Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Depression, loneliness and Internet addiction: How important is low

self-control?
Yaln zdemir a,, Yasar Kuzucu a, S erife Ak b
a
b

Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Counseling and Guidance, Merkez Kamps Aytepe, 09010 Aydn, Turkey
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Merkez Kamps Aytepe, 09010 Aydn, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Available online 15 March 2014
Keywords:
Depression
Loneliness
Internet addiction
Self-control

a b s t r a c t
This study aimed to explore both the direct and indirect relationships between depression, loneliness,
low self-control, and Internet addiction in a sample of Turkish youth, based on a cognitive-behavioral
model of generalized problematic Internet use. Data for the present study were collected from 648 undergraduate students with a mean age of 22.46 years (SD = 2.45). Participants completed scales for depression, loneliness, self-control and Internet addiction. Structural equation modeling was used to test the
model in which depression and loneliness predicted Internet addiction through low self-control. The
ndings revealed that of the two factors, only loneliness was related to Internet addiction through low
self-control. The results are discussed in terms of the cognitive-behavioral model of generalized problematic Internet use, and implications for practice are considered.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Internet usage rates in Turkey have increased signicantly in recent years. The rate of Internet use for the 1624-year-old age
group increased from 50.4% in 2007 to 65.8% in 2011 (TurkStat,
2011). This rapid increase has inevitably led to issues such as problematic Internet use (Kim & Davis, 2009) and Internet addiction
(Block, 2008). The rate of risk for Internet addiction is thought to
be between 8.68% and 18.4% (Whang, Lee, & Chang, 2003). In a recent study in Turkey, Cmert and gel (2009) found that 4.5% of
participants (96.4% of the sample were below the age of 16, 3.6%
were aged 17 and above) could be diagnosed as Internet addicts.
In the literature, there is no clear agreement on which term to
use for Internet-use-related problems. Current terms in use include
Internet addiction (Block, 2008), Internet dependence (Scherer,
1997), compulsive use (Meerkerk, Van den Eijnden, & Garretsen,
2006), problematic Internet use (Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla,
& Mcelroy, 2000), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), and
unregulated Internet usage (LaRose, Lin, & Eastin, 2003). Although
the debate over the conceptualization of this issue continues,
numerous studies have concluded that problems with Internet
use are associated with impairments in psychological and social
functioning (Canan, Ataoglu, Ozcetin, & Icmeli, 2012; Ko, Yen, Liu,

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 256 2142023; fax: +90 256 2141061.
E-mail addresses: yalcinozd@yahoo.com (Y. zdemir), yasarku@yahoo.com
(Y. Kuzucu), serifeak@gmail.com (S
. Ak).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.009
0747-5632/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Huang, & Yen, 2009; Young, 1998). Furthermore, recent ndings

have documented associations between loneliness, depression
and Internet addiction (Caplan, 2007; Gmez-Guadix, Villa-George,
& Calvete, 2012; Muoz-Rivas, Fernndez, & Gmez-Guadix, 2010;
Odac & Kalkan, 2010). However, it is not clear in which ways or by
which mechanism loneliness and depression are associated with
addiction in general and Internet addiction in particular. The purposes of this research are therefore to examine the relationships
between depression, loneliness, low self-control and Internet
addiction and to investigate the mediator role of low self-control
as the link between depression, loneliness and Internet addiction.

1.1. Depression, loneliness and Internet addiction

Previous research identied psychological problems such as
loneliness and depression as risk factors for addiction in general
(Sinha, 2007; Witkiewitz & Villarroel, 2009) and for Internet addiction in particular (Caplan, 2007; Gmez-Guadix et al., 2012; LaRose
et al., 2003; Muoz-Rivas et al., 2010; Odac & Kalkan, 2010). Some
other studies focused specically on the link between loneliness
and Internet addiction (e.g., Casale & Fioravanti, 2011).
There is also a theoretical basis for the links between loneliness,
depression and Internet addiction (Caplan, 2003; Davis, 2001).
Inuenced by Davis (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of generalized problematic Internet use, Caplan (2003) argued that people
with psychological problems would prefer online interaction to
face-to-face communication because it is easier to compensate

Y. zdemir et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

for their social skill deciencies. Other studies have provided

support for the view that some individuals use the Internet to cope
with negative feelings such as sadness, anxiousness, or loneliness
(Muoz-Rivas et al., 2010; Scherer, 1997) or to escape psychological problems (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000). However,
when Internet use provides relief for the problems of stress, loneliness, depression, or anxiety, it is likely to become addictive
(LaRose et al., 2003). Caplan (2003) also suggested that individuals
who choose online interaction are more vulnerable to Internet
addiction. Furthermore, both theoretically (Caplan, 2010) and
empirically, low self-control has been proposed as a signicant
predictor of Internet addiction (Montag, Jurkiewicz, & Reuter,
2010; Niemz, Grifths, & Banyard, 2005).
1.2. Low self-control and Internet addiction
In terms of behavioral theory, the expectation that Internet use
provides relief from psychological problems could function as a
reinforcement, further encouraging problematic Internet use.
Behavioral theory explains the dynamics of Internet addiction in
terms of conditioning; however, it fails to account for the many
people who do not become addicted despite the increasing presence of media in daily life (see Bandura, 1999). Social-cognitive
learning theory (Bandura, 1989) suggests the need for a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior and cognition than is
provided by classical learning theory. According to Bandura (1991),
the self-regulatory mechanism that determines an individuals level of self-control over behavior could also be relevant to Internet
addiction. Through self-monitoring, self-control helps individuals
to become aware of their behavior and its impact on themselves,
others, and the environment. Furthermore, a lack of self-control
is one of the key aspects of addiction (Davis, 2001; Young & Rogers,
1998), as has been noted before. Indeed, Caplan (2010) updated his
cognitive-behavioral model of problematic Internet use (PIU), proposing decient self-regulation as a salient aspect of PIU.
It has been suggested that the majority of problem behaviors
are associated with low self-control (Baumeister, Heatherton, &
Tice, 1994; Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007; Gottfredson & Hirschi,
1990). Low self-control is characterized by behaviors including
impulsiveness, enjoying risk-taking, addiction, preferring physical
activities to mental ones, overeating, preferring simple tasks to
complex ones, and being self-centered and short-tempered
(Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Kim, Namkoong, Ku, & Kim, 2008;
Niemz et al., 2005; Trimmel & Kopke, 2000). Self-control theory
is inuential in explaining behavior problems, particularly antisocial behaviors; moreover, the theory suggests that low self-control
is a major cause of a wide range of violent and risk-taking behaviors (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). According to Gottfredson and
Hirschi, the behaviors of individuals who have low levels of selfcontrol are governed primarily by immediate gratication and
short-term goals. Individuals who are high on sensation-seeking
and have a low level of self-control are prone to Internet addiction
(Slater, 2003); this lack of control occurs because immediate gratication is important to such individuals. Thus, low self-control is
related to impulsive behavior and a failure to consider the potential negative consequences of actions (Wiers et al., 2007).
In contrast, a high level of self-control is characterized by the
consideration of the long-term results rather than a focus on
immediate temptations (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996), and
such an attitude prevents risk-taking (Rutter, 2002). Studies have
revealed that a high degree of self-control was found to be associated with lower levels of aggression and criminality, as well as
better psychological adjustment, academic performance, and personal relationships. A high level of self-control is also associated
with fewer impulse control problems, such as eating disorders

285

and alcohol, nicotine, or other substance abuse problems (DeWall,

Baumeister, Stillman, & Gailliot, 2007; Duckworth & Seligman,
2005; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Quinn & Fromme, 2010; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004; Wiebe, 2006; zdemir, Vazsonyi,
& ok, 2013). A high degree of self-control enables more effective
planning for the future, impulse control, the ability to cope with
negative thoughts, and the capacity to control behaviors
(Heatherton, 2011; Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009). It has been
suggested that compared to people with low self-control, those
with higher self-control are less likely to be affected by stressful
events (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000; Tangney et al., 2004) and
are more tolerant of painful stimuli (Schmeichel & Zell, 2007).
In contrast, as stated before, individuals who have low levels of
self-control may have difculties with controlling behavior and
are thus more liable to negative outcomes.
1.3. The role of low self-control in depression, loneliness and Internet
addiction
Although all individuals have some capacity for self-control,
some are more prone to losing self-control than others (Baumeister
& Heatherton, 1996; Baumeister et al., 1994). In this regard, Sinha
(2009) argued that negative emotional states may result in low
self-control; negative feelings may cause individuals to focus more
on their emotional state, which can trigger a loss of self-control
(Ward & Mann, 2000).
These arguments are well supported by theoretical work. In one
approach based on the cognitive-behavioral model, it was proposed that using the Internet for mood regulation leads to a deciency in self-regulation (Caplan, 2010). In another approach based
on social cognitive theory, Bandura (1991) suggested that depression can result in decient self-regulation because of negative cognitive bias; in an effort to eliminate feelings of depression and
loneliness, exerting self-control may become difcult for the individual affected.
Empirical studies also provide evidence for this claim. For instance, Larose et al. (2003) found that depression was signicantly
related to decient Internet self-regulation. It is also suggested that
when individuals use the Internet to cope with loneliness and
everyday stress, this increases the likelihood of problems with
self-control (e.g., Lin, 1999). Although previous studies provide evidence for the link between negative feelings, low self-control and
general or Internet addiction, only a small number of studies address the specic issue of the mediator role of low self-control/
self-regulation between negative feelings and Internet addiction.
In these studies, low self-regulation was found to mediate the relationship between mood regulation and negative outcomes (Caplan,
2010; Gmez-Guadix et al., 2012). Negative feelings weaken selfcontrol (Sinha, 2009), and it has been suggested that the Internet
is used to overcome negative feelings; thus, depression and loneliness are associated with pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001).
Considering the associations between psychological problems
(depression and loneliness) and low self-control (Caplan, 2010;
Gmez-Guadix et al., 2012), as well as the link between low selfcontrol and Internet addiction (Montag et al., 2010), we suggest
that it is possible that low self-control mediates the relationships
between psychological problems (depression and loneliness) and
Internet addiction.
Having established the theoretical and empirical grounds for
predicting (1) low self-control from depression and loneliness
and (2) Internet addiction from low self-control, we propose in this
study that psychological problems such as depression and loneliness relate to low self-control. In addition, we propose that these
problems relate to Internet addiction directly, as well as indirectly,
through low-self-control (see Fig. 1).

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Y. zdemir et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

Deppression

Low Self-Control

Internet Addiction

5
Loneliness

Fig. 1. Theoretical model.

2. Methods
2.1. Participants
This study involved 648 undergraduate students randomly selected from a university in a small city in western Turkey. Of the
participants, 428 (66%) were male and 220 (34%) were female.
The ages of the participants ranged between 18 and 35 years, with
a mean of 22.46 (SD = 2.45) years.
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Internet addiction
This study used the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), which consists of 20 items with a six-point Likert scale ranging from rarely
to always. The IAT was developed by Young (1998) and adapted
to Turkish by Bayraktar (2001). The content includes items related
to the impact of Internet use on social interactions and the inuence of Internet use on everyday life (e.g., How often do you
choose to spend your time online rather than going out with others? or How often do you become defensive or secretive when
someone asks you what you do online?). In this study, the alpha
for the scale was 0.93, and the alpha for the four parcels ranged
from .76 to .90.
2.2.2. Low self-control
Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, and Arneklevs (1993) scale was used to
measure low self-control. This scale has 24 items and six subscales:
impulsivity, simple tasks, risk-seeking, physical activities, self-centeredness, and temper. The response items varied from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), coded so that higher scores indicated lower levels of self-control. Consistent with previous studies
conducted in Turkish (zdemir et al., 2013), the alpha for the scale
in this study was 0.86.
2.2.3. Depression
The brief symptom inventory (BSI) was used to measure depression symptoms. The scale was developed by Derogatis (1992) as a
shortened version of the SCL-90-R and adapted to Turkish by S
ahin
and Durak (1994). The adapted version of the BSI revealed ve subscales as a result of an exploratory factor analysis: anxiety, depression, negative self, somatization, and hostility. Only the depression
subscale was used in the present study. The Cronbachs alpha reliability coefcients have been found to be good, .95.96 of the Turkish form. The internal consistency coefcient for depression for the
present data was .87. The Cronbachs alpha reliability coefcients
for the three parcels ranged from .76 to .77.

2.2.4. Loneliness
The 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell, Peplau, & Cutrona,
1980) was used to assess the participants degree of global loneliness. Participants rated the items from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The
Cronbachs alpha for internal consistency was reported as 0.94. For
the Turkish sample, Cronbachs alpha was reported as .93 (Demir,
1989). In this study, the alpha for the scale is 0.90, and for the four
parcels, it ranged from .76 to .80.
2.3. Procedures
The study consisted of a self-reporting data collection instrument, which included instructions on how to complete the survey
and assurances of anonymity. The battery of scales was administered to participants at their schools. Students completed the
questionnaires individually in group sessions, and the overall
administration time was approximately 45 min. All participants
were volunteers and allowed to withdraw at any point. No personal identifying information was collected. The data were collected in 2012.
2.4. Analysis
First, we computed bivariate correlations between depression,
loneliness, low self-control, and Internet addiction. Second, we
tested a measurement model and structural equation models using
Amos 18 (Arbuckle and Woethke, 2009). The model t was assessed by the standard chi-square t statistic and the comparative
t index (CFI; Bentler & Dudgeon, 1996), the Tucker-Lewis Index
(TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993). A CFI and TLI
greater than .95 and a RMSEA less than .08 indicate a good model
t (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Because the x2 statistic is sensitive to sample size, we used the x2 to degrees of freedom ratio (x2/df) to assess
model t. A x2/df ratio of less than 3 indicates an acceptable model
t.
We treated depression, loneliness, self-control and Internet
addiction as latent variables. We created parcels for the depression,
loneliness and Internet addiction variables by assigning the most
highly loaded items to Parcel 1, the next highly loaded items to
Parcel 2, and so forth, based on exploratory factor analyses. Three
parcels for the depression measures and four parcels each for the
loneliness and Internet addiction measures were created. Low
self-control was represented in the model by its subscales as observed variables (Impulsive, Simple task, Risk-seeking, Physical
activity, Self-centered, and Temper). Prior to testing the structural

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Y. zdemir et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

model, we tested the measurement model and assessed the parcel

and subscale loadings on latent constructs.
Tests of mediation were examined by comparing the differences
between the fully and partially mediated models. In the rst model, we tested only the full mediation model without the direct effects of depression and loneliness on Internet addiction. In the
second model, we tested the partial mediation model with the direct and indirect effects included. Additionally, the nested model
strategy, suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), was used to
test the mediation hypotheses in the model that best t the data.
3. Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and bivariate
correlations between depression, loneliness, low self-control, and
Internet addiction. As seen in Table 1, depression was positively
correlated with low self-control (r = .24) and Internet addiction
(r = .22). Loneliness was positively correlated with low self-control
(r = .25) and Internet addiction (r = .32). Additionally, low self-control was signicantly and positively correlated with Internet addiction (r = .32).
Before testing the structural model, we tested the measurement
model, and the estimates are presented in Table 2. Our ndings
indicate that the measurement model resulted in a relatively good
t to the data, v2 (119, N = 648) = 316, v2/df = 2.65; CFI = .94;
RMSEA = 0.049).
For the full mediation model, the results demonstrated acceptable t indices: v2 (115, N = 648) = 232, v2/df = 2.01; CFI = .96;
TLI = .95; RMSEA = .039). Fig. 2 shows the path diagram with the
estimated standardized path coefcients. In this model, the paths
from depression and loneliness to low self-control (.20 and .31,
p < .01 and p < .001, respectively) and low self-control to Internet
addiction (.40, p < .001) were signicant.
Table 1
Correlations between depression, loneliness, low self-control, and aggression.
Variable

1. Depression
2. Loneliness
3. Low self-control
4. Internet addiction
Mean
SD

.30
.24
.22
2.202
0.681

.25
.32
1.971
0.554

.32
2.561
0.518

1.796
0.563

N = 648.
p < 01.



For the partial mediation model, the t indices indicated a better t to the data than the full mediation model: v2 (113,
N = 648) = 218.427; v2/df = 1.88; CFI = .97; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .037
(90% condence interval for RMSEA = .029.044). The AIC and ECVI
statistics were found to be 332.42 and .485, respectively. The paths
from depression and loneliness to low self-control (.20 and .27,
p < .01 and p < .001, respectively) and low self-control to Internet
addiction (.26, p < .001) were signicant. Additionally, the direct
path from loneliness to Internet addiction (.27, p < .01) was significant, whereas the direct path from depression to Internet addiction (.09, p > .05) was not signicant.
Testing the mediational effect of low self-control between
depression and Internet addiction, where path 4 was set to zero,
indicated that the model ts the data very well and resulted in
the following goodness-of-t statistics: v2(114, N = 648) =
220.136; CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = 0.037 (90% condence interval for RMSEA = 0.030.05). The Chi-square difference test (1.70, 1:
p > .001) indicated that there are no differences between these
models. The results show that the path from depression to Internet
addiction should be omitted from the model. The AIC and ECVI statistics were 332.427 and .484, respectively, and supported the
model in which the path is not retained.
Regarding path 5, testing the mediational effect of low control
between loneliness and Internet addiction indicated the following
statistics: v2 (114, N = 648) = 228.268; CFI = .96; SRMR = 0.048;
TLI = .95; RMSEA = 0.038 (90% condence interval for RMSEA =
0.0310.045). The chi-square difference test (9.814, 1: p < . 001)
indicated a difference between models, meaning that the path
from loneliness to Internet addiction is necessary to achieve a better t to the data and should not be omitted. The AIC and ECVI statistics were 340.268 and 0.496, respectively, and supported the
model in which the path is retained. It is clear from the ndings
that the relationship between depression and loneliness is partially
mediated by self-control.
Two alternative structural equation models were also tested to
rule out the possibility that the t of the proposed model was simply the result of a statistical coincidence. The rst alternative model proposed that Internet addiction contributes to low self-control
through the mediator roles of depression and loneliness. Structural
equation model results showed that this model was a poorer t to
the data, as indicated by the following goodness-of-t statistics: v2
(115, N = 648) = 243; TLI = .94; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .04 (90% condence interval for RMSEA = 0.0330.047). The second alternative
model tested the hypothesis that the relationship between low
self-control and Internet addiction was mediated by depression

Table 2
Measurement model: unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates.
Unstandardized parameter estimates

Depression ? Parcel l
Depression ? Parcel 2
Depression ? Parcel 3
Loneliness ? Parcel 1
Loneliness ? Parcel 2
Loneliness ? Parcel 3
Loneliness ? Parcel 4
Self-control ? Impulsive
Self-control ? Simple task
Self-control ? Risk seeking
Self-control ? Physical
Self-control ? Self-centered
Self-control ? Temper
Addiction ? Parcel l
Addiction ? Parcel 2
Addiction ? Parcel 3
Addiction ? Parcel 4

Standardized parameter estimates

SE

CR

0.924
1.128
1.000
1.216
1.207
1.139
1.000
1.000
0.821
0.611
0.604
1.099
1.308
1.000
0.998
0.850
0.917

0.039
0.041

27.396
23.932

0.078
0.081
0.080

14.281
14.819
15.508

0.107
0.102
0.101
0.121
0.144

7.647
5.999
5.968
9.115
9.071

0.043
0.044
0.047

23.118
19.531
19.378

0.80
0.95
0.84
0.89
0.85
0.83
0.78
0.63
0.51
0.38
0.37
0.66
0.66
0.91
0.91
0.84
0.84

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Y. zdemir et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

Fig. 2. Standardized parameter estimates of the nal structural model.

and loneliness. Tests of this model again resulted in a poorer t to

the data: v2 (114, N = 648) = 230; TLI = .95; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .04
(90% condence interval for RMSEA = 0.0310.041). Chi-square difference tests indicated that both the rst (11.81, 1: p < . 01) and
second alternative models (23.00, 1: p < . 01) were worse than
the full mediation model (our proposed model).
To test the mediation hypotheses of the proposed model, we
also used the bootstrapping method (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). Bootstrapping creates a large number of samples from the data set, and
from these samples, estimates of the standard errors are obtained.
The condence interval of these standard errors is used to test the
signicance of indirect effects. Signicant mediation is present
when the upper and lower limits of the 95% and 99% condence
intervals do not include zero. The nal model excluded zero at both
the 95% condence interval (between loneliness and addiction = .02.12; between depression and addiction = .006.04) and
the 99% condence interval (between loneliness and addiction = .01.17; between depression and addiction = .004.04).

4. Discussion
The present study examined the effects of depression and loneliness on Internet addiction and the mediator role of low self-control on the relationship between depression, loneliness and
Internet addiction. Loneliness was signicantly associated with
Internet addiction, whereas depression was not.
These ndings are consistent with previous studies (Caplan,
2010; Gmez-Guadix et al., 2012) suggesting that negative emotions are associated with negative outcomes through low self-control. Previous research has identied the existence of psychological
problems as a risk factor for addiction in general (e.g., Sinha, 2007)
and also for Internet addiction (e.g., Caplan, 2007). Individuals with
psychological problems are inherently at risk for addiction because
of their preference for online interaction more than face-to-face
communication (Caplan, 2003). The risk for addiction among these
individuals is more signicant when they use the Internet to cope
with negative feelings such as sadness, anxiousness, or loneliness
(Muoz-Rivas et al., 2010) because the relief that the Internet
interaction provides from these problems is a potential cause of
addiction (Larose et al., 2003). The expectation of relief that develops over time could function as a reinforcement for continuing online interaction, which may lead to Internet addiction.

Moreover, the ndings of the present study support the cognitive-behavioral model of generalized problematic Internet use.
Caplan (2003) suggested that negative mood states can drive people to use online interactions for mood regulation, a behavior that
is associated with a deciency in self-control (LaRose et al., 2003);
individuals with low self-control are more likely to use the Internet
inappropriately or to become addicted (Caplan, 2010; Davis, 2001;
Kim & Davis, 2009). In other words, negative feelings are positively
associated with low self-control (Sinha, 2009), and using the Internet to escape from these feelings is associated with pathological
use (Davis, 2001).
Although past research has provided support for the links between Internet addiction and both depression and loneliness,
(Caplan, 2007; Gmez-Guadix et al., 2012; Larose et al., 2003;
Odac & Kalkan, 2010), loneliness has been shown to have the
stronger relationship with Internet addiction, indicating that it is
a more important risk factor than depression. In other words,
lonely people are more likely to turn to the Internet for social interaction than people with depression. There is some empirical evidence that can explain this difference. In one recent study, it was
shown that of the two factors, namely loneliness and depression,
only the former was associated with Internet addiction (Casale &
Fioravanti, 2011). Related research demonstrates that the Internet
provides an ideal social environment for interaction with others
(Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), and people who feel
lonely tend to spend excessive amounts of time on the Internet
(Amichai-Hamburger & Ben-Artzi, 2003). This last nding is also
consistent with the results of Caplans (2002) study, which indicated that among the psychosocial variables (loneliness, depression, shyness, and self-esteem), only loneliness was associated
with problematic Internet use. A possible explanation for the relatively low correlation between depression and Internet addiction is
that depression increases the tendency to withdraw from daily
activities (Beck, 1976).
The nding that low self-control is positively related to Internet
addiction is consistent with current theoretical notions and empirical ndings, which highlight that the majority of problem behaviors are associated with low self-control (e.g., Baumeister et al.,
1994; zdemir et al., 2013). Moreover, this nding is consistent
with previous studies that documented a relationship between
impulsivity and/or low self-control and Internet addiction (Cao,
Su, Liu, & Gao, 2007; LaRose et al., 2003; Meerkerk, van den Eijnden,
Franken, & Garretsen, 2010). Low self-control explains an important

Y. zdemir et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014) 284290

variance in Internet addiction (b = . 33 and b = . 50 for partial and

full mediation models, respectively). This is an expected result because individuals with low self-control tend to behave with greater
impulsivity, which was found to be an important predictor of
Internet addiction (Meerkerk et al., 2010). Immediate gratication
is an important characteristic of individuals with low self-control
(Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990); these individuals are less likely
to consider the potential long-term negative consequences of their
actions (Wiers et al., 2007) and are thus more vulnerable to Internet
addiction (Slater, 2003).
4.1. Counseling implications
The present study contributes to the current literature on Internet addiction by documenting a model of Internet addiction that
reveals the direct relationships between depression, loneliness,
low self-control and Internet addiction, and the indirect relationships between depression, loneliness and Internet addiction
through low self-control. These ndings can benet psychologists,
school counselors and teachers in the development of prevention
and intervention programs. Individuals who tend to use the Internet to relieve negative emotions can be offered support in coping
with these emotions through group counseling sessions, which
also provide interaction with others (Chrismore, Betzelberger, Bier,
& Camacho, 2011). The results of the present research indicate that
school counselors should also focus on helping young people to
overcome feelings of loneliness, not only in the context of negative
moods but also in regard to Internet addiction.
The present ndings also highlight the importance of the role of
self-control in relation to Internet addiction. As previous ndings
have indicated that it is possible to improve self-control (Muraven,
Baumeister, & Tice, 1999; Oaten & Cheng, 2006), prevention programs in schools can be applied to support this goal. As a general
conclusion, it is suggested that counseling interventions should
also focus on combating loneliness and promoting self-control.
4.2. Implications for future research
Although the present research has advanced the understanding
of the link between depression, loneliness, low self-control and
Internet addiction, future research is needed to more fully explore
the connections between these issues. Other factors associated
with Internet addiction that are not considered in this research
may also be worth examining.
4.3. Limitations
This study makes a clear contribution to the understanding of
how negative psychological states (e.g., depression and loneliness)
are associated with Internet addiction by focusing particularly on
low self-control. However this study has three main limitations.
First, the results were based on self-reported data. Social desirability is a salient problem for self-reported data studies (Fischer &
Fick, 1993), and it is possible that not all participants responded
in a completely honest way. Future studies that consider the views
of other reporters (e.g., parents, teachers) are likely to provide
more objective measures. The cross-sectional nature of the study
is its second main limitation. These results cannot be considered
evidence of causal relationships because it is possible that depression or loneliness may be the consequence rather than the cause of
addiction (Marlatt, Baer, Donovan, & Kivlahan, 1988). Finally, participants of the present study consisted only of university students,
thus limiting the generalizability of the ndings.

289

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