THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

LESSON SUMMARY
Research and theory must work together because without theory, research is of little
value, and if theory is unconnected to research, it is unlikely to represent the way life
really is.
Sociological research is needed because common sense is highly limited and often
incorrect. Eight basic steps are included in scientific research: (1) selecting a topic, (2)
defining the problem, (3) reviewing the literature, (4) formulating a hypothesis, (5)
choosing a research method, (6) collecting the data, (7) analyzing the results, and (8)
sharing the results.
Sociologists use six research methods (or research designs) for gathering data: (1)
surveys, (2) participant observations, (3) secondary analysis, (4) documents, (5)
experiments, and (6) unobtrusive measures.
Ethics are of concern to sociologists, who are committed to openness, honesty, truth,
and protecting subjects. Sociologists agree that social research should be value free but
recognize that at any point in time, sociologists are members of a particular society and
are infused with values of all sorts. One of the dilemmas for sociologists is deciding
whether the goal of research should be only to advance understanding of human
behavior or also to reform harmful social arrangements.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After Reading Ch 01 Lesson 04 you will:
1. Explain why there is a need for sociological research. (18)
2. List and describe the eight basic steps for conducting scientific research. (1821)
3. Define, describe, and discuss the significance of the following terms associated
with the research process: hypothesis, variable, independent variable, dependent
variable, operational definitions, validity, and reliability. (1820)
4. Know and discuss the six research methods that sociologists use, the tools that
they employ, and the strengths and limitations of each. (2 127)
5. Define, describe, and discuss the significance of the following terms associated
with the six research methods: survey, population, sample, random sample,
stratified random sample, closed-ended questions, open-ended questions, rapport,
participant observation, secondary analysis, documents, experiment, experimental
group, control group, independent variable, dependent variable, and unobtrusive
measures. (2127)
6. Discuss the tension that remains between pure sociology and social reform. (30)

LESSON OUTLINE
I Doing Sociological Research
A. Common sense cannot be relied on as a source of knowledge because it is
highly limited and its insights often are incorrect. To move beyond common
sense and understand what is really going on and why, it is necessary to do
sociological research.
B. Scientific research follows eight basic steps.

I. Selecting a topic depends on what the researcher wants to know more

about and explain.
2. Defining the problem involves specifying exactly what the researcher
wants to learn about the topic.
3. Reviewing the literature uncovers existing knowledge about the problem.
4. Formulating a hypothesis involves stating the expected relationship
between variables, based on a theory. Hypotheses need operational
definitionsprecise ways to measure the variables.
5. Choosing a research method is influenced by the research topic.
6. Collecting the data involves concerns about validitythe extent to which
operational definitions measure what was intendedand reliabilitythe
extent to which data produce consistent results.
7. Analyzing the results involves the use of a range of techniquesfrom
statistical tests to content analysisto analyze data. Computers have
become powerful tools in data analysis because they reduce large
amounts of data to basic patterns in much less time than it used to take.
8. Sharing the results by writing a report and publishing the results makes
the findings available for replication.
II. Research Methods
A. Surveys involve collecting data by having people answer a series of questions.
1. The first step is to determine a populationthe target group to be studied
and selecting a sampleindividuals from among the target population
who are intended to represent the population to be studied.
2. In a random sample, everyone in the target population has the same
chance of being included in the study. A stratified random sample is a
sample of specific subgroups (e.g., freshmen, sophomores, juniors) of the
target population (a college or university) in which everyone in the
subgroup has an equal chance or being included in the study. Because a
random sample represents the target population, you can generalize your
findings.
3. The respondents (people who respond to a survey) must be allowed to
express their own ideas so that the findings will not be biased.
4. Sociologists must decide between asking closed-ended questions, in
which the respondent selects one from a list of possible answers, and
open-ended questions, in which respondents answer the question in their
own words.
5. It is important to establish rapporta feeling of trust between
researchers and subjects.
B. In participant observation, the researcher participates in a research setting
while observing what is happening in that setting.
C. Secondary analysis is the analysis of data already collected by other
researchers.
D. Documentswritten sourcesmay be obtained from many sources, including
books, newspapers, police reports, and records kept by various organizations.

E. Experiments are especially useful in determining causal relationships

1. Experiments require an experimental groupthe group of subjects
exposed to the independent variableand a control groupthe group of
subjects not exposed to the independent variable.
2. Experiments involve independent variables (factors that cause a change
in something) and dependent variables (factors that are changed).
F. Unobtrusive measures involve observing social behavior of people who do not
know they are being studied.
III. Ethics In Sociological Research
A. Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists when it comes to doing
research.
B. Ethical considerations include being open, honest, and truthful; not falsifying
results or stealing someone elses work; not harming the subject in the course of
conducting the research; protecting the anonymity of the research subjects; and
not misrepresenting themselves to the research subjects.
D. Weber advocated that sociological research should be value freepersonal
values or biases should not influence social researchand objectivetotally
neutral.
1. Sociologists agree that objectivity is a proper goal but acknowledge that
no one can escape values entirely.
2. Replicationrepeating a study to see whether the same results are found
is one means to avoid the distortions that values can cause.
3. This debate illustrates the continuing tensions over what should be the
goal of sociological research. Some sociologists lean toward basic
sociological research that has no goal beyond understanding social life
and testing social theory, others feel that the knowledge should be used
to reform society.
IV. Trends Shaping the Future of Sociology
A. Public sociology provides a middle ground between research and social reform.
Public sociology refers to encouraging a sociological perspective among the public,
especially politicians and policy makers.
B. Globalization is the extensive interconnections among nations due to the
expansion of capitalism.

KEY TERMS
After studying the Lesson, review the definition for each of the following terms.
open-ended questions: questions that respondents are able to answer in their own
words (25)
operational definition: the way in which a variable in a hypothesis is measured (19)
participant observation (or fieldwork): research in which a researcher participates in
a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting (25)
population: the target group to be studied (21)
random sample: a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same
chance of being included in the study (21)

rapport: a feeling of trust between researchers and subjects (25)

reliability: the extent to which data produce consistent results (21)
replication: repeating a study to test its findings (29)
research method (or research design): one of six procedures sociologists use to
collect data:
surveys, participant observation, secondary analysis, documents, unobtrusive measure,
and experiments (19)
respondents: people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by selfadministered questionnaires (23)
sample: individuals from among a target population (21)
secondary analysis: the analysis of data already collected by other researchers (25)
stratified random sample: a sample of specific subgroups of the target population in
which everyone in the subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the study (22)
survey: collecting data by having people answer a series of questions (21)
unobtrusive measures: observing people in such a way that they do not know they are
being studied (27)
validity: the extent to which an operational definition measures what was intended (19)
variable: a factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which varies from one
case to another (19)

KEY PEOPLE
Review the major theoretical contributions or findings of these people.
Mario Brajuha: During an investigation into a restaurant fire, officials subpoenaed notes
taken by this sociologist in connection with his participant observation research on
restaurant work. He was threatened with jail but would not turn over his notes. (28)
Laud Humphreys: The sociologist carried out doctoral research on homosexual activity.
To obtain information, he misrepresented himself to his research subjects. When his
methods became widely known, a debate developed over his use of questionable ethics.
(28)

STUDENT APPLICATION PROJECTS

This is your opportunity to apply the sociological perspective to the world around you.
The projects in this section refer to material introduced in this chapter of your text.
2. Think back to the last time you participate in a survey (by phone, Web, or mail) Did
you really want to participate in the survey? Why or why not? What problems did you
notice with the survey? Do you think most people are compelled to give socially
acceptable answers in the survey? Explain. Finally, discuss the extent to which you think
surveys are a good way to do research.