chapter 14 Environmental Fluid MechanicsChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics recent decades the scope of fluid mechanics has broadened to become increasingly involved with water quality and a varity of other ansport of mass, heat, environment. Emphasis is placed on advection and diffusion gradient. The nature ofthe transporting medium while the state variable. Thus the transport fi uid property wi ‘they are sometimes called gradient fx laws. 142.1 Momentum Transport Newton's law of viscosity, Eq. 1.5.5, is reexamined in terms of momenta this section, Such a descr their momentum with them above the lane ‘A-B The net effect of the molecular transport is to equalize the velocities above and "A is eto describing the et How of uty ong cera ai yr ‘See, 142 / Transport Processes in Fluids = prt 42.1) asthe coel- ted a3 Sa resull, vis ofte ‘momentum difusion coetfcient. 1422 Heat Transport 1 medium or between media, heat fer dve to 8 mand the steady distribution heat fx trough the medium mest bec (422) Equation ‘eady and,CChaptor 14 / Enviconmenta Fld Mechanics Figure 142 Temperature distribution between two fixed parallel plates, steady heat transfer. the SI stem, the units of gare Win and those of K are thermal diffusivity ais defined in Eq, 5.4.13 to be the thermal conductivity the density Tone Figure E141 ‘The one-dimensional form of Fouie's law is accept varies only in one direction. Assume that ATI4y is (Tray ~ Trt ay ~ Ysonn)58 tat Ea, 14.2.2 becomes, ~ ont 1s a= KG 154 ‘See. 142 / Transport Processes in Fluids os “The rate of| the direction fer through the pipe isthe Hux q moltipi bythe area A normal to O=9A=231 x 0s x == 008W long the riverbed the heat Mux is postive upward, so thatthe sediment heats the ate of heat transfer per unit length of river is equal to multiplied by the width ofthe river or 4X b= DAL x 20 = 462 Wen 1423 Mass Transport Whenever there exists a conce filled with stagnant water B into which a col- ‘The dye will spread outward from the will be no net flux of dye across any section of the channel, The diffusion of dye in a binary system of y=—v (1424) In Bq, 1424, D is the mass difusion coef with dimension L'T, C isthe molar concent ‘mass diffusivity in a binary system, of diffusing dye, and the minus signChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics ‘See. 143 / Fundamental Equations of Mass and Heat Transport on ule |e dtarya Figure 144 Rate of mass transfer ofan infinitesimal Mud element. [rw [ dears [ sian can the discharge atthe surface. In many situations, by spatial changes in the mass flux vector so th ized, Consider the one-dimensional model shown in Fig. 144, such as would be tencountered in pipe ora stream. Here its assumed that changes in the concentration of ice take place only in the x-direction. The control volume has the length Ax "A normal tothe x-direction with flux J atthe left area. Since the Control volume is of fixed magnitude Aa, aplication of Eq. 143.1 yields port proce lar level, t mean free paths of molecules are too small tobe affected by and mass concentration profiles. ° rA ty = 20, +(ro@ 7 Sort ae = %aae (r+ Bas) AIA aay JENTAL EQUATIONS OF MASS AND HEAT TRANSPORT ee ee 143.1. Control Volume Formulation sion. The three-dimensional form of Eg. 1. ferived in a similar manner con- ac Revaer (1434) in which the gradient operator is 1433 or 1434 can be developed, pile. Then Eq. 4.2.10 becomes. how it affets the substance concer eeChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics EXAMPLE 142 fixed volume of 101 has water wing through an inlet and an outlet at a ‘onygen tanker oscurs atthe air-water interface accor twlationr =k (C, ~ C). Given data are C, = 9 mg/L and k= O08 = igure E142 (a) Open tank with mass transfer at air-water interface; (b) closed tank with no mass transfer at air-water interface. ac. sev nay ha, Substituting inthe given expression for r, ad noting that J,, = QC, and J,A, = OC, we «an rearrange the equation ia the manner #€-ue,-0)-S-G)= (t+ 2e- 0 In this general situation there i surface transfer withthe input concentration at loation| 1Theing C, The equation can be rearranged 10 allow integration by Separation of variables: ae- rs) ‘The solution is enefeee See. 143 / Fundamental 1s of Mass and Hes ono of ,Q, ¥,and into the jn to ind the concent = 85S mg/L c=Gl-e = 35 mg/l. ‘Thos inthe open sytem the water reaches 8.59 X 100 ~ 94% saturation limit after 10 min, while atthe stm time fa the elosed system the saturation isenly 358 > 100 = 39%. 143.2 Diffusive Transport Diffusive transport is expressed in terms ofthe flux vector component (Eq. 14.2.4) that Aeseribes the net transport of mass along the x-axis per unit cros-sectional area and per sider dye spreading i with uniform dye c concentration gradient along the unbounded x-axis A mass balance on the inf fui element (Fig. 14.8) for the conservative dye,r = O,reduces Eq. 14:33 to ac__a ao oe 1835) oe (1433) Recognizing that the concentration of diffusing dye depends upon time and space, the partial derivative is used in place ofthe ordinary derivative in Fick's fist law, Eq, 14.24. Equation 14.35 when combined with Eq.1424 becomes. ac_ ae Ross 0436) ‘This the one dimensional veson of F's wed a. Tete imesonl frm of ac picts 1437 wae + a437) 2 + Bay? + 3/de% Equa iquation 14.36 is Eq. 143.7 si 143.6 and 143.7 ae known as diffusion 2d for one dimension with a conservativeCChopter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics ‘TABLE 14.1 Boundary Consltions for the Diffusion Equation Acting atthe Control Surface Graphical description Condition at the surface Formulation con = 6, (0) No tax xe] =o 1, Advection surface Xe tondition el substance (r = 0).The identical approach can be applied to develop the heat diffusion ‘equation ina qui met Keres 43.8) “The second, more complicated one is prescribed mass flux. The third ‘boundary condition is of practical signifiance in environmental problems; it consists of ce that it sini x= 0 ad eo terse, with he integral ong Conon tows canbe sowa oe pop by cosering he ne aA d= Me Sec. 143 / Fundamental Equations of Mass and Heat Transport ot {is zero; the second boundary inthe postive and negative and boundary conditions stated implies th condi the pulse input the dye concentrati dye flux has the same ma directions The solution of Eq. 143.6 with the above is (1439) a= VIBE (443.10) and replacing ACC, /M by p(x), Eg. 1439 becomes Pha) = eet 43.1) uation 143.11 s known a Gaasin tsbution wth the met, central tendency increase ofthe variance of the diffusing substance: do? pi 43.12) EXAMPLE 143 ‘Tae steady tate population of fies and morquitoss varies ina control volume of alr with clevation a shown: Elevation (m) Number 0 70 110 «70 ‘An entomologist observes thatthe numberof fies and mosquitos i controled by itfaxion tnd setting (gradual sinking). The seting is astumed to be proportional tothe concentra- tion of nsec at any elevation. Use the given data o verify this hypothesis.Chapter 14 / Environmental Fuid Mechanics 0 mo 400 600 800 1000 Y200 1400 1600 Elevation) @ ° Figure E143 ling of the insects r = —K,C, where f, isthe setting rate coefficient, Hence for the cadyestate case Bq 14.3.3 reduces ay 2 kcmo rol volume is due to random or “ditfusionike” wemeyt of molecules, the fut i given by Fick's ‘tla Eq. 14.24, where D is the difsivty of th isects Ths the equation above reduces wc to ~pSs-kez0 bis equation is subject to two constant concentration boundary conditions: C=, atx = 0 MC = Oatx =e The solution ofthe equation with the Boundary conditions stated above ‘ysicaly this steady-state distribution presents a balance between the ditfusive fax of Sects im the direction o 1 concentration (x) andthe setting eeton. lest squares aa of the data wl provide the best Meet inG, he 3 Inc=-Bx+inc, where 0002 and inGy= 62 "aphical comparison between the data denoted by symbols and the steady state distribu ons given in Fig E14 3b, Sec. 143 | Fundamental Equations of Mass and Heat Transport os 143.3 Advective and Diffusive Transport ‘Transport of substances by molecular diffusion isan important source of motion on the for the diffusion time scale fgg over a certain distance L follows from Eq. 143.10: B - 143.13) tea = 35 (43.13) ms a 20°C, Thus the required time is yg = 1002/2 cealar diffusion nsport process by which water, sh and aquatic organisms wll nt exist in an aquatic envionment Molecular dit {usioa, although presen, is dominated by a more rapid transport mechanism performed ‘8x 10-5) ~ 9 years Ifthe mol tion velocities are between 1 to 100 cm/s in lakes, rivers and oceans. The transport time mn across the 100-cm distance for the average advection velocity ofthe = 100/50 = 2s. sport i expressed in terms of the ux vector along a given axis per unit area perpendicular to that axis. Thus inthe x-direction the advective flux Jauc (43.14) where wis the fuid velocity in the x-direction and Cis the substance concentration. The {ota ux of mass transport that results from the advection and diffusion is, ac Ja wc~ ve (143.15) 3 fux is simply superimposed on the moving fluid. Equation 143.15 can be into the conservation of mass, Eq. 143.3, with the result Pag pk, Fr zuo-v Fer (143.16) Equation 143.16 is the one-dimensional equation for mass transport; it includes both advection and diffusion the itsve subboundary layer iste zoe of pure mace tampon(Chapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics ‘The mase transport eq mass flux components in the three co ‘mass for an incompressible uid, Eq, 5 ar, aT, a, ar s yg tay tears er z tae ra (143.18) the moving origin is ¥ = x ~ x, = x "wf, where 3.16 with r= O will produce'the result! cS “Pie (143.19) Which is identical to Eq. 143.6. Hence the governing equation for the mass transport with advection and diffusion ina fixed reference frame isthe same as that _oM C0 = ae EXAMPLE 144 “The chemical benzyl chloride is discharged through x multiple fuser into river at arate ott ‘Sec, 143 / Fundamental Equations of Mass and Heat Transport where Us the crot-sectional average velocity. We let D = ec. The transfer st the at-water interac 7, = ~Ky (CHD, ‘Thus the equation above reduces to “This diteeatial equation is subject to the constant concentration boundary condition C= Cyats = 0. nteprating the diferent equation above yields _ 12x30, = 133 x 10" mol/L = 133 nmol x10" vee teon Chepter 14 / Environmental Fuid Mechanics Sec. 144 / Turbulent Transport, ional velocity U = QIA = 25/20 = 1.2 mis The benzyl chloride con am fom the discharge pont 08 98 amoI/L cover Skin is = $0012 = 4200's = 12 The initial con- will be reduced by about 26% 5 km downsteam from the where D isthe molecular diffusion coefficient. The order of length scale forthe smallest eddies is given in the following example, eee ‘ows encountered in the environment are turbulent, and conseq) ave some understant ture of turbulent flow. A bri The sae a wich vlc dent i ae of energy pao 10 by of vat Knee sco ater at 25°C O05 10 + The concentration ofa substance, water temperature, and velocity compo: nents are composed of the mean and th Whi fepeatable measurements, the fic Unpredictable. (0) The scale at which Muctuatons of conservative salar disappear i defined by Ea naz: WOO IO erg z ‘The largest eddies in turbulent flow lose much of their kinetic energy in one revo: is a three-dimensional phenomenon, for simplicity we wil restrict ourselves only to the unstable. However, they transfer some of the Kinetic energy smaller eddies. These smal smaller seale and thus and transfer some of th transfer of the energy fr is know dies become unsta semper (1443) onverted into heat by the action of ngth scale for the smallest eddies is given by the Kol ‘cause rapid spreading of the dye 7 uct vm (2)" sayChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics igure 145 Spreading of dye in a turbulent flow. “presents the mean dye concentration C over & portion of the ime record Av measured sional mass transport ing the a-axis with the AEH) , ,ACHC), ACHE) _ yHC*+C), Gy EOD yp MEPOD 4 AEEOD « pBEEO) 419 (444) ce erm and isthe fcution i the source term After ACHE) , CHC) _ 8 ye (1445) ' proceed further, we will use averaging rules that are provided in Chapter 7 (see ‘ample 7.6).The averages ofthe four terms in Eq. 144.5 are HEFCE) _v , oe ee a+ wyXEFO) _ 5 (a4 WEA O) GE C4 C) _ 5a , ac a HEC) _ GE 1 9S FO) WE 4 w Sow ‘Soe. 144 / Turbulent Transport os9 Collecting the averaged terms the mean mass transport equation becomes racer by the mean flow, the mean molecular diffusion of the ‘and the net mean body source for ial transport due to the turbulence is called tur- flux is advective in nature. ux term to a property of the mean flow; this exercise is known as a closure app The turbulent fx can often be repre sented asa gradient diffusion process that is, lent diffusion or eddy diffusion coe [Note the similarity of Eq. 14.438 wit ‘momentum. Equations 7.69 ‘transport formulations. In addition to the transport of momentum and a substance con- centration, the gradient transport formulation can be applied to describe the Nux of heat. [Note that whereas the molecular diffusion coefficient D, used in Eq. 14.24, is @ known property ofthe fluid mixture, the eddy diffusion coefficient D,, depends on the condition ‘of the flow. Substituting Eq. 1448 into Eq, 1447 yields 449) Assume that the turbulent diffusion coefficient is const flow is developed),so that D,, becomes D, = constant. Equat ae , aC _ ve ,, HWE (w+ ny ZS or (1aaao)1 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics Longitudinal ‘Now compare the orders of magnitude ofthe turbulent diffusion and molecular diffu- sion coefficients in surface waters Typical values for the turbulent diffusion coefficients Table 142. in oceans, lakes, and rivers vary by several orders ff magnitude. A typical molecular diffusion coefficient is on the order of 10% ems. ‘Comparing th in Table 142 with mélecular diffusion, we see that turbulent diffu- sion is atleast 100 times greater than molecular diffusion, and in most cass it is over ‘Since D, >> D, Eq. 14410 can be further simplified to (saan) ‘Notice that we have used the order of magnitude argument to neglect the molecu: fusion. However, its not permissible to neglect the molecular diffusion where lence is damped ( it boundaries) or over short distances (the dif sive subboundary ion distance between chemical particles, and the boundary layer ‘The turbulent mass transport eq three dimensions, subject low in three directions, can be obtained by substituting u =u + u,v ~ 0 + iv, w= + w,C=C+C,andr =F +r into Eq, 143.17 and following similar steps that lead to Eq. 14.4.11.The result is, I, 9S, 8, A pore y; i oS aK - vic er (44a) where the turbulent diffusion coefficient D, is assumed to be isotropic (identical in all three ds We can apply similar procedures to derive @ heat transport equation in a turbulent flow, resulting in the relation Sec. 144 J Turbulent Transport CJ (1443) ‘where a; isthe turbulent diffusion coefficient for heat, In Eqs 144.12 and 14.413 the overbars ate often omitted with the understanding that the parameters are time: averaged values EXAMPLE 146 Cimon) | 20 a5 65 63 43 34 33 31 28 27 26 ‘Solution: Between 3 and 5 m depth there i high decrease in concentration. This region corresponds to the thermocline” inthe lnke. Consider faxes that originate from the molec: “The vertical gradient at7m depth ean be estimated using central diferences Chin = Chen - 1030-1 (2833 oom nmol 10 nmol Ae ape aaNet (a) mmol WE = 25x 10-7 25 «107 “The tux ha a positive sign; therefore, the tetrachloroethene is transported along the z-axis toward the lake botom, "The Mux of tetracloroethene that results from turbulent diffusion is given by Ba, tion the equation becomes pow «0, ~ 21.107 PES) 52500 1448. For the vert amal “The turbulent Mux is postive; thus the tetrachlovetiene is transported downward, The tut ‘bulent and molecular iffusion fx have the same direction since they ar influenced by the ‘he hemocln ithe depth eon wth the bighesttempertue gradesChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics | 10 tet tah axe positive. Notice that uion. We could have Figure 146 Mechanism of diffusion ina uniform flow cross-sectional average conce due to a nonuniform velocity distribution with the longitudinal distribution ofthe cras-sectional average concentration, {rom the cross-sectional average. Dividing by h AX and taking the li a _ 1am >oncentation sendy tee a” hae (144.15)(Chapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics 1) 5 4 mass flux across the cross-sectional area is Is a é ee é eaaen saske 3 (aang) i SRRRESESRQSESHERTE | “68 Scdccssccccccaccer gy e: 3 paceaneee S 7 =p Slelssssssgsssastezanae pa i g1= 8 fe 4 F i 8) gg BS Tt 2 a5 05 3 ly yf ¢ i . iF 8° 8g q i ee t a E 6 £ Gs * a aie ‘ i . asaas) b+ t F +i alg ef Fy on f a eg a aR an alt ‘his i the one-dimensional advectiondiffsion or dispersion equation for mass trans $33: ¢ as 3| 2 >ort We have to be aware of Taylor’ approrsmation that the equilibrium between the gi 8 g 8 a ‘ongitudinal advection and vertical turbulent diffusion, that we used to outline the dis Sle a als eet Z (8 Bias ge 5 alg sss Ek te a : E/E be i H i Fa me Z 74 gle 1 "i BE toe gs i : af 33 vases With only. Ell gees s é \ gy |g : EXAMPLE 147 | 2) | gy eh q | | bls} : i £ | ls] xe se Pe = eetnea ta aaTe 3|*| = G a xg beginning of the experiment, ¢~ 0, i 2 g as : 2 = 0. Discrete concentrations CU 4] |%* an a* s ‘ial contention Che pen te og be 3] |e & 8 :4 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics 100 200 600 1200 eo ols 60 100/30 co 100 0.65 036 15] 078 052 036] os: ass 043 the solution We enhanced rate of mix- ‘we name the er a8 a daperion or & ) timate the dispersion or trbuleat difuion coeticient Barer Gs os G-0 a ee . ° . @ 001 L 0 2 « 6 12 wt . Figure E147 is no mean velocity dita lent diffusion. The transport, (u = 0), the enhanced rate of cent i the turbulent diffusion iffusion of NaCl into the water along the x-axis is given by Eq. ‘equation subject to above et condition, that = Oand r= 0, ‘Sec. 14.4 / Turbulent Transport - Ent 5) <1 eo) -1 ono “Th me can ea the vale of Vth corespond to CC, ~ 05 frm Fig EA 7. win 26= e., Ot, D, = 86cm'/s 1443, Summary ‘Three different forms of the advection-ditfusion equations are introduced in this sec- uation 14.418 provides heat transport. Considering ‘variable dispersion coefficient along the x-axis, Eq. 144.18 becomes in which isthe cost sectional ra A sini prosedure cn be fod to derive the Gperion equnton for beat anspor ar, aur 1a s =12.(4%) 45 14.420) a” ae wae ) ¢ » vers, where major changes are anticipated along the river, the equations ied along the river reachon 161 Environ uid Mechanics IG TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT cients that are used in the transport equations. 145.1. Open Channels 4.20 for longitud in variety of engineering (asay _ ‘ave Exirn zne Figure 14:7 Schem: locations. 1g Transport Coefficients in the Environment 609 pvectve 2000 L Equa zone igure 148 Mixing zones downstream from an effluent source. In Eq. 145.1, , is an empirical con ight channel with a ‘Among a variety of different techniques, the method of ‘moments appears to be popular, especialy with the advent of relatively inexpensive automatic sampling stations that have a high precision of tracer detection. The basis for the method of moments is piven by Eq. 143.12: Kaji (142) 1 2 ‘TABLE 14.4 Longitudinal and Transverse Dispersion Cooficients# Coefficient ‘Notation Formulation Transverse dispersion «KK, a, UAHChapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mech Where ois the spatial variance of the diffusing particles. However, for pr iS much more conven a river ata specified location an measuring relation between the two may be approximated in the eq os Wo} (145.3) ie measure of the spread around the centroid of the (145.4) (1455) ‘The denominator of Eqs 14.5.4 and 145.Sis termed the zeroth statistical moment fy Eq 15.5 is designated the fi (1456) mncentration at two ion measurements ‘The equation requires a knowledge of par the physical characteristics of the reach to be modeled, particularly its geometry and flow condi ms such as cross-sectional averaged velocity and the dispersion coefficient. One of techniques used to derive the flow parameters is to use & dye-tracing experiment that follows the progress of a dye cloud along a river reach. ‘dye concentrations are measured as a function of ‘ean be used to derive the necessary parameters. Thi ccxample. Msi Fiver tation 1 May 14 to 1 8 4 ‘rou oo 018 094 129 (oot) ‘Mesispp Fever at taton 2 May 1 1 0 ms em (ours) © 000 018 om 129 (ony (rou) © am 018 094 129 (oon) 79 190 as 190 Sampling sto (ea 3m) no9 25 14 ye econ ate = 0) Samping ste 2 treeekm) May 12 May 12 093 071 051 040 029 021 016 019 Figure F148Chapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics Solution: ‘The fist and second statsical moments ofthe measured dye conc ‘determined from Eqs 14554 and 14.55, Numeri ducted on a spreadsheet forthe two sempl 1 Bima srth siti moment, » S.Ct) At wren he mnt of measurements and Aris the tie between si Divide tis result bys to yield 3. Approximate the numerator of 9. M454 sing the approximation We, ‘Ac Divide this by 1, to yield Ad) “The following resus are obtained ‘Location Station 1 Station? 300 «9600 735 3036 wa 3847 (Cross-sectional average velocity UABoH =D 8, smi op 66X10 mM Dispersion coefficient Bg, (14.5.6): 2 $3847 = 1409 ie da hx 25659 SRAM sp ego mtn = 03/8 was spilled onto the surface of river Te river bas the following charac: width b = 20 mm m of the injection. Assume th ot undergo any degradation or removal during the Rest 16h in the iver Atrazine hat @ ‘molecular weight of 215.7 gma whether we can use the one dimensional advection to predict the concentration of atrazine 18 km down 9.14418, we have 1 bei the equilibrium zone. = Isaiah Cm AVaaK GT” OVA ex 54x BRINE BE Sec, 145 / Evaluating Teansport Costiiens in the Environment 708 “The length ofthe adveetive zone i given by Eq, 14.5.1. The transverse dlspersoncoeticient fiom Table Ais K, = 0.6 HU,, where the mean shea tres velocity is U, = (gH) = (981 x 1 « 0.0002) = 0044 m/s Then K,=06 x1 x 004 ~ 0026/4 We wil assume forthe transverse injection and L, = 050m gently meander- ingehanael Hen tho the advectve ones 1, = allt 93 9S# OSX srr or stout 0S “The equilibriam zone stats where x = 0.6 km. The corresponding advecive time Ly 516 roe Boon yeded to estimate the atrazine concen- longitudinal dispersion eoefcents are From this table, 30 = KIHU, = 3000, which gives 1 = K = 132 mes we esa 0006 =o 2 oa (LEI) asa (The advection ifs coeticleat i given by Eq. 14418, The soltion ofthis equation for the impale input A i sven in Table 143: (= U9" car o- wi aVaek™ | ‘The total amount of 20% 1 = 20m. The Fe Eas, (4) The peak concentration will ocur when x = Ur Therefore, the peak concentration ingiven by (M = 250 kg, and the cross-sectional area is A = BMY = ‘srazine concentration vers time atx = 18 kr given in 250 x 108 1410S,Chapter 14 / Environmental Fluid Mechanics secs 05 | 3 aoe-06 | ‘006-06 | 7 oe ae 16 mee) Figure F149 The required low time is «5x10 10 Be eh 145.2. Lakes and Reservoirs « Lakes, ponds, and stood by observing the fied water column ‘See. 145 / Eval ing Transport Coefficients inthe Environment 708; scale required for inverse of the stat the stability frequency and the les time needed for the uid parcel to return to the sta- ble position. Therefore, s ‘slows down vertical mixing and enhances mixing along nearly horizontal su given in Table 142. Comparing the fosion coefficients horizontal ifsion i atleast 100 times greater than vertical cif. mn due to vertical temperature gradients inhibits vertical mixing ‘and mixing in turn affects the distribution of phytoplankton, can be used. Observing the broadening of a conservative tracer distribution overtime the turbulent diffusion coefficient is obtainable from Eq. 14.52. The vertical turbulent diffusion coefcient below a fixed depth is usually determined from the budgets of scalar ‘Quantities such as water temperature or a tracer concentration: ar 5, CAC de neath foe EXAMPLE 1410 “Two vertical profiles of etrachloroethene were measured a smal lake at a ine interval of [Ar~ 15 days The water temperature profile war measured during the fist day of measure- ‘ment. The lake has a suface area of 1 ka? and maximum depth of 10 m. (a) Estimate the ‘vertical turbulent difsion coefficient at depts f 5,6, 7, and 8m. (b) Why should the tut- Dulent eitfusioncoefcient increase with depth? "AC he density of the water increasing with he depth from the wate sac the wae column is abe 9 ‘tel of wate hats placed. yr higher to lower depth in he water clu wl be dese ha ‘rounding and wl ak ack tt orga orton