Technical English for Industrial Electronics. 2EC Electronics I €D Surface mount electronic components Electronics is a branch of science and technology that deals with the flow of electrons through nonmetallic conductors, mainly semiconductors such as silicon. It is distinct from electrical science and technology, which deal with the flow of electrons and other charge carriers through metal conductors such as copper. This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode. Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers and vacuum tubes. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic_circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering. This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Electronics theo! Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis. Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain branch of a network. A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit simulator. Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory.Analog circu Hitachi 3100 adjustable frequency drive chassis. Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a ‘circuit’ can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components. Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators. One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital. Digital circuits Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms “digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use two voltage levels labeled "Low"(0) and "High"(1). Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use. Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.Basic Electronic Tools used to assemble electronic projects and electronic kits Introduction to Basic Electronic Tools Assembling electronics project and making it works is a good start in helping one to learn troubleshooting methods as well as becoming familiar with your tools, test equipment, electronic schematics and component color codes. It's hard to do a good job of electronics construction unless proper electronic tools and knowledge of using them are adequate. Some of the basic tools that should prove useful are discussed here. lect Di and Drill Bits Electric drill and drill bits in the range of 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch will come in handy when you need to drill holes on the printed circuit board that has been etched. Drilling of plastic or metal enclosure that houses the printed circuit board are sometimes necessary. A suitable PCB high speed drill can be easily obtained from any electronic shop. Soldering Iron A 20 Watt to 30 Watt soldering iron with tips of 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch can be used for soldering of through hole components. Soldering of surface mount components may require smaller tips depending on the sizes of the components. Soldering iron normally will last a long time if it is taken care of properly by keeping the tips clean and well tinned. Wire Stripper Wire stripper is used to strip off wire insulator from its conductor before it is used to connect to another wire or soldered into the printed circuit board. Some wire stripper or wire cutter has a measurement engraved on it to indicate the length that will be stripped. Long nose Plier A 4-inch long nose plier will come in handy when you need to hold components that have short leads that need to be soldered onto the PCB but will be too hot to handle with bare hands. It will also be useful to hold the component that needs to be de-soldered from the board Side-Cutting Plier A4-inch side cutting plier will come in handy as one of the electronic tools When one need to trim off excess component leads on the printed circuit board. It can also be used to cut wires into shorter length before being used.Tweezers 4 gimall tweezer is used to hold small components especially when doing Soldering and de-soldering of surface mount components. Allen Wrench set Allen wrench set is sometimes used to unscrew or screw Allen type of screws, Phi s Head Screwdrivers Various sizes of Philips head screwdrivers will be handy asa lot of electronics projects that use screws are Philips Head type. Flat Head Screwdrivers Flat head screwdrivers of various sizes are also necessary as many screws that are used are of this type. Hammer A small, light hammer will be useful when assembling projects that involved casing, Socket wrench sets A socket wrench sets that include nut drivers, hex drivers, and starters in assorted sizes will come in handy during the assembly work of electronics project. Pocket Knife Pocket Knife will be useful when one need to cut PCB, wires or remove some cooper from the printed circuit board. Maintenance Tips Of Electronic Tools Good quality tools that are being purchased can last a lifetime if they are taken care of properly. Ensure that the tools are used only for their intended purposes, keep them lubricated with a light film of oil to inhibit rust, keep the tools clean and sharp, keep the soldering tips clean and well tinned and ensure that proper use of the tools are always adhered to by following the instructions of using the tools. Note: Use an electronics toolbox in class.Table of Cardinal Numbers 5 Cardinal numbers from 1 through 1,000,000 lone i1eleven 21 twenty-one 31 thirty-one 2two 12twelve 22 twenty-two 40 forty 3three 13 thirteen 23 twenty-three 50 fifty 4four 14fourteen 24 twenty-four 60 sixty Sfive 15 fifteen 25 twenty-five 70 seventy Gsix 16 sixteen _26 twenty-six 80 eighty 7seven 17 seventeen 27 twenty-seven 90 ninety Beight 18eighteen 28 twenty-eight 100 a/one hundred Qnine 19nineteen 29 twenty-nine 1,000 a/one thousand 10ten 20 twenty 30 thirty 1,000,000 a/one million Separation between hundreds and tens Hundreds and tens are usually separated by ‘and’ (in American English ‘and’ is not necessary). 110 - one hundred and ten 1,250 - one thousand, two hundred and fifty 2,001 - two thousand and one Hundreds Use 100 always with 'a' or ‘one’. 100 - a hundred / one hundred ‘a' can only stand at the beginning of a number. 100 - a hundred / one hundred 2,100 - two thousand, one hundred Thousands and Millions Use 1,000 and 1,000,000 always with ‘a’ or ‘one’ 1,000 - a thousand / one thousand 201,000 - two hundred and one thousand Use commas as a separator, 57,458,302 The Number 1,000,000,000 In English this number is a billion. This is very tricky for nations where 'a billion’ has 12 zeros. 1,000,000,000,000 in English, however, is a trillion. But don’t worry, these numbers are even a bit problematic for native speakers: for a long time the British ‘billion’ had 12 zeros (a number with 9zeros was called 'a thousand million’). Now, however, also in British English @ billion’ has 9 zeros. But from time to time this number still causes Confusion (just like this paragraph, I'm afraid). BASIC MATH SYMBOLS and Operations Here is a table of some of the most frequently used math symbols. ‘Symbol What Is It? + Adding Sign. Often referred to as the ‘plus' sign. 2 Subtracting Sign. Often referred to as the ‘minus’ sign. x Multiplication Sign. Often referred to as the ‘times’ sign. | : Division Sign, es |. "Equal Sign. Ws Ab ue - - | "Not Equal to, \ “() Parenthesis. - [] "Square Brackets. % Percent Sign - Out of 100. j yO Big Sum Sign - Summation. - Y Square Root Sign. < Inequality sign. Less Than, Sea Inequality sign. Greater Than, - ! - Factorial. 6 OO Theta. n Pi ~. Approximately. L Perpindicular. Z Angle Sign.Electronic Symbols Factorial Sign. Therefore Electronic circuit symbols are used for drawing schematic diagram. The symbols represent electronic components. Diode / LED Symbols Diode Zener Diode Schottky Diode Varactor / Varicap Diode Tunnel Diode Light Emitting Diode (LED) PR? PH PY Photodiode ‘Transistor Symbols NPN Bipolar Transistor PNP Bipolar Transistor Darlington Transistor JFET-N Transistor JFET-P Transistor NMOS Transistor Add A de Diode allows current flow in one direction only (left to right). Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown voltage Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop Variable capacitance diode LED emits light when current flows through Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light Allows current flow when high potential at base (middle) Allows current flow when low potential at base (middle) Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the product of each gain N-channel field effect transistor P-channel field effect trans stor N-channel MOSFET transistorMise. Symbols ~@- Motor ae ‘Transformer Electric bell > 7 Buzzer = |e is |e is aed — iP iD iB f In ia Optocoupler / Opto- isolator Loudspeaker Microphone Operational Amplifier Schmitt Trigaer Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) VOYY RAR I | —O- Crystal Oscillator P-channel MOSFET transistor Electric motor Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high. Rings when activated Produce buzzing sound The fuse disconnects when current above threshold. Used to protect circuit from high currents, Contains several wires. Usually for data / address. Optocoupler isolates onnection to other board Converts electrical signal to sound waves Converts sound waves to electrical signal ‘Amplify input signal Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise. Converts analog signal to digital numbers Converts digital numbers to analog signal Used to generate precise frequency clock signalAntenna Symbols Y Antenna / aerial Y Antenna / aerial ‘TT Dipote Antenna Logic Gates Symbols “BD NOT Gate (Inverter) D- ann cate NAND Gate OR Gate NOR Gate XOR Gate D Flip-Flop Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 4 Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1 Demuttiplexer / Demux 1 to4 wooo 9% o The Computer. Transmits & receives radio waves Two wires simple antenna Outputs 1 when input is 0 Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1 Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND) Outputs 1 when any input is 1 Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR) Outputs 1 when inputs are different (Exclusive OR) Stores one bit of data Connects the output to selected input line. Connects selected output to the input line. A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.There are a lot of terms can be found over the internet related to /(/ computer. All type of computer have processor, Memory, keyboard, mouse and screen to display output. But their is a significant difference how people or organizations use computes for their usage: We can divide all type of computers to 10 categories. Personal Computer (PC) : A personal computer (PC) is a computer whose original sales price, size, and capabilities make it useful for individuals, and intended to be operated directly by an end user, with no intervening computer operator. People generally relate this term with Microsoft's Windows Operating system. Personal computers generally run on Windows, Mac or some version of Linux operating system. Desktop: Desktop computer is just another version of Personal Computer intended for regular use from a single use. A computer that can be fit on a desk can also be called as desktop. Desktop computers comes in different form vertical tower cases to small form factor. Laptop: Laptop computer , Laptop or Notebook all are same, Laptop’s are generally small mobile computers run on a single main battery or from an external power supply that will served as to run the laptop as well as charge the battery. Laptop contains all the components of computer but all these are oplimized for mobile users. Personal Digital Assistants(PDAs): A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld computer, also known as small or palmtop computers. Newer PDAs also have both color screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smartphones), web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi, orWireless Wide-Area Networks (WWANs), Many PDAs employ touch {{ screen technology, Workstation: A computer that has a more power resources like Processing Power, Memory and additional capabilities to perform Special task refers to as workstation. Workstations are often optimized for displaying and manipulating complex data such as 3D mechanical design, engineering simulation results such as for computational fluid dynamics, animation and rendering of images, and mathematical plots. Server: A server computer is a computer dedicatec to running a server application. A server application is a computer program that accepts connections in order to service requests by sending back responses. Examples of server applications include web servers, e- mail servers, database servers, and file servers. Mainframe: In early days of computing Mainframes are big computers that can fill the entire room or entire floor. Mainframes are mainly used by large organizations for critical applications, such as consumer statistics, ERP, and financial transaction processing. Minicomputer: Minicomputers are lie between the Mainframe computer and small Personal Computers. Minicomputers also referred to Mid-Range Servers. Minicomputers are more powerful but still compatible version of a personal computer. Supercomputer: A computer which, among existing general- purpose computers at any given time, is superlative, often in several senses: highest computation rate, largest memory, or highest cost. Predominantly, the term refers to the fastest “number crunchers,” that is, machines designed to perform numerical calculations at thehighest speed that the latest electronic device tectnology and the i2 state of the art of computer architecture allow. Wearable : Wearable computers are computers that are worn on the body. They have been applied to areas such as behavioral modeling, health monitoring systems, information technologies and media development. Government organizations, military, and health Professionals have all incorporated wearable computers into their daily operations. Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require computational support while the user's hands, voice, eyes or attention are actively engaged with the physical environment Software Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software. The storage devices and display devices are hardware. The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software,” meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem.” The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded. Software is often divided into two categories: Cl systems software : Includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. Cl applications software : Includes programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems fall under the category of applications software.a a Hardware {3 t you can actually touch, Ike disks, disk OP ly touch, Ike disks, disk contract Slay screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips. In eons ce ‘softwar 'S untouchable. Software exists as ideas, Pts, and symbols, but it has no substance. oes Provide a useful analogy. The pages and the ink are the lardware, while the words, sentences, paragraphs, and the overall meaning are the software. A computer without software is like a book full of blank pages -- you need software to make the computer useful just as you need words to make a book Meaningful. Appleation KC — 2 cae af Dek Drive 2) al System Operacing ee Se NL Mouse The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers., a a aioe: the operating system has even greater and powers. It is like a traffic cop -~ it makes sure hat different programs and users running at the same time do not It a _Bulticuser ? Allows two or more users to run programs © Same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. tha nulltipcocessina : Supports running a program on more oni © multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently. © multithreading : Allows different parts of a single Program to run concurrently. O real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real- time. Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux. As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and executed by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command line interpreter. Graphical user_interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking at objects that appear on the screen. Universal Serial Bus Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a serial bus standard 20 connect devices to a host computer. USB was designed to allow many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket and to improve plug and play capabilities by allowing hot swapping; that is, by allowing devices to be connected and disconnected without rebooting the computer or turning off the device. Other convenient features include providing power to low- consumption devices, eliminating the need for an external power supply; and allowing many devices to be used without requiringmanufacturer-specific device drivers to be installed, USB is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel Ports. USB can connect computer_peripherals such as mice, keyboards, PDAs, gamepads and joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, printers, personal Media players, flash drives, and external hard drives. For many of those devices, USB has become the standard connection method. USB was designed for personal computers, but it has become commonplace on other devices such as PDAs and video game consoles, and as a power cord between a device and an AC adapter plugged into a wall plug for charging. As of 2008, there are about 2 billion USB devices sold per year, and about 6 billion total sold to date On September 18, 2007, Pat Gelsinger demonstrated USB 3.0 at the Intel_Developer_forum. The USB 3.0 Promoter Group announced on November 17, 2008, that version 1.0 of the specification has been completed and is transitioned to the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF), the managing body of USB specifications.) This move effectively opens the spec to hardware developers for implementation in future products. The first USB 3.0 ports were featured on the Asus P6X58 motherboard. However this board was cancelled before production for unspecified reasons. Features + Anew major feature is the SuperSpeed bus, which provides a fourth transfer mode at 4.8 Gbit/s. The raw throughput is 500 MByte/s, and the specification considers it reasonable to achieve 400 MByte/s or more after protocol overhead, #21 + When operating in SuperSpeed mode, full-duplex signaling occurs over 2 differential pairs separate from the non- SuperSpeed differential pair. This results in USB 3.0 cables containing 2 wires for power and ground, 2 wires for non- SuperSpeed data, and 4 wires for SuperSpeed data, and a shield (not required in previous specifications) (#4. + To accommodate the additional pins for SuperSpeed mode, the physical form factors for USB 3.0 plugs and receptacles have been modified from those used in previous versions. Standard-A cables have extended heads were the SuperSpeed connectors extend beyond and slightly above the legacy connectors. Similarly, the Standard-A receptacle is deeper to accept these new connectors. A legacy Standard-A cable will operate as intended and will never interact with the SuperSpeed connectors, ensuring backward compatibility. The Standard-8 modifications could not be made as elegantly; the SuperSpeed connectors tad to be placed on top of the existing form factor, making legacy Standard-B plugs workable on SuperSpeed Standard-B receptacles, but not vice versa. 15g ane ebeed establishes a communications pipe between the cone device, in a host-directed protocol. In Mecano -0 broadcasts packet traffic to all devices. 288 3.0 extends the bulk transfer type in SuperSpeed with reams. This extension allows a host and device to create end transfer multiple streams of data through a single bulk ipe. + New power management features include support of idle, sleep and suspend states, as well as Link-, Device-, and Function-level power management. + The bus power spec has been increased so that a unit load is 150mA (+50% over minimum using USB 2.0). An unconfigured device can still draw only 1 unit load, but a configured device can draw up to 6 unit loads (900mA, an 80% increase over USB 2.0 at a registered maximum of 500mA). Minimum device operating voltage is dropped from 4.4V to 4V. + USB 3.0 does not define cable assembly lengths, except that it can be of any length as long as it meets all the requirements defined in the specification. However, electronicdesign.com estimates cables will be limited to 3 m at SuperSpeed. 2! Technology is similar to a single channel (1x) of PCI Express 2.0 (5-Gbit/s). It uses 8B/10B encoding, linear feedback shift reaister (LFSR) scrambling for data, spread spectrum. It forces receivers to use low frequency periodic signaling (LFPS), dynamic equalization, and training sequences to ensure fast signal locking. Internet A global network connecting millions of computers. More than 100 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the Internet is decentralized by design. Each Internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its operators can choose which Internet services to use and which local services to make available to the global Internet community. Remarkably, this anarchy by design works exceedingly well. There are a variety of ways to access the Internet. Most online services, such as America Online, offer access to some Internet services. It is also possible to gain access through a commercial Internet Service Provider (ISP). The Internet is not synonymous with World Wide Web. Ib4 | The Internet, then known as ARPANET, was brought enline in 1969 7 rated feontiees let by the renamed Advanced Research Projects Agency (A ) which initially connected four major computers at ma ‘Sin the southwestern US (UCLA, Stanford Research nstitute, UCSB, and the University of Utah). The contract was Carried out by BBN of Cambridge, MA under Bob Kahn and went online in December 1969. E-mail was adapted for ARPANET by Ray Tomlinson of BBN in 1972. He picked the @ symbol from the available symbols on his teletype to link the username and address. The telnet protocol, enabling logging on to a remote computer, was published as a Request for Comments (RFC) in 1972. Delphi was the first national commercial online service to offer Internet access to its subscribers. It opened up an email connection in July 1992 and full Internet service in November 1992. All pretenses of limitations on commercial use disappeared in May 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the Internet backbone, and all traffic relied on commercial networks. Television Television (TV) is a widely used telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images, either monochromat “black and white") or color, usually accompanied by sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming or television transmission. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (tijAe), | far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person). Commercially available since the late 1930s, the television set has become a common communications receiver in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly as a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s the availability of video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as broadcast material. Although other forms such as closed-circuit television are in use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers. Broadcast TV is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on designated channels in the 54-890 megahertz frequency tand. Signals are now often transmitted with stereo and/or surround sound many countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs werePp Senerelbrerared and transmitted as an analog signal, but in recent Hs te p ic and commercial broadcasters have been progressively roducing digital television broadcasting technology. A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use different technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous. Technology of television of television has changed since its early days using Nipkow in 1884. The technology ‘em invented by Paul Gottlieb a mechanical syst Elements of a television system power switch / volume . brightness . pitch “vertical synchro . horizontal synchro . contrast . channel tuning ; channel switch OPNAMaYNE broadcast television system are: The elements of a simple irce. This is the electrical signal representing the Visual image, and may be from a camera in the cese of live images, a video tape recorder for playback of recorded images, ora film chain-telecine-flying spot scanner for transmission of motion pictures (films). A sound source. This is an electrical signal from a microphone or from the audio output of a video tape recorder or motion picture film scanner. A transmitter, which generates radio signals (radio waves) and encodes them with picture and sound information. An antenna coupled to the output of the transmitter for broadcasting the encoded signals. + Anantenna to receive the broadcast signals. + An image soulPP «+ Areceivei fc sound intone fae funen) which decodes the picture and if is coupled to the antenna e broadcast signals, and whose input + Adisplay devi images ‘ice, which turns the electrical signals into visual Y An audi Ap au amplifier and loudspeaker, which turns electrical into sound waves (speech, music, and cther sounds) to accompany the images. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signs from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. The facility for housing such equipment, as well as providing space for stages, sets, offices, etc., is called television studio, and may be located many miles from the transmitter. Communication from the studio to the transmitter Is accomplished via a dedicated cable or radio system. Television signals were originally transmitted exclusively via land- varied greatly, | based transmitters. The quality of reception large part on the location and type of receiving dependent _in led to the proliferation of large rooftop antennas to antenna. This improve reception in the 1960s, replacing set-top dipole or “rabbit tore’ antennas, which however remained popular. Antenna rotors, Set-top controlled servo motors to which the mast of the antenna = Frounted, to enable rotating the antenna such that it points to the desired transmitter, would also become popular. In most cities today, cable television providers deliver signals over coanial or fiber-optic cables for a fee. Signals can also be delivered by ea from satellites in geosynchronous orbit and received by s, which are comparetively large for analog parabolic _dish_antenna: Signals, but much smaller for digital. Like cable provders, satellite oviders also require a fee, often less than cable systems. television pr The affordability and conv to the proliferation of sma apartments. enience of digital satellite reception has led II dish antennas outside many houses and Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better. image transmission quality, reduction in transmission bandwidth, special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. A home today might have the choice of receiving analog or HDTV over the air, analag or digital cable with HDTV from a cable television company over coaxial cable, or even from the phone company over fiber optic lines. On the road, television can be received by pocket sized televisions, recorded on tape or digital media players, or played back on wireless phones (mobile or "cell" phones) over a high-speed or "broadband" internet connection.a Industrial Electronics II ZC Z Electrical Inverter An inver a ea is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) alternating cur : olisdanera -eutrent (AC); the converted AC can be at any required : juency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Baise ~ Static inverters have no moving parts and are used ina wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. nic oscillator. It is so rs were made to The electrical inverter is a high-power electror named because early mechanical AC to DC c work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to conver! The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. Applications DC power source utilization Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. A small unit provides up to 1.2 amperes of eiternating current, or just enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs. converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, to AC electricity. The electricity can be at particular it can operate AC equipment or rectified to produce DC at any An invertel solar panels, or fuel cells any required voltage; in designed for mains operation, desired voltage. Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout. Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid. Uninterruptible power supplies An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries.Tf Circuit description Basic designs ° In one simple i through eae circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer SAE ey tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly source follow and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC andl ing two alternate paths through one end of the primary v jing and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the switching device includes [We stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against oné of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was One® used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns. As they became available with adequate poli ees various other types of semiconductor incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency AC power Is first rectified to for use in induction heating. To do this, provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. er ratings, transistors switches have been HVDC power transmission With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high transmitted to another location. At the receiving voltage DC power is lowation, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC. y effective in capturing the power of the this sunlight to current that can be used in your fn the process of generating this current by the ly straightforward, the conversion and control of this solar generated electricity needs to be monitored to allow it to be iif effectively. The inverter is the device that handles these complicated tasks and makes all of the parts of @ solar power system work together flawlessly. inverter is to take the DC current that is being generated by the solar panels and convert it into AC current at the correct voltage and frequency for your home. These inverters are Solar power systems are ver) sun and converting home. Even thoug! solar panels is fair! The primary job of ana a en accommodate a specie amount of curent and shows be 22 cierent, the Invert jar panels as well. In addition to converting this eel er is also tied into your home's electrical system pears crTenell aan generated current to your home for use. If particular tim is being produced than can be used by the home ata ‘time, the excess can potentially be sent back to the local power utility by the inverter and a credit issued for the home. Another job the inverter is responsible for is the monitoring and transition from solar power during the day to utility supplied power in the evenings. Since the inverter is connected between the solar panels and the local utility, it can easily monitor the solar panels’ output and as it starts to drop off when evening approaches the inverter can gently transition to local power SO the home has the electricity it needs. The home can use the credits it received during the day when it was selling power to the utility to pay for the power it buys back at night. Then again in the morning as the sun starts to rise, the inverter will slowly channel the power being generated by the solar panels back to the home and reduce the amount of power it receives from the power company If a solar power system is designed correctly, this back and forth between solar-generated power and power supplied by the local utility could balance out and leave the homeowner ‘without a utility bill to pay at the end of each month. If you have decided to install a battery bank as part of your solar power system, the inverter will also monitor the charging of these Potteries and even be able to use them as a source ‘of power during @ prackout, This bank of batteries can supply your home with hours of electricity if needed with no outside power. ‘ophisticated enough to be able to handle Most modern inverters are St tMpanding a solar power system over time and can simply convert whatever additional power results from a homeowner adding more solar panels to an existing system. This flexibility ensurce that you on start small with a solar power system and grow it over time as your needs dictate and budget permits Display technology Thanks to the advances in display technology, there are now several kinds of video displays used in modern TV sets: & CRT (cathode-ray tube): The most common screens were Shract-view CRTs for up to roughly 100 cm (40 inch) (in 4:3 ratio) and 115 cm (45 inch) (in 16:9 ratio) diagonals. These are tReveast expensive, and are a refined technology that can stil provide the best overall picture quality value. As they do not pave a fixed native resolution, they are capable of displaying Sources with different resolutions at the best possible mage aoea a eeena rata ne rafrach rata nfs hinical MTEC Foren atpo a CRT TV is 29.97 Hz, and for the PAL format, 25 Hz, both are scanned with two fields per frame in an interlaced fashion. A typical NTSC broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480 pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the vertical blanking interval (VBI), allows __ other signals to be carried along with the broadcast, Rear Projection (RPTV): Most very large screen TVs (up to 254 cm (100 inch) and beyond) use projection technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, LCD-based, and DLP (reflective micromirror chip) - based, D-ILA and LCOS-based. Projection televisicn has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. > A variation is a video projector, using similar technology, which projects onto a screen. This is often referred to as "front projection”, Flat panel (LCD or plasma): Modern advances have brought fiat panels to TV that use active matrix LCD or plasma display technology. Flat panel LCDs and plasma displays ave as little as 25.4 mm (1 Inch) thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a pedestal. Some models can also be used as computer monitors. LED technology has become one of the choices for outdoor video and stadium uses, since the advent of bright LEDs and Griver circuits. LEDs enable scalable ultra-large flat panel video displays that other technologies may never be able to match in performance. Each has its pros and cons. Flat panel LCD and plasma displays have 3 wide viewing angle (around 178 degrees) so they may best suited for a home theatre with a wide seating arrangement. Rear projection screens do not perform well in daylight or well-lit rooms and so are only suited to darker viewing areas. Terminology for televisions Pixel resolution is the number of pixels of one row on a given screen. Before the year 2000 horizontal lines of resolution was te standard method of measurement for analog video. For example, a VHS VCR might be described as having 250 lines of resolution as measured across a circle circumscribed in the center of the screen (approximately 440 pixels edge-to-edge). A typical resolution of 720x480 and 720x576 means that the television display has 720 pixels across and 480 or 576 pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast ratio is a measurement of the range between the lightest and darkest points on the screen. RS— The higher ie contrast ratio, the better looking picture there isin Z4 terms of richness, deepness, and shadow detail. The brightness of a pi ee how vibrant and impacting the colors are. Measured in Ce M° equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the image. On the other hand, the so-called brightness and contrast adjustment controls on televisions and monitors are traditionally used to control different aspects of the picture display. The brightness control shifts the black level, affecting the image intensity or brightness, while the contrast control adjusts the contrast range of the image. Topology Networks What is a network topology? In communication networks, a topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology. The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration. In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus. Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network. In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the workstations are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central computer. In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes. If a Token Ring protocol is used in a star or ring topology, the signal travels in only one direction, carried hy a so-called token from node to node. The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data. The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The central computers of the star networks arePr connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network of |< star networks. Logical (or signal) topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals follow from node to node. In many instances, the logical topology is the same as the physical topology. But this is not always the case. For example, some networks are physically laid out in a star configuration, but they operate logically as bus or ring networks The Cell phone A mobile phone or mobile (also called cellphone and handphone) ig an electronic device used for mobile telecommunications (mobile telephony, text_messaging or data transmission) over a cellular network of specialized base stations known as cell_sites. Mobile phones differ from cordless telephones, which only offer telephony service within a limited range, e.g. within a home or an office, through a fixed line and a base station owned by the subscriber and also from satellite phones and radio telephones. As opposed to a fadio telephone, a cell phone offers full duplex communication, automatized calling to and paging from a public land mobile network (PLMN), and handoff (handover) during a phone call when the user moves from one cell (base station coverage area) to another. Most current cell phones connect to a cellular network consisting of switching points and base stations (cell sites) owned by a mobile network operator. In addition to the standard voice function, current mobile phones may support many additional services, and accessories, such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, infrared, camera with video recorder and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS.y Analog cellular telephony (16) Main article: 16 The Seer fully automated cellular network (the 1G network covered jaunched in Japan by NTT in 1979. The initial launch inhabitants cred the full metropolitan area of Tokyo's over 20 milion Jame tants with a cellular network of 23 base stations. Within five , the NTT network had been expanded to cover the whole Population of Japan and became the first nation-wide 2G network. The second launch of 1G networks was the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden in 1981. NMT was the first mobile phone network featuring international roaming. The Swedish electrical engineer Osten Makitalo started to work on this vision in 1966, and is considered as the father of the NMT system and some consider him also the father of the cellular phone. Inside a Digital Cell Phone On a "complexity per cubic inch" scale, cell phones are some of the most intricate devices people use on a daily basis. Modern digital cell phones can process millions of calculations per second in order to compress and decompress the voice stream. If you take a basic digital cell phone apart, you find that it contains just a few individual parts: An amazing circuit board containing the brains of the phone An antenna A liquid crystal display (LCD) A keyboard (not unlike the one you find in a TV remote control) A microphone A speaker A battery The circuit board is the heart of the system. The analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion chips translate the outgoing audio signal from analog to digital and the incoming signal from digital hack to analog. You can learn more about A-to-D and D-to-A conversion and its importance to digital audio in How Compact Discs Work. The digital signal processor (DSP) is a highly customized processor designed to perform signal-manipulation calculations at high speed. The microprocessor handles all of the housekeeping chores for the keyboard and display, deals with command and control signaling with the base station and also coordinates the rest of the functions on the board.pe 2 The ROM and Flash memory chips provide storage for the phone's = pea RIES and customizable features, such as the phone re ory. The radio frequency (RF) and power section handles power management and recharging, and also deals with the hundreds els. Finally, the RF amplifiers handle signals traveling to and from the antenna aan a 2 The display has grown considerably in size as the number of features in cell phones have increased. Most current phones offer built-in phone directories, calculators and games. And many of the phones incorporate some type of PDA or Web browser. h as the SID and MIN Some phones store certain information, suct cards that codes, in internal Flash memory, while others use external are similar to SmartMedia cards. ny speakers and microphones that it is ff them reproduce sound. The speaker is hone is no larger than the Cell phones have such ti incredible how well most ot about the size of a dime and the microp! watch battery beside it. Speaking of the watch battery, this Is used by the cell phone's internal clock chip. What Is amazing is that all of that functionality -- which only 30 years ago would have filled an entire floor of an office building -- now fits into a package that sits comfortably in the palm of your hand! Problems with Cell Phones A cell phone, like any other electronic device, has its problems: Generally, non-repairable internal corrosion of parts results if you get the phone wet or use wet hands to push the buttons. Consider a protective case. If the phone does get wet, be sure it is totally dry before you switch it on so you can try to avoid damaging internal parts. Extreme heat in a car can damage the battery or the cell-phone electronics. Extreme cold may cause a momentary loss of the screen display. Analog cell phones suffer from a problem known as "cloning." A phone is "cloned when someone steals its ID numbers and is able to make fraudulent calls on the owner's account. Here is how cloning occurs: When your phone makes a call, it transmits the ESN and MIN to the network at the beginning of the call, The MIN/ESN pair is a unique tag for your phone -- this is how the phone company knows who to bill for the call. When your phone transmits its MIN/ESN pair, it is possible for nefarious sorts to listen (with a scanner) and capture the pair. With the right equipment, it is fairly easy to modify another phone so that it contains your MIN/ESNoa pair, which allows the nefarious individual to make calls on your + account. ee eet erclese things called liquid crystals? The name "liquid na s like a contradiction. We think of a crystal as a solid aineree quartz, usually as hard as rock, and a liquid is obviously ent. How could any material combine the two? We learned in school that there are three common states of matter: solid, liquid or gaseous. Solids act the way they de because their molecules always maintain their orientation and stay in the same position with respect to one another. The molecules in liquids are - just the opposite: They can change their orientation and move anywhere in the liquid. But there are some substances that can exist in an odd state that is sort of like a liquid and sort of like 2 solid. When they are in this state, their molecules tend to maintain their orientation, like the molecules in a solid, but also move around to different positions, like the molecules in a liquid. This means that liquid crystals are neither a solid nor a liquid. That's how they ended up with their seemingly contradictory name. So, do liquid crystals act like solids or liquids or something else? It turns out that liquid crystals are closer to a liquid state than @ solid. It takes a fair amount of heat to change a suitable substance from 2 solid into a liquid crystal, and it only takes a little more heat to turn that same liquid crystal into a real liquid. This explains why liquid crystals are very sensitive to temperature and why they are used to make thermometers and mood rings. It also explains why a laptop computer display may act funny in cold weather or during a hot day at the beach Cell-phone Network Technologies: 3G yy is the latest in mobile communications. 3G stands for “third generation” -- this makes analog cellular technology generation one and digital/PCS generation two. 3G technology is intended for the true multimedia cell phone -- typically called smartphones -- and features increased bandwidth and transfer rates to accommodate Web-based applications and phone-based audio and video files. 3G technolog 3G comprises several _ cellular access technologies. The three most common ones as of 2005 are: 2G24 CDMA2000 - based on 26 Access Technologies) Code Division Multiple Access (see Cellular ERMA (UMTS) - Wideband Code Division Multiple Access. ereceael CDMA - Time-division Synchronous Code-division Multiple 3G networks have potential transfer speeds of up to 3 Mbps (about 15 seconds to download a 3-minute MP3 song). For comparison, the fastest 2G phones can achieve up to 144Kbps (about 8 minutes to download a 3-minute song). 3G's high data rates are ideal for downloading information from the Internet and sending and receiving large, multimedia files. 3G phones are like mini-laptops and can accommodate broadband applications like video conferencing, receiving streaming video from the Web, sending and receiving faxes and instantly downloading e-mail messages with attachments. OF course, none of this would be possible without those soaring towers that carry cell-phone signals from phone to phone. What is 4G? Definition of line of cell phone technology standards Following the evolutionary that has spanned from 1G, 2G, 2.5G to 3G, 4G describes the entirely brave new world beyond advanced 3G networks. 4G, which is also known as “beyond 3G” or “fourth-generation” cell phone technology, refers to the entirely new evolution and a complete 3G replacement in wireless communications. Just as data-transmission speeds increased from 2G to 3G, the leap from 3G to 4G again promises even higher data rates than existed in previous generations. 4G promises voice, data and high-quality multimedia in real-time (“streamed”) form all the time and anywhere. 4G is being developed to accommodate the quality of service (QoS) and rate requirements set by further development of existing 3G| vice (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, but also new services like HDTV. 4G may allow roaming with wireless local area networks, and may interact with digital video broadcasting systems. " Various standardization and regulatory bodies estimate the launch of 4G networks commercially between 2012 and 2015. An Explanation of a Process 1, An explanation of how something works is a description of a process. It is important to include only essential information in an explanation. Non-essential information draws the reader's attention away from the explanation, causing confusion. If something works, why change it? Sample of a Technical Explanation: The Radar (From Howstuffworks) *padar is something that is in use all around us, although it is normally invisible. Air traffic control uses radar to treck planes both @ air, and also to guide planes in for smooth on the ground and in th landings. Police use radar to detect the speed of passing motorists NASA uses radar to map the Earth and other planets, to track ‘0 help with things like docking and satellites and space debris and t maneuvering. The military uses it to detect the enemy and to guide weapons. Meteorologists use radar to track storms, hurricanes and tornadoes. You even see a form of radar at many grocery stores when the doors open automatically! Obviously, radar is an extremely useful technology. When people use radar, they are usually trying to accomplish one of three things: Detect the presence of an object at a distance - Usually the "something" is moving, like an airplane, but radar can also be used to detect stationary objects buried underground. In some cases, radar can identify an object as well; for example, it can identify the type of aircraft it has detected. Detect the speed of an object - This is the reason why police use radar. Map something - The space shuttle and orbiting satellites use something called Synthetic Aperture Radar to create detailed topographic maps of the surface of planets and moons.= All three of a eS Ses can be accomplished using two things you These two concept, from everyday life: echo and Doppler shift. eae he easy to understand in the realm of sound makes use of thas, Heat echo and Doppler shift every day: Racer 1 same techniques using radio wave: 2 achieving is the cognitive awareness in cause and effect linking for most gene fi in a given system, whether human or machine. Its making i al sense is the anticipated result which guides decision th in choosing appropriate actions within a range of strategies in @ process (a conceptual scheme) based on varying degrees of ambiguity about the knowledge that creates the contextualization for the action. Purpose serves to change the state of conditions in 2 given environment, usually to one with a perceived better set of conditions or parameters from the previous state. This change is the ation that serves the locus of control and goal orientation. moti “There is a fundamental human need for guiding ideals that give meaning to our actions”, states Roger Fisher. Renowned psychiatrist is the “man’s search for meaning’ ‘will to. meaning’ as Nietzsche’s ‘will to Victor Frankl’s premise is that primary motivation of his life. He speaks of the opposed to Freud’s’ ‘will to pleasure’ and Friedrich, power’. According to some philosophies, purpose Is central to a good human is something set up as an object or end to life. Finally, a purpose i be attained, Synonyms: INTENTION b : RESOLUTION, DETERMINATION. g the proper order, most efficient order. Logical Order: Things bein: it information to readers in a logical It is very important to presen order. mples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to Order your exa e sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, most important. Bi finally) in order to guide your reader. Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B. Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution. Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand. Transition words. Transition words allow one to work smooth changes into one’s writing; thus, simple sentences turn into compound sentences, complex sentences and long paragraphs. Transition words provide a powerful tool to out sentences and nhrases tanather hrinainanm coherence thoughts ones maosistency, and, most importantly, they put the is trying to convey into written words. Transition words are als better, sO used to make things like essays sound and flow Co. gz eon Adverbs: This list includes: last, first, second, next, but, begin woth ands moreover, in addition, furthermore, however, to rare erwise, conclusively, lastly, secondly, thirdly, most img y, in conclusion, illustrates, to end with, first of all, last of Common Phrases: Last but not least, lastly, finally, on top of all. How to prepare for an Interview An interview can be a nerve-racking experience if you are not prepared. Therefore, before you go to an interview, take the time to think about what questions might arise and how you would answer them. These types of questions are bound to come up and so be prepared! 1. Why are you leaving your current job? Try not to criticize your present job or employer. If you fee! bored or unhappy in your job, simply say that you don't think that you are making full use of your true abilities and that you need a job that demands more from you. 2. Why do you want to work for our company? This is your chance to show the interviewer that you know something about her/his company. Emphasize how your past experience can be useful in this job. 3, What can you offer our company? Point out your strengths and how using them would benefit the company. An interview gives you the opportunity to show off your past experience and your abililies; to show the interviewer the type of person you are and why you are interested in working in her/his company. What NOT to do in an interview: - Never chew gum. - Never interrupt the interviewer in the middle of a sentence - Never ask the interviewer personal questions. - Never answer your mobile phone. - Make sure it is switched off BEFORE you enter!- Don't give "y - Try not to lie. What to do: es" or "no" answers. - Sit up straight - Look the interviewer in the eyes. - Give straight but detailed answers. - Be honest. - Be positive. - At the end, ask 2 or 3 questions concerning the job. - Relax and be yourself.