Spool valves and hydraulic circuits

Determination of clearances and tolerances

Spool valves are normally designed so that leakage in the spool is small compared to the hydraulic
system flow rate, but it is helpful to know what the leakage is and to be able to control the
tolerances on the clearance in a rational manner.
Bores are machined and then honed, to control size and also surface finish, typically 8 to 16 microinches. Running clearance and tolerances on bore and lands can be determined using the following
procedure.
Due to tooling and gauging considerations, it is usually practical to violate convention by assigning a
nominal size, or a size found to be repeatably attainable, to the bore, and then grinding the spool
land diameter to suit.

Spool valves have a leakage path around their assembly clearance. For a rectangular gap of
upstream-downstream length L, radial clearance t, and width b, then for a fluid of viscosity , then
pressure P will drive a leakage flow rate of Q according to the equation shown. Of course a spool
valve can be idealized with this equation by using b = 2r.

Note the t3 term: leakage increases as to the cube of the clearance, to a point: once the static
pressure has been converted entirely to velocity head (Bernoulli), then increasing the clearance
further will only increase the leakage linearly in t.
Also, leakage converts static pressure into velocity head, which drops the static pressure in the
leakage path. If the spool is off-center in its bore, then the leakage flow rate will be greater on the
side with the larger gap: this reduces the pressure here, which in turn exerts a large force on the
spool tending to center it.
For eccentric gaps, the above equation can be integrated around the circumference of the spool,
and it can be shown that when the spool is offset to make contact with its bore on one side, the
leakage flow rate is exactly twice that of a perfectly centered spool. Thus it is conservative to
assume that the leakage flow will be double of that calculated.

Timing

The axial location of ports (i.e. holes) in a valve block presents a practical machining problem:
hydraulic passages are small diameter bores with long lengths; drills tend to wander so accurate
location of the break-out points is difficult to hold.
To address this, most spool valve bores have stepped-up grooves into which the drilled holes break
out. The grooves are cut with a boring bar and can be located far more accurately than a hole
break-out (the boring bar is far more rigid and any bending deflection will tend to affect the depth
of the cut, which is not critical, not its axial location).
When a land covers a groove, there is minimal leakage: minimal flow through the spool, and the
valve is said to be closed. When an inlet and outlet groove are not separated by a tightly fit land,
then there will be substantial flow and minimal flow restriction, and the valve is open.
However, between the closed an open states, when the land just opens a small gap to a groove, it
is tempting to think of the valve as partially open, however this is not the case. The equation in
the above section can be applied to this geometry, and it can be shown that the axial distance in
which there is a non-trivial flow restriction, is small: a large flow restriction from a partiallyopened valve only persists for a few thousandths of an inch!
Therefore, spool valves are to be treated as Boolean on/off devices, rather than analog
pressure-reducing valves in which the pressure is varied using the valve.

Inlet port timing

Most spool valves are designed to have the inlet and outlet ports open simultaneously. However, it
is better to consider the axial tolerance stackup of the grooves and lands, and design to ensure that
the inlet is open before the outlet: in other words, time your circuit using the outlet ports not the
inlet ports.
Depending on where the spool is placed: between a return line and the pump, or between the
pump and the load: the inlet might be at a low, often tank or reservoir pressure, which is not in
general known to you, the designer. It is very easy to accidentally choke the inlet due to pipe flow
losses and velocity head. 15 psi, for example, might be an insignificant loss for a 500 psi system,
but in the case of inlet design, a partially opened port can (will) restrict the flow due to Bernoulli.
It is better practice to arrange the inlet port to be substantially open before the outlet starts to
open.

Hydraulic circuit linearity and analog to Kirchoffs Laws

A consequence of the equation above, which applies to a range of low-Reynolds number hydraulic
components, is that most of the complex geometry terms are constant once the valve has been
built. This reduces the equation to P = Q*R, where R is the fluid resistance. Clearly this is an
analog to Ohms Law.
Thus, Kirchoffs Current Law (a.k.a. the equation of continuity) and Kirchoffs Voltage Law (the
sum of the pressure drops around any closed loop must be zero) hold. This allows the use of linear
algebra to model complex hydraulic circuits in steady state. The introduction of transient devices,
such as accumulators, would render this simplification invalid.

Precisely calculating flow forces in spool valves lets designers maximize flow and
minimize solenoid size. For instance, relatively small coils operate a 16-gpm
threeposition, fourway Sterling Hydraulics GS0657 Series valve.

Flow forces are the result of fluid mass accelerating through the small opening between
spool and sleeve. The axial force component Fxis useful for sizing coils and springs.

Critical point m represents the maximum flow force.

Test circuit shows the valve in a transient position.

This simple test circuit includes a nonpressurecompensated pump, relief valve, and a
two-way, two-position solenoid spool valve. Theoretical results for a flow of 10 gpm and
relief pressure of 3,000 psi are presented as the 0-m-n line. Test results for pilotoperated and direct-acting valves are also shown, indicating a good correlation between
predicted and actual results.

Designers of spool-type, solenoid-operated hydraulic valves often face the vexing

problem of increasing flow while shrinking the size of the solenoid actuator. It's an effort
to boost performance while reducing size, power consumption, and costs.

But solving the problem means the inconvenient factor of flow forces must be taken into
account. Computing flow forces presents practical engineering problems for two main
reasons. First, flow forces are generally not as well understood as, say, pressure forces.
Second, the pump and other hydraulic-system components dynamically affect transient
flow forces in the valve. So let's see how the system affects internal forces and overall
valve performance.
Flow force, sometimes referred to as the Bernoulli force, results from acceleration of the
fluid mass in the small opening between the valve's spool and sleeve.
The axial component of that force is:
Fx= 2CdCvAPcosa
where Cd= discharge coefficient, Cv= velocity coefficient, A = throttling area, P =
pressure differential over the throttling area, and a = outflow angle.
To reflect real-life conditions, let's assume Cd= 0.7, Cv= 1 (so it can be omitted from
future discussions), and a = 69. This angle depends on the geometry of the throttle and
sharpness of the spool cutting edge. Here, it's based on the theoretical number computed
by R. von Mises for a square-land spool chamber.
Substituting these values in the above equation,
(1) Fx= 0.5AP
In an actual hydraulic circuit P and A are interrelated, so this equation is not practical
without knowing the relationship.
The system's affect on valve performance is often seen when two different test stands
operate the same valve under the same test conditions. In one case the spool readily
shifts while it "hangs up" in transition on the other. This illustrates that estimating flow
forces in spool valves must account for other hydraulic-system components. These
components can change how fast oil moves through the small opening when the spool
starts to shift, resulting in a "tough" system that resists movement or a "soft" one where
the spool valve shifts easily.
Consider a simple circuit consisting of a fixed reciprocating pump that is not pressure
compensated, a hard-to-shift relief valve, and a two-way, two-position solenoid spool
valve. Further assume the relief valve has unlimited flow capacity and keeps inlet
pressure constant at any spool position and any value of A. Then, based on Equation 1,

the axial component of the flow force versus throttling-area can be presented as a
straight line (shown in the Flow force vs. throttling area graphic as Fxat constant P).
Next assume the relief valve is completely closed but the pump has unlimited pressure
capacity and delivers constant flow at any value of A > 0. In this case Equation 1 no
longer applies. Instead, substitute for P using the modified Bernoulli equation:

where Q = volumetric flow rate and = mass density.

Substituting for P from Equation 1,

Using the same values for Cdand cosa, and = 8.1 X 105 lb-sec2/in.4 (for typical petroleum
oil),
(2) Fx = 6.15 X 10-4 Q2/A.
As this equation shows, the axial component of flow force is inversely proportional to the
throttling area when flow through the opening is constant. It is graphically presented as
the curve of Fxat constant Q.
Actual processes start with the relief valve open in regulating mode, and
follow the linear constant-pressure pattern until the valve completely closes. This is
depicted as point m in the graphic. Beyond this point the system follows a constantflow
pattern.
Critical point m is actually the point of interest because it represents the maximum flowforce value. The mathematical coordinates of this point can be found by simultaneously
solving Equations 1 and 2.

Fm, the maximum value of Fx, can be used to evaluate the maximum axial component of
the flow force which counteracts the force trying to open valve.
Am, the throttling area at Fm, can be used to find the approximate critical position of the
spool and help designers determine the best interaction between solenoid and spring
forces.
An example of how calculations match up with an actual system is shown in
theComparing theory and reality graphic.