ARGEENA A.

AGAO-AGAO
PHYSICS 241 Quantum Mechanic I
Problem Set 1 (September 15, 2016)

1. Give a brief description of each of the experiments given in the table below with
their interpretations.
Diffraction (Young 1803, Laue 1912)

Electromagnetic waves

Thomas Young has provided a strong evidence to support the wave model of light, using the
Double slit experiment. In this experiment he placed a screen with two slits in front of a bunch
of monochromatic light where it is expected that if light is a particle then only a couple of rays of
light will hit exactly the slits and will be able to pass through them. And since it is little particles,
a pattern of two exact lines on the viewing screen are observed. However, if light is a wave then
the result of the experiment as they pass through the slit will begin to diffract. When the
experiment was performed the result became like this,

And so, we can observe that as the light passes through the slit it diffracts, so light is made up
of waves and not particles.
On the other hand, the Laue method is used to determine the orientation of large single crystals.
In this experiment, the crystal generates a set of diffracted beams that show the internal
symmetry of the crystal and taking into account Bragg's Law, the experimental constants are the
interplanar spacings d and the crystal position referred to the incident beam. The variables are
the wavelength and the integer number n: n = 2 dhkl sin nh,nk,nl
Thus, the diffraction pattern will contain the diffracted beams corresponding to the first order of
diffraction (n=1) of a certain wavelength, the second order (n=2) of half the wavelength (/2),
the third order (n=3) with wavelength /3, etc. Hence, the Laue diagram is simply a
stereographic projection of the crystal.
Source:
http://www.matter.org.uk/diffraction/x-ray/laue_method.htm; retrieved on September 14, 2016
http://www.xtal.iqfr.csic.es/Cristalografia/parte_06-en.html; retrieved on September 14, 2016

Blackbody radiation (Planck 1900)

Electromagnetic quanta

A black body in thermal equilibrium (i.e. at a constant temperature) emits

electromagnetic radiation called black body radiation. Black body radiation has a characteristic,
continuous frequency spectrum that depends only on the body's temperature. Max Planck, in
1901, accurately described the radiation by assuming that electromagnetic radiation was
emitted in discrete packets (or quanta) which are contrary to the common belief that
electromagnetic radiation can take continuous values of energy.
Plancks law explained the increasing temperature of a body allows it to emit more
energy overall and means that a larger proportion of the energy is towards the violet end of the
spectrum. The first model which was able to explain the full spectrum of thermal radiation was
created Max Planck. He gave a mathematical formula in which the thermal radiation was in
equilibrium with a set of harmonic oscillators. However to reproduce the results, where he
assumed that each of oscillator emitted an integer number of units of energy at its single
characteristic frequency, rather than being able to emit any arbitrary amount of energy. In other
words, the energy emitted by an oscillator was quantized. The quantum of energy for each
oscillator, according to Planck, was proportional to the frequency of the oscillator; the constant
of proportionality is now known as the Planck constant. The Planck constant, usually written as
h, has the value of 6.626 10 -34 Js. The energy E of an oscillator of frequency f is given by
E=nhf , where n=1,2,3,
Source:
Boundless. Planck's Quantum Hypothesis and Black Body Radiation. Boundless Physics. Boundless, 26
May. 2016. Retrieved 10 Sep. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundlessphysics-textbook/atomic-physics-29/overview-184/planck-s-quantum-hypothesis-and-black-bodyradiation-682-6361/
First Quantum Theory: Black Body Radiation by Max Planck By Zipal Patel July 29, 2016 Retrieved 10
Sep. 2016 from http://fancyfrindle.com/first-quantum-theory-black-body-radiation-max-planck/

Photoelectric effect (Einstein 1904)

Electromagnetic quanta

The photoelectric effect is an effect where weakly bound electrons within metals are ejected
from the material when electromagnetic radiation interacts with those electrons. The ejected
electrons are known as the photoelectrons. It was Albert Einstein who developed a revolutionary
theory to explain the photoelectric effect. He used the quantization idea of the electromagnetic
radiation in his theory. According to this theory, light consists of energy packets or energy
quanta called photons and they are absorbed or produced as units of energy packets. Simply,
fractional energy packets do not exist.
The energy (E) associated with a photon is given by; E= hf where, h= Plancks constant and f =
frequency of the electromagnetic wave.
His theory suggests that the energy of a photon is completely acquired by a single electron in
the metal. The electron spends a certain amount of energy (work function of the material) to
liberate from its binding in the material. The electron comes out from the material as a liberated
electron which is called a photoelectron. Normally, the electron loses some amount of its energy
due to the interaction with other electrons in the surroundings on its way. The remaining energy

of the electron appears as its kinetic energy. However, the energy is conserved in the process.
So, the conservation of energy gives the relationship between the frequency of the incident
photon and the kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
It can be done experimentally using a clean surface of metal which will be exposed to light and
yield electrons, and called cathode. And we need another surface to collect electrons called
anode, which is facing the cathode, and both are sealed in vacuum.
Source:
The Nature of Light. Retrieved 10 Sep. 2016 from
https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistry-textbook/introduction-to-quantumtheory-7/the-nature-of-light-63/the-photoelectric-effect-297-3667/
Retrieved 14 Sep. 2016 from http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~c173_608/photoelectric/photoelectric.html

Compton effect (1923)

Electromagnetic quanta

In 1923, Arthur Comptons famous Compton scattering experiment showed how x-rays
(generally understood as waves of electromagnetic radiation) can be observed to bounce
off electrons, thus exhibiting particle-like properties. He also showed how this particle-like
characteristic of electromagnetic radiation could be measured by its frequencies, previously
considered a characteristic property only of waves.
The inelastic scattering of high-energy photons by loosely bound electrons or free
charged particles is called the Compton Effect. In this effect, the photon transfers part of its
energy and momentum to the charged particle. So, the energy of the resultant photon is less
than that of the incident photon. The wavelength of the scattered photon is higher than that of
the incident photon as energy associated with a photon is inversely proportional to the
wavelength of the photon. The charged particle that interacts with the photon acquires a part of
energy and momentum of the photon and recoils. However, both the energy and momentum of
the system is conserved in the process.
Source:
QUANTA AND WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY Retrieved 10 Sep. 2016
from http://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_quantum_quanta.html

Combination principle

Electromagnetic quanta

(Ritz-Rydberg 1908)

Discrete values for physical quantities

The combination principle is an empirical rule, formulated by W. Ritz in 1905. This principle
states that it is possible to find pairs of spectral lines, which have the property, that the sum of
their wavenumbers is also an observed spectral line. This principle is obvious when we know
that spectra are due to transitions between energy levels. An atom can decay from a state 2 to a
ground state 0 either directly, or in two steps 21 and 10. Energy is conserved, E = hf, so the
two frequencies (wavenumbers) of the latter route add to the frequency of the first route. And in
1913, Niels Bohr showed this for the hydrogen atom.
Source:
Retrieved 14 Sep. 2016 from http://homepage.lnu.se/staff/pkumsi/Rydberg/RydbergRitz.html

Specific heats (Einstein 1907, Debye 1912)

Discrete values for physical quantities

Einstein attributed the specific heat of solids to the vibrations of the solid and made the
simplifying assumption that all the vibrations have the same frequency. This theory was partially
successful since it was able to derive Dulong and Petit's law at high temperatures and showed
that the specific heat capacity goes to zero as the absolute temperature also goes to zero.
A theory of the specific heat capacity of solids put forward by Peter Debye in 1912, in
which it was assumed that the specific heat is a consequence of the vibrations of the atoms of
the lattice of the solid. In contrast to the Einstein theory of specific heat, which assumes that
each atom has the same vibrational frequency, Debye postulated that there is a continuous
range of frequencies that cuts off at a maximum frequency D, which is characteristic of a
particular solid. The theory leads to the conclusion that the specific heat capacity of solids is
proportional to T3, where T is the thermodynamic temperature. This result is in very good
agreement with experiment at low temperatures.
Source:
Einstein theory of specific heat. Retrieved 10 Sep. 2016 from
http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095744741

Franck-Hertz experiment (1913)

Discrete values for physical quantities

James Franck and Gustav Hertz performed an experiment that demonstrates the
existence of excited states in mercury atoms, which would confirm that the electrons occupied
only discrete, quantized energy states. In this experiment, the electrons are emitted by a heated
cathode, and then accelerated toward a grid which is at a positive potential, relative to the
cathode. The collecting plate is at lower potential and is negative with respect to the mesh, as
shown below

If there is enough energy, electrons will reach the grid and even reach the collecting plate then
will be measure as current. However, electrons that dont have enough energy on reaching the
grid will be slowed down and will fall back to the grid. The experimental results confirm the
existence of discrete energy levels.
As long as the electron collision is elastic, the electrons will not lose energy on colliding
with gas molecules in tube. As the accelerating potential increases, the current also increases.
But as the accelerating potential reaches a particular value, (4.9eV for mercury, 19eV for neon),

each electron possess that much of potential and now the collision become inelastic. As a
result, the energy level of electron bound to the atom is raised. Now the electron almost loses its
energy, and measured current drops.
Source:
Retrieved 14 Sep. 2016 from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/frhz.html

Stern-Gerlach experiment (1922)

Discrete values for physical quantities

Experiments in the early 1920s discovered a new aspect of nature and at the same time
found the simplest quantum system in existence. In the Stern-Gerlach experiment, a beam of
hot atoms is passed through a non-uniform magnetic field. This field would interact with the
magnetic dipole moment of the atom, if any, and deflect it.

This experiment discovered two surprising things. The atomsspecifically, the unpaired
outer electrondid have a magnetic dipole moment. In effect, in addition to being charged,
electrons acted like tiny bar magnets. They also, as it developed, have a tiny intrinsic amount of
angular momentum, equal to / 2. (This quantity is called spin, and all known elementary
particles have nonzero spin.) Electrons are called spin-1/2 particles. The second surprising thing
was how much the path of the electrons was deflected. If electrons were really bar magnets,
they could be oriented in any direction. The component oriented along the magnetic field
gradient (say the Z direction) would determine the force on the electron, and hence how much it
would be deflected. If electrons were like ordinary magnets with random orientations, they would
show a continuous distribution of paths.
The photographic plate in the Stern-Gerlach experiment would have shown a continuous
distribution of impact positions. What was observed was quite different. The electrons were
deflected either up or down by a constant amount, in roughly equal numbers. Apparently, the Z
component of the electrons spin is quantized: it can take only one of two discrete values. We
say that the spin is either up or down in the Z direction.
Source:
The Stern-Gerlach Experiment and Spin. Retrieved 10 Sep. 2016 from http://wwwbcf.usc.edu/~tbrun/Course/lecture02.pdf

2. (a) Consider a thermal neutron, that is, a neutron with speed corresponding to
the average thermal energy at the temperature T = 300K. Is it possible to observe
a diffraction pattern when a beam of such neutrons fall on a crystal?
Solution:
The average thermal energy of temperature T is given by
3
Eave = kT
2
23

where k is the Boltzmann constant, k =1.38 x 10

J /K .

Hence, we have the following relation for energy,

2

3
1
p
Eave = kT = mn v 2 =
2
2
2 mn

so,

p= 3 mn kT

where

mn

is the neutrons

27
mass, mn=1.67 x 10 kg .

According to De Broglie relation, wavelength is given by

h
h
= =
p 3 mn kT
34
where h is the Plancks constant, h=6.626 x 10 Js .

Thus, for T = 300K, we get

6.626 x 1034
6.626 x 1034
=
=
3(1.67 x 1027)(1.38 x 1023 )(300) 2.074 x 1047
1.45
In a crystal, this result is the order of magnitude of the spaces between the
atoms. Hence, a diffraction phenomenon is similar to that of the x-rays.

(b) In a large accelerator, an electron can be provided with energy over 1 GeV =
109 eV. What is the De Broglie wavelength corresponding to such electrons?
Solution:
31
Given that the electrons mass is, me =9.11 x 10 kg and the speed of
8
light, c=3 x 10 m/ s . We note that the electrons rest energy is

E=m e c 2=9.11 x 1031(3 x 10 8)2

2

14

me c =8.199 x 10
2

18

J x 6.242 x 10 eV / J
6

me c 0.51 x 10 eV

Hence, if an energy of

10 eV

is imparted to the electron, it will move

with a velocity close to the speed of light. Given that the equation for energy is
E= p2 c 2+ m e2 c 4

where me c

becomes negligible compared to E, and we get

E= p2 c 2= pc
h hc
= =
p E
Plugging in the values for each term, we obtain
34
8
(6.626 x 10 )(3 x 10 )
=
1.6 x 1010
9
10
where 10 eV =1.6 x 10 J ,

15

=1.2 x 10

m=1.2 fm

3. In the Bohr model of the atom, the electron is considered as a classical particle.
However the allowed orbits are defined by the quantization rules. Show that this
semiclassical Bohr model of the atom is rejected by the uncertainty principle:
xp .
Solution:
Considering an electron's motion in classical terms, the uncertainties of its
position and momentum must be negligible when compared to r and p where,
xr

and

p p

This implies that,

x p
1
r p
However, the uncertainty relation imposes that
x p

r p rp
n=rp

x p 1

rp
n

Hence,

x p
1
r p

is not compatible with

x p 1

rp
n

unless n 1.