Chapter 1

Heat and Engineering Science

1.1 Give a definition of the term matter and state the constituents of which
it is composed. Show how matter exists in its various states.
In technology, matter is sometimes referred to as material sub stance. It can be
defined as anything known to exist and occupy space. Any material substance
consists of minute particles known as molecules: these are the smallest particles of a
substance which can exist and maintain all the properties of the original substance. A
molecule- is made up of one. or a combination of two or more atoms of the
elements. The atom consists of various parts which are held together by forces
recognized as being electrical in character. The forces of attraction come about from
unlike electrical charges. The constituent parts of an atom are the central core or
nucleus which has a positive charge and one or more electrons. The electron has a
negative charge. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons except the atom
of hydrogen. Protons have positive electrical charges and the neutrons are
electrically neutral. When an atom is electrically neutral it will have the same number
of protons and electrons. The number of electrons contained in an atom is shown by
the atomic number of the element. An atom becomes an ion when the number of
electrons is more or less than the number of protons. The ion will be positive or
negative according to the predominant electrical charge.
The atom of hydrogen is the simplest: it consists of one proton and one electron If
the electron is removed from the atom of hydrogen tic remaining proton becomes a
hydrogen ion which will be positive. In some cases two atoms of the same element
may differ in the number of neutron contained in the nucleus. The atomic weights
therefore be different and the atoms are described as being isotopes of the element.
The isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties but differing physical
properties. The electrons outside the nucleus control the properties of the atom, and
the protons and neutrons in the nucleus determine its atomic weight. The electrons
are considered to form a series of orbital envelopes or cases around the nucleus,
each envelope containing a set pattern of electrons. Other particles exist but need
not concern us in this study.
If a molecule can exist as one atom of an element it is referred to as being
monatomic; if two atoms joined together form a molecule they are referred to as
diatomic; three atoms joined to form a molecule are tri atomic. A substance formed
from identical atoms is known as an element. Substances formed from molecules of
different atoms are called chemical compounds. If the molecules retain their identity
and do not join together then the substance formed is a chemical mixture.
Material substances usually exist in one of three physical states: solid , liquid, or
gaseous. Substances existing in the solid state have the ability of retaining their
original shape unless acted upon by externally applied forces. The ability to retain
their original shape is due to the relatively large cohesive forces existing between the
particles forming the substance. Solids have the three elastic moduli (Question 1.9).
When a substance is in the liquid state the cohesive force between the molecules is
much less than in solids, the molecules having the ability to move with respect to
each other. Liquids possess a property which allows them to 4 up the shape of their
container. Liquids offer a large resistance to change of volume when subjected to
pressures. Liquids have two of the elastic moduli, the bulk modulus and modulus of
tension. The ability of a liquid to resist small amounts of tension is due to the

cohesive force existing between the molecules. This cohesive force creates an
apparent shear resistance between two adjacent planes in a liquid body and gives
rise to the phenomenon which we know as viscosity. With substances in the gaseous
state the cohesive force between the molecules is so small that they are almost
completely free to move in an direction. This property allows gases to completely fill
their container. Gases have only allows bulk modulus. Some substances do not have
all the properties of solids. The exist in an indeterminate state between that of solid
and a liquid. These substances are said to. be amorphous: on heating they approach
nearer the liquid state but do not have a precise melting point.
1.2 What do you understand by the following terms: mass, force, velocity,
acceleration, work, energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, momentum,
and power? Give units, derived units and symbols where applicable.
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
Force is that which tends to cause a body at rest or in motion to alter its state of
rest or motion. The unit of force is the Newton(N).

Velocity is the rate of change of position of a point or body; it may be linear or

angular. Linear velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s). Angular velocity is
measured in radians per second (rad/s).
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity; it may be linear or angular. Linear
acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m/s) Angular acceleration
is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s)
Work is done when a body is moved against a resistance. It is the product of the
force required to overcome the resistance and the distance through which the body is
moved. The unit of work is the joule (J). One joule equals one Newton metre.

Energy is the capacity for doing work. The various forms of energy are kinetic
energy, potential energy, heat energy. electrical energy. chemical energy. nuclear
energy and radiant energy. All forms of energy except radiant energy can only exist
in the presence of matter. The unit of energy used in mechanical and marine
engineering is the same as the unit of work.
Potential energy is the energy contained in a body by virtue of its position. Its
value is measured by the work that could be done by the body in passing from one
defined position to another defined position.
Kinetic energy is the energy contained in a body by virtue of its velocity. Its value
is measured by the work done by the body during some change in velocity.
Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of a moving body.
Power is the rate of doing work: the unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is equal
to one joule per second.

1.3 Define the following terms: moment of force, couple, torque and
twisting moment.
Moment of force is a measure of the tendency of a force to turn a body on which it
acts about some axis. Its value is the product of i.e. force and the perpendicular
distance from its line of action to the axis.
Couple: A couple consists of two equal forces acting in opposite j along separate
parallel lines of action. The moment o couple is the product of one of the forces and
the perpendicular distance between the lines of action.
Torque and twisting moment are synonymous with the moment of a couple.
1.4 What are centripetal and centrifugal forces?
Centripetal force. When a both moves in a circular path it can be shown that ii has
an acceleration acting towards the axis of orbit. The force required to produce this
acceleration is called centripetal force.
Centrifugal force is the reaction to centripetal force. Centrifugal force acts radially
outwards. Centripetal force acts radially inwards constrains the body to move in a
circular path.
1.5 Give definitions of inertia, moment of inertia, and radius of gyration.
Inertia is that property of a body which resists changes in its state wrest or uniform
motion in a straight line.
Moment of inertia of a rotating body is the sum of the products of each particle of
mass and the square of its distance from the axis of the rotating body.

Note-The term moment of inertia can have various definitions nding on its use and
application.
Radius gyration is the radius at which the whole mass of a rotating x ma be
considered as acting. If k is the radius of gyration.
mk= moment of inertia
m = total mass of body
1.6 What are stress, strain, unital stress, and unital strain?
Stress may be defined as the load which is applied externally to a both, or in effect
as the force acting between the molecules caused by the deformation or strain.

Strain is the change that occurs in the shape or dimension of a body subject to the
action of stress.
Unital stress is the stress acting on unit area of material.
Load/area resisting load = unital stress
Unital strain is the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension of the
body before stress was applied.
NOTEWhen the terms stress and strain are used in the following text the single
word stress will imply unital stress and the single word strain will imply unital strain.
Should it be required to distinguish between the terms then they will be written in
full.
Load/area resisting load = stress
Change in dimension/original dimension = strain
1.7 Some materials are referred to as elastic. What does this imply? What is
an isotropic material?
Most materials in a solid state when subject to stress experience a change in shape.
If, when removing the stress, the material returns to its former shape the material is
said to be elastic. In studies of strength of materials it is often assumed that a body
is isotropic. An isotropic material is one which has identical properties in all directions
from some point within the body.
NOTEIn practice most metals used in engine construction are non-isotropic due to
the grain structure which exists within the metal.
1.8 What are tensile stress, compressive stress, and shear stress?
Tensile stress. A body is subject to tensile stress when it is acted on b a load which
causes an increase in its length.
Compressive stress. A body is subject to compressive stress when it is acted on b
a load which causes a decrease in its length. In each case the change in length takes
place in the line of action of the applied force. Tensile and compressive stresses arc
oi1 time- referred to as linear or direct stresses.
Shear stress. If the opposite faces of a cube are subjected to a couple acting
tangentially to the faces. the sectional planes of the cube parallel to the applied force
are under the action of a shear stress. The strain will be such that the cube will take
up the shape of a with the section forming a rhombus. The shear strain is measured
from the angle formed by the sloping side of the rhombus and the side of the cube
before it was stressed. If diagonals are taken across the corners of the rhombus, one
of the diagonals will be longer than it was originally and the other shorter. From this
it may be deduced that some load is set up along the diagonals which has caused the
change in their length. Where the diagonal has increased in length a tensile stress
has been set up which is acting on the plane of the shorter diagonal; where the
diagonal is shorter a compressive stress is set up which is acting on the plane of the
longer diagonal. In a somewhat similar manner it can be shown that when a piece of
material is subjected to a direct stress, a shear stress exists on an plane taken at
450 to the line of action of the force producing the direct stress.

1.9 Define Hookes law, elastic limit, Youngs modulus, shear modulus, bulk
modulus, and Poissons ratio.
HOOKeS law states that stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit.
Elastic limit, If a body is subjected to increasing stress a point will he reached
where the material will behave as only partially elastic. When this point is reached
and the stress is removed some of the strain will remain as a permanent
deformation. The elastic limit is the point where the behaviour of the material
changes to being partial elastic; up to this point strain completely disappears when
stress is removed.
Youngs modulus, shear modulus and Bulk modulus are the three moduli of
elasticity
Youngs modulus (E) is the ratio of direct stress and the resulting strain
E = stress/strain
Shear modulus, also known as the modulus of rigidity or modulus of transverse
elasticity (G), is the ratio of shear stress and the resulting shear strain.
G = shear stress/shear strain (measured in radians)
Bulk modulus( K) If a cube of material is immersed in a liquid and subjected to
hydrostatic pressure it will be seen that the cube is acted on b three equal forces
acting mutually perpendicular to each other. The cube will suffer a loss in volume as
the hydro stat pressure is increased. The change in volume is the volumetric strain
and the intensity of the hydrostatic pressure will be the equivalent compressive
stress. K = equivalent compressive stress/volumetric strain
Poisson ratio, if a body is subjected to a direct stress it will suffer from linear strain
in the direction of the line of action of the applied force producing this stress. It will
also suffer some lateral strain in a plane at 900 to the line of action to the force.
Lateral strain is proportional to linear strain within the elastic limit.
Lateral strain/ linear strain = a constant ( )depending on the material
This constant ( ) is known as Poissons ratio.
NOTEThe relationship between lateral strain and linear strain is of great importance
in calculating the dimensions of coupling bolts made with an interference fit.
1.10 What is resilience?
Resilience or elastic strain energy is a term used to denote the storage of the work
done in producing strain within a material which is strained. If a piece of material is
subjected to an increasing stress the strain will also increase. As work done is the
product of force and distance moved by force, the energy stored in a material
subject to stress will equal the average force producing the stress multiplied by the
distance it has moved through, which will be the total strain.
Then Resilience = mean total stress x total strain =total stress x total strain
If the material is subjected to a stress beyond the elastic limit some of the work
done is lost in the form of heat which is generated as the material yields.

1.11 What are fluctuating stress, alternating stress, and cyclic stress? How
do they differ from simple stress? Why are they important?
Simple stress comes about from some static form of loading, and the value of the
stress does not change.
Fluctuating stress. Diesel engines when operating are not subject to static forms of
loading. Due to cylinder pressure variations and dynamic effects of the moving parts
the forces acting on arts part of an engine are always changing. As the forces change
so the stresses in the various parts change. The changing values of stress
experienced on parts of a machine are referred to as fluctuating stress. At. any
instant iii time the value of a stress can be related to a simple stress.
Alternating stress is said to occur when the value of a stress changes from some
value of tensile stress to a similar value of compressive stress. An example is the
overhung flywheel where a particle on the shaft surface will change from tensile
loading at its uppermost position of rotation to compressive loading at its lowest
point. The overhung flywheel may be considered as a cantilever with a concentrated
load.
Cyclic stress. When a certain pattern of stress change repeats itself at equal time
intervals (for example, each revolution of an engine or shaft) the pattern of stress is
referred to as cyclic stress.
Fluctuating, alternating, or cyclic stresses are of great importance as the\ are very
closely associated with a form of failure of machine parts known as fatigue failure.
Alternating or cyclic stresses are sometimes referred to as fluctuating stresses as a
general term to distinguish them from simple stresses.
1.12 What do you understand by the term stress raiser? How mat stress
raisers be obviated or red
Stress raisers occur at abrupt sectional changes of machine parts or members.
They are sometimes referred to as notches. Fillets are made in way of abrupt
sectional changes to reduce the abrupt ness of the change in section.
The effect of abrupt changes on the stress pattern across a section of. material in
way of the section change is such that where the change occurs, the stress is not
uniform across the section. It is higher at the corner or shoulder made by the
change. Material at the surface will yield earlier than material remote from the
shoulder and under conditions of simple or static stress some redistribution of stress
occurs. This clues not have time to take place when a machine part is subjected to
fluctuating stresses. It is therefore of the utmost importance to design properly and
remove all stress raisers. This is done by making fillets between shoulders or having
easy tapers on section changes with the end of any taper rounded in at its small end.
This reduces to a minimum the chances of fatigue failure.
Stress raisers cannot usually be obviated but the effects are reduced h\ the use of
proper fillets which give a better stress distribution and reduce stress concentrations
and variations in way of the change of section. An example of a fillet which we have
all seen is the radius formed between the coupling flange and the parallel portion of
an intermediate shaft. It can be seen then that a close relationship exists between
the ability of an engine part or member to resist fatigue failure and the profile of the
fillet in way of section changes. As a section change becomes more abrupt b
reduction of fillet radius, the risk of fatigue failure is greatly increased.

1.13 What is fatigue failure? How does it occur and how would you
recognize it?
Fatigue failure comes about usually when some engine part is improperly designed
or made from unsuitable material, when a correctly chosen material is given
incorrect heat treatment, or when parts are badly machined or badly adjusted. The
cause may be a combination of those mentioned. The term for fatigue is really a
misnomer as metals do not get tired. Fatigue failure is most common in materials
subject to fluctuating tensile stress.
Fatigue failure occurs when a machine part is subjected to fluctuating stress and
some form of slip occurs s between the grain boundaries of the material. usually at
some point of stress concentration. Once slip occurs a crack is initiated which
gradually extends across the section of the stressed material. Due to the stress
changes which occur under the action of fluctuating stress the strain also follows the
stress pattern, and movement iii the form of chattering takes place across the
opposite surfaces forming the crack. The chattering movement smooth the rough
surfaces in way of the crack. The speed of crack propagation increases across the
material section until it reaches a point at which yieldand therefore sudden failure
occurs in the remaining material. In ferrous materials. failure that is due to fatigue
can be recognized by the fact that there will be two forms of failure in the fracture:
the relatively smooth portion where initial failure and cracking progressed across the
section. and the portion where final failure took place which would exhibit the normal
appearance of failure in tension.. If the material is ductile a cup and cone form of
final failure may be seen. Less ductile materials may only have a rough crystalline
appearance. but the two distinct phases can be easily seen. It the material is working
in a corrosive medium then fatigue failure may come about much more quickly.
NoteThe study of fatigue is quite complex and a knowledge of metallurgy is
necessary for full understanding . The foregoing, however. describes some of its
machine and how it may be recognized. Later questions and answers will show how
the risk of fatigue failure can be reduced.
1.14 Define the terms temperature and heat.
Temperature is a measure that compares the degree of hotness between various
bodies or masses of material. The difference in temperature between different bodies
also determines the direction in which heat will be transmitted from one body to
another. Heat is transmitted from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature and transmission of heat continues until both bodies are at the same
temperature.
Heat is a form of energy that is possessed by matter in the form of kinetic energy of
the atoms or molecules of which the matter is composed. The kinetic energy is
obtained from the movement of the atoms or molecules. In gaseous substances the
movement is quite complex and involves translatory, rotary and vibratory motion.
Translatory motion refers to linear movement of molecules, which may occur in any
plane. Rotary motion involves rotation 0f molecules about some axis, and vibratory
motion includes both internal vibration of molecules and external vibration involving
relative cyclic movements between two molecules.
1.15 What are the known effects of heat on matter? What are the latent
heats of fusion and vaporization?

When the heat content of matter in the solid state is increased, vibratory movement
of the atoms and molecules increases and their kinetic energy increases. This is
shown by a rise in temperature and some changeusual an increasein dimensions
(thermal expansion Increase in heat content without change of temperature occurs
during the change of state from that of solid to that of liquid. The heat required to
effect this change of state without change of temperature is known as the latent heat
of fusion.
When the liquid state is reached the cohesive forces between the molecules of the
liquid are much reduced. Continued application of heat to matter in the liquid state
increases the kinetic energy in the molecular movement which is again shown as a
temperature rise and usually as an increase in volume. When the boiling point of the
liquid is reached large numbers of the molecules gain enough kinetic energy to
overcome the cohesive forces between them and break away from the surface of the
liquid. As heat is applied to the liquid, vaporization or change of state continuous
without change of temperature. The heat required to effect this change of state is
the latent heat of vaporization ion.
NOTESome molecules of liquids will have enough kinetic energy to o the cohesive
forces acting between them before the boiling point is reached, and some
evaporation will occur at a temperature below the boiling point. Evaporation and
vaporization are accompanied by large increases in volume. Continued application of
heat to the vapour raises it to some critical temperature above which it behaves as a
gas.
1.16 What are sublimation and dissociation?
Sublimation. Some chemical compounds have the ability to change directly from a
solid state to a vapour by application of heat. This change if known as sublimation.
Dissociation. Thermal dissociation occurs when heat breaks down a portion of the
molecules of a chemical compound in the gaseous state, to their constituent
molecules or molecules of other compounds. As the temperature falls the
decomposed portion recombines.
NOTEThermal dissociation occurs in the combustion space of a diesel engine during
combustion of the fuel charge. Other forms of dissociation are electrolytic, when the
molecules are split into ions.
1.17 Define the term specific heat.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of substance through one degree Celsius (one Kelvin).
Specific heat is now often referred to as specific heat capacity.
NOTE

1 Btu = 1.055 kJ

1 kcal = 4.19 kJ

1.18 What are endothermic and exothermic reactions?

An endothermic reaction or process takes place with accompanying absorption of

heat.
An exothermic reaction or process takes place with the release of heat.
1.19 How does the transmission of heat occur between hot and cold bodies?
A temperature difference is necessary for heat U) flow or be transmitted. Thermal
conduction is the passage of heat through matter caused by the interaction of atoms
and molecules possessing greater
kinetic energy with those possessing less. Normally when we speak of conduction of
heat we are referring to transmission of heat through solids. Transmission of heat
through liquids and gases is almost entirely by convection. Convection of heat is the
transference of heat in liquids and gases (fluids) by actual movement of the fluid
caused b density differences at higher and lower temperatures. The less dense
(hotter) portion of the fluid is displaced by the denser portion and forced to rise. A
convection current or circulation is set up (provided the source of heat is well below
the upper parts of the fluid) and will continue until all particles or portions of the fluid
are at the same temperature.
Radiation or, more correctly, thermal radiation comes about when the vibration of
atoms and molecules in the hot both sets up waves which are transmitted to the cold
body. This in turn increases the kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules in the cold
body which is manifested by a rise in temperature of the cold body. The rise in
temperature continues until the cold body is at the same temperature as the hot
body. When the cold body has a constant temperature it will he radiating as much
energy as it is receiving.
Radiant heat waves are known to be electromagnetic, as are other radiations such as
visible light, ultra-violet rays, cosmic rays, gamma rays etc. They are specified by a
wavelength or a frequency; their velocity in space is the same as that of light. The
wavelength of heat rays or infra-red radiation falls between that of visible light and
radio waves. It was thought at one time that emission was a continuous process but
this is now known to be incorrect. Polished surfaces reflect thermal radiation; they
are good reflectors but poor absorbers. Dark and dull surfaces ate poor reflectors but
good absorbers. Radiant energy is the only form of energy that can exist in the
absence of matter and be transferred without the aid of some form of matter.
1.20 What is the relationship between the pressure, specific volume, and
temperature of a perfect gas?
Boyles Law states that the volume of a given amount of any gas varies inversely as
the pressure acting on it whilst the temperature of the gas remains constant.
PV = a constant
Charles Law state that the change ii. volume ct a given amount of gas is directly
proportional to its temperature whilst the pressure of the gas remains constant.
When these laws are embodied the characteristic equation of a gas is formed. This
gives the relationship between the pressure, specific volume, and temperature of a
perfect gas.
PV = R T where R is the gas constant

NOTEReal gases only approach the behaviour of perfect gases at low pressures.
Other equations are used to give a more true relationship.
1.21 Name the energy transformation processes that take place in the
theoretical air cycles of internal combustion engines.
Constant pressure process is one in which the pressure of the air remains constant
throughout the change.
Constant volume process is one in which the volume of the air remains constant
throughout the change.
Adiabatic process is one in which no transfer of heat to or from the air takes place
during the change.
1.22 What effects occur when air is heated at (a) constant pressure and (b)
constant volume?
Air being a gas has two specific heats. When air is heated at constant volume the
pressure and temperature of the air rises. As there is no change in volume no work is
done. When air is heated at constant pressure the volume and temperature of the air
increases and work is done as the volume increases. The specific heat is therefore
higher. A relation between the two specific heats is used in thermodynamic
calculations.

Since the values of specific heats increase with increase of temperature. mean values
are used for the ratio of specific heats.
1.23 Which theoretical air cycle does the modern compression ignition
engine follow?
A modification of the dual combustion cycle is used in modern con ignition enginesThe theoretical dual or mixed combustion cycle is a combination of the constantvolume Otto cycle and the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle.
In the Otto cycle the theoretical pressurevolume diagram is formed from two
constant-volume and two adiabatic processes. The air in the cylinder is compressed
adiabatically. Heat is added to the air at constant volume. Work is done during the
adiabatic expansion and then heat is rejected at constant volume.
In the Diesel cycle the theoretical pressurevolume diagram , formed from two
adiabatic operations, one constant-pressure and one constant-volume operation. Air
is compressed adiabatically and then heat is added at constant pressure. Adiabatic
expansion takes place and then heat is rejected at constant volume.
In the dual cycle, air is compressed adiabatically, then heat u added, part in a
constant volume process and the remainder In a constant pressure process.
Expansion takes place adiabatically and then heat is rejected at constant volume.
NOTEThe theoretical air cycle can only take place in an engine based or. theoretical
assumptions. It is assumed that the piston is frictionless, the cylinder walls and

piston consist of non-heat- conducting material, and that the cylinder head behaves
sometimes as a perfect heat conductor and sometimes as a perfect heat insulator.
We must then imagine that the cycle starts with a cylinder and compression space
full of pure air at some temperature T. The piston is forced in and work is done on
the air in compressing is raising its temperature. During the compression stroke the
cylinder head is behaving as a perfect insulator as are the piston and cylinder walls.
Under these conditions no heat is lost during the compression stroke. At the end of
the compression stroke the cylinder head is assumed to become a perfect heat
conductor and heat is added to the compressed air from some external source
applied to the cylinder head. After the addition of heat to the aw the cylinder head is
assumed to become a perfect insulator again and the air at high pressure and
temperature forces out the piston against some imaginary resistance. and work is
done at the expense of the heat in the air. As no heat has gone into the piston.
cylinder head or walls, no heat can be given to the air and the expansion will be
adiabatic as was the compression. When the Piston is at the end of the stroke the
cylinder head is imagined to become a perfect conductor again. A cold body is then
put against the head and some of the heat in the air goes into the cold body and
continues until the temperature is back to T again. The process is repeated without
changing the air.
The heat added in the theoretical cycle is related to the heat content of the fuel
injected into the cylinder in practice. The heat rejected is related to the heat lost in
the exhaust gases.
1.24 State Avogadros Law. Where may the law be used in practice?
AvogadroS Law or hypothesis states that equal volumes of any gas contain the same
number of molecules, provided the temperature and pressure conditions are the
same in each gas.
It is common for the equipment used in analysing the contents of exhaust gases to
give the results in terms of volumetric ratios. By using the molecular weights of the
constituents found ina sample of exhaust gas, and Avogadros Law, it is easy to
convert the figures of a volumetric analysis to an analysis based on weight.
NOTEExhaust gas analysis is used mainly in laboratories during engine
development and for the testing of fuels.

1.25 What is a mole?

In the SI system the mole (abbreviation mol) is used as a measure of the amount of
substance within a system which contains as many units as there are carbon atoms
in a specified amount of a particular form of carbon.
The engineer uses a slightly different concept of this and defines the mole as the
mass of a substance (in some weight units) equal to its molecular weight. For
example. the molecular weight of carbon is approximately 12. A kilo mol of carbon
would therefore be 12 kilos in weight. in gases the volume occupied by a mol of gas
is termed the molal volume.
These units are very useful when dealing with fuel combustion and exhaust gas
analysis problems.

1.26 What do you understand by the kinetic theory of gases?

The kinetic theory of gases deals with the movements of molecules and their effect
on the pressure. temperature, and heat in a gas. The theory assumes that the
molecules are moving with very high velocity and during their movement they collide
with each other and with the walls of the vessel containing the gas. As the molecules
are considered to be perfectly elastic no velocity is lost during impact. The pressure
which the gas exerts on the walls of the vessel is considered to be due to molecular
impact. The velocity of the molecules is considered to be related to the temperature
of the gas. and the heat in the gas is considered to be due to the kinetic energy of
the molecules. If the temperature is in creased then the velocity of the molecules
increases with consequent increase in their kinetic energy and increase in heat. The
theory also deals with the molecular formation of monatomic. diatomic and triatomic
gases and the various degrees of movement in each group. i.e. theory can be
explained mathematically and ma be used to verify Avogadros Law.
1.27 How are theoretical air cycles used and what are the deviations that
occur in practice?
air cycles are used in thermodynamic calculations to ascertain the theoretical
efficiencies of the various heat cycles. These calculations give as a result the Air
Standard Efficiency of the cycle. This relates the efficiency in terms of temperatures,
ratios of pressures, or a combination of these factors.
In making the calculations of theoretical efficiency the following assumptions are
made: the air contained in the cylinder is pure air behaving as a perfect gas: no heat
is transferred or lost during the adiabatic changes: the temperature and pressure of
the air in the cylinder is the same in every part at any instant during the cycle; no
heat loss occurs during the heat-addition part of the cycle.
In practice. air does not behave as a perfect gas, due to the increase in value of the
specific heats with increase of temperature: also during part of the cycle the air is
contaminated with products of the combustion of fuel. causing further changes in the
specific heat values: and heat transfer and losses occur during adiabatic changes
.The pressure and temperature of gas in the cylinder are not always the same
throughout the cylinder at any instant in the cycle.
Heat losses occur during the cycle to the engine coolant, also losses from friction in
the moving parts. and the losses which come about in getting the air into the
cylinder and the exhaust gases out pumping losses).
In the development of a new type of engine, the air standard efficiency of the cycle
would be studied. Any changes in factors affecting efficiency will be carefully
calculated: the calculations will be progressed. making corrections covering earlier
assumptions so that a very close approximation of what can be expected in practice
will be finally obtained. The design department of an engine builder compares the
results obtained from the prototype on the test bed with their earlier calculations and
uses the information gained in later design studies.