Network Analysis

Chapter 5
The Transfer Functions,
Frequency Response, and Bode Plot
Chien-Jung Li
Department of Electronic Engineering
National Taipei University of Technology

Linear Systems
x (t )
Input
(excitation)

Linear Time-invariant
Lumped (LTIL)
System

y (t )
Output
(response)

Linear System
A system is said to be linear if the following two properties are hold:

Amplitude linearity: x (t ) y ( t ) then Kx (t ) Ky (t )

Superposition principle: x1 (t ) y1 (t ) and x2 (t ) y 2 ( t )
then x1 (t ) + x2 ( t ) y1 (t ) + y 2 (t )

Time-invariant System
If the characteristics or properties of a system do not change with time,
then the system is said to be time invariant. (Note that time invariance is
defined for systems, not for signals.)
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Transfer Function
Assume an initially relaxed linear system excited at t=0 by an input
x(t), and assume that y(t) is the corresponding output. Let
X ( s ) = L x ( t )

x (t )

Y ( s ) = L y ( t )

For a linear system

Y (s ) = G (s ) X (s )

Linear
system

y (t )

Transform into s-domain

(frequency domain)

X (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

Y (s )
where G ( s ) =
is called the transfer function of the circuit or
X (s )

system, and it provides a direct mathematical relationship

between the input and the output for any arbitrary input.
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Application of Transfer Function

Once the transfer function of the circuit or system is known, the
output may be determined for any arbitrary input.
The transfer function describes the input/output relationship which
can include frequency dependent parameters, i.e., the gain of an
amplifier.
The transfer function is fixed by the nature of the system or circuit
and is not dependent on the type of excitation.
The transfer concept has been developed with the assumption that
the circuit has been initially relaxed. Unless state otherwise, initially
relaxed circuit conditions will be assumed in all further
developments relative to the transfer function.

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Example
Determine the transfer function of the circuit:
4

v1 (t )

1
F
40

V1 ( s )

v 2 (t )

V2 ( s )

40
s

40V1 ( s ) 10V1 ( s )
s
V2( s ) =
V (s ) =
=
40 + 4 1
4s + 40
s + 10
s
40

V (s )
10
G (s ) = 2
=
V1 ( s ) s + 10

V1 ( s )

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G (s ) =

10
s + 10

V2 ( s )

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Example
Determine the transfer function of the circuit:
2s

2H

v1 (t )

20

G (s ) =

v 2 (t )

V1 ( s )

20
s

V2 ( s ) =

10 20
200
=
s + 10 s
s ( s + 10 )

V2 ( s )

V2 ( s ) = G ( s )V1 ( s ) =

10
V (s )
s + 10 1

If the input v1(t ) = 20 sin10t

20 (10 )
200
V1 ( s ) = 2
=
2
s 2 + 100
s + (10 )

v1(t ) = 20 for t > 0

V1 ( s ) =

20

V2 ( s )
20
10
=
=
V1 ( s ) 2s + 20 s + 10

If the input

V2 ( s ) =

for t > 0

2000
( s + 10 ) ( s 2 + 100 )

v 2 (t ) = 10e 10t + 10 2 sin (10t 45
)

v 2 (t ) = 20 20e 10t
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Natural and Forced Response

Consider the input/output relationship
Y (s ) = G (s ) X (s )
Poles
Poles

Forced response
Natural response

Total response y ( t )

In general both G(s) and X(s) will have poles (as well as zeros). Thus
the poles of Y(s) will consist of the poles of G(s) and the poles of X(s).
Recall that each pole (or pair of complex poles) may be considered
as producing one of the terms in the associated output function y(t).
The poles of G(s) are a function of the system parameters, whereas
poles of X(s) are a function of excitation or input.

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Example
The transfer function of a certain system is given by
Y (s )
N (s )
G(s ) =
=
X ( s ) ( s 2 + 5s + 6 )( s 2 + 2s + 17 )

write the general form of the response y(t) for x (t ) = 10 cos 6t

G(s ) =

Y (s ) =
X (s ) =

Y (s ) =

Y (s )
N (s )
=
X ( s ) ( s + 2 )( s + 3 ) ( s 2 + 2s + 17 )
N ( s ) X (s )

( s + 2 )( s + 3 ) ( s 2 + 2s + 17 )
10s
s 2 + 36

(s

10sN ( s )

+ 36 ) ( s + 2 )( s + 3 ) ( s 2 + 2s + 17 )

y ( t ) = B1 sin ( 6t + 1 ) + B2e 2t + B3e 3t + B4e t sin ( 4t + 2 )

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Poles and Zeros of Transfer Functions

In general, the transfer function of a LTI system is a ratio of
polynomials in the variable s and can be expressed as
G (s ) =

N (s )
D (s )

N ( s ) = an s n + an 1s n 1 + + a1s + a0
D ( s ) = bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + + b1s + b0

Poles (finite): The m roots of D(s) are called the finite poles of the G(s)
Zeros (finite): The n roots of N(s) are called the finite zeros of the G(s)
The order of a transfer function is the value of the larger of the two
integers m and n. Thus, if m > n, the transfer function is of order n.
Most transfer function occurring in circuits are characterized by the
condition m n.

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Zeros and Poles at Infinite

If m > n, there are one or more zeros at infinite. In this case, the transfer
function is said to have ni zeros at infinite, where ni = m n
Consider that s approaches infinity, N(s) and D(s) may each closely
approximately by their highest term:
an
an
n
N ( s ) ans n for s >> 1
as
b
b
G ( s ) n m = m mn = ni m
for s >> 1
m
bms
s
s
D ( s ) b s for s >> 1
m

If m < n, there are one or more poles at infinite. In this case, the
transfer function is said to have mi poles at infinite, where mi = n m
an s n
an n m an mi
G (s )
=
s
=
s
m
bms
bm
bm

for s >> 1

We can conclude that the number of zeros of a transfer function is

equal to poles if zeros and poles at s = are included in the total.
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Factored Form of Transfer Function

Let z1, z2, z3, , zn represent the n finite zeros of G(s), and let p1, p2, ,
pm represent the m finite poles of G(s). G(s) may be expressed in
factored form:
G (s ) =

A(s z1 )(s z2 ) (s zn )
(s p1 )(s p2 ) (s pm )
Im

s-plane
Since s = + j is a complex variable
(also called the complex frequency), the
poles and zeros can be plotted on the
plane (except the ones at infinite).

z2
p1

z4
p3

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s-plane

p2

z1

: pole
: zero

Re

z3

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Example
Write the transfer function corresponds to the s-plane
Im
s-plane
4 + j 3

Re

4 j 3

G (s ) =
=

A ( s 0 ) [s ( 2)]

[s ( 6)][s ( 4 j 3)][s ( 4 + j 3)]

As ( s + 2 )
As ( s + 2 )
=
s ( s + 6 )( s + 4 + j 3 )( s + 4 j 3 ) ( s + 6 ) ( s 2 + 8s + 25 )
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Example
Construct an s-plane of finite poles and zeros with the transfer
function:
G (s ) =

2 s 2 + 6s + 25

s 3 + 7s 2 + 10s
Im
s-plane

3 + j 4

Re

3 j 4

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Stability (I)
The concept of stability is very important in the design and analysis
of active electronic circuits and closed-loop feedback control system.
For example, an amplifier may turn out to oscillate or to move into
saturation if circuit condition are not favorable.
Relationship to Natural Response:

When a system is excited by an arbitrary input signal, the natural response
turns appear in the output and if such a response vanishes after a sufficient
period of time, the circuit settles into a of operation in which the forced
response assume a steady-state.

The question of stability can be related to whether or not the natural
response terms banish, remain at a fixed level, or possibly even grow without
bound.

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Stability (II)
Definitions of Stability:

Stable system: all natural response terms vanish or approach zero after a
sufficiently long time.

Unstable system: at least one term in the natural response grows without
bound (i.e., approaches infinity) as time increases.

Marginally stable system: there are no unstable terms and if at least one
term approaches a constant nonzero value or a constant amplitude
oscillation as time increases.
y n (t )

y n (t )

y n (t )

Stable

Unstable

Marginally stable
t

In the next few slides, we will see that stability can be related to the
locations of poles in the complex s-plane.
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Practical Perspective The S -Plane

Left-hand half-plane (LHHP):
All points to the left of the j -axis, but not
including the j -axis.

Right-hand half-plane (RHHP):
All points to the right of the j -axis, but not
including the j -axis.

Im
s-plane
LHHP

RHHP

Re

j-axis:
The j -axis will be considered as a separated
area of the s-plane for reasons that will be
clear shortly. The j -axis includes the point
s = 0.

The effects of different pole locations will be investigated as they

relate to the natural response. In each case, the form of a natural
response term yn(t) will be shown based on the particular pole or pair
of poles assumed.
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Poles on the Negative Real Axis

Im

The natural response corresponds to a pole

on the negative real axis is of the form:
y n (t ) = Ae 1t

LHHP

where A is some arbitrary constant. This term

approaches zero as t increases, so it is a
stable response.
Time constant = (1 1 ) . So, if 1 is very close
to the origin, is very large, and the time
that it takes for the natural response to
become negligible can be rather long, and
vise versa.
Multiple-order pole:

Re

s1 = 1

s-plane

y n (t )
Time response
(natural, from circuit)
Stable

y n (t ) = At k e t
t
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Complex Poles in the LHHP

Im

LHHP
The natural response corresponds to a pair of
s1 = 1 + j 1
complex poles in the LHHP is of the form:

y n (t ) = Ae 1t sin (1t + )
where A and are arbitrary constants. This term
approaches zero as t increases, so it is a stable
response.

Time constant = (1 1 ) . The closer is to

the j-axis, the longer will be the duration o
the natural response, and vice versa.
If the poles are very close to the negative real
axis, the oscillation frequency 1 is small,
and the period of the oscillation will be long,
and vice versa.
Multiple-order complex-pole pairs:
y n (t ) = At k e 1t sin (1t + )
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Re
s1 = 1 j 1
s-plane

y n (t )
Time response
(natural, from circuit)
Stable

t
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Poles on Positive Real Axis and RHHP

Im

A pole on the positive real axis: The natural

response is of the form

RHHP

s2 = 2 + j 2

y n (t ) = Ae1t
s1 = 1

where A is some arbitrary constant. This term

grows without bound, so it is a unstable response.

Complex poles in the RHHP The natural

response is of the form:
y n (t ) = Ae2t sin (2t + )

Re

s2 = 2 j 2
s-plane

y n (t )

Time response
(natural, from circuit)

where A is some arbitrary constant. This term

grows without bound, so it is a unstable response.
t
Unstable
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Poles at the Origin and on j-axis

Im

A pole at the origin: The natural response is

of the form

s2 = j 2

y n (t ) = A

The response remains constant as time increases,

so it is marginally stable.

s1 = 0
s2 = j 2

Poles on j-axis: The natural response is of

the form
y n (t ) = A sin (2t + )

This function oscillates with a constant amplitude

for all time, so it is a marginally stable response.
In many systems, j-axis poles are undesirable.

Re

s-plane

y n (t )

Time response
(natural, from circuit)
Marginally stable

Multiple Pole-pairs on j-axis:

y n (t ) = At k sin (3t + )

which is an unstable response.

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Summary of Stability
LHHP

Im

 Unstable

 Stable

RHHP

Poles at origin
1st order: marginally stable
2nd order: unstable

Re

 Poles on j-axis

1st order pole-pair: marginally stable

2nd order pole-pair: unstable

s-plane
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Transfer Function Algebra

Complete linear circuit blocks are connected to achieve a composite
system function and this complete transfer function may be
expressed as a combination of the individual transfer functions.
Each transfer function given is either assumed to be unaffected by
the interconnection used, or the transfer function is defined under
the loaded conditions given.
There may be loading effects between blocks, and if the loading
effect occurs, a modified transfer function could be defined under
such conditions. The point is that one cannot simply throw together
blocks and assume that transfer functions remain unchanged. The
loading effect will be discussed later.

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Cascade Connection
Here, we stress that the preceding individual transfer functions are
either unaffected by the connections, or the transfer function are
defined under loaded conditions.
Y1 ( s )
X (s )

G1 ( s )

Y2 ( s )
G2 ( s )

G2 ( s )

Y (s )

Y1 ( s ) = G1 ( s ) X ( s )
Y2 ( s ) = G2 ( s )Y1 ( s )

Yn ( s ) = Gn ( s )Yn 1 ( s )

The composite transfer function of a cascade connection is the product of all

the individual transfer functions.
X (s )

G ( s ) = G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )Gn ( s )

Y (s )

Y (s ) = G ( s ) X ( s ) = G1(s )G2 (s )Gn (s ) X (s )

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Parallel Connection

The composite transfer function of a parallel connection is the sum of all the
individual transfer functions.
G1 ( s )

X (s )

G2 ( s )

X (s )

Y (s )

G(s ) = G1(s ) + G2 (s ) + + Gn (s )

Y (s )

Y (s ) = [G1(s ) + G2 (s ) + + Gn (s )] X (s )

Gn ( s )

G(s ) =

Y (s )
= G1(s ) + G2 (s ) + + Gn (s )
X (s )

Y1(s ) = G1(s ) X (s )
Y2 (s ) = G2 (s ) X (s )
Yn (s ) = Gn (s ) X (s )
Y (s ) = Y1(s ) + Y2 (s ) + + Yn (s )
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Feedback Loop
A feedback loop consisting of a forward transfer function G (s) and a
feedback transfer function H(s). The subtraction of the input X(s) and
the feedback signal F(s) yield a difference variable D(s).

X (s )

F (s )

D (s )

G (s )

Y (s )

X (s )

H (s )

T (s ) =

T (s ) =

G(s )
1 + G(s )H (s )

Y (s )

Y (s )
G(s )
=
X (s ) 1 + G(s )H (s )

D( s ) = X ( s ) F ( s )

Y (s ) = G(s )D(s )

F (s ) = H (s )Y (s )
G(s )

Y (s ) =
X (s )
1
+
G
(
s
)
H
(
s
)

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The result is one of the most important

relationships of linear system theory, and it
servers as the basis for much of the design
work of stable linear circuit and closed-loop
feedback control system.

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Example
A simple resistive network of voltage divider is used to illustrate how
loading effects can affect the transfer results.
1 k
+
V1 ( s )

GA (s ) =

1 k
+

1 k

V (s )

1 k
+

cascade

V1 ( s )

1 k

V2 ( s )

1 k

1000
1
=
1000 + 1000 2

G(s ) =

V2 (s )
1000
1 1
=
=
V1(s ) 1000 + 1500 2 5

1 1 1
Why not G(s ) = GA (s ) GA (s ) = = ?
2 2

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Example (I)
Determine a single transfer function equivalent to the system shown.
X (s )

G1 ( s )

G2 ( s )

H1 ( s )

Y (s )

G3 ( s )

X (s )

Feedback loop

G1 ( s )

G2 ( s )

H1 ( s )

+
Y (s )

G3 ( s )
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Example (II)
X (s )

G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H1 ( s )

+
Y (s )

G3 ( s )

X (s )

G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
+ G3 ( s )
1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H1 ( s )

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Y (s )

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Generalized 2nd-order Transfer Function

Let P(s) represent a quadratic denominator factor with unity
coefficient for the s2 term:
P (s ) = s 2 + 2 s + n 2

or

P (s ) = s 2 + 2n s + n 2

where =

is the damping ratio and n is the natural frequency.

n

No Damping Circuit: = 0 and also = 0

P ( s ) = s 2 + n 2

The response will then contain an undamped sinusoidal function of

radian frequency n .

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Roots of the 2nd-oredr Denominator

The Quadratic Denominator: P (s ) = s 2 + 2 s + n 2 or P (s ) = s 2 + 2n s + n 2
roots

s1
s2

= 2 n 2

= n n 2 1

Overdamped Circuit: > n or when > 1

In this case, n is not too meaningful because no oscillations actually
occur. The two roots s1 and s2 are real that represent two damping
factors in the exponential terms of the natural response, respectively.

Critically Damped Circuit: = n or when = 1

Underdamped Circuit: < n or when < 1
roots

s1

= j n 2 2

= j d = n j n 1 2

s2
d = n2 2 = n 1 2 represents the damped oscillation frequency,
which is the actual oscillation frequency in the natural response for the
underdamped case.
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Common Form of a 2nd-order Transfer Function

The common form of a second-order transfer function that arises
frequently in practice, which is a low-pass second-order response, is
given by
n 2
Y (s )
G( s ) =
=
X (s ) s 2 + 2n s + n 2

Unit Step Response:

Let input x(t) = u(t), such that X(s) = 1/s

n 2
Y ( s ) = G( s ) X ( s ) =
s ( s 2 + 2n s + n 2 )

When the system is critically damped:

y (t ) = 1 (n t + 1)e n t

When the system is underdamped: y (t ) = 1

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e n t
1 2

for = 1

sin( 1 2 n t + cos1 )

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v(t)

Step Response of a 2nd-order System

nt

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What is Frequency Response

Frequency response is the quantitative measure of a system or device
in frequency domain to show how a system affects the frequency
components of the input signal.
A Bode plot is a graph of the transfer function (LTI system) versus
frequency, plotted with a log-frequency axis, to show the frequency
response of the system.
We may want to know what is the relationship between the frequency
response and s-plane.
(System)

X ( )

Y ( )

Linear Network

(Signal)

Transfer function?
s-plane? Frequency Response?
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(Signal)

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Laplace Transform of a Signal

x (t )

Signal

= 2

= 1

=1

=0

=2

Im-axis ( j )

X ( s ) = x ( t ) e t e jt dt

Re-axis ( r )

r = 2 r = 1

r = 0 r = 1 r = 2

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Fourier Transform is the Special Case

Signal Spectrum
s-domain

Amplitude

=0

Re-axis ( )

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Im-axis ( j )

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Laplace Transform of a System s-plane

Pole-zero plot
Frequency response

Pole

System
Linear Network

Zero
s-domain

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Frequency Response is the Special Case

Image

Pole-zero plot

Laplace
transform

Real

C
L

Phasor transform

Amplitude

Frequency response

Physical system
R

Evaluate
at =0

Frequency

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Steady-state Impedance and Admittance

Impedance Z
Z = Z ( s ) s = j = Z ( j )

Z ( j ) = R ( ) + jX ( )

Z ( j ) represents a complex value

resistance
reactance

Admittance Y
Y = Y ( s ) s = j = Y ( j )
Y ( j ) = G ( ) + jB ( )
conductance
susceptance
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Example
Use (a) the s-domain model to find
the complete time-domain current i(t)
and (b) phasor-domain model to
determined the steady-state current
iss(t).
(a)

40
40
2
10s
I (s ) = s + 4 = s + 4 =
6
4s + 6 ( s + 1.5 ) ( s 2 + 4 )
4+
s
s

4
t =0
20 sin2t

i (t )

40
s2 + 4

i ( t ) = 2.4e 1.5t + 4 sin ( 2t + 36.87
)

(b) I = 200 =
4 j3

6
s

I (s )

Steady-state response

Transient response

1
F
6

200
= 4 36.87



5 36.87

200

i ss (t ) = 4 sin ( 2t + 36.87
)

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I (s )

6
= j3
j

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Steady-State Transfer Function

Steady-state Transfer function (Frequency Response): = 0 ,thus s = j
Y (s )
= G (s )
X (s )

A ( ) = G ( j ) =

G ( j ) = G ( s ) s = j =

Y ( j )

X ( j )

Y ( j )

X ( j )

= A ( ) ( )

Amplitude response

Phase response

Input and output relationship

x (t ) = X sin (t + x )

phasor

X = X x

Output: y ( t ) = Y sin (t + y )

phasor

Y = Y y

Input:

Y = G ( j ) X

Y = Y y = A ( ) ( ) ( X x ) = X A ( ) ( x + ( ) )

Output amplitude: Y = X A ( )

Output phase: y = x + ( )
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Decibel Response

Whereas the linear amplitude response A ( ) is useful for many purpose, the
decibel amplitude response AdB ( ) are widely used in many applications.
AdB ( ) = 20log10

Y ( j )

X ( j )

= 20log10 A ( )

For example: R = 10 k C = 0.01 F

v1 (t )

v 2 (t )

+
V1

(10 j ) V
=
10 + (10 j )
8

V2

108
V1
1 =
108 + 104 j

V2
108
104
G ( j ) =
=
=
V1 108 + 10 4 j 104 + j
A ( ) = G ( j ) =

+
1
V2

j C

10 4
108 + 2

AdB ( ) = 20log10 A ( ) = 20log10 (

( ) = tan1
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10 4
108 + 2

104
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Development of Bode Plot Approach

Normalized Factored Form

s
s
s
N1 1 + N2 1 +
Nn 1 +

N1 N2
Nn
(s + N1 )(s + N2 ) (s + Nn )

=A
G (s ) = A
(s + D1 )(s + D2 ) (s + Dm )

s
s
s
D1 1 + D2 1 +
Dn 1 +

D1 D2
Dn

= A0

GN1 ( s ) GN 2 ( s ) GN 3 ( s )GNn ( s )

GD1 ( s ) GD 2 ( s ) GD 3 ( s )GDm ( s )

Steady-state Transfer Function

Amplitude Response
Let

Force the constant

terms to be unity.

G ( j ) = A0

G ( j ) = A0

ANk ( ) = GNk ( j )

for any k

ADk ( ) = GDk ( j )

for any k

GN 1 ( j ) GN 2 ( j ) GN 3 ( j )GNn ( j )
GD1 ( j ) GD 2 ( j ) GD 3 ( j )GDm ( j )

GN 1 ( j ) GN 2 ( j ) GN 3 ( j ) GNn ( j )

GD1 ( j ) GD 2 ( j ) GD 3 ( j ) GDm ( j )

The net amplitude A ( ) = G ( j ) can be represented as

A ( ) = A0

AN1 ( ) AN 2 ( ) AN 3 ( ) ANn ( )
AD1 ( ) AD 2 ( ) AD 3 ( ) ADm ( )
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Example
Write the normalized factored form of G ( s ) =

2000 ( s + 4 )
s 2 + 116s + 1600

s 4
2000 4 +
2000 ( s + 4 )
4 4
G (s ) =
=
( s + 16 )( s + 100 ) 16 s + 16 100 s + 100
16 16

100 100
s
5 1 +
4
=
s
s

1
+
1
+
16 100

Normalized factored form ready for

Bode plot.

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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Linear Scale to Log Scale

Recall that

Key 1: The decibel response makes it easy to

express the amplitude response as the sum
and difference of simpler functions. (This
means the amplitude response can be drawn
with dB on the y-axis)

log10 xy = log10 x + log10 y

log10

x
= log10 x log10 y
y

Represent the amplitude response in dB

20log10 A ( ) = 20log10 A0 + 20log10 AN 1 ( ) + 20log10 AN 2 ( ) + + 20log10 ANn ( )

20log10 AD1 ( ) 20log10 AD 2 ( ) 20log10 ADm ( )

Let

(dB)
ANk
( ) = 20log10 ANk ( )

for any k

(dB)
ADk
( ) = 20log10 ADk ( )

for any k

A0(dB) = 20log10 A0
(dB)
(dB)
(dB)
(dB)
(dB)
A(dB) ( ) = A0(dB) + AN(dB)
1 ( ) + AN 2 ( ) + + ANn ( ) AD1 ( ) AD 2 ( ) ADm ( )

Phase Response
( ) = N1 ( ) + N 2 ( ) + + Nn ( ) D1 ( ) D1 ( ) Dm ( )
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Semi-Log Plot
50

AdB() (dB)

40

30

20

10

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

Normalized factored form

G (s ) = 1 +

frequency response

with > 0

A ( ) = G ( j ) = 1 +

=0
2

decibel response

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Key 2: Normalized factored

form is easy to show that
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 910
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 910
how

affects
AdB when
is
10
100
2 times of (1 octave) or
when is 10 times of (1
decade). This is ready on xj
axis.
G ( j ) = 1 +

AdB ( ) = 20log10

1+

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Negative Real Zero (I)

Zero on Negative Real Axis Amplitude Response
G (s ) = 1 +

with > 0

G ( j ) = 1 +

A ( ) = 1 +

AdB ( ) 20log10 1 = 0 dB for <<

AdB ( ) 20log10

AdB ( ) = 20log10

1+

=
20log
for >>
10

50

AdB() (dB)

40

+6 dB/oct. (or +20 dB/dec.)

30

20

=

10

BP

E
0

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

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4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Negative Real Zero (II)

Zero on Negative Real Axis Phase Response
G (s ) = 1 +

with > 0

G ( j ) = 1 +

( ) = tan1

100

90

80

() (deg)

60

45


40

BP

20

0

=


1

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

47/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Negative Real Pole (I)

Pole on Negative Real Axis Amplitude Response
G (s ) =

1
1+

1
G ( j ) =
j
1+

with > 0

A ( ) =

1+

AdB ( ) = 20log10

1+

BP

=

10

AdB() (dB)

6 dB/oct. (or 20 dB/dec.)

20

30

40

50

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Negative Real Pole (II)

Pole on Negative Real Axis Phase Response
G (s ) =

1
1+

( ) = tan1

20

() (deg)

1
j
1+

100

G ( j ) =

with > 0

40

=

45


60

BP
80

90

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Zero at Origin (I)

Zero at Origin Amplitude Response
G (s ) = s

AdB ( ) = 20log10 1 = 0 dB for = 1 rad/s

+6 dB/oct. (or +20 dB/dec.)

20

AdB() (dB)

AdB ( ) = 20log10

A ( ) =

G ( j ) = j

10


0

10
20
1

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

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4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Zero at Origin (II)

Zero at Origin Phase Response
G (s ) = s

( ) = 90

G ( j ) = j

100

90

() (deg)

80

60

45


40

20

0

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

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4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Pole at Origin (I)

Pole at Origin Amplitude Response
G (s ) =

1
s

G ( j ) =

A ( ) =

AdB ( ) = 20log10

= 20log10

AdB ( ) = 20log10 1 = 0 dB for = 1 rad/s

6 dB/oct. (or 20 dB/dec.)

20

AdB() (dB)

1
j

10


0

10
20
1

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Bode Plot Forms - Pole at Origin (II)

Pole at Origin Phase Response
G (s ) =

1
s

G ( j ) =

1
j

( ) = 90

0

() (deg)

20

40

60

80

90

1

0.01

4 5 6 7 8 910

0.1

4 5 6 7 8 910

53/64

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Example (I)
Consider

G (s ) =

2000 ( s + 4 )
s 2 + 116s + 1600

5 1+

G ( j ) =
j
j

1
1
+
+

16 100

s
5 1+
4
G (s ) =
s
s

1
1
+
+

16 100

A ( ) =

5 1+
4

1+
16

1+

100

AdB ( ) = 20log10 A ( ) = 14 + 20log10

( ) = tan1

tan1

, plot the amplitude frequency response.

16

tan1

1 + 20log 1 + 20log10 1 +

4
16
100
2

100

54/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Example (II)

30

AdB() (dB)

26 dB
20

14 dB

6 dB/oct.

+6 dB/oct.

14

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

10

4 5 6 7 8 910

100

4 5 6 7 8 910

1k

4 5 6 7 8 910

10 k

(rad/s )

55/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

RC Low-pass Filter
R

v1

v2

0.1b

0.1 f b

b =

1
RC

fb =

1
2 RC

10b

G (s ) =

10 f b

0

b =

45

V1 ( s )

1
1 + sRC

1
RC

G( s ) =

V2 ( s )

1
1+

90

56/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

RC High-pass Filter
R

v1

v2

0.1b

0.1 f b

+90

b =

1
RC

fb =

1
2 RC

10b

G (s ) =

10 f b

f
b =

V2 ( s )
V1 ( s )

sRC
1 + sRC

1
RC

+45

G (s ) =

fb =

57/64

b
1+

1
2 RC

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Roots of the 2nd-oredr Denominator

The Quadratic Denominator: P (s ) = s 2 + 2 s + n 2 or
roots

s1
s2

= 2 n 2

= n n 2 1

Overdamped Circuit: > n or when > 1

Two real roots

Critically Damped Circuit: = n or when = 1

Underdamped Circuit: < n or when < 1
roots s1
= j n 2 2
s2

P (s ) = s 2 + 2n s + n 2

Double real roots ()

Complex conjugate roots

= j d = n jn 1 2

The Normalized Form for Bode Plot:

n2
G (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + n2

G (s ) =
1 + 2

s
+
n n
s

58/64

G ( j ) =

1
2

1 + j 2
n
n

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Second-order Lowpass Function

Second-order Amplitude and Phase Responses:
G ( j ) =

A ( ) =

1 + j 2
n
n

1
2

2
2
2
1 + 4
n
n

1
2

1 + 4 2 +
n n

2
4

2
AdB ( ) = 20log10 1 + 4 2 +

n n

( ) = tan1

1
n

It seems not easy to draw the Bode plot, how do you think?
Lets go back to the roots of the quadratic denominator.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Root Locations and Frequency Response (I)

The Quadratic Denominator: P (s ) = s 2 + 2 s + n 2 or
roots

s1
s2

= 2 n 2

= n n 2 1

roots
c
For damping ratio > 1
v
j

s2 s1

s1
s2

n + n 2 1 = 1
n n 2 1 = 2
AdB ( )

12 dB/oct.

c
v

increases
j

s2

s1

6 dB/oct.

s-plane

AdB ( )

s-plane

P (s ) = s 2 + 2n s + n 2

2
6 dB/oct.

c
v

12 dB/oct.

1
60/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Root Locations and Frequency Response (II)

2
roots

1 = n = 1
s
n
n
1
c
=

=
1
For damping ratio
s2 2 1 = =
v
n
n
n
1

s1

AdB ( )

s-plane

12 dB/oct.

c
v

So, when = 1 you get double roots while > 1 you get two different
real roots.
For 1 , the same principle as first-order poles (or zeros) for Bode
plot can be applied. (two 1st-order roots)
For > 1, a higher means that two real roots depart farther.
61/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Root Locations and Frequency Response (III)

roots
For damping ratio < 1 c
v

= n

=
n

n jn 1 2 = jd

j n

s2

n + jn 1 2 = + jd
AdB ( )

jd

s1

s1

c
v

jd

s2

s1

s2

AdB ( )

j n
jd

jd
j n

j n

decreases

<1
=1

<1
=1

c
v

Chien-Jung, Li, Dept. E.E. & Grad. Inst.

Computer and Comm. Engineering, NTUT

62/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Frequency Response of a Second-order System

AdB() (dB)

15

= 0.1

10
5

= 0.2
= 0.5

0
5
10

= 0.707

15
20

=1

25
30
35
40
0.1

12 dB/octave
0.2

0.5

() (dB)

0

45

10

10

= 0.1
= 0.2
= 0.5

= 0.707

90

=1

135

180

0.1

0.2

0.5

n
63/64

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT

Example
Determine (a) The transfer function G(s) = V2(s)/V1(s) (b) , n , and fn
(c) Frequency response of the given RLC circuit.
0.1 H

0.1s
+

v1 ( t )

0.1 F

v2 (t )

5 k

V1 ( s )

107
5000
5000 107
107
s
Zp =
=
=
107 5000s + 107 s + 2000
5000 +
s
Zp
V2 ( s )
107
G (s ) =
=
=
V1 ( s ) Z p + 0.1s 0.1s 2 + 200s + 107
=

107
s

5000

10
= 2
8
s + 2000s + 10
s + 2n s + n2
8

2
n

n = 108 = 104 rad/s

fn =

104 ( rad/s )

2
2000
=
= 0.1
2 104

64/64

V2 ( s )

= 1.592 kHz

Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT