Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Handout Packet
Graduate Teaching Center, Yale University, Advanced Teaching Series
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These handouts were composed by staff and fellows of the Yale Graduate Teaching Center
(especially Sam Schaffer and Alison Greene), the Yale College Writing Center, and other
sources as noted. They may be copied and distributed to college students without express
permission. Please contact the Yale Graduate Teaching Center for permission to reproduce
these materials for other instructional purposes. Handouts gathered and revised 2011 by
Jay Summach.
Communicate with your professor: Make sure that you understand the assignment clearly,
and that you, the professor, and your fellow TFs are on the same page.
Communicate with your students: Devote section time to outlining the assignment with your
students. Give clear details about length, format, use of references, etc. Provide a rubric so
that students understand the criteria that you will use to evaluate their work, and make sure
that the rubric is consistent with the expectations for the paper.
Make Gradual Progress: Determine ahead of time what skills your students need to develop
and schedule mini-lessons throughout the term that address those needs. Encourage
students to get an early start on long-term projects and monitor their progress by dividing
projects into smaller tasks. These tasks might include a thesis statement, a one-page
proposal or outline, a list of references, and post-draft revisions. Intermediate tasks can be
graded on a simple qualitative scale (e.g. check, check plus, or check minus).
Teach students to select sources: Meet one-on-one with students or offer a mini-workshop
to direct them toward sources appropriate to their interests.
Teach students to analyze sources: Prepare students to analyze primary and secondary
sources in section. Provide sample sources similar to those students will examine in their
essays and walk through an analysis with them. This may take the form of large-group
discussion or small group activities.
Provide writing lessons: Anticipate and address common writing problems through optional
workshops, mini-lessons in section, handouts, and/or one-on-one meetings.
Provide feedback: Make grading a learning experience. Be clear with students about what
they have done well and in what areas their writing needs work. In your written feedback,
consider dividing your comments between strengths/weaknesses in their handling of course
content versus strengths/weaknesses in their prose. Keep track of the feedback given, so
that you can recognize improvement when grading future work.
Almost any attention you pay to writing during class time will do double-duty: it will help students understand
the material more deeply, and it will help them write about it more effectively. Each of the following
suggestions can be tweaked to emphasize its effect on writing or learning in your course, and any one of
them can be done in under five minutes.
Writing guides
Provide your students with a writing guide before they start writing. In it, list four or five qualities that
distinguish good writing for your discipline/course.
Examples: http://writing.yalecollege.yale.edu/writing-guides
Grade exams by question or section (i.e., grade all ID #1s, then all ID #2s, etc.)
Work in chunks of time so that you can get into a rhythm and be consistent.
Develop a grading shorthand and hand out a translation to your students (see pp. 19-21).
Cut-and-paste frequently used comments and explanations.
Develop a spreadsheet or grading chart that allows you to compile exam grades more
easily.
TFs should discuss cases of suspected plagiarism with the course instructor. The instructor will
often interview the student or students who appear to be guilty of academic dishonesty to make
absolutely certain that an allegation of academic dishonesty is warranted.
Any form of academic dishonesty, whether it be cheating on a test or an examination,
plagiarism, improper collaborating on assignments, or the submission of the same essay to two
instructors without the explicit consent of both, should be reported to the secretary of the Yale
College Executive Committee either directly or through the student's residential college dean.
The administrative assistant to the Executive Committee may be reached at the Yale College
Dean's Office, 110 SSS (4322914).
More information on dealing with plagiarism and the Executive Committee is available at:
http://yalecollege.yale.edu/content/cheating-plagiarism-and-documentation.
Location
The Yale Writing Center is located at 35 Broadway (access through the back of the building,
and take the elevator up to the second floor). The center offers drop-in help for writers,
workshops, and other online resources for faculty, TFs, and students.
WR courses
Students in WR courses receive additional feedback on their writing, are taught effective
strategies for developing and sustaining ideas, and learn the habits and techniques of
experienced writers. Beginning with the class of 2009, all Yale students must complete two WR
courses by end of the sixth term, with one of these completed by the end of the fourth term.
TFs for WR courses attend a series of training workshops offered by the Writing Center.
Writing partners
Writing Partners are Yale College or graduate school students selected for both their writing
skills and their ability to talk about writing. They are available at the Writing Center on a drop-in
basis, five nights a week.
1. Thesis: an essay's main proposition. A thesis should not be confused with a topic, which
represents only the subject area of an essay. A good thesis must be arguable; there must be
intelligent ways to disagree with it. Arguability distinguishes a good thesis from a fact (clearly
demonstrable in the text) or an observation (an interpretation so obvious that no intelligent
reader would challenge it). Although writers often wish to delay announcement of the thesis,
good academic writing generally states the thesis explicitly on the first page, then returns to a
more nuanced and complex form of it later in the text.
2. Problem or Question: the intellectual context in which your thesis matters. In academic
essays, the problem usually arises from a current misunderstanding of an important issue. The
author of an essay promises to clarify something that would otherwise remain obscured or
mistaken. Establishing the problem or question is the primary role of an essays first few
paragraphs. If it doesn't promise to illuminate, deepen, or solve a problem, an essay risks
irrelevance.
3. Evidence: the material a writer works with in exploring a thesis. Evidence that has been
overlooked or previously undiscovered may serve to prove a thesis. Frequently, however,
academic writers re-examine evidence that others have looked at before, in which case the
evidence is more likely to suggest or persuade readers that the writer's approach is a fruitful
one. Since a good thesis must be arguable, academic writers are especially obligated to
consider counter-evidence, to grapple directly with facts, patterns, or passages that resist or
complicate the essay's main argument. Writers must orient readers to the source of the
evidence, which must be cited.
4. Analysis & Reflection: the work a writer does to turn evidence into argument, to show the
reader how the evidence supports, develops, or extends the essay's thesis. Since a thesis must
be arguable, no evidence in a good academic argument can speak for itself-all of it must be
processed by the writer. Typical moves of analysis are to highlight significant details of the
evidence and to name patterns that might otherwise be undetected. When working with written
evidence, its good to observe the rule of two: the writer should supply at least two words of
analysis for every word of a citation, and usually more.
Analysis generally refers directly to the evidence (Describing his actions with such
words as growled and stalked suggests an underlying animal savagery), while reflection
builds upon analysis to support larger claims (This imagery seems to contradict the narrator's
stated assessment that Paul is a gentle soul) . Other moves that indicate reflection are
consideration of a counter-argument, definitions or refinements of terms and assumptions, and
qualifications of previous claims. Reflection is important throughout an essay, but should be
especially rich and full in between sections of the argument and in the essay's conclusion.
5. Structure: how the sections of an essay are organized and stitched together. College essays
are frequently organized either by repetition (where each paragraph develops evidence of the
same proposition: X is clearly present) or by chronology (where evidence appears in the essay
in the same order that it appears in the text): both of these patterns are inadequate. Sections of
a good argument proceed in a logical way, but also develop the implications of a thesis more
deeply as the essay progresses. The reader should understand how each new section extends
the argument thats come before and prepares for the argument that's still to come. Reflective
sentences at moments of transition often guide this review/preview, and complex essays
frequently include 1-2 sentences of this type in their introductions.
Topic: Discuss the significance of one of the main characters in The Simpsons.
Attempted Thesis 1: Marge Simpson is important to the plot of The Simpsons.
This statement is vague and obvious. Its readily apparent to anyone who has watched The
Simpsons that each character adds a vital element of chemistry to the show, so no one would
argue with this statement of fact.
Attempted Thesis 2: Marge Simpson is important to The Simpsons because she fulfills a
significant family role as a mother and housewife.
This statement is more precise than No.1 in that it tells how Marge is important to the Simpson
family, but it merely restates a basic premise of the show what Marges role is and therefore
is not an argument. Additionally, it adds little or no information that the informed reader of your
paper did not know from just watching a few episodes.
Attempted Thesis 3: Marge Simpson is important to The Simpsons because she fulfills a
significant family role as a teacher and caregiver to her husband and children.
This statement is again more precise in that it qualifies how Marge fulfills her role as mother: it
says that she provides care and instruction to other family members. But it still does not go
beyond the realm of fact.
Attempted Thesis 4: While Marge Simpson may be a model caregiver for her family, she
is a different sort of model for her audience.
This statement introduces a new idea that begins to treat The Simpsons as a text. And it is the
first statement that is arguable to some extent. This position is controversial; that is, you can
make a case against it. Notice that the words important and significant have been dropped.
Such words are hard to define specifically and make for flimsy arguments because they are not
precise. Nonetheless, the statement is once again a bit vague: exactly what sort of model is
Marge? How does she model for her audience?
Attempted Thesis 5 (best): Despite her role as a seemingly submissive housewife and
mother, Marge Simpson functions for the audience of The Simpsons as a subversive
feminist force against middle class values.
This argument is better than No. 4 because it is more precise about how Marge affects her
audience and what that effect is. Indeed, you may not agree with the statement, which is a good
sign for its argumentative nature (some people, for instance, see the show as demeaning to
women). Terms like middle class values and feminist will need to be defined precisely in the
introduction or shortly after the thesis is stated. Additionally, this statement will require you to
provide specific interpretations of The Simpsons to prove your case.
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When to Cite
Use footnotes to cite the primary and secondary sources of information you use in your writing.
Obviously, you must cite a source for every quotation. But a citation is also necessary whenever you
reference someone elses ideas or state specific facts that are not common knowledge, even if you do not
name the source in the body of your writing.
How to Cite
There are several systems for documenting sources. The Chicago system is standard across most of the
humanities, while a parenthetical author-date system is typical among the sciences. Brief overviews of
the systems appear below. For information on how to cite other source types, consult the style manual
appropriate to the course/discipline for which you are writing.
Chicago System
see: Chicago Manual of Style Online, ch. 14 (Yale access on campus, or through proxy server)
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/16/contents.html
Footnotes are located at the bottom of each page in a 10-point font. The first time you cite a source,
include all of its publication information. Thereafter, use an abbreviated citation which includes the
authors last name, an abbreviated form of the title, and the relevant page numbers. In many disciplines,
a list of all sources is also collected in a bibliography.
Book:
Full citation in a note:
1. Newton N. Minow and Craig L. LaMay, Inside the Presidential Debates: Their
Improbable Past and Promising Future (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 2425.
Shortened citation:
8. Minow and LaMay, Presidential Debates, 138.
Entry in a bibliography:
Minow, Newton N., and Craig L. LaMay. Inside the Presidential Debates: Their Improbable
Past and Promising Future. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Journal article:
Full citation in a note:
1. Cecilia Menjivar, Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants Lives in
the United States, American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4: 1002.
Shortened citation:
8. Menjivar, Liminal Legality, 1002.
Entry in a bibliography:
Menjivar, Cecilia. Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants Lives in the
United States. American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (2006): 9991037.
Article in an edited book:
Full citation in a note:
1. Mary Higdon Beech, The Domestic Realm in the Lives of Hindu Women in Calcutta,
in Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia, ed. Hanna Papanek and Gail Minault
(Delhi: Chanakya, 1982), 115.
Entry in a bibliography
Beech, Mary Higdon. The Domestic Realm in the Lives of Hindu Women in Calcutta. In
Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia, ed. Hanna Papanek and Gail
Minault, 11038. Delhi: Chanakya, 1982.
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Practice
Reword or divide the following sentences to make them clearer.
The new terrorism is a term that predates the events of September 11, 2001, and Bruce Hoffman
defines it as a transnational phenomenon that transcends nation-state politics, although there is no doubt
that there were forms of transnational terrorism even before the twentieth century, such as the example of
the anarchist movement.
On December 25, 1984, anti-abortion activists bombed the Ladies Clinic in Pensacola, Florida, which
was the second time over the course of six months that anti-abortionists had bombed the clinic as a way
of expressing their anger over what they described as the murder of unborn children, although most antiabortion activists did not participate in terrorist activities but funneled their activism through protests and
the court system.
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Active (better)
Use the passive voice intermittently to add variety to your writing; however, overuse makes your writing
dull and saps it of vital information.
Practice
Change the following sentences from passive voice to active voice.
Emmitt Till was lynched in 1955.
It is believed that the FBI intentionally murdered Black Panther Fred Hampton.
The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act was passed in 1996.
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Thesis
Organization
The ideal paper presents an argument that is organized, coherent, and logical.
Each section logically follows from the previous one.
Each section relates to the larger question or argument.
Transitions and topic sentences are used to guide the reader and to
highlight the conceptual development of the argument.
Introduction
The introduction:
engages the readers interest, establishes that the question/issue
addressed is significant, and that a controversy exists (there is
disagreement over how the question/issue should be approached,
resolved, etc).
provides the basic information needed for understanding the position
being argued.
contains a clear thesis statement that previews the papers focus and
approach.
Conclusion
The conclusion:
ends the paper gracefully, flowing logically from the rest of the paper.
accords with the introduction and reflects the authors analysis of the
thesis or question.
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A-/B+
The paper nearly achieves the ideal but falls short in a minor area,
requiring one or two small changes rather than broad revisions. It may
require some revision in the efficacy, specificity, or clarity of either the
introduction or the conclusion; there may be a paragraph that is
inconsistent with the logic and structure of the rest of the paper; or
one section of the argument is less well developed than the others.
Prose is clear and polished. A- papers have fewer of these minor
problems than B+ papers.
B-
The paper has the promise of an original and well-argued thesis, but
still requires revising in more than one of the key areas. Ideas are
clear, but organization and connections among ideas may still require
work. Sentences are clear, but some sentence patterns and
structures require attention and revision.
C+ / C
The essay does not fulfill the basic requirements of the assignment.
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Thesis/Ideas
D-F
Promising but
somewhat vague.
Perhaps obvious, overly
general or too broad.
Weaker key words.
Poorly reasoned,
illogical, pointless,
simplistic. Fatally broad
or obvious. Poorly
constructed sentence.
No thesis, patently
erroneous thesis.
Unrelated to the
assignment.
Undecipherable.
D-F
Adequate to support
argument, yet poorly
integrated and
superficially interpreted.
Some off-topic
evidence. Some
sloppiness in citations.
Few to no sources.
Sources not relevant.
Sources misinterpreted.
Sources not cited.
D-F
Logical. Paragraphs
have topic sentences
that support the thesis.
Graceful, progressive,
with elegant transitions.
Conclusion moves
beyond summary.
Coherent if repetitive,
sometimes unbalanced.
Weak transitions.
Perhaps disjointed, yet
still comprehensible.
Conclusion essentially
summary.
Unexplained leaps or
gaps in argument.
Disorganized.
Monotonous.
Repetitious. Tangents.
Lack of or very weak
transitions. Difficulty in
summarizing or
concluding.
No structure. Clearly
rushed. Random
connections. No
transitions. No
organization.
D-F
Economy and
eloquence in phrasing.
A sense of rhythm.
Variation of sentence
structure. Subtle diction.
Negligible errors in
spelling or grammar.
Generally correct
language. Some clich,
some lack of precision,
some lack of eloquence.
A few grammar or
spelling errors. Perhaps
monotonous or slightly
verbose.
Egregiously sloppy.
Numerous spelling and
grammar errors. Not
proofread. Rambling.
Evidence
Structure
Style/Mechanics
Late policy: Paper grades will be reduced by 1/3 (A to A-; A- to B+ etc.) for each 24-hour deadline
missed. Your first deadline is Thursday, February 21, 10:30 AM with a drop-off at the entrance to lecture.
If you miss this deadline, please contact your TF immediately to arrange a drop-off location for your paper.
A Deans Excuse will allow you to reset this clock.
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Redundancy (RED)
Avoid using the same word/expression multiple times in the same paragraph.
Avoid using redundant synonyms: Schaffers writing and prose is terrible.
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Parallel Structure ( || )
Parallel structure is a nice way to spice up your writing. However, make sure to keep your structure
consistent (by maintaining the words/phrases with which you begin your clauses, or by maintaining the
grammatical sequence with which you begin your clauses, or both).
Incorrect: As general, George Washington fought the British; he defeated the Republicans when
he was president; as symbol, he united a nation.
Correct: As general, George Washington fought the British; as president, he defeated the
Republicans; as symbol, he united a nation. [As + noun xs 3]
Incorrect: George Washington rallied the colonists spirits, defeating the British, and maintained
his republican values, in order to become a national icon.
Correct: By rallying the colonists spirits, defeating the British, and maintaining his republican
values, George Washington became a national icon. [By + participle + something xs 3]
Colloquial (Coll)
In academic writing, you should avoid the use of contractions and slang or trendy words.
Incorrect: The fall of the Berlin Wall wasnt just a shock to audiences, it was epic.
Expletives
Avoid using expletives both the grammatical structure (there + form of to be) and the swear words.
Indirect: There were many people that admired George Washington.
Direct: Many people admired George Washington.
Hyphens in Adjectives
If a noun phrase (adjective-noun) is used as an adjective, you need to add a hyphen. This problem often
arises with centuries:
phrase used as a noun, no hyphen
Newspapers from the nineteenth century praised George Washington
phrase used as an adjective, hyphen required
Nineteenth-century newspapers praised George Washington.
Listing
There are two accepted methods of listing:
Snap, Crackle and Pop [OK: No comma before and]
Snap, Crackle, and Pop [Better: Comma before and]
Strunk, White, and I prefer the second method.
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This as a Noun
Where possible, avoid using this as a noundoing so is generally imprecise and weak. Use it as an
adjective or rephrase.
Weak: George Washington surprised the British by crossing the Delaware in mid-winter. This
made him a hero
Strong: George Washington surprised the British by crossing the Delaware in mid-winter. His
daring strategy made him a hero.
[This strategy made him a hero could also work, although its a bit weaker.]
Numbers
The general rule is that the following are spelled out:
whole numbers from one through one hundred
round numbers (hundreds, thousands, hundred thousands, millions)
any number beginning a sentence
For other numbers, numerals are used. Some examples:
Thirty-two children from eleven families were packed into three vans.
The building is three hundred years old.
The three new parking lots will provide space for 540 more cars.
However, where many numbers occur within a sentence or paragraph, maintain consistency in the
immediate context:
A mixture of buildingsone of 103 stories, five of more than 50, and a dozen of only 3 or 4has
been suggested for the area.
Page Numbers
Use page numbers on any paper over two pages. Bottom right is generally good practice.
Quotations
Quote someone only when paraphrasing could not possibly do justice to their idea or their phraseology.
Otherwise, paraphrase and cite. Dont leave quotations hanging on their own. Be sure to introduce the
quotation and the author (using first and last name).
Incorrect: More important than the speed with which they spread is the very generic quality of
the commentary around these celebrations.
Correct: As historian David Waldstreicher notes, More important than the speed with which they
spread is the very generic quality of the commentary around these celebrations.
Other Shorthand:
= paragraph
= no, not, none
ital = italicize [remember that newspaper titles, plays, movies, books get italicized chapter and
article titles get quotation marks]
WC = word choice [use a more appropriate word]
AWK = awkward construction or phraseology
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