MUSLIM LEADERS

MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH

Born in Karachi to a Gujurati family, Pakistans founder was among the first students of
a Muslim school in Bombay which was also attended by the renown Quran translator
Abudllah Yusuf Ali. Jinnah also attended the school Sind Madrassat-ul-Islam in his native
Karachi.
From a young age, his aspirations were clearly Islamic. When he was sent to study law
in England, he chose the law school the Lincoln Inn in London because it considered
Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, as one of the greatest law
givers of the world.
He became the youngest graduate at his school, completing his law degree at 18. Later,
after returning to India and establishing a successful law practice, he joined the Indian
National Congress and its movement to free India from British colonial rule. However, he
became disenchanted with the party when Mohandas Gandhi, its leader, began brining
Hindu religious language and symbolism into the movement. Jinnah felt this
disempowered Muslims and slowed down the cause of freedom.
In response, he quit the Congress and returned to England. The Muslim poet-philosopher
Allama Muhammad Iqbal coaxed him back to India, inspiring him with the idea of
Pakistan and the need to fight for the rights of Indian Muslims, who were not fairly
represented in the Hindu-majority country, particularly in the areas of politics and
employment.
Jinnah rose to become president of the Muslim League and leader of the movement for
Pakistan. His entry into Muslim politics also led him to become a much more
conscientious Muslim as he adopted Muslim dress, learned Urdu, and studied the Quran
with Islamic scholar Shabbir Usmani. These changes eventually led to him abandoning a
number of unIslamic practices he had been engaged in.
Although suffering from severe tuberculosis, he kept his illness a secret not only from
those who opposed his mission, but for the millions who supported him as well. He felt
that disclosing his sickness would lower the morale of those working for the cause of
Pakistan.
What makes Jinnah even more unique as a leader is the fact that he successfully carved
out and established a nation through legal, constitutional means, without the bloodshed
that usually accompanies such an endeavor. Although horrific massacres did occur after
the establishment of Pakistan as Muslims and Hindus migrated across the new borders,
the process of obtaining Pakistan was done peacefully.
He died in 1948, one year after achieving his goal of Pakistan.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal (18731938)

Iqbal is credited with developing the idea of Pakistan from the start, although he died
nine years before he could see his dream come to fruition.
Although Iqbal was politically active, he was best known for his inspiring Urdu and
Persian poetry, which many credit for waking up the Muslims of India to push for their
rights. He was also a philosopher, whose seminal work The Reconstruction of Religious
Thought in Islam, was a collection of lectures on philosophy he had presented in
Hyderabad, Aligarh, and Madras.
Born in Sialkot, Punjab, he was a descendent of Kashmiri Brahmins who had converted
to Islam centuries earlier. His love for poetry was evident from a very young age, and he
became a frequent participant in Lahores annual poetry gatherings (Mushairas).
Like Jinnah, he became a lawyer. With degrees from Cambridge University in England
and a doctorate from the University of Munich in Germany, he returned to Lahore to
teach at the local Government College, while maintaining a private law practice there.
Iqbal took his first important step in the realm of politics during his stay in England while
studying at Cambridge University. There, he became an active member of the British
Committee of the All-Indian Muslim League. When in 1906, this Committee was active in
making British public opinion and political leaders accept the principle of separate
electorates for the Muslims of India, Iqbal was one of the staunch supporters of the
Committee. Upon returning to Lahore, he joined the existing Muslim League and served
as secretary and advisor to the party.
Iqbal was convinced that the only solution for the Muslims was a two-state one, thus
conceiving the idea for Pakistan, a federation composed of the Muslim-majority states of
India at the time. He died in 1938, not being able to see that dream come true.
However, his close partnership with Jinnah in his later years allowed him to pass the
torch of the Pakistan idea to the man who would later be known as Quaid-e-Azam.
He is also credited with encouraging a young Islamic scholar and journalist from
Hyderabad, India, to settle in Punjab and to establish and Islamic research institute for
the revival of Islam. This man, Syed Abul Ala Mawdoodi, took up Iqbals offer, going on
to become one of Pakistans leading supporters and scholars.
Iqbals poetry in Persian left a legacy to the revolutionaries of Iran, particularly leaders
like Ali Shariati, who were inspired by his ideas of self-reliance and pan-Islamism that
transcended the narrow focus on Iran alone, which marked the 1979 revolution.

Muhammad Ali Johar (1878-1931)

Do not send me back to a colonized state, for I want to go back and live in an
independent country.
Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar. [ 1930 ].
Islamic scholar Muhammad Ali Johar was a dynamic leader second only to Muhammad
Ali Jinnah himself. He is best known for his leadership of the Khilafah movement, in
whose capacity he was influential even among non-Muslims like Mohandas Gandhi.

The poet and journalist was educated at Aligarh and Oxford Universities and served in
the Education Department of Rampur state, which was also his birthplace. He remained
faithful to the All-India Muslim League, which he helped found, and was particularly
active between 1906 and 1928. He became president of the party in 1918.
As a journalist, he established the English weekly newspaper Comrade from Calcutta
in 1911, and the Urdu weekly Hamdard in 1913 from Delhi. He had also been
published in English newspapers like the Manchester Guardian and The Observer.
Like other stalwarts of the Pakistan movement, his concern for Muslim issues was
prominent in his activism. What sets him apart from the other leaders of the movement
though, is his active support for causes outside the subcontinent. Prominent among
these was his championing of the cause of the Islamic Khilafah, which collapsed in 1924.
He was jailed between 1911 and 1915 for his support of this cause. In 1915, he became
the main leader of the Khilafah movement and led a delegation of Indian Muslims to
London for this cause in 1920.
It is important to note that the Khilafah movement was not just focused on the Islamic
world and the preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate. Another aspect of it promoted the
freedom of all colonized people and nations. This aspect of the movement gained
support from non-Muslim leaders as well, including Indias Mohandas Gandhi.
A former member of the Indian National Congress, he left the party in 1928 and
expressed his support for Quaid-e-Azams fourteen points.
Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar died in London and was buried in Jerusalem. He had
asked in his will that he be buried there because he did not want to return to a slave
country.

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque (18731962)

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque was an advocate par excellence for Muslims in India, especially
those in Bengal, as well as for the Pakistan movement. He is credited with including
Bengal in the vision for Pakistan.
The Saturia, Bengal-born Islamic scholar and political activist pushed for the cause of
education and political empowerment of Muslims, as well as the rights of Muslim
peasants in Bengal.
He was a unique blend of Islamic scholarship and Western education at a time when the
two worlds were poles apart. He obtained his Islamic education at home through private
tutors and studied law at the University Law College in Calcutta. In 1900, he was
enrolled as an advocate in the Calcutta High Court.

A firm believer that education was the passport to a better future for Muslims in Bengal,
he started the Central National Mohammedan Educational Association in 1912 to help
poor and deserving Muslim students obtain the resources to further their education. He
also contributed to the establishment of the Muslim University at Aligharh in 1920.
Haque established Krishak Proja Samities, a movement for the rights of the Muslim
peasants of Bengal who were often at the mercy of usurious Hindu middlemen. In 1936,
he successfully pushed for the enactment of the Bengal Agricultural Debtors Act,
through which millions of Muslim peasants were relieved from millions of rupees of debt
incurred by doing businesses with the Hindu middlemen.
A strong advocate for Muslim rights in India, he served as a joint secretary on the fourman drafting committee for the constitution of the All-India Muslim League, as well as
the general secretary of the Bengal Provincial Muslim League in 1913. A year later,
became the organizations president.
Haque was a major participant in the historic session of the Muslim League at Lahore
between March 22 and March 24, 1940, when the Pakistan Resolution was passed. He,
like others at the session, was clearly wary of how India would be ruled, and more
importantly, how Muslims would be treated in a post-British India. Haque, like Jinnah, did
not trust the Indian National Congress, the party that was likely to lead the country after
independence. Haque believed that the establishment of Pakistan was the only way to
truly guarantee the political empowerment and rights of Muslims on the subcontinent.
It is critical to note that during the March 1940 session, Haque pushed for the inclusion
of Bengal to be part of Pakistan. Allama Iqbals vision for Pakistan, which he had
developed well before his death in 1938, included only northern and western sections of
India. Haques suggestion was accepted and seven years after that critical March day,
Pakistan, the East and West wings, came into being.
He migrated to Pakistan at the age of 74 in 1947 and continued to play an active role in
the countrys political affairs. In 1951, he accepted the Advocate-Generalship of East
Pakistan and was later elected its Chief Minister. He also served as its Governor.

Liaqat Ali Khan (1895-1951)

Gandhi has men who can advise him and whom he can depend on. And he leans on
them quite oftenI have only Liaqat.
-Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Born into an aristocratic family in Karnal, Punjab, Liaqat Ali Khan could have relied on
his hefty family inheritance to maintain a life of luxury and comfort. But he did nothing
of the sort.
The life of Liaqat Ali Khan, who earned the titles Qaid-e-Millat and Shahid-e-Millat, was
one of complete service to the Muslims of India and the cause of Pakistan. He was so
devoted that Muhammad Ali Jinnah himself referred to Khan as his right hand man.
He received degrees from Aligarh and Oxford Universities. It was in England that he
became interested in politics, as he observed and participated in debates organized by
Oxfords Indian Majlis.
Khan obtained a law degree, however, he never really practiced as a lawyer after
returning to India in 1923. The fire of politics burned in him, and that was where he
really wanted to apply himself.
The opportunity arrived with the All-India Muslim League. Khan became one of its
members in 1923 and when in 1926, the elections were being held for the Legislative
Assembly, he contested for a seat in the Assembly as an independent candidate.
Khan was elected Honorary Secretary of the Muslim League, then General Secretary for
the party, a post he retained from 1936 until the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. In
this capacity, he developed into a reliable and trustworthy right-hand man for Jinnah as
he developed and worked on the establishment of Pakistan.
Khan was a very hard worker, and interestingly, he had an amazing capacity to juggle
several important posts. Besides being the Deputy Leader of the Muslim League
Assembly Party, he was also Honorary Secretary General of the Muslim League,
Convenor of the Action Committee of the Muslim League, Chairman of the Central
Parliamentary Board, and the Managing Director of the partys newspaper Dawn.
This ability to juggle many assignments perhaps served as good training for the critical
roles he would play once Pakistan was established in 1947: as the countrys first Prime
Minister, who was also in charge of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations and
Defense. This task was made even more arduous by the fact that everything in Pakistan
needed to be built anew in this nascent nation.
He was able to manage his many tasks even as the country lost Jinnah in 1948.
Khans life ended tragically in October 1951, after he was shot to death while giving a
speech in Rawalpindi. His dying words, after reciting the Islamic declaration of faith
were, May God protect Pakistan.

Choudhary Rahmat Ali [18951951]

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, was born in 1895.
From his early childhood, Rahmat Ali showed signs of great promise as a student. After
completing his schooling, he joined the Islamia College of Lahore in order to get his
Bachelor of Arts degree. Rahmat Ali finished education in England, obtaining MA and
LLB with honors from the universities of Cambridge and Dublin.
It was during the years 1930 through 1933, that he seemed to have established the
Pakistan National Movement, with its headquarter at Cambridge. On January 28, 1933,
he issued his first memorable pamphlet "Now or Never; Are we to live or perish
forever?" He coined the word "Pakistan" for 30 million Muslims who live in the five
northern units of India; Punjab, North West Frontier (Afghan) Province, Kashmir, Sindh
and Baluchistan. The pamphlet also gave reasons for the establishment of Pakistan as a
separate nation. He spoke of an independent homeland for Muslims, Pakistan, in the
northern units of India, "Bang-i-Islam" for Muslims in Bengal, and "Usmanistan" for the
Muslims in Hyderabad-Deccan.
Chaudhry Rahmat Ali propagated the Scheme of Pakistan with a missionary zeal since
its inception in 1933. In August 1947, Pakistan came to be established and in 1948
Chaudhry Rahmat Ali visited Pakistan. Later he proceeded to England to champion the
cause of Kashmir through the United Nations.
Sick and weak, he died on February 12, 1951.

A DETAILED NOTE ON THE KASHMIR

ISSUE BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND INDIA
Introduction
Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu
Ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 77
percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or
Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states

before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In
the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill
agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused.
War of Kashmir 1947
The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In
August 1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's
indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire
and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against
this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Mohammad Ibrahim immediately set up
the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the
Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest. The Pathan
tribesmen from the Noth West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of their
brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the
Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital.
Maharaja's Coalition with India
The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to
send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that
Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India.
Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 26, 1947, India
began to airlift her troops to Srinagar and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen.
Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to
send in her troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan
Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and
free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir.
Kashmir Dispute and United Nations
In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused
Pakistan of aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But
Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The
government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the
tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free impartial plebiscite could be
held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir.
Indo-Pakistan War 1948 and United Nation's Involvement
While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale
attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her
regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of
the Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948 called for an
immediate ceasefire the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of
plebiscite under United Nation's supervision. Both the Indian and Paksitani government
accepted the resolution.
In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire
line was demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu,
Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit and a great chunk of Ladakh territory
near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the
remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tiber border. The cease-fire has remained in

existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still
remains disputed and unresolved.
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The 1965 War
In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch,
a sparsely inhabited region along the south-western Indo-Pakistan border. When the
Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in
September 1965, when India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan
were operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks later,
following mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian
and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a
peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other differences.
The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in
Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy
and independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East
Pakistani people. The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than
90,000 became India prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of
Bangladesh on 6th December 1971. Following the 1971 Indo-Pakistan conflict, President
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met in the mountain town of
Shimla, India in July 1972. They agreed to a line of control in Kashmir resulting from the
December 17, 1971 cease-fire, and endorsed the principle of settlement of bilateral
disputes through peaceful means.
Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984
India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally
acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development
program. In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding
separatists in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in
Pakistan's Sindh province. In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to
the Siachen Glacier, a high-altitude desolate area close to the China border left
undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement (Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and
India in 1949.
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and
after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In
December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each
other's nuclear facilities. In early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began
high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.
Kashmir Insurgency 1990
Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a compaign of
violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent highlevel bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations
worsened again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in
December 1992 and terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the
Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97

In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between
rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif moved to resume official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign
secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little
concrete progress. In a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered
to open talks on a non-aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a
deal to restrain their nuclear and missile capabilities.
Effects of 9/11 on Kashmir
If the world and the United States changed after September 11, the center of that
change is the region where Pakistan is located. When it came to begin the war against
terrorism Pakistan did not hesitate to do whatever it takes to fight against terrorism.
United States of America appreciated the efforts of Pakistan which did not please India.
So, India blamed Pakistan-based groups for the December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian
Parliament. In reply, General Parvez Musharraf's speech of January 12, 2002 which even
India's hawkish Home Minister Lal Krishna Advani termed four days later as "pathbreaking", India was caught on the back foot.
National Kashmir Committee
It is in this context that Pakistan launched a new political initiative on Kashmir to
reaffirm its long standing policy of supporting the right of self-determination for the
people of kashmir that is enshrined in United Nations resolutions, initially accepted even
by India. Musharraf announced the formation of a National Kashmir Committee headed
by a veteran Kashmiri politician, and its charter made clear the purposes behind the
initiative. The challenge before the government is to promote confidence among the
people in Pakistan and Kashmir regarding Pakistan's efforts to project the Kashmir cause
as a popular and indigenous struggle internationally.
Having addressed international concerns regarding terrorism and extremism in
Musharraf's January 12 speech, the United States is now more receptive to Pakistan's
plea and is anxious to see a dialogue on all the issues of Kashmir.
Peace in South Asia and the Kashmir Dispute
Pakistan believes that the establishment of durable peace in South Asia hinges on the
resolution of the Kashmir Dispute in light of the security Council resolutions and the
wishes of the Kashmiri people. On March 17, 2004 Prime Minister Mir Zafarullah Khan
Jamali said the Kashmir dispute remains the core issue between India and Pakistan. The
two South Asian nations have fought three wars, two of which were over the disputed
kashmir region. In January this year, the two leaderships made a decision to open the
dialogue process in a bid to resolve all disputes between the two sides.
The Dialogue Process
Pakistan always showed seriousness and sincerity towards resolution of the core issue of
Kashmir by adopting several Confidence Building Measures (CBMs). World community.
time and again has advised India to decrease the number of its force in Occupied
Kashmir and release illegally detained Kashmiri Leadership. India never hesitated from
leveling baseless allegations against Pakistan of infiltration and also did not stop
massive human rights violations in Kashmir. The need is to initiate vigorous efforts from

both sides in resolving the Kashmir issue. The basic important dispute between the two
countries is Kashmir issue and with its resolution all the other outstanding issues would
be settled very easity. Prime Minister Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali said that Kashmir
dispute should be resolved according to the United Nations resolution and
with active participation of the Kashmiris.
Year 2005 - Road to Peace
The Prime Minister said that there wre many difficulties on road to peace but
emphasized the need to take measures to promote mutual trust and find new avenues
for a peaceful resolution of the lingering Kashmir dispute. The first formal visit of a
faction of the separatist All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC) and the Jammu and
Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) to Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK) and subsequently,
though unsanctioned by Indian authorities to Pakistan between June 2-16, 2005 was
thus projected as a major event and development in the process of solving the "Kashmir
Issue". Indeed the visit strongly reiterated the fact that the APHC continues to be a
faithful Pakistani proxy. After his meeting with the President Musharraf, Mirwaiz Umer
Farooq declared that We want Kashmir to be divided on geographical grounds.
We don't wand Kashmir to lose its identity.... we support his [President
Musharraf] approach. During their meeting with President Musharraf, the APHC
leaders once again were assured full political, diplomatic and moral support.

This tour has been helpful in understanding the viewpoint of the Kashmiri leaders. Their
quest for a free hand to decide their future is valid. They have been living under brutal
Indian occupation since 1948. Despite promised justice by the UN 57 years ago, they
have been denied their right of self-determination. It was in fact the denial of justice and
unabated Indian State-terrorism perpetrated against Kashmir.
The recent visit of the APHC leaders was a significant development, which can be
termed as a milestone in the process of resolving the core dispute of Kashmir between
Pakistan and India peacefully. We wish both the governments to show courage, boldness
and flexibility in settling the issue.

FORIEGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

PRINCIPLES OF PAKISTANS FOREIGN POLICY
Introduction
No country today can think of a life independent of other nations.
Every country has to develop relations with other countries so as to
meet its requirements in economical, industrial and technological
fields. It is thus necessary for every country to formulate a sound
foreign policy. Pakistan is an important third world country, in its
developmental stage. It also has formulated her foreign
policy keeping in mind its geography, politics and economics.
Definition of Foreign Policy
Foreign Policy can be defined as
Relations between sovereign states. It is a reflection of domestic
politics and an interaction among sovereign states. It indicates the
principles and preferences on which a country wants to establish
relations with another country.
Pakistan's Foreign Policy in Light of Quaid-e-Azam's Words
The father of the nation, Quaid-e-Azam defined Foreign Policy towards
other countries of the world in 1948, as follows
Our Foreign Policy is one of friendliness and good-will towards all the

nations of the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any

country or nation. We believe in the policy of honesty and fair play in
national and international dealings and are prepared to make our
utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among
the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in
extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and
suppressed peoples of the world and in upholding the principles of the
United Nations Charter.
Basic Goals of Pakistan's Foreign Policy
1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.
2. Maintenance of its political independence.
3. Acceleration of social and economic development.
4. Strengthening its place on the globe.
5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.
Guiding Principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy
Following are the basic principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy:
1. Protection of Freedom and Sovereignity
Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of million of Muslims.
Like any other country, she also considers with deep regard the need
for preservation of its independence and does not allow any country to
harm its freedom. Therefore, the principle of protection of
independence and sovereignity is the corner stone of Pakistan's
Foreign Policy.
2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries
Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with
Muslim countries. It has always moved its concern against Israel, India
and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and Afghanistan respectively.
She has shouldered high responsibilities and used her influence for
safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active
member of the Islamic Conference.

3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs of Other Countries

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all
countries especially in neighbouring countries, on the basis of
universally acknowledge the principle of national sovereignity, non use
of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states.
4. Implementation of U.N Charter
Pakistan's policy is to act upon UN charter and to support all moves by
the UN to implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since the
year of its birth.
5. Promotion of World Peace
Pakistan's policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no
aggressive designs against any country. Neither does it support any
such action. Pakistan has always held that the international disputes
should be settled through negotiations rather than non-battlefield.
6. Non-Alignment
Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from
alignment with any big power bloc, and avoids taking sides in the cold
war. It has also given up its association with SEATO and CENTO and
was included in NAM in 1979.
7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial
Discrimination
Pakistan is a stomach supporter of the right of self-determination and
has been in the fore front of efforts to eliminate colonialism and
racism. It has advocated the right of self-determination of Kashmir.
8. Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament
Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and
security cannot be achieved and sustained in the world with arms.
Disarmament is the imperative condition for truly durable peace in the
world. Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in
the nuclear and conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its

foreign policy that a collective endeavour by countries at the regional

level to promote disarmament and enhance security at the lowest
possible level of armaments is an indispensable result to their
advocacy of global disarmament.
9. Member of International Organization
Pakistan had become the member of the British Commonwealth with
the time of its establishment. In addition it is the member of United
Nations (U.N), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of Islamic
Conference (OIC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), South
Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), Association of
South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), and D-Eight. Being a member of
International Organizations the objectives of Pakistan are to struggle
for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote regional
co-operation.
Conclusion
The guiding principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy are rooted in the
country's Islamic ideology, its rich cultural heritage and historical
experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country, Pakistan supports
Islamic causes and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles,
which hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which
nations can live in peace and security.

PAKISTANS RELATIONS WITH UNITED STATES

Pakistan's relationship with the West, particularly the United States,
was of major importance. Geographically the USA is not a neighbour of
Pakistan, but interests of politician, Bureaucracy and Generals have
brought both the countries close together. The United States and
Pakistan established diplomatic relations in 1947.
Liaquat Ali Khan's Visit 1950
In 1949, the US Secretary of State extended invitation to the Prime
Minister Liaquat Ali Khan for a visit to the United States. The Prime
Minister visited USA at the end of 1950. During his visit he tried to
identify Pakistan as more near to the West and Islam more near to
Christianity than to Communism and begged for economic and military
aid.
SEATO and CENTO 1954-55

Pakistan's relations with the United States developed against the

backdrop of the Cold War. Pakistan's strategic
geographic position made it a valuable partner in Western alliance
systems to contain the spread of communism. In 1954 Pakistan signed
a Mutual Defence Agreement with the United States and subsequently
became a member of SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization)
and CENTO (Central Treaty Organization). The U.S. agreement to
provide economic and military assistance to Pakistan and the latter's
partnership in the Baghdad Pact CENTO and SEATO strengthened
relations between the two nations.
Pakistan as Washington's Closest Ally
Pakistan also used as a base for United States military
reconnaissance flights over Soviet territory. During the cold War years,
Pakistan was considered one of Washington's closest allies in Asia.
Pakistan, in return, received large amounts of economic and military
assistance.
1965 and 1971 Wars and United States
The United States suspended military assistance to both the countries
involved in the conflict of 1965. However, the U.S. suspension of
military assistance during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan was generated a
widespread feeling in Pakistan that the United States was not a reliable
ally. The United States embargo on arms shipments to Pakistan
remained in place during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and was not
lifted until 1975. Gradually, relations improved and arms sales were
renewed in 1975. United States-Pakistani relations preceding the 1971
was were characterized by poor communication and much confusion.
Withdraw from SEATO and CENTO
Following the lost of East Wing, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO.
Pakistan's military links with the West continued to decline throughout
Bhutto's tenure in power and into the first years of the Zia regime.
CENTO was disbanded following the fall of the Shah of Iran in March
1979, and Pakistan then joined the Nonaligned Movement. Zia also
continued Bhutto's policy of developing Pakistan's nuclear capability.
Cease of Economic Assistance
Developing Pakistan's nuclear capability policy had originated as a
defensive measure in reaction to India's explosion of a nuclear device
in 1974. In April 1979, President Jimmy Carter cut off economic
assistance to Pakistan, except for food assistance, as required under
the Symington Amendment to the Foreign Assistance act of 1961. This
amendment called for ceasing economic assistance to those countries
that had imported uranium-enrichment technology. Relations between
the United States and Pakistan were further strained in November 1979
when protesters sacked the United States embassy i Islamabad,

resulting in the death of four persons. The violence had been sparked
by a false report that the United States was involved in a fire at the
Grand Masjid in Macca.
Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and American's Changed Policy
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 revived the close
relationship between Pakistan and the United States. Initially, however
the President Carter lifted the ban on aid to Pakistan and in January
1980, offered a package of US$ 400 million economic and military aid
to Pakistan which was rejected by General Zia-ul-Haq, who termed
it"peanuts". Under President Ronald Reagan, the United States agreed
in 1981 to provide US$ 3.2 billion to Pakistan aimed at helping Pakistan
deal with the heightened threat to security in the region and its
economic development needs. However, although the Symington
Amendment was waived, the amount was subject to the annual
appropriation process. A second economic and military assistance
program was announced in April 1986, this time for over US$ 4.0
billion, with 57 percent for economic assistance. With U.S, assistance in
the largest covert operation in history - Pakistan armed and supplied
anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan, eventually defeating the Soviets,
who withdrew in 1988.
Pressler Amendment 1985
On October 01, 1990 however, the United States suspended all military
assistance and new economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler
Amendment, which required that the President certify annually that
Pakistan "does not possess a nuclear explosive device". For several
years, the United States president, with Pakistan's assurances that its
nuclear program was for peaceful uses, was able to make this
certification. However, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan
and the end of the Cold War, the United States took a harder position
on the nuclear weapons issue and President George Bush refused to
make the certification required under the Pressler Amendment, and
assistance to Pakistan was subsequently terminated. Further, the
supply of F-16 jet fighters was also stopped for which Pakistan had
already paid $650 million to the US.
Sanctions on alleged transfer of M-11 missiles
Pakistan's retention of the nuclear option became a defining issue in its
relations with the United States. USA another action in regard of the
nuclear issue occurred in September 1993 when the US imposed
sanctions against China and Pakistan on alleged transfer of M-11
missiles to Pakistan labeling it a violation of the MTCR (Missile
Technology Control Regime).
Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's Visit to US 1995
In the background of the number of unresolved issues including

nuclear non-proliferation, delivery of F-16s, alleged supply of M-11

missiles by China, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto paid an official visit to
Washington in April 1995. The joint statement failed to mention any
solution to these issues. Pakistan and US signed in Washington
Memoranda of Unterstanding providing for $6 million of investment by
American companies in Pakistan.
Brown Amendment 1995
According to US officials the Pressler Amendment was a hurdle in the
normalization of Pak-US relations. As a result, on 21st September 1995,
the US Senate under Clinton Administration passed the Brown
Amendment to lessen its negative impact. The amendment opened the
way for 28 undelivered F-16s to be sold to a third country and the
money refunded to Pakistan, release of $368 million worth defense
equipment, restoration of corporation in such areas as narcotics
control, international terrorism, peace keeping and the availability of
US insurance cover for investment made in Pakistan.
Nuclear Weapon Tests 1998
India's decision to conduct nuclear tests in May 1998 and Pakistan's
matching response set back U.S. relations in the region. President
Clinton's visit to Pakistan scheduled for the first quarter of 1998 was
postponed and under the Glenn Amendment, sanctions restricted the
provisions of credits, military sales, economic assistance and loans to
the government. An intensive dialogue on nuclear nonproliferation and
security issues was initiated with discussion focusing on CTBT
(Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) signature and ratification. Pakistan
declared that it would sign the treaty only when India did so first.
Nawaz Sharif's Meeting with President Clinton 1998
The relations improved a little after the former Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif's meeting with President Clinton in Washington in December
1998. As a consequence, the economic sanctions imposed by the US
after the Nuclear Test were eased. A notable achievement was a
resolution of the F-16s issue and accordingly US released $436.7
million to Pakistan as a claim in connection with the F-16 aircrafts. But
the October 1999 overthrow of the democratically elected Sharif
government triggered an additional layer of sanctions with include
restrictions on foreign military financing and economic assistance. U.S.
Government assistance to Pakistan was limited mainly to refugee and
counter-narcotics assistance.
September 11 attacks and Pakistan-US relationship
History changed its course on September 11, 2001 when deadly
terrorists attacks destroyed World Trade Centre at New York and
severally damaged the Pentagon in Washington. More than 5,000
people were killed in this attack. The 9/11 incidence gave a new

direction to the global politics.

The Pakistan-US relationship changed significantly when Pakistan
moved decisively to ally itself with the United States in its war against
Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. It gave the U.S. a number of military
airports and bases for its attack on Afghanistan. It has arrested over
five hundred Al-Qaeda members and handed them over to the United
States. In response the United States stepped up its economic
assistance to Pakistan providing debt relief.
President Musharraf's Visit to US 2003
President Musharraf visited United States in June 2003 and both
Presidents negotiated on 24th June 2003 at Camp David. Afterwards
President Bush announced to provide Pakistan $3 billion economic and
military aid and plainly refused about the delivery of F-16s.
The Bush Administration expressed its desire that "an enhanced and
enduring relationship" with Pakistan would continue to thrive in the
years ahead. Continuing interest of President Bush and personal
diplomacy of Secretary Powell to defuse border tension between
Pakistan and India also reflected the US desire for enhanced
constructive engagement in the region.
Pakistan as major Non-NATO ally
In March, 2004 the United States designated Pakistan as a "major NonNATO ally". This move will significantly enhance military cooperation
between the two countries and enable Pakistan to purchase modern
military equipment, satellite technology, depleted uranium ammunition
and enhance cooperation in defense sector, research and development
with US.

PAKISTANS RELATIONS WITH INDIA

Since partition of the sub-continent in 1947, relations between Pakistan

and India have been characterized by rivalry and suspicion. The
animosity has its roots in religion and history, and is epitomized by the
long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Historical Background
The Indian Sub Continent was partitioned into Hindu-dominated India
and the newly created Muslim state of Pakistan after India's
independence from Great Britain in 1947. Severe rioting and
population movement ensued and an estimated half a million people
were killed in communal violence. About a million people were left
homeless. Since partition, the territory of Jammu and Kashmir has
remained in dispute with Pakistan and India both holding sectors.
First Indo-Pakistan War 1947-49
At the time of partition, the princely state of Kashmir, though ruled by
a Hindu Maharaja, had an overwhelmingly Muslim population. When
the Maharaja hesitated in acceding to either Pakistan or India in 1947,
some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan,
revolted in favor of joining Pakistan.
The first Indo-Pakistan war started after armed tribesmen from
Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir in October
1947. Besieged both by a revolt n his state and by the invasion, the
Maharaja requested armed assistance from the Government of India. In
return he acceded to India, handling over powers of defense,
communication and foreign affairs. Both India and Pakistan agreed that
the accession would be confirmed by a referendum once hostilities had
ceased. In May 1948, the regular Pakistani army was called upon to
protect Pakistan's borders. Fighting continued throughout the year
between Pakistani irregular troops and the Indian army. The war ended
on 1st January 1949 when a ceasefire was arranged by the United
Nations which recommended that both India and Pakistan should
adhere to their commitment to hold a referendum in the state. A
ceasefire line was established where the two sides stopped fighting
and a UN peacekeeping force established. The referendum, however
has never been held.
The 1965 War
In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in
the Rann of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the south-western
Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed
victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in September 1965, when
India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were
operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks
later, following mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In
January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent,

U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and

their other differences.
The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil
war erupted in Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East
Pakistanis demanding autonomy and independence. In December India
invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people. The
Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000
became India prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent
country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971.
Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984
India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan
and is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's
nuclear weapons development program. In 1983, the Pakistani and
Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their
respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in
Pakistan's Sindh province. In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops
were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-altitude desolate area
close to the China border left undemarcated by the cease-fire
agreement (Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949.
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in
November 1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial
by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime
Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In
early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level
talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve
trade.
Kashmir Insurgency 1990
Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants
began a compaign of violence against Indian Government authority in
Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved
the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened again
after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in
December 1992 and terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993.
Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January
1994 resulted in deadlock.
Diplomatic Push 1996-97
In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered
sharply between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in
February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume official
dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary and
Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little
concrete progress. In a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-aggression pact with India,

proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear and
missile capabilities.
Nuclear Rivalry 1998
The arms race between the rivals escalated dramatically in the 1990s.
In May 1998, India conducted underground nuclear tests in the western
desert state of Rajasthan near the border with Pakistan. In response,
Pakistan conducted six tests in Balochistan. In the same year, Pakistan
test its longest range missile, the 1,500 km (932 mile) Ghauri missile,
named after the 12th Century Muslim warrior who conquered part of
India. Both sides were heavily criticized by the international community
for the tests as fears of a nuclear confrontation grew.
The United States ordered sanctions against both countries, freezing
more than $20bn of aid, loans and trade. Japan ordered a block on
about $1bn of aid loans. Several European countries followed suit, and
the G-8 governments imposed a ban on non-humanitarian loans to
India and Pakistan. The UN Security Council condemned India and
Pakistan for carrying out nuclear tests and urged the two nations to
stop all nuclear weapons programmes.
Indian Prime Minister Atal Vajpayee Visit to Pakistan 1999
The relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister
Vajpayee traveled to Lahore for a summit with Sharif in February 1999.
There was considerable hope that the meeting could lead to a
breakthrough. They signed the Lahore accord pledging again
to "intensify their efforts to resolve all issues, including the issue of
Jammu and Kashmir."
Kargil Conflict 1999
Unfortunately, in May 1999 India launched air strikes against Pakistani
backed forces that had infiltrated into the mountains in Indianadministrated Kashmir, north of Kargil. Pakistan responded by
occupying positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the
remote, mountainous area of Kashmir near Kargil threatening the
ability of India to supply its forces on Siachen Glacier. By early
summer, serious fighting flared in the Kargil sector. The infiltrators
withdrew following a meeting between Prime Minister Sharif and
President Bill Clinton in July. Relations between India nad Pakistan have
since been particularly strained, especially since the October 12, 1999
coup in Islamabad.
The Brink of War 2001
Tension along the ceasefire lined continued. The worst fighting for
more than a year broke out in October as India, which continued to
condemn Pakistan for cross-border terrorism, started shelling Pakistani
military positions. October saw a devastating attack on the Kashmiri
assembly in Srinagar in which 38 people were killed. After the attack,

the Chief Minister of Indian-administrated Kashmir, Farooque Abdullah

called on Indian Government to launch a war against militant training
camps across the border in Pakistan.
On 13th December, an armed attack on the Indian Parliament in Delhi
left 14 people dead. India again blamed Pakistani-backed Kashmiri
militants. The attack led to a dramatic build-up of troops along the
Indo-Pakistan border, military exchanges and raised fears of a wider
conflict. Rail and bus services between the two countries were also
blocked.
Relaxation of Tension 2003
A relaxation of tension began in 2003, when then Indian Prime Minister
Atal Behari Vajpayee called for a dialogue. Rail and bus services
between the two countries resumed, and the two countries agreed to a
ceasefire in Kashmir.
Summit Talks 2004
Twelfth SAARC Summit was held in Islamabad in January 2004. On this
occasion President Parvez Musharraf met Indian Prime Minister Atal
Behari Vajpayee on 5th January 2004. In this summit talk India and
Pakistan resumed comprehensive discussions with an agenda the
included the Kashmir problem, confidence-building measures, and
ways to provide security against terrorism.
No War Pact 2004
These comprehensive consultations have steadily built up trust,
resulting in agreements to continue the suspension of nuclear tests, to
give prior notification of missile tests, and to seek a peaceful resolution
of the Kashmir problem. On June 20, 2004, both countries signed "No
War Pact" and agreed to extend a nuclear testing ban and to set up a
hotline between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing
misunderstandings that might lead to a nuclear war.
Musharraf's Unofficial Visit to India 2005
In April 2005 President Parvez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh agreed on various new confidence-building measures
between the two nations. Their talks, held during Mr. Musharraf's
unofficial visit to India on April 17, produced agreement, for example,
on the passage of trucks for commercial purposes over Kashmir's Line
of Control, or ceasefire line. This is expected to greatly help ease
tensions between the countries.
The improvement of relations between India and Pakistan still involves
uncertain factors such as the activities of Islamic extremists, but efforts
should be stepped up so that the latest summit can serve as a
favorable tail wind for accelerating the thaw between the two nations.

LANGUAGES
URDU- NATIONAL LANGUAGE
Introduction
Language is the only media by which one can express his ideas and feelings. It plays a
vital role in building the character of an individual as well as a nation. Languages bring
closer each other and it creates a sense of harmony among the people.
Urdu - National Language of Pakistan
After independence Quaid-e-Azam said in clear cut words that the National Language of
Pakistan would be Urdu. He said
Let me make it clear that the National Language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no
other language. Without one state language no nation can remain tied up solidly
together.
Evolution of Urdu
Urdu evolved over a period of centuried by cultural between local people of north of Sub
Continent and Muslims of Arabia, Iran and Turkey. The base of this language is Prakrit,
an Aryan language. The script of Urdu is modified form of Persian. Urdu is a word of
Turkish language and its literal meaning is camp.
Progress of Urdu Language
Due to the efforts of poets and writers during different periods of history. Urdu

progressed well and reached almost all parts of the sub-continent in the 16th Century.
The Muslims, from time to time, brought about changes and amendments in it to make
it more simple and easy to understand according to their needs and requirements.
After the emergence of Pakistan, a great deal of work has been done for the progress
of Urdu language. The Urdu language has crossed its evolutionary stages after the
Independence and is now on its way to the road of progress and development. Each
Pakistani feels proud of speaking, reading and writing Urdu. Most of our national
leaders, while visiting other countries, deliver their speeches in Urdu language which
enhances its prestige on the International level. Several Committees have been formed
for the level. Being the national language of the country, it is the binding force between
different parts of Pakistan.
Qualities of Urdu
1. Great Power of Assimilation
The splendour of Urdu is Turkish and its charm is Persian in its base. The vitality of Urdu
lies in its ability to adopt words from other languages in such a way as if they originally
belonged to it. The chief reason for its country wide popularity was its power of
Assimilation. According to Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Still now Urdu has great affinity for many other words and ideas which increases its
beauty.
2. Source of National Identity
National language is the identity of a nation. When we are abroad we are identified as
Pakistani because of our national language. That is why, every nation gives out respect
and importance to national language.
Rich Treasure of Prose and Poetry
The Urdu language possesses a very valuable treasure of poetry and prose. The poets
and writers have contributed their most in its development. Maulana Shibli Nomani,
Maulana Hali, Deputy Nazir Ahmed, Mirza Ghalib, Amir Khusro and many others adopted
this language in their poetry and writings. Sir Syed wrote for the re-awakening of the
Muslims of Sub Continent. According to Abdul Haque
It is Sir Syed due to whom Urdu has made such a great progress within a period of only
one century.
Urdu - An Important Part of Our Cultural Heritage
Urdu grew in popularity and by the later Mughal Period and the advent of the British, it
had been adopted by the Muslims and the Hindus alike. It would not be wrong to say if it
is said that:
Urdu is a part of our Cultural Heritage
Importance of Urdu in National Life
Certain points which express the importance of Urdu in national life are given below:

1. Means of Brotherhood and Unity

People of Pakistan are one nation, therefore their thinking, aims and objectives are
common. Their progress and prosperity depends upon their unity and brotherhood. An
important factor for achieving this unity and brotherhood is Urdu.
2. Source of Expression
Urdu has become a source of expression, feeling, thoughts and aspiration. People of two
different areas can easily understood each other ideas and thoughts by Urdu.
3. Means of Communication and Co-ordination
Urdu serves as a means of communication and is a binding force between all the four
province of Pakistan. People living in different provinces realize that in spite of speaking
different languages, they are joined together by one national language which is the
heritage of all.
4. Medium of Instruction
Urdu language is the medium of instruction in most of the educational instituations of
Pakistan. History, Islamic Studies, Political Science and other subjects are taught upto
M.A level in Urdu. Lectures on Islamic education and religion are also delivered in Urdu
throughout Pakistan.
Conclusion
Being the national language of the country it is the binding force in different parts of
Pakistan. The officers have adopted Urdu language in their official work and the
Government has published a dictionary contained Urdu terms for the office work. The
Urdu Development Board and "Anjuman-e-Taraqi-e-Urdu" are trying to give Urdu a place
in society and it is hope that Urdu would find its place in society within short period of
time.

REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN

Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. No less than twenty-four languages and dialects are
spoken by the people of Pakistan, but mainly include five regional languages Punjabi,
Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi and Kashmiri. These languages are rich in literature,
poetry, folksongs and spiritual sayings of their respective saints and contribute greatly
to the culture of Pakistan.
The regional languages though distinct from one another in their forms, dialects and
expressions of thoughts have several common factors in them. They cultivate in them
love, respect and a firm adherence to the Pakistan Ideology. The regional languages of
Pakistan are:
1. Punjabi
Punjabi is the local language of the province of the Punjab which is the biggest province
of Pakistan with regard to population and development. It has its links with the Aryan
language Prakrit. Before partition it was spoken in Delhi, Dhirpur, Peshawar and Jammu
too. However as time rolled on the vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of
Persian, Arabic and Turkish words. It has different dialects in different parts of Punjabi
like Saraiki and Potohari but the basic language remains the same.
Various Names
Punjabi is a very simple language and easy to understand. It was given various names
during different periods of history. Famous historian Masoodi called it Multani while AlBeruni used the name of Al-Hindi for it. The famous Sikh religious leader Baba Guru
Nanak gave it the name of Zaban-e-Jattan. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko. In the
NWFP it was known as Hindko. Hafiz Barkhurdar was the first person to use the name of
Punjabi for this language in the first half of 17th century in his book entitled Muftah-ulFiqah. Maulvi Kamal-ud-Din also used this name for this language in his selected works.
Various forms of Lyric and Narrative Poetry
Punjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. The highly imaginative
and artistic exquisite literature, mostly in verse has two forms one is "Lyric Poetry"
which includes Bait, Kafi, Si-harfi, Bara Mah and Satwara the other one i "Narrative

Poetry" which is composed of various rhythms and meters. Examples are Qissa Noor
Namah, Gulzar, Jang Nama and Vaar.
Famous Punjabi Poets
Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language are:
* Baba Farid Shakar Ganj Baksh
* Sheikh Ibrahim Farid Shani
* Madholal Hussein
* Sultan Bahu
* Bullay Shah
* Ali Haider
* Waris Shah
Progress of Punjabi Language
Before partition Punjabi was spoken and understood in the eastern part of the Punjab.
After Independence concrete steps were taken for the promotion and development of
this language which made it a popular language in other parts of the province. The
Government is still making efforts for the progress of Punjabi language and extending
support to those institutions which are striving for its development. A present the
Punjabi literature is taugth upto M.A. level in Pakistan.
2. Sindhi
Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was
spoken in the Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the
people of Moen-jo-Daro contained elements of the present Sindhi language.
The origin of this language is not exactly known. However travelers like Al-Beruni have
told us about the original script of the language. "Chach Nama" being an authentic
document proves that the dialect of the Sindhi language was the same in the 12th
century, as it is today. With the advent and influence of Arabs in the Sub Continent
Sindhi changed its form and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and
Turkish.
Way of Writing
In the beginning Sindhi was written in "Marwari" and "Arz Nagari"' way of writing. With
the advent and influence of Arabs in the subcontinent this way of writing was
subsequently changed into Arabic and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of
Persian and Turkish.
Steps Taken to Develop Sindhi
Various steps have been taken to develop Urdu. Organizations like "Sindhi Literacy

Board" and "Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula" etc were set up. Several newspapers published in
Sindhi, such as Ibrat, Naw-i-Sind and Khadim-I-Watan besides a number of Weeklies.
Famous Sindhi Poets
Some of famous Sindhi Poets are
* Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
* Sachal Sarmast
* Makhdoom Noor
* Shah Inayat
* Bedil
* Sabit Ali Shah
* Kazi Kazah

3. Balochi
Balochi is the regional language of Balochistan. It is the least developed of all the
regional languages. It was spread by Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.
The history of Balochi literature may be divided into four periods:
1. Early Medieval Period - 1430 to 1600
2. Later Medieval Period - 1600 to 1850
3. Modern Period - 1850 to 1930
4. Contemporary Period - 1930 up to date
Literature produced by earlier poets has no record as it is preserved traditionally in the
memories of the people. No newspapers or books were published in Balochi up till 1940.
After partition, however Balochi literature received a little boost due to the efforts made
by many associations and by the establishment of T.V stations. At present, Balochi
literature is on the road to development.
Types of Balochi
There are two types of Balochi namely:

1. Sulemani
2. Makrani
Famous Literacy Figures and Poets of Balochi

Some of the most literacy figures are:

* Azad Jamaldini
* Ulfat Naseem
* Abdul Qadir Shahwani
* Malik Mohammad Ramzan
* Mir Aaqil Maingal
Well known poets of Balochi language are
* Jam Darag
* Shah Murid
* Shahdad
Progress of Balochi Language
The Balochi literature was on the verge of decline before partition. After partition,
however it received little boost when Radio Pakistan, Karachi began its broadcast in
Balochi language. Balochi programmes were relayed from Radio Pakistan Karachi which
enhanced the developmental process of Balochi language.
Balochi Literary Association
The Balochi literary Association was set up which published many magazines and
articles in Balochi language. A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan" was published.
A monthly known as "Olassis" was also published.
Quetta Television Station
With the establishment of Quetta Television Station the Balochi language has received
great fillip. Atta Shah is a famous Balochi poet of Pakistan. Ishaq Shamim is another
famous poet of Balochi language whose poem "Dulhan" is very popular. The renowned
politician Gul Khan Naseer is also considered a good poet of Balochi language. Balochi
prose has also developed a great deal after partition. Translation of the Bible has also
been published in Balochi language.
4. Pushto
Pushto is the regional language of the N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the East
Iranian group of languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.
Famous Pushto Poets
Some of the well known poets of Pushto language are:
* Amir Karoro

* Khushal Khan Khatak

* Rehman Baba
* Sher Shah Soori
* Saif ullah
* Kazim Kazim
Steps Taken to Develop Pushto
Although Pushto is an old language but its literature is comparatively new one. After
independence Pushto literature received a great boost.
The services rendered by the Pushto poets and writers in the freedom struggle, in fact
contributed a great deal towards the promotion of Pushto literature.
Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum worked very hard to create political awareness in the people
of N.W.F.P. The Islamic College, Peshawar which became the citadel of freedom
movement in N.W.F.P was established because of his dedicated services. Peshawar
University was established after three years of Independence.
An academy for the promotion of Pushto literature was set up under the supervision of
the Government. The Pushto academy was set up in 1954 and Maulana Abdul Qadir
(Alig) was appointed as its Director. This academy prepared Pushto dictionary.
5. Brahvi
Brahvi is the next spoken language of Balochistan. It fact it is said to be spoken by a
greater number of people than Balochi. The Brahvi language is said to be a member of
Dravidian family of languages. It has borrowed heavily from Sindhi, Persian, Arabic and
English but remains in an unexplained isolation among the Indo-Iran dialects.
Brahvi literature has a vast treasure of folklores. It's script has borrowed much from
Pushto script. Malik Dad was a great poet and learned person of Brahvi language.
6. Kashmiri
Kashmiri is the language of the people of inhabitting the occupied Kashmir and Azad
Kashmir. This language has been derived from Sanskrit. Kashmiri is generally spoken in
Muslim families of the valley. It contains many Turkish, Arabic and Persian words and is
written in the Persian Script.
Kashmiri like all the regional languages of Pakistan had its early literature flowered in
the form of poetry, which began with the composition of folk songs and ballads.
Kashmiri Literary Figures
Famous authors of Kashmiri language are:
* Sh. Nooruddin

* Khatoon Lillah Anifa

* Baba Nasiruddin
* Ghani
Conclusion
The regional languages of Pakistan - Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi are the
most modern Pakistani languages. The have several common feature and their
literature bears the same eternal message for mankind. Government has been doing its
best to develop the regional languages.

PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

NEED FOR A SEPARATE HOMELAND

Hindus and Muslims had lived peacefully together in India for
centuries, but after the British invasion in South Asia and their undue
support to Hindus, life became very difficult for Indian Muslims. In fact,
the Muslims were a separate nation who always adhered to their

religious identity. The British and the Hindus in spite of their great
efforts could not put a wedge into the Muslim unity and their love for
the national character. The creation of Pakistan owes much to this
feeling of adherence to their national image and religious identity.
The Muslims of Indo Pak Sub Continent demanded a separate
homeland on the following grounds.
1. Desire to establish an Islamic State
Islam is a complete code of life for the Muslims and they are eager to
implement it in their personal and collective life. Islamic code of Life or
Islamic Ideology cannot be implemented until a pure Islamic Society
free from all other unIslamic influences is established. The desire to
establish an Islamic State was also one of the factors to demand a
separate homeland.
2. Two Nation Theory
The Two Nation Theory played an important role for demanding a
separate homeland according to which Hindus and Muslims are the two
nations and therefore they cannot live together. Quaid-e-Azam once
said,
Hindus and Muslims though living in the same towns and villages had
never been blended into one nation. They were always two separate
entities.
So the Muslims should have a separate State where they could lead
their individual and collective life in accordance with the Islamic
principles.
3. Historical Collusion
Hindu and Muslim historical collusion started when Muhammad Bin
Qasim, defeating Raja Dahir, founded Islamic government in the
subcontinent. Many battles were fought between Hindus and Muslims
under Muslim Rule. The historical collusion continued also during the
British Regime. Hindus, cooperating with British, tried to diminish
Muslim culture and their way of life but they remained futile. The future
of Muslims was obvious in such condition; therefore they decided to
demand for the separate homeland.

4. Hindus and British

Since the British snatched power from Muslims, they were doubtful
about the faithfulness of Muslims. So, Hindus and British joined hands
to destroy the Muslims morally, socially, economically and politically.
They reserved all higher civil, judicial and military appointments for
British only while Muslims were debarred from all official positions. The
Islamic educational system was replaced by British one. Then Muslims
were forced to change their religion to Christianity and were compelled
to send their children to co educational institutes and abandon purdha.
This was the reason that Muslims became fed up with both British and
Hindus and decided to have a separate homeland.
5. British Parliamentary System
Indian National Congress demanded the British Parliamentary system
of government in India which meant majority rule. The implementation
of this simply meant the Hindus slavery of Muslims since they were in
majority. This was the reason that Muslims stressed on separate
electorates and got it accepted. Separate electorate was the first brick
in the foundation of demand for separate homeland.
6. Shuddi and Sangathan Movement
Hindu Muslim Unity evaporated in the year after the Khilafat Movement
and Hindu Muslim Riots began. The poison of differences between the
two nations aggravated with the passage of time. The differences
reached to the peak when Shuddhi and Sangathan movements began.
The Shuddhi Movement aimed at the mass conversion of certain
backward groups of Muslims into Hindus by force whereas the
Sangathan Programme sought to organize the Hindus into a Militant
force to flight with the Muslims.
7. Activities of Maha Sabha
Maha Sabha was established in 1900. It was a non political party until
the Shuddhi and Sangathan Movement started. These movements
motivated Maha Sabha to be involved in politics. It proved to be the
worst enemy of Muslims. The party declared Muslims as outsiders and
said that Muslims have no relation with India. If they want to leave it
then they could leave it happily but if they want to leave it then they
could leave it happily but if they want to live in India, they will have to
accept Hindu Mut. So it was impossible for Hindus and Muslims to live

in a country together.
8. Protection of Urdu Language
Urdu was considered to be the language of Muslims in the
subcontinent. In 1867, the Hindu-Urdu controversy began with some
outstanding Hindus of Banaras demanding replacements of Urdu by
Hindi as the court language. The supporters of Hindi claimed for it a
national status whereas the Muslims hotly denied it. As the controversy
spread, the two languages became more and more exclusive. Muslims
got very disappointed when in April 1900 UP Governor Sir Antony Mac
Donnell gave Hindi the status of National language with Urdu. That's
why Muslims felt the need to set a political party. Then after a detailed
discussion at last All India Muslim League was established in 1906.
Maulvi Abdul Haque (1870-1961) has rightly said, Urdu Language
placed the first brick in the foundation of Pakistan. It is a reality that it
was one of the major reasons for demanding a separate country.
9. Protection of Muslim Culture
Hindus, with the consent of British during the Congress Ministries,
burnt and looted the properties and houses of Muslims, Moreover, the
signs of Muslims, past glory were damaged. Educational Syllabus was
changed. Urdu was replaced by Hindi and the Muslim students were
forced to worship statues of Gandhi in their schools. The Muslims of
India, therefore, decided that the Muslim culture could be protected in
a free and separate Muslim State.
10. Narrow mindedness of Hindus
Hindu is a narrow-minded nation who does not believe the philosophy
of equality. They considers themselves superior and used to call
Muslims 'Maleech' (impure). There was no concept of eating and
drinding together. Furthermore Muslims were not allowed to touch
the food items of Hindus. There was only way out for the Muslims to
demand a separate homeland.
11. Economic Hardships
During the period of British Government, Hindus practically threw out
Muslims from the fields of trade and industry. All the business,
industrial, and services opportunities were occupied by Hindus and
some degraded jobs were left for the Muslims. Muslims of India

became the political slave of British and economic slave of Hindus. To

come out from this vicious circle, at last, Muslims decided to demand
for a separate homeland.
12. Congress Ministries
During the period of Congress Ministries (1937-1939). Hindus did worst
possible injustice with Muslims. The Hindu-Muslim riots were usual
during the Congress rule. Band-e-Mataram, three coloured flag and
statue of Gandhi were introduced at national level. Urdu was replaced
by Hindi and slaughtering cow was banned. Muslim leaders showed
their resentment before Gandhi and Jawahar lal Nehru. Gandhi showed
his helpless while Nehru plainly and openly said that there were only
two nations in India, Congress and British and the rest should follow
them. After this statement, nothing for left for Muslims but to present
Pakistan Resolution in 1940.

Conclusion
On the basis of above mentioned factors and bitter attitude of British
and Congress the Muslims apprehended that they would lose their
identity if they remained a part of Hindu society. Therefore they quitted
Congress and demanded separate land on the ground that they were
different nation from Hindus. According to Quaid-e-Azam
The Muslims demanded Pakistan were they can rule in accordance with
their own system of life, their cultural development, their traditions
and Islamic law.

SERVICES OF ALLAMA IQBAL IN PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot.
After seeking early education, he was admitted to the Government
College Lahore, where he obtained the degree of MA in the subject of
philosophy. He left for England for higher studies in 1905. He obtained
the degree of philosophy of ethics in 1907; he obtained the degree of
doctorate (Ph.D.) from Munich University.
Services of Iqbal in Pakistan Movement

Iqbal and Pakistan Movement

Although his main interests were scholarly, Iqbal was not unconcerned
with the political situation of the country and the political fortunes of
the Muslim community of India. Already in 1908, while in England, he
had been chosen as a member of the executive council of the newlyestablished British branch of the Indian Muslim League. In 1931 and
1932 he represented the Muslims of India in Round Table Conference
held in England to discuss the issue of the political future of India. And
in a 1930 lecture Iqbal suggested the creation of a separate homeland
for the Muslims of India. Iqbal died (1938) before the creation of
Pakistan (1947), but it was his teaching that spiritually ... has been the
chief force behind the creation of Pakistan.
Iqbal's Idea about Nationhood
Allama Iqbal is the greatest philosopher and poet of the present era.
Along with this, he possessed the view about political affairs. He
awakened the feeling of Muslim nationhood among the Muslims of
India through his poetry and told them about the propaganda of West
about the Muslim nationhood.
When the Hindu philosophers presented this philosophy that a nation is
born throughout the country and when Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni
seconded it, then Iqbal reacted strongly towards it. His thinking and
poetry reflect the Two Nation Theory and his poetry awakened the
feeling of Islamic Nationality among the Muslims of India. This feeling
was a milestone in the created of Pakistan.
Iqbal's Political Life
Allama Iqbal made his debut in politics then he was elected as the
member of Punjab's Legislative Assembly in 1926. During the elections
of 1937, when Quaid-e-Azam started re contructioning of the Muslim
League, Allama Iqbal was along with him. He always supported Quaide-Azam and the Muslim League. He always respected Quaid-e-Azam's
point of view.
Iqbal and Two Nation Theory
Allama Iqbal firmly believe that the Muslims of India have a separate
identity and to protect his identity, the establishment of a separate
homeland for the Muslims of India was necessary. On 28th March,

1909, he excusing the invitation from the secular party "Minsva Lodge"
said
I have been a keen supporter of this theory that religious differences in
the country should end and even now I practise the principle. But, now
I think that separate national identity for the Muslims and the Hindus is
necessary for their survival.
At his Presidential address in 1930, on the occasion of the annual
session of Muslim League at Allahbad, Iqbal said
India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races,
speaking different languages and professing different religions. There
behaviour is not at all determined by a common race conciousness. I
therefore, demand the formation of consolidated Muslim state in the
best interest of India and Islam
Pakistan's Sketch
Allama Iqbal's Presidential Address at Allahbad in 1930 determined the
political path of the Muslims of sub-continent. In his address, he in
clear words said
I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and
Balochistan be amalgamated into a single state.
He further stated that
The formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State
appeares to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West
India.
Thus, Iqbal demanded a sovereign independent Muslim state even
before the Muslim League demanded it in Pakistan's Resolution.
Round Table Conference
During 1930-1932 three sessions of Round Table Conference were held.
Iqbal attended Second and Third Round Table Conference. Having
attended the Second Round Table Conference in September, 1931 in
London, he was keenly aware of the deep-seated Hindu and Sikh
prejudice and unaccommodating attitude. He had observed the mind of
the British Government. Hence he reiterated his apprehensions and
suggested safeguards in respect of the Indian Muslims
In so far then as the fundamentals of our policy are concerned, I have

got nothing fresh to offer. Regarding these I have already expressed

my views in my address to the All India Muslim League. In the present
address I propose, among other things, to help you, in the first place, in
arriving at a correct view of the situation as it emerged from a rather
hesitating behavior of our delegation the final stages of the Round
Table Conference. In the second place, I shall try, according to my
lights to show how far it is desirable to construct a fresh policy now
that the Premier's announcement at the last London Conference has
again necessitated a careful survey of the whole situation.
I must be keep in mind that since Maulana Muhammad Ali had died in
January 1931 and Quaid-e-Azam had stayed behind in London, the
responsibility of providing a proper lead to the India Muslim had fallen
on him alone. He had to assume the role of a jealous guardian of his
nation till Quaid-e-Azam returned to the sub-continent in 1935.
During the Third Round Table Conference, Iqbal was invited by the
London National League where he addressed and audience which
included among others, foreign diplomas, members of the House of
Commons, Members of the House of Lords and Muslim members of
R.T.C delegation. In that gathering he dilated upon the situation of the
Indian Muslims. He explained why he wanted the communal settlement
first and then the constitutional reforms. He stressed the need for
provincial autonomy because autonomy gave the Muslim majority
provinces some power to safeguard their rights, cultural traditions and
religion. Under the central Government the Muslims were bound to lose
their cultural and religious entity at the hands of the overwhelming
Hindu majority. referred to what he had said at Allahabad in 1930 and
reiterated his belief that before long people were bound to come round
to his viewpoint base on cegent reason.
Iqbal's letter to Quaid-e-Azam
The seed sown, the idea to began to evolve and take root. It soon
assumed the shape of Muslim state or states in the western and
eastern Muslim majority zones as is obvious from the following lines of
Iqbal's letter, of June 21, 1937, to the Quaid-e-Azam, only ten months
before the former's death
A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have
suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful
India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why not
the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal should be considered as
nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and
outside India are.

Ideology of Pakistan and Iqbal

Iqbal was strictly against nationalism. He considered all the Muslims to
be a part of One Umma. For him, a Muslim whether he belonged to any
part of the world was the part of brotherly relation. He considered
nationalism to be a coffin for the Muslim Umma.
Thus, opposing the limitation and disadvantages of nationalism, Iqbal
gave the philosophy of a "Millat-e-Islamia" and this philosophy is the
basis of Pakistan ideology.
Conclusion
In short, personality of Allama Iqbal has left indelible marks in history.
He tried to awaken the Muslims of India through his philosophy, poetry
and politics and he brought the ideas of independence among the
Muslims of India. Iqbal died on 21st April, 1938. He was buried in front
of the "Badshahi Mosque" in "Huzori Bagh".

MUSLIM LEAGUE

INDIA AFTER WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND VERNACULAR ACT

After the WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, the British government came into action and
restricted the authority of the EAST INDIA COMPANY by a large extent and the British
government itself took the responsibility to control the SUBCONTINENT. In 1877, QUEEN
VICTORIA was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi.
However, British rule proved unpopular among Indians because they were treated as
salves in their own country without any right to have any say in the running of their
country. The ruling elite and government servants were all British. The recruitment of
Indians into the army was also reduced by a large ratio and conditions were created for
the British goods to be available at cheaper rates and therefore local manufacturers
found it very hard to sell their own goods.
The lack of opportunities for Indians led to widespread criticism of the British in regional
newspapers. The British response was to pass the Vernacular Act of 1878, which placed
strict controls on these newspapers. In the same year, the British passed and an Arms
Act which made it impossible for most Indians to own weapons, to ensure that future
revolts were not that effective. In this environment, it is not surprising that nationalist
ideas started to grow in India.
FORMATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Events like the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 and the Ilbert Bill of 1882,
as well as the reduction of the age limit for the Civil Services Exams in 1876 resulted in
a wave of opposition from the middle class Indians. Consequently some of them came
together and formed a number of small political parties that came out in the streets for
protests and rallies. The British foresaw the situation resulting in another rebellion on
the pattern of the War of Independence of 1857. To avoid such a situation, the British
decided to provide an outlet to the local people where they could discuss their political
problems. In order to achieve this goal, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil
servant, had a series of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy. He also visited England
and met people like John Bright, Sir James Caird, Lord Ripon and some members of the
British Parliament. Hume also had the support of a large number of Englishmen in India,
including Sir William Wedderbun, George Yule and Charles Bradlaugh.
On his return from Britain, Hume consulted the local Indian leaders and started working
towards the establishment of an Indian political organization. He invited the convention
of the Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884, to Bombay
in December 1885. Seventy delegates, most of whom were lawyers, educationalists and
journalists, attended the convention in which the Indian National Congress was
established. This first session of Congress was presided over by Womesh Chandra
Banerjee and he was also elected as the first president of the organization.
To begin with, Congress acted as a 'Kings Party'. Its early aims and objectives were:
1. To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts.
2. Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form
national unity.
3. Discuss and solve the social problems of the country.
4. To request the government, give more share to the locals in administrative affairs.
As time went by, the Congress changed its stance and apparently became the biggest
opposition to the British government.
Muslims primarily opposed the creation of Congress and refused to participate in its
activities. Out of the 70 delegates who attended the opening session of the Congress,
only two were Muslims. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was invited to attend the Bombay
session, refused the offer. He also urged the Muslims to abstain from the Congress
activities and predicted that the party would eventually become a Hindu party and
would only look after the interests of the Hindus. Syed Ameer Ali, another important
Muslim figure of the era, also refused to join Indian National Congress.

THE PARTITION OF BENGAL

Finding the Bengal Presidency too large for one governor to administer, in 1905 the
English decided to redraw its boundaries and divided it into two parts.
The provinces of Bengal and Assam were reconstituted so as to form the two provinces
of manageable size. Western Bengal, with a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus
and 9 million Muslims); and Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million
(12 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims). The territory to be transferred from Bengal
to the new province consisted of the districts of Chittagong and Dhaka Divisions,
Rajshahi Division excluding Darjeeling, and the District of Malda.

Curzon, the Viceroy of India, sent the proposal to London in February 1905. The
Secretary of State for India St. John Brodrich sanctioned it in June, and the proclamation
of the formation of the new province was issued in September. The province of Bengal
and Assam came into being on October 16 1905.
Incidentally, the partition went in favor of the Muslims. Before the partition, Western
Bengal, being the first area to come under western influence, was developed and
industrialized. It was a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim peasantry
was crushed under the Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with pirates, and
very few funds were allocated for education. It was dreaded as a place of banishment.
The partition helped boost Bengali literature and language; efforts were also made
towards the social, economic and educational uplift of the Muslims.

MUSLIM REACTION:
The new province if Eastern Bengal brought happier prospects of political and economic
life for the Muslims. The Muslims turned into majority by the creations of new province.
The partition of Bengal provided chances of great progress to the Muslims who formed
the majority group in the new setup. In the combined province of Bengal, the Muslims
were a suppressed class of society. The Hindus had monopolized trade and government
services which aggravated the economic condition of the Muslims. The partition of
Bengal provided them with a chance to rehabilitate their social position. They hoped
that their social status would get a tremendous boost in the new province. The Muslims
expressed their utmost happiness over the partition of Bengal. They offered their
gratification in the loyal way to the government for taking a step for their social,
economic and political uplift.

HINDU REACTION:

The Hindus reacted toward the partition of Bengal in a hostile and violent manner. The
Hindus could never support a move which was to bring prosperity and happiness to the
Muslims. The reasons for Hindus opposition to the partition were as follows:

1.

The Hindus believed that they would come under the domination of the Muslim
majority in the new province and their superior position would be downgraded to the
inferior status.

2.

As the provincial High Court and other judicial bodies were to be shifted to Dhaka, the
Hindu lawyers feared that their legal practice would be affected.

3.

Since Dhaka was to become the center of journalistic and other academic activities, the
Hindu press and media believed that from now onward the Muslim point of view would
be projected in the newspapers and magazines. They also feared that their income
would seriously be lessened.

4.

The Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders did not like the partition as it was to put an
end to their exploitation of the poor Muslims.

5.

Before the partition of Bengal the Hindus enjoyed dominant position in the political
sphere of the province over the Muslims. The new setup was to put an end to their
superior political position and their political dominance over the Muslims would finish.

The Hindus, therefore, launched an intensive movement against the partition of Bengal,
They termed the partition as degrading and an insult to the national character of the
Hindu population. Religions color was given to the agitation and the partition was
termed as the dissection of the 'Scared Cow Mother' in order to arouse intense
opposition by the Hindu masses. They considered the partition as an attempt to sow the
needs of hatred and discontentment among the Indian people to weaken the national
movements for independence.

The day of 16 October, 1905, when the partition was enforced, was declared as a
national tragedy. Strikes were held throughout the country. The Indian National Congress
also jumped in to support the agitation against partition. The Hindu students put up
violent demonstrations against the partition. The Congress severely criticized the
partition in the annual session of 1906.

The Hindu agitation soon turned into a violent reaction. The people disobeyed
government orders by refusing to pay taxes and rentals. Communal clashes erupted at
a number of places which upset the law and order situation in the country. The political
disorder and unrest largely largely prevailed in the country. Bombs were thrown and
attacks were made on the lives of the British people. Swadeshi movement was
organized by the Hindu majority to boycott the British manufacturers. The train carrying
the Governor of the Eastern Bengal was derailed and an attempt was made on the
Viceroy's life which failed.

The Muslims kept away from the Hindu agitation and adopted a humble and loyal
posture. They welcomed the partition and passed resolutions supporting the partition of
Bengal. They impressed upon the government to maintain its decision of the partition of
Bengal.

The most serious result of the Hindu agitation was a steep rise in Hindu - Muslim riots.
The net result of this was that the Hindu agitation definitely disunited the Muslims from
the Congress.

1.

BRITISH REACTION TO HINDU PROTEST:

Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings. Editors were prosecuted
and imprisoned.
2. In 1908, a press act gave even more control to government over newspapers.

3.

Many influential Hindu leaders were either imprisoned or sent into exile.
THE SIMLA DEPUTATION
In 1906 a group of Muslim landed magnates and chieftains organized a deputation of
Lord Minto, the Viceroy, at Simla and pleaded for a few concession to the Muslim
community of India.
The Simla Deputation, the meeting came to be called, was a pre-arranged affair. And it
is said that the Deputation that waited upon Lord Minto was actually a British move.
However, within a few months following the Simla Deputation a political forum of the
communalist Muslims emerged. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca took initiative in organizing
a conference of the communalist Muslims in which a resolution was adopted in favour of
the foundation of the All India Muslim League.
Accordingly the All India Muslim League was founded in 1906.

OBJECTIVES OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The All India Muslim League was formed under the initiative of Nawab Salimulla of
Dacca in 1906 with the following objectives .
(1) To promote among the MUSLIMS of India a feeling of loyalty to the British
government.
(2) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the MUSLIMS of India, and
to represent their needs and aspirations to the British government.
(3) To prevent the rise among MUSLIMS of India of any feeling of hostility towards other ;
communities. Above were the objectives with which the All India Muslim League was
founded.

THE MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, announced in the British
parliament that his government wanted to introduce new reforms for India, in which the
locals were to be given more powers in legislative affairs. With this, a series of
correspondences started between him and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of
India. A committee was appointed by the Government of India to propose a scheme of
reforms. The committee submitted its report, and after the approval of Lord Minto and
Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was passed by the British parliament. The Act of 1909 is
commonly known as the Minto-Morley Reforms.
The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:
1. The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased
from 16 to 60.

2. The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was
fixed as 50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the
provinces it was 30.
3. The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the provinces,
were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio members (Governor General and the
members of their Executive Councils), nominated official members (those nominated by
the Governor General and were government officials), nominated non-official members
(nominated by the Governor General but were not government officials) and elected
members (elected by different categories of Indian people).
4. Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.
5. At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official
members would be in majority.
6. The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets,
suggest the amendments and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were
included as non-vote items. They were also entitled to ask supplementary questions
during the legislative proceedings.
7. The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the
Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to four.
8. Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
9. The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his
Executive Council.

THE BENGAL PARTITION REVERSED

Just how vital it was for Muslims to form their own political party was emphasized in
1911 when the British showed that they could not be trusted to protect Muslim
interests. Lord Harding, the new Viceroy, agreed to reverse the partition of Bengal. The
decision was announced at a Durbar in Delhi on 12 December by King George V, who
was visiting India at that time. The British tried to suggest that they had reversed the
partition as a part of their governing policy of India. In reality, they had been forced into
the move by the fierce opposition of the Bengali Hindus. However, the British also
moved the capital from Calcutta to Delhi to show that Hindu opposition had not been
completely successful. The reversal of the partition of the partition of Bengal was
bitterly opposed by the Muslims, but the British were not to be moved. The Muslims now
realized that how important it was for the Muslim League to prosper if they were in hope
of receiving fair treatment in India.

SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Early Biography Details
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi. He came from
a wealthy family and his father gave him high quality
education. When he was 18 Sir Syed was skilled in Arabic,
Persian, Mathematics and Medicine. He was also introduced as
Sub-continent most able writer. In 1838 his father died so he
became a judge in Delhi in 1846. When the war of
Independence broke out in 1857 he was working as Chief Judge
in Bijnaur and had saved the life of British women and children
during the fighting. In return for his loyalty the British gave
him estate with large income but he refused. His Belief that
armed uprising against the British was pointless made him
unpopular to many Muslims. He was appointed Chief justice in
Muradabad and was later transferred to Ghazipore. In 1864 he
was transferred to Aligarh where he played an important part
in establishing the college. In 1876 he retired from his work to
concentrate on running the college and devoting himself to
improve the position of Muslims through education. He died on
27 March 1898.

Beliefs
Sir Syed was extremely unhappy about the position of Muslims
in the subcontinent. Since the days of the Mughal declined the
social and economical status of Muslims had declined sharply
and the role of Muslims in the war of Independence had left
further decline as British took measures to ensure that their
control was unchallenged. Sir Syed Ahmed felt that the poor
status of Muslims was due to they were treated as secondclass citizen by British and Hindus and they had to take some
responsibilities themselves. Most Muslims thought that British
were no more than just invaders and they had nothing to do
with them. Sir Syed Ahmed believed that Muslims had to
accept that the British were there rulers and could only
improve if they have a positive approach towards them. They

needed to accept the British idea and their education if they

wanted to improve. Sir Syed wanted to see Muslims untied and
prospering in their social, economical and religious fortune. He
made this his Lifes ambition and founded Aligarh movement.

Aligarh Movement
Sir Syed was interested in Muslims. He wanted to improve
relations with British and the positions of Muslims.
The central aims of the Aligarh Movement were to:
- improve relations between the British and Muslims
communities by removing British doubts about Muslim loyalty
and Muslim doubts about the British intentions.
- improve the social and economic position of Muslims by
encouraging them to receive Western education and take up
posts in the civil service and army.
- increase their political awareness to make them aware of the
threat to from the Hindu policy of cooperation with the British.

Work
1. Improving Relation between the British and Muslim
Communities
Sir Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the
subcontinent could only be improved if relations with the
British were improved by the Muslims gained higher-quality
education. There were two major obstacles to good relations.
A. The British had put the entire responsibility for the War of
Independence in 1857 on the Muslims.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this false view was corrected.
B. There was a deep-seated resentment of the British among
many in the Muslim community.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that the benefits and advantages of
British rule, in particular in the areas of science and
technology were embraced by the Muslim community to
improve the lives of the masses.

Convincing the British

In 1860 Sir Syed wrote The Loyal Mohammedans of India. In
this work he defended Muslims and listed the name of those
Muslims who remained Loyal to the British during the uprising.
In order to convince that the British were wrong to fully blame
the Muslims for the uprising so he wrote a pamphlet Essay on

the Causes of the Indian Revolt. In this he pointed the

reasons for the uprising. He told that British were unable to
understand the Indians. This Pamphlet was circulated freely
among the British officials in India and the copies were also
sent to England were it was studied carefully. Many British
thought that he was blaming them for uprising but others
sympathetic and accepted the truth in his words. He also
cleared the misunderstanding that Muslim called the British
Nadarath, He told that this was no insult but the word came
from Arabic word Nasir which means helpers.

Convincing the Muslims

Sir Syed was aware that the British knew very little about
Islam. Indeed, on a visit to England he was so offended by an
English book on the life of the Prophet (PBUH) that he
immediately wrote his own work correcting the many errors.
Sir Syed was aware that Muslim in India knew very little about
Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing Tabyin-ulKalam in which he pointed out the similarities between Islam
and Christianity.

2. Encouraging the growth of Western education

He also supported the idea of western education as he knew

that Muslims could not succeed until they had high quality
education which was received by the Hindus. He believed that
the acceptance of Western scientific and technological ideas
was necessary as this could only make Muslim advance in the
world of science. He related this with Holy Quran that it was
written in Quran that the study and that an understanding of
modern scientific belief actually helped reveal the full majesty
of God. He established scientific society at Ghazipore and its
main purpose was making Scientific Writing available to more
people. When he visited England he was impressing by the
quality of education the student received there so in 1875 he
founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College its main purpose
was to provide the education to the Muslims like the people in
England received. The subjects were Mathematics, Modern
Science and Agricultural Science. (In 1920 the college became
the University of Aligarh.

3. Increasing Political Awareness

Syed Ahmed also wanted Muslims to have a good relation with
the Hindus but he found out that Hindus did not want good
relations.

In 1885 Indian Nation Congress was found which claimed to

speak for Indians but later it was found out that it was a body
dominated by Hindus.
Sir Syed wanted Muslims to stay away from Democracy as the
Muslims were in minorities in India and every election would
be won by the Hindus.
A further cause of concern to Syed Ahmed was the Hindi-Urdu
Controversy. In 1867 the Hindus demanded that Hindi should
be the next official language. The Muslims were struck by this
as Urdu had special place in their hearts. This was another
factor guiding him towards his two nation theory.

Hindi-Urdu Controversy
Hindi-Urdu Controversy was started in 1867. Hindus demanded
Hindi to be official language but Muslims wanted Urdu to be
official language. Sir Syed supported Urdu in this thing. Due to
this reason Sir Syed started Two Nation Theory telling that
Muslims and Hindus were two separate kinds of people.
Muslims opposed this and supported Urdu as it was the sign
and united the Muslims of the India under one language.

Two-Nation Theory
Urdu was the national language for many years. But Hindus
opposed it in Urdu Controversy. This provoked Sir Syed to
make his Two Nation Theory to tell that Urdu had place in
hearts of Muslims and was supported by them and cant be
replaced by Hindu which was the language of the Hindus. It
was important because Sir Syed had realized that Muslims and
Hindu couldnt work together as the Hindus were not with the
Muslims.
Another reason was that the parliamentary system was not
supported by Sir Syed was Hindus were in more number so
they always outnumbered the Muslims and due to this Sir Syed
opposed it. Sir Syed realised that separate electorate was the
possible solution to this so in view of his Two Nations Theory.
He made this decision of separate electorate demand for
elections for the good of the Muslims.
Another reason it was important was that congress spoke of
competitive examinations for jobs and good posts while

Muslims were always not given good education so they were

also not able to take good posts as Hindu won all the seats and
passed the examinations always. According to Two Nation
Theory Sir Syed suggested it as two separate groups of
Muslims and Hindus were not working for the Muslims at that
time so Two Nation Theory was important here as well.

Importance
He worked tirelessly to improve the relation of British and
Muslims and wrote several books and pamphlets so that
British might be convinced and trust Muslims once again. He
played a major role in educating Muslims so that they can take
up good jobs and their condition was improved. He is known as
Father of the Pakistan Movement As he was the first one to
express the Idea of treating Muslims and Hindus separately.

Contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (14Marks)

1. Attempts to achieve a better understanding between
the British and the Muslims
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was one of the Muslim reformers. He
carefully studied and analyzed the decline of Muslims in
political power, social status and economic well-being. He came
to the conclusion that Muslims were being handicapped
because of the misunderstanding which had cropped up
between the British and Muslim rulers, the Muslims opposed
and hated the British and everything associated with the
British. Muslims kept away from modern education and English
language which the British were trying to enforce in India. On
the other hand the British held the Muslims responsible for the
revolt of 1857 and considered them (Muslims) to be their real
enemies. The result of this mistrust was that Muslims were
being crushed in every way.
Therefore, Sir Syed tried to remove this misunderstanding by
addressing both the British and Muslims. Sir Syed wrote books
and explained to the British that the real cause of 1857
uprising was the wrong policies and altitude of the British
themselves. To Muslims Sir Syed explained that Christians and
Christianity should not be hated. He specially stressed that
Muslims should came towards modern education, the lack of
which was causing continual set back to the Muslims of India.

2. Education

Sir Syed gave much importance to modern education and his

efforts and contribution to Muslim education and his efforts
and contribution to Muslim education is very important. He
opened schools at several places where he was posted. He
established Scientific Society and printed the Aligarh Institute
Gazette. He was visited England in 1869 on his own expenses
to observe the working of British Universities. Most important
achievement in education sector was the founding of M.A.O
College at Aligarh in 1877. Sir Syed founded the
Mohammadens Educational Conference whose objective was to
discuss and solve the education problems of Muslims in the
sub-continent. His efforts for Muslim education served double
purpose. It helped the Muslims to get good jobs and raised
their status in society. It also helped in removing the mistrust
between the British and the Muslims. Therefore education was
the most important aspect of Sir Syeds services in the
Muslims of India.

3. Politics
Sir Syeds advice to Muslims in the political field is also
important. He believed that under the European system or
democratic government the Muslims of India would always be
at the mercy of Hindu majority. He suggested separate
electorate for Muslims. He advised the Muslims not to join
Congress. He opposed the system of competitive examinations
for government posts because Muslims were much behind the
Hindus in education. Sir Syed strongly opposed the
replacement of Urdu with Hindi as court and official language.

4.Religion
In Religion Sir Syed united the Muslims by supporting the Two
Nation Theory and the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867 in
which Hindus wanted Hindi to be the official language while
the Muslims wanted Urdu. He realised the threat to Muslims so
united them and gave them good education.

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857

In 1857 British faced a serious challenge to their rule in India.
This war is called war of Independence. There are many causes
for this war which are:

Political
As British extended their control they introduced many ways of
grabbing land like the use of Doctrine of Lapse was introduced
by Lord Dalhousie was very unpopular. The mistreatment of
Mughal Emperor was also another cause and when Lord
Dalhousie moved the capital from Delhi. It angered many
people. English was replaced by Persian as an Official
language.

Religious and Social

As the rule of British grew so did its culture. The British
thought that they were Superior Culture and Disrespected the
Indian culture they also did not get mixed with the Indians as
they thought that Indians are uneducated and uncivilized
people. This arrogant attitude and the introduction of new
ways of life with railways, roads and telegraph were not
accepted to many Indians. Indians thought that their religion
was ay threat by foreigners was sent Christian monks to
spread their religion. These monks insulted the religion of the
Indians. This angered many Indians.

Economic
We have learnt that how British merchants traded with India
which was very profitable for them. The British imposed high
taxes on Indians and the tax collectors were corrupt and kept

some money for themselves the resentment grew when the

British filled Indian market with cheap mass produced goods
and many families were unable to sell their goods thus this
made most of the Indians poor. British also made the salary of
their army (Infantry) low.

Military
There were many Indian soldiers in the British army but not
even a single one of Indian was made an officer. The British
used their army to fight other countries and this was not
accepted to Indians who wanted to leave their mother land.
They were also rumors that The Indians were forced to convert
into Christianity before they could be made the Officers.

The Events Of 1857

In January 1857 the British announced that they would
introduce a new rifle with a paper cartridge covered with
grease to keep the powder dry and before the cartridge would
be loaded the end had to be bitten off. However a rumor
spread that the grease was made up of Cow and pigs fat. The
Sepoys were so angry that they refused to use the new rifle.
In March a Sepoy named Mangal Pandey defied his British
officer and was executed.
In May Sepoys of Meerut refused to touch the new cartridge so
they were put to prison but their fellow Sepoys freed them and
killed all the British then the soldiers marched to Delhi and
captured it. The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II wined
the support of Hindus and Muslims. The War spread and British
lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as well
as Delhi and Lucknow. This area is now known as Uttar
pardesh. However British proved to be too powerful and
quickly regained the areas they had lost.
In September Delhi was regained and Bahdur Shah was put
into life time prison. In august 1858 the war was officially over.
Reasons For Failure Of War of Independence 1857
1.Lack of Unity
Although the whole Indian nation faced resentment against the
British but the aims were different. The Muslim wanted to
regain control and again set up the Mughal Empire. Their was
no general plan or a Leader. The princes did not want the
Imperial power once again. There was no sense of patriotism
and India was too dived for such a feeling.The only uniting
force was Islam but the other groups opposed them which

were Hindus and Sikhs as they did not want the rule of Muslim
once again on the India. These were the reasons as British
considered this as Muslim Revolt.

2.British Strength:
The most powerful country of that time and because of
Industrial Resolution they had High tech weapons. The British
army was well trained and was much disciplined and they were
provided with large weapons and Funds by the British
government. The Perhaps the major reason for the failure of
this uprising was the strength of the British.The Britain was
Indians were still fighting with each other and in the mean
time the British use it clever techniques and weapons to crush
the rebellion furthermore it had the support. of some loyal
states like Kashmir who sent 2000 troops to support the
British win the war.

The Effects of the War

The failure of the war conformed the British masters of India.
The war did not loosen control but rather tightened it. The East
India Company was abolished and the Britain took full control
of the Indians affairs. In 1877 the Queen Victoria was given the
title as Empress of India and the Mughal royal family decade
away. There were very cruel acts in the war as in the town of
Cawnpore the Indians had murdered several British women
and children to avenge their deaths the British killed anyone
who was sympathetic to Indians. They also introduced Viceroy
who was known responsible for all the acts in the country. He
had over thousand civil servants to help him administer the
country. These ranged from highly paid judge to lowly paid
junior administer. After the War the British stopped funding
Muslim schools and because Muslims still were not ready to
accept the British rule so they did not go in the British schools
and became uneducated. This was not the case with Sikhs and
Hindus and they became friendly with the British and very
quickly learned to speak English. After 1857 British did not
trust the Indians and thus they were not taken in the army and
the British did not allow Indians to have their own weapons
and thus making the further rebellions less effective. The
Control of the British in India was now unchallenged.

RELIGIOUS THINKERS

SHAH WALIULLAH

INTRODUCTION:
Shah Wali Ullah was born on 21 February 1703 during the reign of Aurangzeb his real name was
Qutub-ud-din but became famous as Shah Wali-Ullah his father was Shah Abdul Rahim who
founded Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi his father died in 1718.In 1724 Shah Wali Ullah went to Arabia
to perform Hajj. He studied under famous scholar Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim and returned to Delhi
in 1732. During the course of his education, he learned many of his books from his father and was
inducted in the tradition of bayath (sacred vows) by his father and by the age of 17 was permitted by
his father to provide spiritual guidance and reform his fellow Muslims. After 14 months of stay in
Arabia, two hajj pilgrimages and learning the books of hadith from the scholars of the holy cities,
Shah Waliullah finally returned to India in early 1145 H.E. the journey home lasted six months and he
reached Delhi on Friday 14 Rajab 1145 H.E. on reaching home, he started teaching again and
writing until his death three decades later.

BELIEFS:
He believed that the Muslims were facing decline not because of weak leadership but because of
Muslim community itself. He believed that many Muslims did not have complete knowledge of
Quranic teachings. A major problem was that Muslims were divided into Shias and Sunnis and
fought with themselves. It was necessary to follow Islamic teachings into every aspect of life.

WORK:
He worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for every Muslim. He translated Quran into
Persian because many people were unfamiliar with Arabic. Later his sons, Shah Abdul Qader and
Shah Rafi, translated Quran into Urdu so more and more people could gain Islamic knowledge. He
wrote fifty one books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst the most famous were Hujjatullah-ul-Baligha
and Izalat-Akhfa. He also wrote an account of the first four caliphs of Islam in a way that was
acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis. In economics he emphasised the need for social justice and
for peasants and craftsmen to be truly valued for their contribution to the economy. His most
important contributions to the Muslim community was his organization of opposition to the Marathas,
who were threatening to over-run the Mughal Empire from the south. It was to call together the
divinities among Muslims and unite them for Jihad. He wrote a letter to Afghan King Ahmad Shah
Abdali and joined local forces with local Muslim leaders and defeated the Marathas in the Battle of
Panipat in 1761. However, despite encouragement from Shah Wali Ullah, the Muslim leaders did not
unite to take advantage of the defeat of the Marathas. Perhaps if they had done so, the Muslims
would not have soon found themselves under Non-Muslim rule.

IMPORTANCE:
Shah Wali Ullah was one of the first thinkers to state that the decline of Mughal Empire and the
vulnerable position of the Muslims were due to a neglect of the principles of Islam. He showed how
this regeneration might take place. The Madrassa continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic

principles and researching Islamic thought. He believed that Muslims could prosper if they followed
proper Islamic customs and did not indulge in social evils. His writing gave large number of Muslims
a chance to study their religion and understand its teachings. He gave Muslims inspiration to lead a
pure simple Life. He showed that Muslims had to concentrate more on basic principle rather than
finding the difference which would lead them in the conflict among them. He tried to oppose Maratha
and unite the Muslim under a common enemy. Many future leaders were inspired by his teachings.
And fight for the good of Muslim community.

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI

INTRODUCTION:
Syed Ahmad was born in a small town of Rai Bareli near Lucknow. He moved in Delhi in 1806 and
Studied in Madrassa Rahimya for two years. In 1810 in joined a Pathan Military Leader and learned
to use European weaponry. In 1817 He returned to Delhi trying to make Islam to its original purity.

BELIEFS:
He believed that Muslims could achieve their freedom by having arm struggle against the British and
Sikhs. He believed that the evil in the Islamic Society had to be cured. He called for Jihad Movement
to over throw the non-Muslim force which was oppressing them. Only then Islam could be rescued
from the evil customs of other societies.

WORK:
In 1821 He went for Hajj and returned from Arabia in 1823 ready for action. At this time Punjab and
NWFP was in the control of Sikh and Muslims were unable to live according to their faith. He traveled
many hundred miles to raise a mujahideen force. In 1826 Syed Ahmad established his headquarters
near Peshawar and sent a messenger asking Ranjit Singh the ruler to allow muslims follow their
religion but the request was turn down so he had no choice but to attack at Okara on 21 December
1826 and after that Hazarothe and defeat the Sikhs. He was successful military leader and the
mujahideen force soon reached 80,000 men, but there was a major problem as the force had people
from different area they quarreled on how the camping should run. Sikhs tried to exploit the army by
calling it un-Islamic but it was consider jihad by Muslim leaders. When Syed Ahmad was about to
attack the fort of Attock he encountered the army of Sikh of 35000 mens. What he did not know was
that Yar Muhammad Khan a Pathan chief was bribed by the Sikh and even his servant tried to poison
him. Then Yar Muhammad deserted him on the battle field along his men and thus this creates
chaos and lead to defeat. Syed Ahmad had no choice but to move his headquarters to safety of
Panjtar near Kashmir but was again betrayed when a person in his army told the British a secret way
to attack them. In battle of Balakot 1831 a surprise attack was lead by Sikh and Six hundred Muslims
were killed along with Syed Ahmed.

IMPORTANCE:

The Defeat of the mujahideen in the Battle of Balakot was a serious setback for the Jihad movement
still it survived. The movement continued on the hills of NWFP until 1863 when the British sent large
force to deal with it still it survived through determination of its followers. The work of Syed Ahmad
was important because it was the first arm struggle of a movement to free Muslims from non-Muslim
rule. It was not a movement for a leader but it was to achieve religious freedom. Jihad of Syed
Ahmad inspired many Muslims. It is the fore-runner of Pakistan movement as the aim of this
movement was to safe-guard Muslim interest and achieves a homeland where they can practice their
Religion, Culture and Freedoms.

HAJI SHARIATULLAH

INTRODUCTION:
He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in east Bengal. His family was poor. In 1799 He went to
Arabia on pilgrimage and stayed there for nineteen years . He was greatly influenced by the teaching
of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab.

BELIEFS:
He believed that the miserable condition of the Muslims in India led to the country being Dar-Ul-Harb
(Country under Foreign Rule). He told that Friday prayer and Eid prayer cannot be offered here. He
also believed that Muslim community had moved away from Islamic practice. He wanted them to
return to what he thought was the proper observation of Islamic duties called Faraizi. This was why
he started his movement was called Faraizi Movement. The Faraizi Movement supported the idea of
Jihad against the non-Muslims who were undermining the true principles of Islam.

WORK:
He started Faraizi movement to restore the Pride of the Muslims and remove what he thought were
the Hindu practices. Emphasis was placed on praying for past sins and promising to lead a righteous
life in the future which had crept into their worship. The success of this movement caused British and
Hindu Landlords and they did not want Haji Shariat Ullah to create difficulty for them by uniting a
desire to improve their lives and purify their religion so they drove Haji out of the reign to Nawabganj
in Dhaka where he died in 1840. His work however was carried by his son Mohsin-ud-Din who
continued to improve the position of Muslim in East Bengal and introduced important economic
measures. He divides East Bengal into circle under control of each Khalifa to carry out religious

activities. He helped the peasants to oppose land taxes and he threatened to declare Jihad against
the British so he was captured and put in prison where he died in 1860.

IMPORTANCE:
Work of Haji Shariat Ullah was important to Faraizi Movement because it gave encouragement to
Muslims at a time when they demoralised by oppression suffered from Hindus and British. It also
brought about a spiritual revival which led to a revival in Islamic religion in East Bengal. Hindu
influences were removed from Islamic practices. It might be said that some seeds for the Pakistan
Movement were sown by the Faraizi Movement.

COMPARISIONS OF RELIGIOUS THINKERS

Islam was widely spread in subcontinent by Shah Wali Ullah Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi and Haji
Shariat Ullah.
Shah Wali Ullah was a religious scholar. He taught Islamic teachings in the Madrassa Rahimya. This
produced a number of scholars in the sub-continent and therefore increased spread of Islam. Shah
Wali Ullah also translated the Quran in Persian. Arabic was not very much understood in the sub
continent so translating Quran revived Quranic teachings in the subcontinent because Muslims and
also other people could understand Quranic teachings. Shah Wali Ullah also wrote to all Muslim
leaders in the subcontinent to unite and defeat the Marathas it was partly due to his persuade that
Ahmed Durrani came to subcontinent and defeated the Marathas. Thus by writing letters he
decreased the non Muslim influence of Marathas and united Muslim leaders which revived Islam in
subcontinent. Shah Wali Ullah wrote several books about 51. These books were extremely popular.
These not only converted many people to Islam and increase understanding of religion for Muslims
of Islam but also united the different Muslim sectarian such as the Shias and Sunnis.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi also played part in reviving Islam. He started the Jihad Movement.
The Jihad Movement was a Movement started by Muslims to defeat the non Muslim oppressors. The
Movement united all the different Muslim against one common enemy. This showed the power of the
Muslims and united the Muslim community which spread Islam.
Haji Shariat Ullah started the Faraizi Movement. It indicated tht Muslims should return to their
religious teaching and perform their religious obligations. This particularly became popular in Bengal
and Muslims were revived back to their religious teachings. His movement also united the Muslims of
Bengal.
However there were failures
Shah Wali Ullah was not able to bring Muslim power back to subcontinent and Muslims were still
being oppressed by Marathas who prevented them from obeying there religions law.
Syed Ahmed eventually failed to defeat the British and the oppressing Sikhs and Muslims once again
returned to their torturing lives.
Haji Shariat Ullah could only bring rejuvenation in Bengal and so could not reach the entire
subcontinent. The failure of the Jihad Movements discouraged Muslims to rise up against the enemy
which weakened Islam.

CONCLUSION:
Although every religious thinker was quite successful in spreading the message amongst the people,
Shah Wali Ullah through writings, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi through his Jihad Movement and
Haji Shariat Ullah through his Faraizi movement, yet in my opionion Shah Wali Ullah was most
successful as his work was ever lasting and sowed a seed for the later "Pakistan Movement".

COMPARISION OF THEIR WORKS

There were many Muslims reformers at that time. SWU was one of them. He believed that the
Muslims were not able to understand Islam because they werent able to understand the Holy Quran
because it was in Arabic. He translated Holy Quran from Arabic to Persian. Later it was translated to
Urdu by his sons. He wrote 51 books .They include Hujjatullah-ul Baligha and Izalat al Akhfa. He
also wrote an account on the four Caliphs of Islam to decrease differences between Sunnis and
Shias.(he also fought against the Marathas)
Another reformer was SASB. He was a man of action. He was a great Muslim warrior. He gathered
an army of mujahideen to fight against the Sikhs and Ranjit Singhs forces. He did Jihad against the
Ranjit Singh army at many times. Although many people left him he still continued the fight against
the Sikhs. He fought the Battle of Balakot in 1831. It was the first example of a movement formed to
free Muslims from non Muslims leaders. It was a uniting force for the Muslims and inspiration for
future Muslims.
Another reformer was HSU. He believed that the country was now Dar-Ul Harb where non Muslims
ruled. He also believed that the Muslims had moved away from true Islamic practice so he started a
movement called the Faraizi Movement. It supported the idea of Jihad Movement. The Faraizi
Movement was started to restore the pride of Muslims and remove non Muslim practices in Islam.
This Movement encouraged the Muslims. It brought a spiritual revival. It also had much economic
impact. The Bengal peasants became united in opposition to the British and became aware of their
rights and unity became to grow between them and they realised their rights that should have been
given.
Conclusion
I think SWU was the most important reformer because he was one of the first persons to realise the
main thing of Muslims problems. He did the major thing of translating Holy Quran to Persian so that
more people could understand it.

MUGHAL EMPIRE

EMPEROR ZAHEERUDDIN
BABAR
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 14, 1483 December 26, 1530) was a TurkoMongol Muslim conqueror from CentralAsia who, following a series of setbacks, finally
succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in South Asia. He was a direct

descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through
his mother. Babur identified his lineage as Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic, while his origin,
milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so he was largely
responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, and for the expansion
of Persian culturalinfluence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and
historiographical results. Conquest of the Lodhi Empire, first Battle of Panipat and
batrles against Rajputs were some highlights of his reigning period.

EMEPROR HUMAYUN
Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (7 March 1508 17 January 1556) was the
second Mughal Emperor who ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of
norther India from 15301540 and again from 15551556. Like his father,Babur, he lost
his kingdom early, but with Persian aid, he eventually regained an even larger one. On
the eve of his death in 1556, the Mughalempire spanned one million square kilometers.
He succeeded his father in India in 1530, while his half-brother Kamran Mirza, who was to
become a rather bitter rival, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul andLahore, the more
northern parts of their father's empire. He originally ascended the throne at the age of
22 and was somewhat inexperienced when he came to power.
Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with Persian
aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a
large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaled an important change in Mughal court
culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the
influences of Persianart, architecture, language and literature and also there are many stone
carved and Persian language In India from the time of Humayun also thousands of Persian
manuscript in India.
Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further,
leaving a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and
non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title Insan-i-Kamil, among
the Mughals.

EMPEROR AKBAR
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar, also known as Shanshah Akbar-e-Azam
or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 27 October 1605), was the third Mughal Emperor.
He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal
Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in
India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of the northern
and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and
beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached to zenith as compared to his
predecessors.
Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556),
following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military

threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at
the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu
king Hemu. It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all
the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of
the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor,
Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and
by marrying Rajput princesses.
Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great
patron of art and architecture He took a great interest in painting, and had the walls of
his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of
the Mughalschool, he also patronised the European style of painting. He was fond of
literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated into Persian and Persian scriptures
translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by painters from
his court. During the early years of his reign, he showed intolerant attitude towards
Hindus and other religions, but later exercised tolerance towards non-Islamic faiths by
rolling back some of the strict sharia laws. His administration included numerous Hindu
landlords, courtiers and military generals. He began a series of religious debates
where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters
with Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these
religious leaders with great consideration, irrespective of their faith, and revered them.
He not only granted lands and money for the mosques but the list of the recipients
included a huge number Hindu temples in north and central India, Christian churches in
Goa. It is reported that he even formed his own religion, known as DIN E ILLAHI, which
consisted of concepts from all faiths embedded into one. However, he eventually
himself gave up practicing his religion and reverted back to Islam.

EMPEROR JAHANGIR
Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mughal
Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was
the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of
Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India).
Jahangir was a child of many prayers. It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim
Chisti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar's first
surviving child, the future Jahangir, was born. He was born at the dargah of the Shaikh
Salim Chisti, within the fortress at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The child was named Salim
after the darvesh and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba.
Akbar developed an emotional attachment with the village Sikri (abode of Chishti).
Therefore, he developed the town of Sikri and shifted his imperial court and residence
from Agra to Sikri, later renamed as Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar ensured that his son received the best education possible. Salim started his
studies at the age of four and was taught Farsi, Turkish, Arabic, Urdu, history, arithmetic,
geography and other sciences by important tutors like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, a
renowned soldier and scholar.
Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar.The
campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that the latter were made to
submit and that too with a great loss of life and property.
Jahangir also thought of capturing the fort of Kangra, which Akbar had failed to do so.
Consequently a siege was laid, which lasted for fourteen months, and the fort w

he health of H.M Jahangir was completely shattered due on account of too much of
drinking. He was trying to restore it by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul
to Kashmir but returned to Lahore on account of severe cold.
H.M Jahangir died on the way in 1627 and buried in a tomb garden at Shahdara-Lahore,
Pakistan.
H.M Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram who took the title of Shah
Jahan. H.M Jahangir's elegant mausoleum is located in the Shahdara, Lahore now its
become a popular tourist attraction in Lahore.

EMPEROR SHAH JAHAN

Born On: January 5, 1592
Died On: January 22, 1666
He was the Founder of the magnificent monument Taj Mahal, Also associated with the
Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque and
the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan
Shah Jahan, his name along with the name of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, being
synonymous with the existence and ever growing popularity of Taj Mahal, was a Mughal
Emperor of the Southern Asia who reigned from 1627 to 1658. Born as Prince Shihab-uddin Muhammad Khurram in the Lahore, Pakistan of 1592, Shah Jahan was the son of
Emperor Jahangir. His name Khurram, which means "joyful" in Persian, was given to him
by his grandfather Akbar the Great. Displaying great military skills at an early age
against numerous enemies including Mewar, the Lodi in the Deccan, and Kangra,
impressed his father so much that Shah Jahan received the title "Shah Jahan Bahadur"
from him. He wasn't just a sharp military leader, but also had an exceptional talent for
building and proved it by re-designing buildings within the Agra fort. Among many titles
he had earned, "The Builder of the Marvels" was one that was about to be proved the
most deserving in the time to come.
The most significant part of Shah Jahan's life history began in 1607 when he was 15 and
was betrothed to Arjumand Banu Begum, the granddaughter of a Persian noble and was
just 14 at that time. After they got married in 1612, Arjumand became the unquestioned
love of his life. Khurram, upon finding her appearance and character elect among all the
women of the time, bestowed her with the title of Mumtaz Mahal, meaning "Jewel of the
Palace". Although Mumtaz was one among the few wives Shah Jahan had had, according
to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives "had
nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and

favor which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence (Mumtaz) exceeded by a
thousand times what he felt for any other". She was his inseparable companion,
accompanying him even on military ventures, a trusted confidante and their relationship
was intense.
After she died in 1631 while giving birth to their 14th child, Shah Jahan undertook the
work of constructing world's most beautiful monument in her memory. This monument,
which entombs Mumtaz Mahal as well as Shah Jahan, came to be known as "Taj Mahal",
the building of which took 22 years and 22000 laborers. It was in 1657 that Shah Jahan
fell ill, and Dara, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son assumed responsibility of his father's
throne. His other son, Aurangzeb, accompanied by his younger brothers Shuja and
Murad marched upon Agra to in order to claim their share. They defeated Dara's armies
and declared their father Shah Jahan incompetent to rule and put him under house
arrest in Agra Fort. After Shah Jahan died in 1666 in captivity, his body was taken quietly
by two men and was laid beside Mumtaz. Apart from the Taj Mahal, one of the Seven
Wonders of the World, the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort,
the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan, are some of the noble
structures associated with the name of Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World" in
Persian.

EMPEROR AURANGZEB
Aurangzeb was the third son of the fifth emperor Shah Jahan and Arjumand Banu Begum
(also known as Mumtaz Mahal). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's
childhood was spent as a virtual hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court.
From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant
warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along
all the boundaries of his empire.
Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan.
He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted
to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati
Shivaji.
But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper
consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an
enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the
chain of command grew weaker.
The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against
Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur
fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted
for 27 years.
Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were
his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were
mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they
immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's
Islamic fundamentalist policies.

With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and
his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.
From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant
warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along
all the boundaries of his empire.
Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan.
He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted
to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati
Shivaji.
But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper
consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an
enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the
chain of command grew weaker.
The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against
Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur
fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted
for 27 years.
Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were
his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were
mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they
immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's
Islamic fundamentalist policies.
With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and
his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.
Although his father's rule was generally peaceful, the empire was experiencing
challenges by the end of his reign. Shah Jahan reversed this trend by putting down a
[Islamic] rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in Bengal, capturing the
Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and the northwest beyond
the Khyber Pass. Shah Jahan's military campaigns drained the imperial treasury.[citation
needed] Under his rule, the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and
their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from
the peasantry. It was however a period of general stability the administration was
centralised and court affairs systematised. Historiography and the arts increasingly
became instruments of propaganda, where beautiful artworks or poetry expressed
specific state ideologies which held that central power and hierarchical order would
create balance and harmony. The empire continued to expand moderately during his
reign but the first signs of an imperial decline were seen in the later years.

Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies, among them his own son, Prince
Akbar.
In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns revolted near Peshawar and were crushed.
In 1669, the Jats around Mathura revolted and led to the formation of Bharatpur state
after his death.
In 1670, Chhatrapati Shivaji had opened the war against the Mughals. He opposed
Aurangzeb with full strength and stopped him from entering the Deccan.

In 1672 the Satnamis, a Kabirpanthi sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an
armed revolt, taking over the administration of Narnaul, and defeating Mughal forces in
an advance on Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial
Guard, and put the rebellion down.
Soon afterwards the Afridi Pashtuns in the north-west also revolted, and Aurangzeb was
forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them.
When Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur died in 1679, a conflict ensued over who
would be the next Raja. Aurangzeb's choice of a nephew of the former Maharaja was not
accepted by other members of Jaswant Singh's family and they rebelled, but in vain.
Aurangzeb seized control of Jodhpur. He also moved on Udaipur, which was the only
other state of Rajputana to support the rebellion. There was never a clear resolution to
this conflict, although it is noted that the other Rajputs, including the celebrated
Kachhwaha Rajput clan of Raja Jai Singh, the Bhattis, and the Rathores, remained loyal.
On the other hand, Aurangzeb's own third son, Prince Akbar, along with a few Muslim
Mansabdar supporters, joined the rebels in the hope of dethroning his father and
becoming emperor. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to the shelter of the
Maratha Chhatrapati Sambhaji, Chhatrapati Shivaji's successor.
Aurangzeb ruled India for 48 years. He was the only Mughal emperor to be seen at par
with the Ottoman emperors in wealth and power. He brought a larger area under Mughal
rule than ever before. He is generally regarded as the last Great Mughal ruler. His
constant wars, however, left the empire dangerously overextended, isolated from its
strong Rajput allies, and with a population that (except for the orthodox Sunni Muslim
minority) was resentful, if not outright rebellious, against his reign. His last twenty five
years were spent fighting in the Deccan till his death in 1707.
H.M Aurangzeb Alamgir led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim
precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the entire Qur'an. He
knitted Haj caps and copied out the Qur'an throughout his life and sold these
anonymously. He used only the proceeds from these to fund his modest resting place.
He died in Ahmednagar on Friday, February 20 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived
many of his children. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad expresses his strict and
deep interpretation of Islamic beliefs.
His reign saw several rebellion movements like the SIKH REBELLION AND THE PASHTUN
REBELLION. War against the MARAHTAS was also one of the most significant events of
his reign.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE

OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
The Mughal Empire which had reached its zenith, began to decline
after the reign of Aurangzeb. There were many causes for the
downfall of the Mughal Empire.

Aurangzebs responsibility: Aurangzeb was largely responsible

for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. His predecessors did a lot
to win over the loyalty of his subjects, but Aurangzeb being a
Fanatic could not tolerate the non-Muslims. He imposed jaziya and
forbade the celebrations of Hindu Festivals. He thus lost friendship
and loyalty with the Rajputs. His execution of the Sikh guru and
his enmity with the Marathas forced them to raise forces against
him. His excessive obsession with the Deccan destroyed Mughal
army, treasure and also affected his health. Aurangzeb being a
Fanatic Sunni Muslim, could not even tolerate the Shias. He laid
too much of stress on simplicity and was against singing, dancing
and drinking which were common habits of the Muslim nobles.
Aurangzeb, thus himself gave a green signal to the forces of
decay. After the death of Aurangzeb, the mighty empire
disintegrated into smaller states.
Weak successors: The successors of Aurangzeb were both
weak and incompetent. They spent more time on their harems
and pleasure and soon lost control of the state,
No Definite Law of Succession: There was no definite law of
succession during the Mughal Empire. After the death of every
Emperor, there ensued a bloody war of succession amongst his
sons. Each one, used nobles and members of the royal household
to get the throne. This created anarchy. This made the Mughal
power weak and vulnerable.
Poor Economy: The Economic condition of the Mughal Empire
was ruined because of constant wars. They spent money lavishly
on buildings and monuments. Finally the foreign invasions
completely shattered the economy.
Moral Degradation of Soldiers: The Mughal soldiers had
wealth and luxury, which made them lazy, corrupt and inefficient.
They were pleasure-giving and easygoing. Often they were also
disloyal. They sometimes fought only for money and easily got
succumbed to bribes.
Rise of New Powers: New Powers such as the Sikhs, the Jhats
and the Marathas came onto the scene. They broke off from the
Mughal domination and established their independent states.
Coming of Europeans: The Europeans, especially British played
a major role in putting an end to the Mughal Empire. They

obtained a firman to trade with India. Gradually, the started

interfering with Indian politics, gradually the established a British
Empire in India which lasted for about 200 years.
Foreign Invasions: The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah Abdali proved fatal to the Mughal Empire. India also became
an easy prey for foreign rulers.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
At the beginning of 1st world war (1914) seat of Khilafat was held by Turkey (Ottoman Empire). In
the frist world war, the Turks had fought on the side of the Germany and Austrian
Empire agaisnst Britain, France and Russia. British wanted Indian Muslims to fight in the
war against the Turks, but they knew that British would respect the rights of the Khalifa and
Turkish Empire would be maintained. As a result of this promise thousands of Muslims joined the
British Army.Turkish side defeated at the end of the war. Muslims all over the world were concerned
with how Turkey would be treated. Istanbul had been the home of Caliphate and the Turkish Sultan
was
recognized as the Khalifa or caliph. The Allies hpoed to destroy the Ottoman Empire by
encouraging, Turkey to become a nation rather than an empire. The treaty Of Versailles set out to
divide Germany into two parts.

KHILAFAT COMMITTEE:The Muslims of India decided to launch a movement for the

safeguard of the institution of Caliphate and to manifesttheir resentment over actions the Allies had
taken in Turkey. A Khilafat Committee was set up in 1919 toconduct and to organize the Khilfat
movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its General Secretary. Congress also supported this
movement under Abdul Kalam Azad. This movement was launched to pressurize the British into
keeping their promises.
In Novemeber 1919 the 1st Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi. Gandhi was also present at the
Conference. A resolution was alos passed asking the muslims as religious duty to adopt the policy
of non-cooperation with the British.
In December 1919 the 2nd Khilafat Conference was held in Amri tsar. At the same time both
Congress and muslims League were also meeting the city. It was agreed that all three organizations
should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkishempire.
Khilafat Delegation: The khilafat delegation left for England in march 1919 under the leadership of
Maulana Mohammed Ali Johar and met the Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Prime minster
refused to accept any arguments extended by the Khilafat Delegation and it failed without
achieving its purpose. While the delegation was still in Europe the terms of the treaty of Severs
with turkey was reduced only to Turkish orgin area. Allied divided the non-Turkish part of Ottoman
Empire
among themselves.
Non-Cooperation Movement : In August 1920 a full scale Non-Cooperation Movement was
launched in with the collaboration with Gandhi.Gandhi came forward with their full support for
the movement. Indians were asked to give up Government. Services, renounce title and boycott
courts
of law and British goods, walk out of schools and colleges. Gandhi assured the people that if this
movement would be in a united, disciplined and non-violent fashion, they would attain Swaraj or
Self-Rule with in a year. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement took the shape of mass
movement. This was the most serious political threat that the British faced after the War of
independence 1857. Hindu-Muslim unity was at its height.
The congress cleverly decided to use Muslim agitation to press the British for the further

concession on self-rule and to show the Muslims that the hindu Muslims unity was beneficial.
Quaid-e-Azam was not in favour of Gandhis non-cooperation program because he thought that it
might be violent, so he reisgned from Congress in 1920.

HIJRAT MOVEMENT : It was a by-product of Khilafat Movement. In 1920 Abdul Kalam Azad
and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call for Hijrat Movement and urged the muslims to migrate to a
place where they can freely pratice their religion,they called India as dar-ul-Harb. Nearly 18000
muslims mostly from Sind, NWFP and Punjab after selling their land and properties, migrated to
Afghanistan. The Afghan Government welcomed them in the beginning but afterwards refuse to
accept them. Many people perished in the way and those who returned back to India to find them
homeless and doomed forever. As a result of this all muslims became backward in all fields of life.
This migration to Afghanistan is known as the, Hijrat Movement in the history of India.
CHAURA CHAURI INCIDENT:The non-cooperation movement was leading to violence and
losing its momentum. In Feb. 1922 at Chaura Chauri in a village near UP a trouble erupted between
the police and the demonstrating procession. The hostile mob set fire to the police station where
22policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi was so upset that he immediately and unilaterally called of
non-cooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat Movement.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT:
* The non-violence, non-cooperative movement turned intoviolence. After the Chaura Chauri
incident in feburary 1922, Gandhi himself called of the Non-Cooperation movement which caused
a sever blow to the Khilafat Movement.
* Gandhi and other muslims leader of the movement were arrested in 1922 with the arrest of
leaders the movement lost its momentum.\
* Although the Khilafat Movement was the first movementin which Hindus and Muslims worked
together, their unity was probably always doomed to failure.The Hindu aim for self rule was not
really an objective of the muslims and Hindus were prepared to support the Muslims in protecting
their religious right only as long as it helped move India towards the self-rule.
* Hijrat Movement at critical stage was another blow for Muslims. Hijrat to Afghanistan where the
Muslims were shocked by the lack of support from the Afghangovernement.
* On 3rd March 1924 the final and deadly blow was struck at the Khilafat movement by Mustafa
Kamal Ata Turk Pasha who exiled Khalifa, Muhammad Vl and abolished Khilafat and established
nationalist governement of Turkey.ss?
June 2009:
b) Explain the reasons for the failure of the Khilafat Movement?
June 2006:
b) Explain why the Khilafat Movement had failed by 1924?
Nov 2008:
c) The Khilafat Movement failed by 1924 of poor leadership. Do you agree? Give reasons
for your answer?