank all the people who have been
associated with the development and testing of this
computer-oriented
interpretation method. The important contribution of A. Dumestre is especially
acknowledged.

plication of Air-Mercury and Oil-Air Capillary pressure

Data in the Study of Pore Stmcture and Fluid Distribution, Sot. Pet. Eng. 1. (March, 1966) 55-62.
15. Pickett, G. R.: A Review of Current Techniques for
Determination of Water Saturation from Logs, J. Pet.
Tech. (Nov., 1966) 1425-1433.
16. Morns, R. L. and Biggs, W. P.: Using Log-Derived
Values of Water Saturationand Porosity, Trans., SPWLA
Eighth Annual Logging Symposium (1967 ).
17. Van Nes, K. and Van Westen, H. A.: Asp$ct~ of fhe
Constitution of Mineral Oils, Elsevier Pubhshmg CO.,
New York (1951).
18. Sin?@ T I M,: SP Log Interpretation in Shaly Sands,
Soc.-e~~ ;ns?.J. (June, f968) 123-136.
19. Wyllie, M. R. J.- and Rose, W. D.: Some Theoretical
Considerations Related to the Quantitative Evaluation of
the Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rock from
Electrical Log Data, Trans., AIME (1950) 189, 105-118.
20. Timur, A.: An Investigation of Perroeabl~ty, POrOSitY,
and Residual Water Saturation Relatlonshlps, Trans.,
SPWLA Ninth Annual Logging Symposium (1968).

APPENDIX
References
1. AIger, R. P., Raymer, L. L., Hoyle, W. R. and ~lxier,
M. P.: Formation Density Log Applications m LlquidFilled Holes*,J. Per. Tech. (March, 1963) 321-332.
2. Poupon, A., Strecker, I. and Gartner, L.: A Review of
Log Interpretation Methods Used in the Niger Delta,
[~~~,
SPWLA Eighth Annual Logging Symposium
3. Tixier, M. P.. Morris, R. L. and Connell, J. G.: Log
Evaluation of Low-Resistivity Pay Sands in the Gulf
(Nov. -Dee., 1968) IX, No. 6.
Coast, The Log Asafysf
4. Schlumberger Log Interpretation Principles, Schlumkerger Ltd. (1969), see particularly Chap. 16, Shaly
Sands.
5. Gaymard, R. and Poupcm, A.: Response of Neu~on
and Formation Density Logs in Hydrocarbon-Bearing
Formations, The Log Artaly# (Sept.-oct., 1968) IX,
No. 5.
6. Visher, G. S.: Use of Vertical Profile in Environmental
Construction,Bull., AAPG (Jan., 1965) 49, No. 1.

7. Potter, P. E.: Sand Bodies and Sedimentary Environment: A Review, Bull., MPG (March, 1967) 51, No. 3.
8. Poupon, A. and Gaymard, R.: The Evaluation of clay
Pnntent
from Logs, Trans., SPWLA Eleventh Annual
+---Logging Symposium (1970).
9. Pettijohn, F. J.: Sedimentary Rocks, Harper Brothers,
New York (1957).
10. Barlai, Z.: Well Logging Parameters of HydrocarbonBearing Sandstones Composed of Sand, Silt, and Shale;
Evaluation of Water Saturation, Porosity, and Grain-Size
Distribution, Trans., SPWLA Tenth Annual Logging
Symposium (1969).
to Clay Colloid Chem11. Van Olphen, H.: An Introduction
istry, Interscience Publishers, New York (1963).
12. Segesman, F. and Liu, O.: The Excavation Effect, in
preparation for publication in The Log A ?udvst.
13.W&nan, M. H: and Smits, L. J. M.: Ele~trical ConductivitiesIn Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands,Sot. Pet. Eng. 1.

(June, 1968) 107-122.

14. Pickell, J. J., Swanson, B. F. and Hickman, W. B.: Ap-

CLEAN

SAND

Fig. n-Forms
JULY, 1970

D!SPERSED
SHALE

Shale Distribution in Sand

The left-hand sketch of Fig. 11 shows a clean reference sand of framework porosity, +,. IrI the other
sketches shale is distributed in the reference sand in
lorms:
each 01- utree

1. Dispersed in the pores. For a bulk volume

fraction, V~~s,of dispersed clay, porosity is given
by+ = ~z _ V~iS.
2. Laminations and lumps that replace both the
sand grains and their porosity. For a bulk volume fraction, Vl,~, # = @z(1 V1.~).
3. Structural grains (V,,,), which are substituted
for the quartz grains without altering the porosities.* In this case, @ = 4..
In practice, these forms are differentiated by the
way they affect the porosity.
Fig. 12 shows how a sand of framework porosity
30 percent (Point Sd) will plot on a neutron-density
crossplot after addition of 10 percent of shale ShO
either as dkpersed (Point D) or as !rnnimw sha!e
(Point L) or as structural grains (Point S).
D, L, and S are all on the same equi-shaliness line
Vah = 10 percent but for D, 4 = 20 percent; for L,
# = 27 percent; for S, # = 30 percent. It is clear that
sands of+, = 30 percent containing only dispersed or
laminated shales will plot inside the triangle Q-Sd-Sh,.
The presence of structural shale explains why some
It
is not implied
that
structural
shales
the sama
tima
es tha aend.
For instence,
soma
faldspar
grains
mey
be altared
into
This clay has tha same
effect
as structural

LAMINATED
SHALE

must
be dapositad
at
in a subarkosic
sand,
clay
after
deposition.
shale
on porosity.

STRUCTURAL
SHALE

of shale classified by manner of distribution in the formation.

879

shaly-sand points may plot to the right of the line

Sd-Sh,.
Determination of the Shale Distrhth
In the general case
Vgh =

~di5 + Vlam + V.lr

(A-J.)

+==

lv,am

(A-5)

Moreover
+= must correspond to +,,,a., the highest
clean-sand porosity likely to be encountered.
Combining Eqs. A-3 through A-5 yields the gen-

eral expression of the border line,

Combining the effect of each form of shales on the

porosity, as described above, one obtains:
Using Eq. 3 to put this in terms of V.,,,, and S1,
+ =

Moreover the amounts of laminated and structural

shales are assumed to be related by the following
equation:

V,arn= (v,,,,,, + v,,,) [2 - (v,.,,, + V,tr)l .

.

(A-3)

This relation was derived from the shape of the dashed

limit curves (Fig. 1) for a number of cases, assuming
that on this line there is no dispersed shale. Fig. 13
is i! ~!Ot Of ~.qc A-3.

When the sonic log is available. the distribution is

solved through Eqs. A-1, A-3, and

v.],}.
(Iv::;)
21s1
(
)1

max
[ 1
.

APPENDIX

(A-7)

Hydrocarbon Effect on Neutron and

Density Measurements
Consider the simple case where p~,ti= 2.65, p,,,~= 1.0
and ~~,,,f = 1.
Following the method described in Ref. 5, and considering hydrocarbons having the average molecular
%C l-.l. h.,.n +1.1
+
formuia Q-I ,1X> II~. ktIn
UC >lJUWLI
Clla.

(15)

P:*
~ p~;= y

(#q,h =

When the sonic is not available the distribution

is
solved from Eqs. A-1 through A-3. The value of &

~ma

is taken equal to +,,,. as determined from the cross-

j%;

-Rw

(B-2)

where P* indicates the apparent density as read by

nlof=
r-

+ha

ffi~atimn

LIU

General Expression of the Lme

J.Jmiting the Shaly-Sand Domain
Shaly-sand points on the border line, being the rightmost points in the shaly-sand area, are assumed to be
free of dkpersed shale. For such points Eqs. A-1 and
A-2 become
V.h =

s,

... ..

rIenS@
_ a..

tQO1.

A strong correlation exists between the average

composition of hydrocarbons and their densities in
the reservoir. The relationship B-3 is proposed to
represent it since for heavy hydrocarbons (Pfi > 0.8)
it conforms better to published results of oil chemical
analyses than the one proposed in Ref. 5.

v,.,,, + v,,, , . . . . . . (AA)

zsw

x = 2.5 (1.6 p~,) .

+D
o

Fig. 12Effect
of shale form on location of point on neutron-density crossplot. Sd is clean-sand point. Points D, L,
~fid ~ ~~rrespond tQ presence of 10 percent by volume ot
dispersed, Iaminar, or structural shale.

.s
Fig. I&Plot
of
assure@

V1.mVs (V1.m + V.tr),

distribution.

1.0

(B-3)

of ionic diffusion (between connate formation water

and invasion water).
The relationship between SP and Q is complex.
However, it appears that, when expressing Qt. and SP
in the reduced forms,

x=Q,,

(D-1)

(h

~ =
HYDROGEN

INDEXOF

S,0

Y+

9Ph

4Db=l+$19~.

(B-4)

(i:~p,i)](B-

Similar formulas can be derived for other values of

pm~

and

+~m~.

APPENDIX

Excavation Effect on the Neutron Log

For shaly-sand analysis, the neutron porosity ~s is
expressed in porosity units for water-filled quartz-sand
formations. It is generally assumed that the indicated
porosity is directfy proportional to the hydrogen content of the formation; thus a 6 percent water-tiled
porosity should have the same neutron response as a

12 percent porosity filled with a gas of hydrogen

index 0.5. This is not exactly true since the matrix
also influences the neutron readings. In fluids such as
gas where the hydrogen index may be very low, this
effect is not negligible. This is called the excavation
effect.
Fig. 14 shows the computed excavation effect for
a number of different porosities in a sandstone
formation.
If excavation effect were not considered, the neutron response in clean formations would be written

b = + + + (1 s..) (#wl 1).

Excavation effect for sandstone is shown in Fig. 14.
Including excavation effect, neutron response is
approximately
*N=

+ + +(1 s,.) (+xh 1)( + 2+s.0).

More details on excavation effect will be given in

Ref. 12.
APPENDIX

lMect of Shaliness on Spontaneous Potential

Recent laboratory studiess have related the reduction
of SP by shaliness to Q., the cation exchange caPacltY
per unit volume of water in the formation in the zone
SPE 2897
received
in Sociaty
of
petroleum
Engineers
offjce
March
L
1970.
Ravised
manuscript
received
June
2, 1970.
@ Copyright
1970
American
Institute
of
Mining,
Metallurgical,
and Petroleum
Engineara,
lnC.
Original

manuscript

This
pa,cer
will
will cover
1970.

TI J1. y. 1970

of

be

papar

printed

in

Transaction

(D-2)

D=

D(D+l)

volume

(D-3)

X+ D

85ph

325P/,

the points (X, Y) plot approximately on a hyperbola

of the form

effect for sandstone.

Substituting this value of x in B-1 and B-2

#Nh=

FLUIOS

+ (! - Sxo) . @Nhy

14-Excavation

Fig.

PORE

SP Spah
sp,~sp,h

249,

which

where D is a parameter depending on the type of clay,

the formation water and filtrate salinity.
X may be related to the clay content in the following manner. In the shaly-sand model, assuming
constant composition of the wet clay, the CEC is
proportional to V. lay. In a hydrocarbon-bearing formation, the invading mud filtrate is normally preceded by an annulus of formation water (Ref. 4);
thus the ionic diilusion takes place in a zone where
the water saturation is approximately equal to S=O.
Accordingly, the amount of water per unit volume
(including water bonded to clay) is expressed by
(VW)..

s..

Wdlv

vol., .

Consequently, if b is a propo~onafity

factor!

In pure shale, ~ = O, and

Therefore,

x.

WclayVclay
+s,O + Wcl.y v.,.,

(D-4)

Eq. 14 is derived from Eq. D-3 by inserting the

expressions for X and Y given in Eqs. D-4 and D-2,
and replacing D by 1/(K, 1).
APPENDIX

Permeability
Permeability is computed from a formula of the general type proposed by Wyllie and Rose.lg
~=~

, fP

(SW),11

,..

.. . (E-1)

where the constant C, and the exponents x and y have

been determined locally on cores.
When these parameters are not known, one uses
k(md) = (100) &

c .

(E-2)

This formula duplicates closely the statistical results

presented by Timur.O
In hydrocarbon zones it is asswed that (S~)irr
= SW.In water zones, (S~)I,, is comPuted f~m l% 18.
TPT
881