Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Meditation - Cultural Histories

Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist
Meditation
Cultural Histories
Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist
Meditation
Cultural Histories
Edited by
Halvor Eifring
HERMES PUBLISHING
OSLO 2014
Hermes Academic Publishing and Bookshop A/S

P. 0. Box 2709 Solli
N0-0204 Oslo, Norway
hermesac@online.no
Halvor Eifring and Contributors, 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without prior permission in writing
from Hermes Academic Publishing and Bookshop.
Exceptions are allowed in respect of any fair dealing for the
purpose of research or private study, or criticism and review.
Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms
should be sent to the publisher at the address stated above.
Cover design by Torbj0rn Hobbel
ISBN 978-82-8034-201-0
Printed in Norway
Contents
Acknowledgements
Contributors
Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Meditation
VI
Vll
Vlll
The Uses of Attention: Elements of Meditative Practice

Halvor Eifring and Are Holen
Can There Be a Cultural History of Meditation?
With Special Reference to India
Johannes Bronkhorst
27
Words for "Meditation" in Classical Yoga and Early Buddhism

Jens Braarvig
41
"Creative Contemplation" (Bhiivanii) in the Vijfiana Bhairava

Tantra
Bettina Baumer 'Sharada'
57
The First Absorption (Dhyiina) in Early Indian Buddhism:

A Study of S ource Material from the Madhyama-agama
Bhikkhu Aniilayo
69
Vipassana in Burma: Self-government and the Ledi Anapana

Tradition
GustaafHoutman
91
Contemplation of the Repulsive : Bones and Skulls as

Obj ects of Meditation
Bart Dessein
1 17
Red Snakes and Angry Queen Mothers : Hallucinations and

Epiphanies in Medieval Daoist Meditation
Stephen Eskildsen
149
Daoist Clepsydra-Meditation: Late Medieval Quanzhen

Monasticism and Communal Meditation
Louis Komjathy
1 85
B ibliography
216
Index
235
Acknowledgements
The conference that was the starting point for this book was made
possible by generous support from the following institutions :
Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly
Exchange, Taipei
Department of Culture Studies and Oriental Languages,
University of Oslo
PluRel, University of Oslo
Kultrans, University of Oslo
The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, Oslo
The initial planning of the conference and the book took place
during the five months the editor spent as a guest researcher at
Research Center for Monsoon Asia, National Tsing Hua University,
Hsinchu, Taiwan, in 2009.
The conference took place at the Acem International Retreat
Centre Halvorsb0le, Oslo, Norway, in May 20 1 0 . In addition to the
editor, the organizing committee included Svend Davanger and
Terj e Stordalen, both from the University of Oslo.
The following persons helped in the organization of the
conference or assisted in work relating to the book: Wubshet
Dagne, Yue Bao, Regina Cinduringtias Pasiasti, Torbj0rn Hobbel,
Stig Inge Skogseth, Alexander Lundberg, Guttorm Gundersen,
Morgaine Theresa Wood and - last, but not least - the editor' s
patient and loving wife, Joy Chun-hsi Lu.
The editor would hereby like to express his deep-felt gratitude
for all the kind support from these persons and institutions, as well
as others who have provided help along the way.
Oslo, 15 December, 20 1 3
Halvor Eifring
Contributors
Bhikkhu Analayo, Privatdozent, Numata Center for Buddhist
Studies, University of Hamburg; Professor, Sri Lanka International
Buddhist Academy; Researcher, Dharma Drum Buddhist College
Bettina Baumer ' Sharada' , Professor, Institute for the Study of
Religions, University of Vienna; Fellow, Indian Institute of
Advanced Studt, Shimla; Director, Abhinavagupta Research
Library, Varanasi
Jens Braarvig, Professor of the History of Religion, Department of
Culture Studies and Oriental Languages, University of Oslo
Johannes Bronkhorst, Professor Emeritus of Sanskrit and Indian
Studies, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Bart Dessein, Associate Professor, Centre for Buddhist Studies,
Ghent University
Halvor Eifring, Professor of Chinese, Department of Culture
Studies and Oriental Languages, University of Oslo; General
Secretary, Acem International School of Meditation
Stephen Eskildsen, North Callahan Distinguished Profess or of
Religion, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Are Holen, Professor of Behavioral Medicine, Department of
Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology ;
Head o f Acem International School o f Meditation
Gustaaf Houtman, Senior Teaching Fellow, Department of
Anthropology and Sociology, School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London; Editor, Anthropology Today
Louis Komjathy, Assistant Professor of Chinese Religions and
Comparative Religious Studies, Department of Theology and
Religious Studies, University of San Diego; Founding Co
Chair, Contemplative Studies Group, American Academy of
Religion
Hindu, Buddhist
and Daoist Meditation
The big waves of global meditation interest in the past half-century
have all focused on techniques stemming from Hinduism,
Buddhism and Daoism.
Hindu uses of sound developed into TM, Ananda Marga and the
more strictly secular Relaxation Response, Clinical Standardized
Meditation and Acem Meditation. They also inspired Christian
practices like Maranatha Meditation and Centering Prayer.
Buddhist practices directing attention towards breath or body
have become popular under names like Zen, Vipassana and
Mindfulness, including clinical applications like Mindfulness
based stress reduction and Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.
Daoist body practices such as Taij i (Tai Chi) and Qigong (Chi
kung) have reached global popularity, along with the Hindu-based
body practices of Yoga. Combining stillness and movement, they
are sometimes classified as meditation, sometimes as exercise.
This collection of essays on Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist
practices is less concerned with modem waves of meditation
interest than with selected topics from the larger traditions
underlying them. Hindu meditation goes far beyond the repetition
of sounds, Buddhist meditation is not restricted to breath and body,
and Daoist meditation does not always include movement or the
manipulation of bodily energies.
The rich and diverse traditions from which the modem practices
have grown include techniques and states of mind that are seldom
heard of in the modern context, terminology catching long
forgotten nuances in meditative practice and experience, larger
visions of the role of meditation within religious, spiritual and even
political settings, as well as the extensive ritual and material culture
often surrounding meditation.
The traditional grounding of these practices does not mean that
they all belong to the past. The "creative contemplation" described
by Baumer is part of a system taught by the 20th-century Indian
ix
teacher Lakshman Joo . The vipassanii practices described by

Houtman have had important political ramifications in Burma since
the late 1 9th century, and they are still referred to and practised by
Aung San Suu Kyi and her followers . Furthermore, while the
meditations on rotting bodies described by Dessein may not be the
first choice of most modern meditators, the then recently dead body
of Buddhist scholar Maurice Walshe was displayed for several
weeks in England in 1 998, apparently to serve as an obj ect of
meditation and contemplation. 1
This book covers several aspects of Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist
meditation. Eifring and Holen discuss some general elements of
meditation, focusing on the various uses of attention in both
traditional and modern practices across the Eurasian continent.
Bronkhorst challenges the belief that a cultural history of
meditation is even possible, largely drawing on his research in
Buddhist and Jain sources. Braarvig presents us with an abundance
of meditation terms from early Yoga and Buddhist sources,
showing how the same words may appear in both traditions, but
often with different meanings and connotations . Baumer explores
how Kashmir Shaivism uses one of these terms, bhiivanii, in a
specialized meaning referring to the active contemplation and
creation of. meditative states . Analayo explores in detail the
Buddhist notion of the first absorption (dhyiina), including the
seclusion from sensual pleasures and unwholesome qualities, the
use of directed awareness and contemplation, as well as the sense
of happiness that comes with meditative absorption. Houtman
combines a micro and a macro view of vipassanii meditation, as it
features both in the life of one Burmese hermitess and in the larger
political order of late 1 9th- to early 2 1 st-century Burma. Dessein
discusses meditative practices involving visits to charnel grounds,
seeing them as expressions of the intense concern with the end of
life within both Buddhist and other traditions of meditation.
Eskildsen asks a number of pertinent questions concerning the
repeated appearance of specific meditative vision sequences in
Daoist sources spanning one and a half millennia - how do these
Shaw 2006: 1 04 .
visions come about, and why? Komj athy places Quanzhen cJll:
Daoist meditation within its larger cosmological setting, including
notions of time that are manifested materially in the use of water
clocks ( clepsydras) during communal meditation sessions .
The book makes no claim to comprehensiveness. For contrast
and comparison, it may be profitably read along with a volume on
Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (London:
Bloomsbury, 20 1 3), also edited by me. Another volume on Asian
traditions of meditation and a volume discussing the relation
between meditation and culture are under preparation.
Halvor Eifring
The Uses of Attention

Elements of Meditative Practice
Halvor Eifring and Are Holen
Meditation may be defined as attention-based techniques for inner

transformation. 1 In other words, meditation is a practice aiming at
an effect:
Practice : Attention-based technique
Effect : Inner transformation

The term "inner transformation" implies long-term and fundamen
tal changes, in contrast to the mental states discussed by
Bronkhorst and Analayo in this volume. We shall leave the further
elaboration of this effect to a later occasion.
Our emphasis in this essay will be on the elements involved in
the practice. We shall explore typical features of meditative tech
niques, primarily by investigating two aspects of attention: its
focus and its mode. The essay will also consider some general
tendencies in the gradual refinement of such technical features as
the meditation moves towards what may be characterized as more
1 This is a modified version of the definition in Eifring, 20 1 3b. On this definition,
see also Eifring, ms.
HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN
advanced stages . Such tendencies may be observed both within and

outside the Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist traditions, spanning large
parts of the Eurasiatic continent.
Practice as problem
Our emphasis on the technical practice is not unproblematic. Like
most human activities, meditation is embedded within social, cul
tural and historical contexts . It is often understood to achieve its
meaning and effects j ust as much from such contexts as from any
technical features of the practice itself. One of the Daoist texts dis
cussed by Eskildsen in this volume even claims that meditation is
useless unless it takes place at the exact proper times on each day,
because its basic aim is to align the meditator' s activities with the
rhythms of the natural cosmos . In the descriptions of Daoist clep
sydra meditation cited by Komjathy, the emphasis lies on social,
material, ritual and cosmological factors, the actual meditative
practice most often being understood rather than made explicit.
Houtman, moreover, shows how some forms of meditation may be
seen as having strong political implications . However, while by no
means denying the immense influence of sociocultural and even
political features, this essay will focus on aspects of the practice
that are assumed to have effects beyond such contextual elements,
though usually in interaction with them. Frequently, such effects
are attributable to general psychobiological working mechanisms .
Another challenge to our emphasis on the practice itself lies in
the fact that even the sources in which meditation is singled out for
special attention do not always pay much attention to technique,
but are instead concerned with states of mind. Thus, the Buddhist
"first absorption" discussed by Analayo does not primarily refer to
a specific practice, but to a mental state. The Burmese hermitess
interviewed by Houtman gives few technical details of her practice,
but describes with surprising frankness the positive and negative
states and experiences she has gone through in her meditative pro
cess. Bronkhorst likewise emphasises the concern with meditative
states over meditative practice, and questions whether we can ever
achieve a "cultural history of meditation", since a history of such
states is bound to be elusive.
THE USES OF ATTENTION
There are even quite a few meditative traditions that look upon
meditation techniques with suspicion. In non-dualistic Buddhist
contexts like Chinese Chan and Tibetan rdzogs chen, techniques
are s ometimes met with scepticism exactly because of the above
cited dualism between practice and effect. In several Christian tra
ditions, a technical orientation is seen as coming in the way of a
personal relation to God or Jesus . A similar attitude is found in
Sikhism, where techniques are held to interfere with the ideal atti
tude of humble devotion. In the 20th century, one of the issues J.
Krishnamurti brought up when he broke away from the Theosophi
cal Society was the reliance on techniques : "The truth is a pathless
land." 2
Many sources, however, including some of the texts under scru
tiny in this volume, do treat technical practice as a core issue . The
Tantric meditation manual Vijniina Bhairava discussed by Baumer
describes 1 1 2 methods of meditation. The Buddhist sources dis
cussed by Dessein go into much detail about the "contemplation of
the repulsive", including the meditative awareness of dead bodies
in various stages of decomposition. One of the Daoist s ources dis
cussed by Eskildsen also clearly specifies the meditative
procedures to be adopted in order to attain the kind of visions
sought after.
Furthermore, in spite of the negative views of techniques in
Christianity and Sikhism, the ubiquity of technical features in the
devotional practices of both has been thoroughly documented. 3
Most scholars agree that early Chan opposition to techniques was
primarily a rhetorical move that did not reflect the actual situation,
in which monks were indeed seen to practise seated meditation. 4
Much the same can probably be said about rdzogs chen. 5 Paradoxi
cal expressions like "the pathless path" and "the gateless pass" 6 are
exactly that: ways of expressing the paradox of having to employ
2 Lutyens, 1 99 9 : 7 8 .
3 Eifring, 20 1 3b; Myrvold, ms.
4 Most famously, the Platform Siitra :l!U& combines critical views of meditation
with admonitions to disciples to continue meditating after their master has passed
away.
5 Per Kvaeme, personal communication.
6 Meister Eckhart: der weglose weg; Chan: wu-men-guiin Im.
techniques to achieve results that go far beyond what they can reli
ably produce. With few exceptions, they do not amount to denials
of technical practice, but admonitions to avoid goal-orientation and
passive reliance on techniques .
The historical study o f meditative practices is challenging, and
not only for the reasons cited by Bronkhorst. First, the written
source material is very limited, most sources preferring to discuss
at length the ideological underpinnings of meditation and the often
idealized and excessively systematized states of mind it is sup
posed to bring about, rather than the techniques that may bring the
adept to them. Even so-called meditation manuals, including
Vijniina Bhairava, usually contain little more than brief verses or
aphorisms; they are merely hinting at the technical features of the
methods involved. The details are left to the oral guidance of an
experienced living teacher. That seems to be exactly the way this
ancient work was used by the 20th-century Kashmiri master Lak
shman Joo.
The divulgence of meditative practice is also sometimes sur
rounded by taboos. In many living traditions today, the details of
meditative practice are only discussed with one ' s teacher. Even
Buddhist monks, who live in adj acent cells in the same monastery
and who have been practising communal meditation together every
day for years, often still do not know much about each other' s in
ner practice. 7
In the written sources, accounts of meditations are most often
normative and scholastic and may not correspond to the actual
practice. As Bronkhorst shows for Jainism, formulations that were
never meant to provide descriptions of meditative practice were
sometimes interpreted as such by ancient scholars, who have typi
cally been at least as interested in systematicity as in practicability,
leaving later practitioners with the difficult task of making practical
sense of more or less absurd descriptions . The large scholastic
meditation manuals of southern Buddhism, such as Buddhagosa' s
Visuddhimagga (5th century CE), are typical examples of system
atic expositions with a strong theoretical and doctrinal emphasis,
7 Cf. Shaw, 2006 : 1 1 .
but which nevertheless have functioned as practical textbooks for

meditating monks throughout the centuries.
One difficulty regards the relation between language and reality.
In some contexts, the same form of meditation may be referred to
through the use of several different terms, as Komjathy argues for
Chinese Daoism : baoyf - (embracing the One), jingzuo ff
(quiet sitting), ritj ing A ff (entering stillness), shouyf - (guard
ing the One), xfnzhiii iC-"W (fasting of the heart-mind), and
zuowang ;EI: (sitting-in-forgetfulness). At other times, however,
the same term may refer to a number of different practices . The
linguistic designation itself, therefore, often tells us little about the
actual practice.
Yet another problem concerns the vague borderline between
practice and effects . For instance, descriptions of meditative con
centration may be conceived either as inj unctions to act with
particular mental focus (practice) or as accounts of the total mental
absorption to which meditative practices are supposed to lead ( ef
fects). Analayo mentions a similar problem regarding happiness or
bliss, which is usually described as the result of meditative prac
tice, but is sometimes also seen as a factor contributing to
meditative progress, and thus in some respects as a part of the prac
tice. In the Daoist sources discussed by Eskildsen, the borderline
between practice and effects takes another turn, as it is not entirely
clear whether the visions described are actively brought forth by
inner visualization or just spontaneous results of meditative prac
tice.
In fact, practice and effects are not always even theoretically
distinguishable. When Baumer quotes Vijniina Bhairava as urging
the practitioner to contemplate "in a thought-free way on any point
in the body as mere void", this presupposes the prior achievement
of an empty or "thought-free" state, which is often cited as a medi
tative effect, but here in turn it becomes part of a more advanced
part of the practice.
It follows from all this that a culturally and historically valid
analysis of the elements of meditative practice is fraught with prob
lems . It also follows that a first attempt at making such analysis
must put to use all available historical s ources and make interpreta-
tions and conj ectures based on comparisons both within and across
cultural and temporal boundaries . This includes contemporary
sources, which are often more informative regarding practical de
tails, as well as the budding knowledge of meditative practice
emerging within the sciences.
This approach may not sit well with the constructivist perspec
tive that has dominated cultural and religious studies in the past
decades . Such constructivism came partly as a reaction against ex
aggerated claims to universality within phenomenological studies
of comparative religion. Constructivism has in turn, however,
brought with it an equally exaggerated readiness to dismiss com
monalities across cultures by characterizing them as superficial,
simply because various cultures conceptualize what looks like the
same phenomena differently. In fact, it is not obvious what influ
ence such different conceptualizations have on the psycho
biological effects of the elements of meditative practice . For
instance, to the extent that the meditative uses of breath in different
cultures resemble each other, the conceptualization of breath as
cosmic energy in Hinduism and Daoism, as an illustration of tran
sience, inconstancy and mutability in some Buddhist practices, as
an aid to concentration or absorption in other Buddhist practices,
and as the breath of life in Christianity may or may not matter for
the actual psychobiological effects of meditation. In this essay, we
shall treat the basic elements of meditative practice, such as the
various uses of breath, as our primary obj ects of investigation,
granting only secondary importance to the conceptual frameworks
surrounding them in the different cultures . 8
Attention-based techniques
According to our definition, meditation is not j ust any form of
practice but a technique and, as such, typically characterized by the
following elements : 9
8 For further discussion, see Eifring, ms. Kapstein' s (2004 :282ff.) discussion of
the psychobiological basis for light experiences across different religions may be
relevant in this context. For a wider discussion of trends and perspectives that
break with constructivism, see Ferrer & Sherman, 2008.
9 Eifring, 2 0 1 3 b : 8 .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It is a deliberately undertaken practice aiming to produce

certain effects .
Its procedures are specified with some degree of clarity. 1 0
It i s clearly set aside from other activities in time.
It is sustained - repetitive or continuous - rather than
sequential.
It involves aspects of the nervous system, and the effects
are based on some general psychobiological working
mechanisms .
The most typical cases, including most forms of meditation, dis

play all these characteristics; less typical cases may lack one or two
of them. For instance, the "contemplation" of different body parts,
first in one's own body and then in a dead body on a charnel
ground, as described by Dessein in this volume, is sequential rather
than sustained (point 4), since the focus of attention is deliberately
changed during the practice. Moreover, some meditation-like prac
tices are not clearly set aside from other activities in time (point 3),
as in cases where the meditative prayer of East Syrian Christianity
and the kOan practice of Chan Buddhism aim to go on uninterrupt
edly during the day and even at night during sleep. 1 1 The
distinction between what counts as meditation and what does not is
not always clear-cut. For instance, there is considerable overlap
between meditation and activities such as prayer, ritual, shaman
ism, and mysticism, none of which necessarily involves the use of
techniques in our narrow sense. 1 2
According to our definition, meditation techniques are based on
the active use of attention. Most obviously, the focus of attention is
directed towards a meditation object, and much of the variation
between meditation techniques springs from the variety of medita
tion obj ects : breath, body, sound, word, image, imagination, etc .
1 Cf. Cardoso et al., 2004 and 2008.
11 Seppala, 20 1 3 ; Schliitter, ms.
12 There is also, however, considerable overlap between meditation and other
practices that do involve techniques, such as modem-day relaxation techniques
and certain forms of exercise.
Less obvious but at least as important is the mental attitude, or the

mode of attention, defined on the basis of questions like : Is the fo
cus of attention narrow or open? Is the generation of the meditation
obj ect forceful or effortless? And to what extent are unintended
elements like spontaneous thoughts allowed to bring the attention
away from the meditation obj ect?
While some meditation obj ects are external physical entities, the
use of attention always ties them to the mind, to conscious aware
ness . In this sense, meditation is always a mental exercise, even
when it is concerned with the body or with material obj ects . The
subtle modulation of attention is a central element in meditation
techniques . The modem concern with "mindfulness" underlines
this fact, rooted in the ancient Buddhist notions of sati,
satipatthana and bhiivanii, 1 3 but this is no less true of other medita
tive practices, though sometimes in quite different ways. The most
salient features of meditative practice regard the various uses of
attention: where (meditation obj ect) and how (mental attitude) at
tention is directed.
Meditation objects
In our terminology, a meditation obj ect is the intended focus of
attention during meditation. Additionally, spontaneous digressions
leading away from this obj ect will often become the focus of atten
tion during meditation, but not as a result of deliberate activity.
In this sense, we shall argue that all forms of meditation make
use of meditation obj ects . When the term "obj ectless" is used about
a meditation in some modem sources, this is invariably because the
notion of a meditation obj ect is conceived in a narrower sense than
here. In such sources, there are at least three ways of understanding
the term "obj ectless". Firstly, it may be used to describe what we
would call a spontaneous obj ect, such as the natural breath or natu
ral bodily sensations, both of which are used as foci of meditative
attention in several Asian meditative traditions, although they are
not produced or generated for the purpose of meditation. Secondly,
13 In Pali; Sanskrit forms : smrti, smrtyupasthana and bhiivana. See Braarvig' s
contribution t o this volume .
it may describe a holistic obj ect, ideally encompassing everything

that enters into the field of attention with little or no distinction
b etween its centre and periphery, as in the form of Chan or Zen
meditation referred to as "simply sitting" . 14 Thirdly, it may de
scribe an apophatic obj ect, i.e ., an obj ect that is defined in negative
terms and therefore often considered "obj ectless", such as the
"formless" meditations of Buddhism and similar Hindu practices
described by Baumer in this volume, as well as the God of the
Christian via negativa. 15 In these and all other cases, meditation
builds on an intended focus of attention, however blurred the bor
derline between centre and periphery may be. Like any other
meditation obj ect, even spontaneous, holistic and apophatic obj ects
may be interrupted by unintended distractions or digressions that
intermittently bring the mind away from its intended focus .
In the following, we shall look at some of the building blocks of
which meditation obj ects may consist. Simply speaking, these
building blocks usually relate to the location of the obj ect, the de
gree of agency of the meditator, and the mental faculty (or
faculties) involved in perceiving and producing the obj ect.
Location
A meditation obj ect may be external, bodily or internal. External
obj ects are located outside the meditator, while internal obj ects are
located inside the meditator. Bodily meditation obj ects share prop
erties with both types .
An external meditation obj ect has a physical existence outside
of the meditator. In this volume, the most obvious external medita
tion obj ect is the rotting body of the Buddhist "contemplation of
the repulsive" described by Dessein. There are many others : a
scenery, the sound of trickling water, a burning candle, a material
yantra or mandala, a mantra or a prayer or a text recited by s ome
body else (or, in modem times, played on a CD or MP3 player), a
written text, a cross, a mural or other image of religious scenes etc.
14 Chinese zhfguan dazuo, Japanese shikan taza .R if tJ . See Leighton,
2004 :viii.
1 5 Cf. Muppathyil, 1 979 : 1 52.
10
HALVOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN
Since such obj ects are perceived by the awareness of the meditator,
they are never purely external but are representations in the mind
of the meditator. Their basis, however, is related to the existence of
a physical obj ect outside the meditator.
An internal meditation obj ect is conj ured up by the meditator,
and its only existence lies within his or her consciousness, with no
direct physical or external existence. This is the case when, for in
stance, a mantra, koan, prayer or text is produced in the thoughts of
the meditator rather than being recited aloud, or when a yantra,
mandala or other image is visualized mentally rather than being
related directly to a physical painting or figure. In Buddhist vipas
sana and mindfulness, spontaneous thoughts and emotions may
themselves become the obj ects of meditation.
In between external and internal meditation obj ects, bodily ob
j ects constitute a third group, which includes both natural breath
and active breathing exercises, natural body sensations and at
tempts at directing energies in specific directions through the body,
spontaneous bodily impulses and specified movements of the body .
The various forms o f Tantric bhavana practices discussed by
Baumer, though highly metaphysical in nature, are still often di
rectly related to the body. This includes the down-to-earth
exhortation to "meditate on the state of fullness" when one is
"filled with j oy arising from the pleasure of eating and drinking",
but also the much more abstract contemplation on "all the elements
constituting the body as pervaded by void" . A bodily meditation
obj ect has its basis in a physical obj ect, the human body, but this
obj ect is not located outside the meditator and is therefore experi
enced from the inside and the outside simultaneously.
Bodily meditation obj ects are widely used within Hindu, Bud
dhist, Daoist and Neo-Confucian forms of meditation. To our
knowledge, they are hardly found in the typically devotional prac
tices of Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Sikhism. In these
traditions, body and breath only occur as secondary or auxiliary
elements, not as primary meditation obj ects .
The following table gives a schematic view of the difference be
tween internal, bodily and external meditation obj ects :
Mental
Physical
Internal
Bodily
11
External
Table 1 . Types of meditation objects according to location.

Often the same obj ect has both internal and external variants, such
as mantras listened to (external), repeated aloud (bodily), or repeat
ed mentally (internal). Furthermore, one and the same meditative
exercise may involve external, bodily and internal elements, as
when the Vijiiiina Bhairava advocates "experienc [ing] the con
sciousness . . . in the body of others as in one's own" . Finally, the
link between external meditation obj ects and physical reality is
sometimes quite tenuous, as when the Vijiiiina Bhairava talks of
"fixing one's mind on the external space which is eternal, support
less, empty, all-pervading and free from limitation" (see Baumer's
contribution) .
In many traditions, internal meditation obj ects are considered
more "advanced" than external ones . 1 6 They provide the mind with
less tangible content and are assumed to require more training and
experience . Internal meditation obj ects are also typically seen as
being subtler than the coarse materiality of external and, to some
extent, bodily obj ects . This is true even in cultures, such as the
Chinese, where the distinction between body and soul, matter and
mind, is usually thought to play a rather minor role. Most medita
tive traditions place matter and mind in the same category, both
belonging to the mundane world of forms rather than the divine or
formless realms to which meditation often aspires . However, most
of these traditions also make distinctions between different levels
within the mundane world of forms, the subtler ones seen as being
more conducive to meditative processes than the coarser ones.
Some traditions advocate a process of gradual interiorization of
the meditation obj ect. If the starting point is an external meditation
16
See, for instance, Muthukumaraswamy (forthcoming) on ajapa-japa in the Ta

mil S aiva Siddhiinta tradition.
12
HALVOR EIFRlNG AND ARE HOLEN
obj ect, its interiorization implies gradually letting go of the con

crete physical impression, for instance by closing one ' s eyes and
retaining only a mental representation of the obj ect, in effect turn
ing it into an internal meditation obj ect. 17 If the starting point is an
internal meditation obj ect, its interiorization may imply gradually
letting go of any conscious or unconscious bodily support for the
obj ect, as when the repetition of a sound is supported by the
rhythm of the breath or by muscular tensions in the speech organs,
so as to raise it to a subtler, more purely mentalistic level.
If the starting point is a bodily meditation obj ect, its interioriza
tion typically goes in the direction of the "subtle body", attempting
to activate energy centres that have no place within a conventional
physiological description of the "coarse body" but which are still
believed to have a manifest effect on the body and mind. In medita
tive contexts, Indian chakras and Chinese dantian (ft S3) are the
most prominent examples of such energy centres .
I n addition t o acting a s a meditation obj ect i n its own right, both
the coarse and the subtle body may function as the site of medita
tion obj ects . For instance, the mental or even physical repetition of
mantras may be linked to one of the chakras, or to the movement of
the breath, and the movement of the breath may itself be a medita
tion obj ect linked to the lower dantian (beneath the navel). Even in
traditions that do not use bodily meditation obj ects, such as Chris
tianity and Islam, the coarse or subtle body may function as the site
of other meditation obj ects, as when a meditative prayer is linked
to the breath or placed in the heart.
Agency
Meditation obj ects may be actively generated during meditation, or
they may be spontaneous - naturally present without any action on
the part of the meditator. As we shall see, this distinction mainly
applies to internal and bodily meditation obj ects, not to external
ones.
1 7 During a talk in the B ongamsa Temple in Korea in 20 1 0, the monk Jeong
myeong Seunim referred to his own experiments with the Theravada practice of
gradually interiorizing the image of an external obj ect, until the image remained in
the mind even when his eyes were closed.
13
Self-generated obj ects usually follow pre-set patterns, and they

are actively brought forth by the meditator during meditation. For
instance, a mantra or a meditation sound is typically given to the
practitioner by his or her teacher but has to be generated - recited
or mentally repeated - by the practitioner during meditation. The
same applies to the active visualization of specific religious sym
bols, images or deities during meditation, as well as the active
modulation of the breathing patterns and body movements in Yoga
and Taij i . All of these require active intervention from the practi
tioner during meditation, though this does not exclude spontaneous
modulations, as when the meditation obj ect naturally changes qual
ity in the course of a meditation session.
In contrast to the self-generated obj ects, spontaneous meditation
obj ects require no active intervention from the practitioner, apart
from directing the attention towards that obj ect. Spontaneous medi
tation obj ects are linked to natural processes of the mind or body :
stimulus-independent thoughts, moods, feelings, body sensations,
body movements, and, most commonly, the natural movement of
the breath into and out of the body. The meditative use of such ob
j ects is particularly common in the various vipassana and
mindfulness traditions within Buddhism. Typically, their use is
seen as an opportunity to discover the basic nature of reality.
For external meditation obj ects, this distinction does not apply.
External meditation obj ects are not generated in the moment of
meditation but have an outside existence independent of the medi
tator before, during and after. We might consider distinguishing
between external obj ects produced for the specific purpose of med
itation and obj ects that are naturalistic and not man-made at all .
Typical examples of the former would be visual images, such as
Buddhist mandalas and Orthodox icons, while typical examples of
the latter would be sounds from a waterfall, rays of the sun, views
of a lake, or less pleasant obj ects like a skull or a rotting body .
However, this distinction is far from clear-cut, a s mandalas and
icons may have other uses than meditation, and even a waterfall or
a lake may be partly man-made and include obj ects like bridges,
boats and people in activity. One of the most widely used external
meditation obj ects, the burning candle, is clearly man-made,
though seldom with the specific purpose of meditation. Its flame is
14
usually generated by the meditator, and the movements of the

flame are natural rather than man-made and probably achive some
of their meditative effect from their volatility. What turns natural
istic events into meditation obj ects is the way they are approached
by man.
Faculty
While all meditation obj ects occupy the focus of attention, they do
so in different ways. The mental faculties involved in the percep
tion of the meditation obj ects may be divided into three main
categories : cognitive, affective and sensory. Each of these may be
further divided into a number of subcategories.
Cognitive meditation obj ects often make direct use of linguistic
elements, such as words, phrases or sentences, and they are based
on the semantic meaning. Typical examples include concepts (love,
no-self, God etc.), names (K:rna, Amitabha Buddha etc .), prayers
(Jesus prayer) and passages from scripture (Rgveda, Lotus sUtra,
Daode j"ing etc.). Metaphors and symbols (cross, swastika, sun,
light etc.) may also be given linguistic form but are more often im
agined visually. The same applies to narrative elements, as in the
Jesuit visualizations of stories from the New Testament, or Daoist
visualizations of the meditator travelling through space and placing
his body within the Big Dipper. Meditations on existential topics
like death are partly based on a cognitive approach, though they
often aim for going beyond the cultural conceptualizations, in order
to penetrate the naked reality of the issue involved. This can be
argued to apply to other types of cognitive meditation obj ects as
well : by focusing on a concept, one seeks to understand the reality
behind this concept, and by focusing on a metaphor or a symbol,
one seeks to arrive at a deeper understanding of the underlying re
ality to which it points . In the same vein, it may be argued that the
meditative recitation of scriptures is often less focused on a linear
understanding of the literal meaning of the text than on using the
text as a basis for non-linear and associative reflection. The riddle
like koans of Zen go one step further: though linguistic in form,
they are often explicitly stated to have nothing to do with semantic
meaning, thus representing a de-signification of the signifier. Non-
15
semantic and non-symbolic uses o f mantra and aniconic uses of

yantra take the full step away from the cognitive content and bring
us to the category of sensory (auditory and visual, respectively)
meditation obj ects . In sum, cognitive meditation obj ects often in
volve a tension between their superficial logical, semantic and
symbolic content and what is often conceived as their deeper
meaning or function.
Affective meditation obj ects may involve a number of different
feelings, the most typical ones being love, loving kindness and de
votion on the positive side, disgust on the negative side, and the
mindful observation of spontaneous feelings, whether positive or
negative, on the neutral side. Such meditation obj ects are often
complex, involving not only the feeling itself but also a person,
thing or divine being associated with this feeling. In the case of
loving kindness, which is often used as a translation of the Bud
dhist term metta, 18 this typically starts with oneself, then continues
with kin, friends and teachers, and gradually extends to strangers
and enemies, eventually encompassing all sentient beings. In other
cases, a sense of love may be triggered by the visualization of
beautiful scenes involving nature or living beings, thus coming
close to being the effect of visualization rather than a meditation
obj ect in its own right. Love may also be closely associated with
God. In other cases, feelings of devotion are directed towards
teachers or teachings, or towards God, gods or other divine or sa
cred beings, places, institutions etc. On the negative side, the
contemplation of rotting bodies discussed by Dessein in this vol
ume combines feelings of disgust or repulsiveness with the obj ects
triggering these feelings .
In all these cases, it is difficult to say whether the meditation
obj ect is the feeling itself or the obj ect associated with the feeling;
the focus of attention may change back and forth between the two .
In the case of loving kindness, however, it is clear that the feeling
is the most stable part of the practice, the obj ects of loving kind
ness changing throughout. Similarly, the sense of disgust or
repulsiveness is the most stable part of the contemplation of rotting
bodies, presumably increasing during the practice. As for the love
18
In Pali; Sanskrit form: maitrz.
16
HAL VOR EIFRlNG AND ARE HOLEN
associated with God, it is sometimes linked to the idea that God is

love, thus minimizing the difference between the feeling and the
obj ect associated with it. Finally, in the case of love and loving
kindness, it is not always obvious that we are dealing with a feeling
or emotion in any conventional sense. If God is love, this hardly
means that God is understood as a feeling, especially in works like
the 1 4th-century English mystical treatise The Cloud of Unknow
ing, whose God is apophatic and beyond any conceptualization.
Similarly, the Buddhist practice of loving kindness meditation does
not have to be conceived as an exercise in suppressing all non
loving feelings but rather as an attempt at establishing a mental
attitude of acceptance beyond one ' s personal likes and dislikes,
which may still be present, only less dominant. Thus, j ust as cogni
tive meditation obj ects often seek to go beyond the semantic and
symbolic signification, affective meditation obj ects are often re
fined into mental states or attitudes far beyond the realm of plain
feelings.
Sensory meditation obj ects are usually visual, auditory or tac
tile. They are less often olfactory or gustatory, except for
meditative uses of incense, which is seldom the main focus of at
tention, and modern mindfulness practices focusing on the eating
of raisins, including paying attention to their taste.
Visual meditation obj ects may be static, like the Christian cross,
a Hindu yantra or a Buddhist mandala, or dynamic, like Daoist vis
ualizations of space travel or Jesuit visualizations of events from
biblical history. Sometimes a static external image, such as a medi
eval church mural or a renaissance etching, may form the basis for
the inner visualization of dynamic events . The constant but muta
ble light from a candle is somewhere in between static and
dynamic, as are external sceneries or inner representations of light
used as meditation obj ects .
Auditory meditation obj ects include mantras and meditation
sounds based on combinations of vowels and consonants; these are
often devoid of semantic meaning, though their sound qualities are
sometimes interpreted symbolically as representing the divine or
the cosmic powers . A different kind of auditory meditation obj ect
includes natural and human sounds in the external and bodily envi
ronment, to which attention is directed with increasing receptivity.
17
Tactile meditation obj ects include bodily sensations (both the

"coarse" and the "subtle" body), the awareness of the breath mov
ing into and out of the body (or, on the "subtle" side, of cosmic,
bodily or other energies moving through or even outside the body),
the perception of bodily movement, as well as the feelings of heat
or cold.
Sensory meditation obj ects may be linked to the physical senses,
as when a yantra is based on a material image, a mantra is recited
aloud, or a body sensation is linked to a concrete body part. They
can also, however, be interiorized to varying degrees, spanning
from the simple visual imagination of a yantra, the subvocalized
mental repetition of a mantra, or the perception of the "subtle" bod
ily energy centres, to visual, auditory or tactile impressions that are
no longer directly linked to the eyes, the ears or the surface of the
body . Just as cognitive meditation obj ects sometimes go beyond
semantic and symbolic signification and affective meditation ob
j ects may go beyond plain feelings, so sensory meditation obj ects
may activate the senses in ways that no longer depend on the phys
ical sense organs but solely on inner sensation.
In general, cognitive and affective meditation obj ects are con
tent-oriented and tend to employ suggestive working mechanisms,
while sensory meditation obj ects are technique-oriented, relying on
general psychobiological working mechanisms . However, even
most content-oriented meditation obj ects involve the psychobiolog
ical effects of technical elements such as the repetition of a sound,
the sustained focus on visual elements etc . On the other hand, even
technical meditation obj ects are often given content-oriented inter
pretations, as when non-semantic mantras or aniconic yantras are
understood as cosmological symbols .
Many, perhaps most, meditation obj ects involve more than one
faculty. The repetition of meditative prayer involves semantic
meaning (cognitive), a sense of devotion (affective), and auditory
impressions (sensory). The contemplation of the letter a involved
in the Japanese Tantric practice ajikan combines the visual impres
sions of a written letter with the auditory impression of its
pronunciation. 1 9 Sufi dhikr combines the pronunciation of God ' s
1 9 Tanaka 2 0 1 2 .
18
name (auditory) and the placement of this name in one ' s heart (tac
tile). 20 Buddhist breathing exercises may combine the tactile and
auditory sensations of the air passing through the nostrils, as well
as the cognitive element of counting the breath.
So far we have been concerned with the faculties by which
meditation obj ects are perceived. For self-generated meditation
obj ects, there is an additional question of how they are produced.
The main distinction here is between mental and kinetic obj ects,
the latter being based on physical movement. Mentally produced
obj ects include a wide range of cognitive and sensory obj ects, pos
sibly also some affective ones; all internal meditation obj ects that
are self-generated rather than spontaneous belong to this group.
Kinetically produced obj ects typically include the patterned
movement of body and breath in disciplines like Yoga, Taij f and
Qlgong; most bodily meditation obj ects that are generated rather
than spontaneous belong to this group. For spontaneous and exter
nal meditation obj ects, the distinction between mental and kinetic
obj ects does not apply.
Features of meditation objects

In summary, meditation obj ects can largely be analysed as different
combinations of the features displayed in Table 2 .
A s w e have seen, many o f these features appear i n a number of
variations, including "coarse" and "subtle" variants, partly corre
sponding to different degrees of interiorization. In many cases this
reflects an understanding of the meditation obj ects as pointing to
wards a reality beyond their solid features . For instance, the point
of cognitive meditation obj ects lies beyond the realm of ordinary
cognition, the true nature of affective meditation obj ects lies in
their deeper mental attitude rather than in any specific feeling, and
sensory meditation obj ects make use of inner perception with only
distant connections to the physical senses.
20 Bashir 20 1 3 .
Location
Agency
Internal
Bodily
External
Self-generated
Spontaneous
19
II
Cognitive
- -------- -- 1- ----- --- ------------1_

--------------Linguistic
- bi i
s
:- - - r:-
I Thematic
I Positive
--
f-------------------------+-------------------------------------------
Faculty
Perception
- - - --- - ------1-Nti ---------------1
;
t
N
1Ir--------------------------r------------------------------------------I -Visual
1
- - ----------------
Affective
Sensory
1I
....
... .........i.. ... . . .. ..... ................. .....
Production
mm
i A d it;;
1--------------------------J ! i i
.
l-----------------------------------------------------------1 Kinetic
Table 2. Features of meditation objects.
Mental attitude
While the obj ect of meditation is an important technical tool, both
scholars and practitioners often claim that the core of meditative
practice lies in the mental attitude, defined as the mode rather than
the intended focus of attention. Some even argue that a meditative
mental attitude may be maintained at all times, whether "walking,
standing, sitting or lying down", independently of any specific
technique. Others, however, treat the mental attitude as a technical
20
tool for meditation, just as the meditation obj ect with which it is
combined.
This aspect of meditation is often associated with concentration,
an exclusive attention towards the meditation obj ect. As the 1 6th
century Spanish mystic Francisco de Osuna says, "meditation at
tends fixedly to one thing". In a somewhat surprising image, he
goes on to compare the attitude of meditative prayer to "the little
dog that with upraised head excitedly and attentively wags its tail
beside the dinner table, all its moYements see111in 'w bi:g for food",
then proceeds to advise the meditator: "Remembering the little
dog, fix your inner and outer person with total attention and alert
ness on the One seated at the table, who is God. " 2 1
In Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist contexts, a number of terms as
sociated with meditation are routinely translated as ' concentration' ,
most notably the Sanskrit terms dharm:za, dhyana and samadhi (see
Braarvig' s contribution). Note, however, that these terms do not
always refer to concentration as an aspect of technical practice but
equally often as a state of mind resulting from such practice, what
we might more aptly call ' absorption' (see Bronkhorst' s contribu
tion) . Sometimes a distinction is made between the active concen
tration of dharaflii and the more advanced mental state of effortless
absorption associated with samadhi, with dhyiina hovering some
where in between the two (or, as in the Tantric practices discussed
by Baumer, taking on other meanings such as visualization). Since
the resultant state of one level of meditation may be taken as a
starting point for the practice of the next level, it is not always easy
to distinguish between practice and effect, or between mental atti
tude and state of mind.
There also exist, however, explicitly non-concentrative forms of
meditation, in which the field of attention is kept open to spontane
ous influences. In Buddhism, these are often referred to as
vipassana, 22 often translated as "insight meditation", and in the
modern context also referred to as "mindfulness" practices or
"open monitoring" (as opposed to "focused attention"). Vipassanii
21
Osuna, 1 9 8 1 :483 .
Sanskrit vipasyana, Chinese guan fl or nei-guan pgfl. See Houtman' s contri
bution.
22
21
meditation i s usually directed towards spontaneous meditation ob

j ects, such as breath, bodily sensations, or stimulus-independent
thoughts and feelings . The Chan or Zen traditions of "silent illumi
nation" 23 and "simply sitting", which may be practised with open
or half-open eyes, even include external impressions . In some
Buddhist contexts, non-concentrative meditation is used as a tool
for coping with the uninvited influence of spontaneous thoughts
during concentrative meditation, as when the Chinese Chan teacher
Hanshan Deqing 1lm ( 1 546- 1 62 3 ) tells his students to direct
their attention to disturbing thoughts, and in particular to the point
from which the thoughts come and to which they go (which is ac
tually nowhere) . It is often assumed that even vipassana results in
deep meditative absorption, with the mind free from all thoughts,
although the technique for attaining such a state does not actively
seek to avoid thoughts . Daoist nei-guan techniques have been
largely inherited from Buddhist vipassana, though they have also
been transformed along the way. 24
Unlike what is sometimes assumed by modern writers on the
subj ect, non-concentrative meditation is not restricted to practises
with spontaneous meditation obj ects but also includes techniques
using self-generated meditation obj ects . In a verse extolling the
recitation of the name of Amitabha Buddha, the Chinese scholar
Shen Shandeng y;t ( 1 8 3 0- 1 902) says :
The verse of Amitabha is the king of all dharmas
[With it] even myriads of distracting thoughts are of no harm2 5
In a modem scientific context, Ospina et al. (2007) observe that the

"acceptance of . . . other thoughts into the field of awareness" is not
only found in techniques focused on the breath itself but also in
practices using Zen koans or the active counting of the breath. Sa
rah Shaw (personal communication) reports how some contempo
rary Southeast Asian Buddhist teachers compare the focus on the
meditation obj ect to the flame of a candle, the centre shining in23 Chinese mozhao ,ilk .
24 S e e Kohn, forthcoming.
2 5 5J!iJWt-1Ut: q:i .:, $lfil ::t:m. Bao 'enlun 766.
22
tensely, but not to the exclusion of the halo surrounding it, corre
sponding in this image to thoughts that come and go. In tape
recorded lectures from the early 1 960s, Mahesh Yogi argued
against concentration, which he saw as bringing with it too much
strain. In the psychology of meditation developed by the N orwe
gian organization Acem, spontaneous thoughts are considered to be
just as important for the meditation process and its effects as the
gentle repetition of a meditation sound. 26
The distinction between a concentrative and a non-concentrative
(or a directive and a non-directive) mental attitude may be defined
in relation to the following three dimensions :
Concentrative
Non-concentrative
Narrow
Open
Elements diverting
attention from
meditation object
Suppressive
Inclusive
Self-generation of
meditation object
Forceful
Effortless
Focus of attention on
meditation object
Table 3. Concentrative vs. non-concentrative mental attitude.

All three dimensions address various degrees of acceptance of un
intended elements in meditation. A narrow focus allows fewer
peripheral thoughts than an open focus, suppression allows fewer
digressive thoughts than inclusion, and forcefulness entails more
rigid control of all aspects of the meditation than effortlessness,
which typically entails the spontaneous modulation of the medita
tion obj ect. Descriptions of one and the same meditation practice
often vacillate between concentrative and non-concentrative fea
tures .
26
See Holen, 20 1 3 .
23
Concentrative meditation typically seeks to get rid of spontane

ous thoughts, which a large number of meditative traditions all
over the Eurasian continent tend to see as a hindrance. In this line
of thinking, spontaneous thoughts are associated with forgetfulness
rather than mindfulness or watchfulness, with sloth rather than dil
igence, and with evil and delusion rather than goodness and
enlightenment. They are seen as undesirable imprints of past ac
tions, such as the karma of Buddhism and Hinduism or the original
sin of Christianity. They are moreover linked to the created world
and the world of form rather than the uncreated God or the realm of
formlessness . Tellingly, the Greek term logismoi ' thoughts, calcu
lations ' , which is often used to refer to digressions in meditative
prayer, develops into a notion meaning ' assaultive or tempting
thoughts ' and eventually forms the basis for the notion of the seven
deadly sins ! Equally telling is the use of the Chinese terms wang
xiang ;i' and wang-nian ' deluded thoughts ' to refer to
spontaneous thoughts, reflecting the Buddhist view that delusion is
man' s primary problem. In this vein, the 1 4th-century English au
thor of The Cloud of Unknowing encourages his disciple to "hate to
think of anything but God himself, so that nothing occupies [his]
mind or will but only God" and to "suppress all thought under the
cloud of forgetting". 2 7 Similarly, Hanshan Deqing urges his disci
ples : "When deluded thoughts arise, you j ust press the keyword
[the meditation obj ect] forcibly and they are instantly crushed to
pieces". 2 8
However, quite a few meditative traditions argue strongly
against the suppression of thoughts involved in concentrative medi
tation. The Chinese Buddhist monk Wukai I 00 ( d. 1 83 0)
contends :
27
Ch. 3 : lope to penk on ou3t bot on hym-self, so pat nou3t worche in pi witte ne
in pi wille bot only himself (p. 1 6; Wolters, 1 978 : 6 1 ); ch. 7 : smite doun al maner
pou3t vnder pe cloude of for3eting (p. 2 8 ; Wolters, 1 97 8 : 69f.).
28 tf tll ml ffif , mlm'J: - ,
Jl.U tll (Hanshiin taoren mengy6ufi p.
1 53).
24
While clinging [to the thoughts] is wrong, eradicating [them] is also

bad.
[Ei!l ;J-p, ll:ZJ'Fifl3a 29

The Jain scholar Hemacandra ( 1 0 8 8- 1 1 72) brings the argument for
non-concentrative meditation even further :
Wherever the mind goes, don't restrain it from [going] there; fo r what
is restrained becomes stronger, what is not restrained becomes peace
ful. The mind is like an elephant in rut, which becomes stronger when
restrained with effort, but comes to peace after satisfying its needs
without restraint. 3 0
Non-concentrative meditation typically seeks to open the mind and

set in motion latent impulses at or beyond the peripheries of con
scious awareness. The transformative power of meditation is partly
seen as coming from whatever impulses that are brought into play,
whether they are understood as obstacles to be worked through or
as resources to be made use of. In addition, some forms of non
concentrative meditation, in particular vipassana, use the stream of
consciousness as an obj ect of investigation, purportedly leading to
the discovery of the basic nature of reality.
Quite often, one and the same writer advocates practices that
seem to involve both concentrative and non-concentrative ele
ments . For instance, while the reader of The Cloud of Unknowing is
told to get rid of thoughts by using the meditation obj ect to "ham
mer the cloud and the darkness above you",3 1 he is also urged to
"work with eager enj oyment rather than with brute force". 32 While
Hanshan Deqing exhorts his disciples to produce the meditation
obj ect "forcefully", 33 "as if exerting all the strength of the body
29
Jlngye zhifin 3 54 .
ceto 'pi yatra yatra pravartate n o tatas tato varyam I adhikibhavati h i varita111
santim upayati I matto hasfi yatnan nivaryamal)o ' dhikibhavati yadvat I anivaritas
tu kaman labdhva samyati manas tadvat (Yogasastra, transl. Bronkhorst, ms. ; cf.
Qvarnstrom, 2002: 1 92).
3 1 Ch. 7: bete on pis cloude & pis derknes abouen pee (p. 28; Wolters 1 978 :69).
3 2 Ch. 4 6 : wirche more wip a list pen wip any liper strengpe (p. 87; Wolters
1 978 : 1 1 4) .
3 3 j ili tJJ, j ij i ' zhu6li )J.
30
25
pushing a heavy cart up the hill",34 he also tells them to generate

the meditation obj ect "gently"3 5 and to avoid "clinging to the key
word [i.e. the meditation obj ect] " . 36 This seeming paradox may
partly be explained by the oft-cited idea that effortlessness comes
with experience. As The Cloud of Unknowing says : "what previ
ously was very hard becomes much lighter, and you can relax". 3 7 In
many traditions, the degree of effort and concentration decreases as
the practitioner becomes more advanced. In this vein, several Ther
avada traditions advocate the use of concentrative meditation (sa
(samatha) for beginners, followed by non-concentrative meditation
(vipassanii) for experienced practitioners . In the modem scientific
context, Lutz et al. argue that " [a]t the most advanced levels, . . . the
ability to sustain focus . . . becomes progressively ' effortless "' and
that even the practice of "open monitoring" starts with "focused
attention", after which "the practitioner gradually reduces the focus
on an explicit obj ect" . 38
Conclusion
This essay has argued that meditation implies working with atten
tion in a number of ways.
On the one hand, meditation involves the intended and sus
tained focus of attention on a meditation obj ect. Meditation obj ects
may be external, bodily or internal (location), self-generated or
spontaneous (agency), and cognitive, affective or sensory (faculty),
or a mixture of these in various combinations . Apart from the fact
that they are used as foci of attention during meditation, there may
be no common denominator to the obj ects considered suitable for
meditation, at least according to what Sarah Shaw (ms . ) found with
regard to Buddhist meditation.
On the other hand, meditation involves a mental attitude that
may manifest to various degrees along a continuum from concen3IO:Jt]i:iji:_t;ffJ;_l)jji :1Ji'i (Hanshiin laoren mengy6uji p. 1 22).
huanhuan .
36 sishOu huatou \'.ffl!i:@:.
37 Ch. 26: it schal be maad ful restful & ful li3t ynto pee, pat bifore was ful harde;
& pou schalt haue ouper litil trauaile or none (p. 62; Wolters, 1 97 8 : 94).
3 8 Lutz et al. , 2008.
34
35
26
trative to non-concentrative, defined as the mode of attention. This

includes the way the meditation obj ect is generated, the way the
focus of attention is directed towards it, and the way elements di
verting attention from the meditation obj ect in unintended ways are
treated. The mental attitude may be strongly concentrative, charac
terized by forcefulness, narrow focus and the suppression of
unintended elements, or clearly non-concentrative, characterized
by effortlessness, open focus and the inclusion of unintended ele
ments - or any possible combination of the two .
In regard to both the meditation obj ects and the mental attitude,
we have observed a widespread tendency to move from "coarse" to
more "subtle" forms in what may often be considered as the more
advanced stages of meditation. In this regard, the location of the
meditation obj ects tends to involve a gradual interiorization, in
cluding a movement from the external and bodily towards the
internal, purely m ental istic obj ects . As for the use of the faculties,
the movement from "coarse" to "subtle" has several implications :
Cognitive meditation obj ects go beyond the semantic and symbolic
signification, affective meditation obj ects are refined beyond the
realm of plain feelings, and sensory meditation obj ects activate
faculties in ways that depend less on the physical sense organs .
Finally, with regard to the mental attitude, more advanced forms of
meditation tend to be non-concentrative, including less effort and
fewer attempts to actively narrow the focus of attention or suppress
unintended elements that may divert the attention during medita
tion.
This gradual refinement of meditation obj ects and mental atti
tudes is a typical way of working with the attention in meditative
contexts . This does not apply to all forms of meditation or medita
tive frameworks but seems to reflect an orientation found in a
number of widely different traditions covering large parts of the
Eurasian continent.
Can There Be a Cultural History

of Meditation?
With Special Reference to India
Johannes Bronkhorst
In these blessed days, interested readers can easily inform them

selves about the history of a variety of cultural items . Recent years
have seen the publication of books with titles such as A History of
God (Karen Armstrong, 1 99 3 ), A History of the Devil (Gerald
Messadie, 1 996), A History of Heaven (Jeffrey Burton Russell,
1 997), The History ofHell (Alice K. Turner, 1 99 3 ) . These are cul
tural histories, because these authors and most of their readers will
agree that God, Heaven, Hell and the Devil are cultural constructs,
with no existence outside of culture.
There are other items, however, that are not only cultural. One
might, for example, study the so-called historical supernovae, ex
ploding stars whose first appearances have been recorded in histor
ical documents . The most famous historical supernova is the one
that was to give rise to the Crab Nebula; well known to contempo
rary astronomers, it was observed in 1 0 54 CE by their predecessors
28
JOHANNES BRONKHORST
in China. 1 These and many other historical supernovae might be

treated in a cultural history of supernovae . Such a study would
provide information about the way people in different cultures re
acted to this or that supernova. The Chinese reaction, to take an
example, might be altogether different from the way, say, medieval
Arab astronomers and astrologers reacted to the same phenomenon.
Such a cultural history might bring to light various ways in which
different cultures (or the same culture at different times) interpreted
these heavenly phenomena. But behind the cultural differences
there would be obj ective, not culturally determined facts, viz., the
supernovae. Supernovae are not, or rather, not only, cultural con
structs, and the cultural constructs that are created around them
have a core that cannot be taken to be on a par with God, Heaven,
Hell, and the Devil, which are.
If we try to study the cultural history of meditation, we have to
determine whether meditation is to be categorized with God, Heav
en, Hell and the Devil, or rather with historical supernovae . Is
there, independently of the cultural context, such a thing as medita
tion, or meditational states? If we think there is, our study is going
to take an altogether different shape than when we think there is
not. If we think that there are no such things as meditation and
meditational states, our textual sources are the beginning and the
end of our enquiry. Just as in the case of the History of God or the
History of Heaven we do not ask what God or Heaven are really
like, our history of meditation, too, will then proceed unencum
bered by such questions . If we do, however, accept that meditation
is something quite independent of the way it is interpreted within
different cultures, we will wish to know what it is. The comparison
with the historical supernovae is valid in this case : Our Chinese,
Arabic, or any other sources take on a different dimension once we
know that they refer to an obj ective event that can be confirmed by
modern astronomical methods .
I suspect that the editor of this book tries to get around this dif
ficulty by emphasizing meditative practice. A document he distrib
uted in preparation of a conference on the issue repeatedly speaks
1 For a translation of the Chinese and Japanese sources related to the Crab Nebula,
see Clark and Stephenson 1 977: 140 ff., and Duyvendak 1 942.
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDI'l:ATION?
29
about meditative practice and, more in particular, about the rela

tionship between meditative practice and interpretation. 2 This is a
clever move because meditative practice is something that outsid
ers can see and describe, but it is one that I find, in the end, to be
unsatisfactory. It is like concentrating on the practice of our ancient
astronomers of looking into the sky, while omitting to ask what
they were looking at. Meditational practice derives at least part,
and more probably the whole, of its raison d 'etre from the subj ec
tive states it gives rise to, and serious research has to face up to
this. Meditational experience (and in some cases suppression of
experience) is that which, in our comparison, corresponds to super
novae; without it our study of meditation runs the risk of becoming
an empty enumeration of the ways in which certain people in cer
tain cultures sometimes sit down with their eyes closed, and more
such uninformative information.
Certain readers, while agreeing with my emphasis on experi
ence rather than practice, will obj ect to my comparison with histor
ical supernovae and consider it simplistic. Meditational states can
not be compared with supernovae; they are altogether different
"things". One cannot separate meditational states from the culture
in which they are evoked and experienced.
I am aware of these obj ections, and I grant that they oblige us to
be slightly more precise. We can distinguish not j ust two, but three
positions :
1 . Like supernovae, meditational states are there quite independently
of their cultural interpretation.
2. Like God and Heaven, there are no meditational states . For reasons
that remain obscure, certain cultures talk about these, in the end, non
existent entities.
3 . There are meditational states, but they are even in theory insepara
ble from their cultural context.
2 A similar aim underlies Karl Baier' s impressive two-volume Meditation und

Moderne (2009: 2 1 ) : "In Bezug auf die konkreten Weisen des Meditierens geht es
mir einerseits um eine Formgeschichte, also um die Darstellung verschiedener
Weisen des Ubens und ihrer Entwicklung, sowie andererseits um deren Ein
bettung in die sinngebenden Zusammanhange, innerhalb derer sie situiert sind."
30
JOHANNES BRONKHORST
I have the impression that many scholars of mysticism and medita

tion - which, as the editor of this book observes, "are not the
same thing, [but] raise many of the same issues" - may be in
clined to accept the third position. Personally, I am willing to con
sider the possibility that meditational states and the cultural context
to which they belong are hard to separate in practice. It seems to
me, however, that if one is not even ready to consider that they
may be separable in theory, the very basis of a proj ect like ours
would collapse. If the two are indeed inseparable even in theory,
there is no way of determining whether, say, a Daoist in China and
a Christian monk in Greece are both meditating; or rather, one
might feel compelled to say that these people are each engaged in
practices characteristic of their own cultures, with no essential fea
tures in common apart from, at best, some superficial and poten
tially misleading similarities . A cultural history of meditation that
covers more than one single culture would in that case be difficult,
if not impossible.
There is another point that has to be made. Brain studies of
meditators have become quite popular of late. This started, if I am
not mistaken, with Transcendental Meditation. Now Tibetan Bud
dhist monks appear to be all the rage. Reports indicate that these
studies yield results . It is, of course, possible that more extensive
neurological studies will bring to light differences in meditators
from different cultures, but our first reaction would be to think that
this is indicative of different meditational techniques that were be
ing used, not that different cultures were involved. We might, for
example, find consistent differences in brain patterns in the case of
Transcendental Meditation and Tibetan Buddhist meditation. We
would be more surprised if it turned out that Westerners who had
learned to meditate from Tibetan Buddhist monks showed consist
ently different brain patterns from their teachers, and that in their
essential features . I wonder whether brain researchers have ever
even considered this possibility, yet this is what we would expect if
meditational states were to be inseparable from culture. 3
3 I am happy to note that the editor of this book takes the same position as I on this
issue, stating: "the influx of Asian meditative traditions in the Euro-American
cultural sphere has helped to wipe out traditional boundaries, and with them the
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDikATION?
31
To sum up, I am most willing to consider that there are different

meditational states . It is even possible that some meditational states
are more frequently practiced in one culture than in another. How
ever, the claim that meditational states are even in theory insepara
ble from their cultural context seems, for the time being, baseless
and not fruitful.
This does not mean that the interpretation of meditational states
will be independent of the culture in which they are experienced. It
seems likely that in this respect, meditational states may be similar
to mystical states (which they may also resemble in other respects) :
a Christian mystic i s likely to experience the presence o f a Chris
tian sacred entity (God, the Holy Spirit, etc.), where a Hindu mys
tic may experience a Hindu sacred entity (Brahman, etc.). This,
however, is a matter of cultural interpretation. At any rate, this
seems to me the most sensible assumption to make if we wish to
make progress in this proj ect.
The answer to the question I raised earlier is therefore : Medita
tional states are rather more like supernovae than like God, Heav
en, the Devil and Hell, in that they have an independent reality
which culture has not created. Culture can, and will, interpret these
states . A cultural history of meditation will therefore comprise a
history of cultural interpretations of states that are, in their core, not
culturally determined.
It may comprise more than only this, however. I have argued
that at least some of the presentations of meditation which we find
in our texts and perhaps elsewhere are interpretations of medita
tional states that have some kind of existence of their own; yet this
may not be true of all of them. There may be presentations of
meditation that are not linked to any meditational states whatsoev
er. This is more than a mere theoretical possibility. I will discuss
some examples taken from the Indian tradition, where this can be
shown (or at the very least argued) to be the case.
specific associations between meditative techniques and cultural and religious

institutions."
32
JOHANNES BRONKHORST
Jainism
My first example will be taken from Jainism, due to the fact that it
presents an extreme and most curious example of a cultural inter
pretation of meditational states that were not meditational states at
all.
Canonical classificatory texts of the Svetambara Jaina canon
enumerated everything that can be covered by the term jhiifia (Skt.
dhyiina) . This is the term generally used in connection with medita
tion, primarily in Buddhism yet also in Jainism, but in the early
Jaina texts it also covers other forms of mental activity, such as
'thinking' . By collecting together all that can be covered by this
term, these classificatory texts arrived at an enumeration of four
types of dhyiina : (i) afflicted (atta I Skt. iirta), (ii) wrathful (rodda I
Skt. raudra), (iii) pious (dhamma I Skt. dharmya), (iv) pure (s ukka
I Skt. s ukla ) . 4
For reasons unknown to us, these four kinds of dhyiina came to
be looked upon as four types of meditation, enumerated among the
different kinds of inner asceticism; so Viyahapawatti 2 5 .7.2 1 7,
2 3 7 f./5 80, 600 f. and Uvavaiya section 3 0 . 5 The later tradition,
when it looked for canonical guidance regarding meditation, was
henceforth confronted with a list of four kinds of 'meditation' , only
the last one of which (viz. 'pure meditation' ), should properly be
regarded as such.
But things did not stop there . The later Jaina tradition adopted
the position that ' pure meditation' is inaccessible in the present age
(in this world). Sometimes this is stated explicitly, as, for example,
in Hemacandra' s Yogasiistra. 6 More often it is expressed by saying
that one has to know the Purvas in order to reach the first two stag
es of pure meditation. The fourteen Purvas once constituted the
twelfth Aii.ga of the Jaina canon. They were lost at an early date.
4
So, for example, Thiiflanga 4. 1 .6 1 -72/247.

The opposite confusion occurred, too : in Avassaya Sutta 4.23 . 4, where the monk
is made to repent these four types of dhyiina; obviously only the first two are such
as should be repented, and these are no forms of meditation.
6 Yogasiistra 1 1 .4 : duiikaral!'I apy iidhunikaifl sukladhyiinal!'I yathiiSiistram. The
editor of the Yogasiistra, Muni Jambuvijaya, quotes in this connection ( 1 1 49)
Tattviinusiisana 3 6 : . . . dhyiitUl!'I suklam ihiik!famiin a idal!'lyugfniin uddisya . . .
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDIIATION?
33
Already the Tattvartha Sutra (9.40; see Bronkhorst, 1 9 85a: 1 76 ,

1 79 f. ) states that knowledge of the Purvas is a precondition for
entering pure meditation. This means that already in the time be
tween 1 50 and 3 5 0 C.E. pure meditation was considered as no
longer attainable in this world.
The reasons why 'pure meditation' came to be looked upon as
no longer attainable in this world seem clear. It appears to be the
almost unavoidable consequence of the gradual exaltation in the
course of time of the Jina, and of the state of liberation preached by
him. A comparable development took place in Buddhism where
early, already superhuman qualities came to be ascribed to Arhats
(see Bareau, 1 9 57) and release was postponed to a next life. 7
Whatever the reason may be as to why 'pure meditation' was
excluded from actual practice in Jainism, it is clear that all existing
practice henceforth had to be assimilated into the descriptions of
'pious meditation' . ( 'Afflicted dhyana' and ' wrathful dhyana'
were, very understandably, considered bad forms of meditation. )
This means that two historical developments - (i) the addition of
'pious meditation' under the heading ' meditation' (dhyana); (ii) the
exclusion of 'pure meditation' from it - left later meditators with
a canonical ' description of meditation' which was never intended
for such a purpose. 8
One can easily imagine countless numbers of Jaina monks in
the course of history who seriously and determinedly tried to medi
tate in accordance with the guidelines handed down in their canon
ical texts . They did not know, as we do now, that these guidelines
were not guidelines; that their meditational practices could not cor
respond to their canonical muster because the canonical muster
never had anything to do with meditation. Some Jainas, presuma
bly only the most determined and enterprising, abandoned the ef
fort and looked for guidance elsewhere, outside the Jaina tradition.
There are a number of known cases where Jainas introduced other
7 In later times the reason adduced for this was often that liberation would become
possible after rebirth in the time of a future Buddha, esp. Maitreya; see Kloppen
borg, 1 982: 47.
8 This is not to say that the canonical description of 'pure meditation' is very satis
factory. Hemacandra (Yogasastra 1 1 . 1 1), for example, rightly points out that the
last two stages of 'pure meditation' concern the body rather than the mind.
34
JOHANNES BRONKHORST
forms of meditation into the J aina tradition, and along with them,
of course, the cultural interpretations that accompanied those other
forms of meditation. Yet those who were less enterprising, or more
traditional, may have gone on trying to practice meditation follow
ing guidelines that were not based on meditative experience of any
sort whatsoever.
Buddhism
The case of Buddhism is less extreme, and also less bizarre, than
that of Jainism. Buddhism too, however, preserved canonical
guidelines for the meditating monks which were a scholastic com
bination of two altogether different practices . The well-known list
of nine meditational states is, as I have argued elsewhere, a con
struction composed of two shorter lists . The two kinds of medita
tion that find expression in these two shorter lists are quite different
from each other and pursue different goals .
One of these shorter lists is the list of four dhyiinas ; the other
one the list of the Four Formless States (iirupya, Pa arupa), to
which sometimes a fifth is added, the Cessation of Ideation and
Feeling (sal'J1}niivedayitanirodha) . The second of these two lists
aims at the suppression of all mental activities . The former has a
different goal, which I have called "the mystical dimension" for
want of a better word. The four dhyiinas seek to attain an ever
deeper "mystical" state, whereas the Four Formless States only aim
at suppressing mental activities.
Later Buddhist meditators, like their Jaina confreres, were
therefore confronted with confusing canonical guidelines . Those
who did meditate made no doubt the best of the situation; some
may have decided that the canonical guidelines were of only lim
ited use . However, to my knowledge Buddhist literature never
abandoned them. The result is that the philologist who tries to
study the cultural history of meditation in India appears to be con
fronted with data whose connection with real meditation is artifi
cial at best. 9
Bronkhorst, 2009 : 44 ff.
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDI'IATION?
35
In these two cases it can b e shown, o r at least argued, that the de

scriptions of meditation do not correspond, at least not directly, to
real meditational states or to real sequences of meditational states .
There may b e other cases where our textual material is not suffi
cient enough to determine whether we are confronted with a scho
la stic construction rather than a description or interpretation of
meditational states . This, of course, makes a cultural history of
meditation very difficult.
Where does all this leave us? I stated earlier that a cultural his
tory of meditation must be a history of cultural interpretations of
states that are, in their core, not culturally determined. The exam
ples I have discussed show that some of the presumed cultural
manifestations of meditational states are nothing of the kind, and
may indeed lead us astray. To use the comparison with supernovae :
some of the recorded "supernovae" may not correspond to real su
pernovae; some of the so-called meditational states recorded in re
ligious texts may not correspond to any real meditational states . In
some cases, as in the ones j ust discussed, mere philological dili
gence may bring to light that there are no meditational states or
sequences of meditational states behind certain claims of that na
ture. In other cases, philology may not be sufficient to render us
this service. In those other cases we would like to know more about
the "real supernovae'', i.e. the real meditational states that hide be
hind their cultural manifestations . In other words, j ust as the histo
rian of the so-called historical supernovae needs to know some
thing about real supernovae, in the same way the author of a cul
tural history of meditation needs to know something about what
meditational states really are .
It seems that the editor of this book agrees with this. He speaks,
for example, about the "the difficult question of whether or not su
perficially similar ideas in different cultural contexts still point to
the same reality, or whether superficially disparate ideas really
point to different phenomena, or are j ust surface manifestations of
the same underlying unity. " He seems to think that a solution has to
be reached, and can be reached, by way of an in-depth study of the
different sources of information, including texts that describe medi
tative practices, material culture and visual art, and present-day
information about meditation techniques . In other words, he wishes
36
JOHANNE S BRONKHORST
to know what meditational states really are, and he proposes vari

ous methods of getting there.
He may overlook an important factor, however, which he might
not have missed if he had thought of the comparison with historical
supernovae. In order to understand historical supernovae we need
to know all we can about the cultures in which the relevant obser
vations were made . In order to understand real supernovae these
historical records are by far not enough, and are of relatively minor
importance in comparison to astronomy. Modern astronomy tells
us more about real supernovae - what they are, why they exist,
how they "work", etc. - than any amount of historical records .
In the same way, in order to understand real meditational states,
and not j ust what people through the ages have said and thought
about them, we need the equivalent of astronomy for human expe
rience and human functioning in general. We need a theory of how
humans function, of how meditational and other states come about
and are related to other experiences and practices .
Unfortunately there is nothing corresponding to astronomy in
relation to the mental functioning of human beings . Yet this is what
we need if we wish to make headway.
It is not new to the reader that psychology and the other "human
sciences" have not been very successful thus far in presenting us
with a general theory of human functioning, and indeed the reader
may, like myself, have the impression that the aim of producing
such a general theory is not on their list of priorities . Out of frustra
tion, I have myself tried to work out the skeleton of such a theory
in my recent book Absorption: Two Studies of Human Nature
(20 1 2) . I will take this theory as my point of departure in what will
follow.
Absorption
One of the features of the theory presented in Bronkhorst (20 1 2) is
that it presents the human mind as having two levels of cognition:
the non-symbolic and the symbolic . Of these two, the non
symbolic level of cognition is fundamental, whereas the symbolic
level of cognition is superimposed onto it, largely as a result of the
acquisition of language at a young age. The overall combined cog-
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDITION?
37
niti on resulting from these two levels i s deeply colored by the mul
tiple associations "added" by the symbolic level of cognition.
Normal cognition cannot therefore be directed at an obj ect, say a
telephone, without an implicit awareness of its purpose, its rela
tionship to other obj ects etc . ; in short, its place in the world. Non
symbolic cognition does no such thing, but is normally "veiled" by
symbolic cognition.
However, non-symbolic cognition can, in exceptional circum
stances (and more easily for some individuals than for others), rid
itself either wholly or in part of the veil of symbolic cognition. This
may happen spontaneously in psychotics and mystics, but also, to
at least some extent, through the voluntary application of certain
techniques . These techniques may vary greatly, but they will have
one thing in common: the special form of concentration I call ab
sorption (see below) . Absorption, j ust as ordinary concentration
does to a lesser degree, reduces the number of associations (most
of them subliminal). It follows that, if the degree of absorption is
high enough, this will have cognitive consequences : experience of
the world will be different, and will be accompanied by the convic
tion that this "different" reality is more real than that of the world
ordinarily experienced. It will indeed be more real in the sense that
the "veil" that normally separates us from the obj ects of cognition
will have been removed, or at least thinned, resulting in less that
separates us from them.
We might, provisionally, call "meditation" all those techniques
that "thin" the "veil" that is due to symbolic cognition. This kind of
meditation, whatever precise form it takes, will then be character
ized by absorption and, if the absorption is deep enough, will have
an effect on cognition. However, there is more.
Absorption has a further effect. Deep absorption gives rise to
feelings of bliss. This is an effect quite different from the one men
tioned earlier - modified cognition - and is due to a different
mechanism, although this is not the occasion to describe that
mechanism. Its consequence is all the more interesting in the pre
sent context, for it adds a further characteristic to what we provi
sionally call "meditation" . This kind of meditation is characterized
by absorption, by modified cognition (access to a "higher reality"),
and by bliss.
38
JOHANNES BRONKHORST
Let me now say more about absorption. Absorption is a form of

concentration, but is not quite like the concentration one experi
ences within daily life. It is accompanied by, and in a way based
upon, a deep relaxation of body and mind. Due to such deep re
laxation of body and mind, absorption can reach depths that ordi
nary concentration cannot. Some people attain absorption without
special techniques (we tend to call them mystics), some others do
so with the help of certain techniques, and most of us do not nor
mally attain degrees of absorption of any depth in spite of all our
efforts . A clear understanding of the way the word meditation is
used here will allow us to distinguish between different practices
that are indiscriminately called meditation in scholarly literature.
B efore we pursue our reflections about meditation, it is worth
while to point out that the three features identified above - ab
sorption, special cognition and bliss - recur in many descriptions
of mystic states . This confirms that the kind of meditation we are
concentrating on has these features in common with mysticism,
and can in a way be looked upon as self-induced mysticism. Let us
refer to this kind of meditation as meditation 1 .
Meditation 1 corresponds to one of the two types of meditation I
distinguished in my book The Two Traditions of Meditation in An
cient India ( 1 993a). It is the meditation introduced in India by
Buddhism. Absorption and bliss are essential features of this kind
of meditation; the cognitive effect is, in the early Buddhist texts, to
some extent overshadowed by the emphasis laid on the cognitive
realization ("liberating insight") associated with the final and de
finitive transformation that can be brought about by the practitioner
while in the deepest state of absorption. More recent texts, both
within and without the Buddhist tradition, emphasize the cognition
without "conceptual constructs" that is accessible to those who
practice this kind of medit:ition, Th ter.:r.s used 3.re vikalpa. and
kalpanfi, and the texts often point out that these conceptual con
structs are the result of verbal knowledge. This, of course, looks
very much like another way of saying what was observed above,
viz., that the symbolic level of cognition is due, wholly or in part,
to the acquisition of language.
It may be noted in passing that the transformation referred to in
the early Buddhist texts is not presented as a result of meditation,
CAN THERE BE A CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEDI'I,ATION?
39
or o f absorption for that matter, but rather as the result o f a proce

dure undertaken while in deepest absorption.
Meditation 1 distinguishes itself, often explicitly and in critical
terms, from what we may call meditation2 ; both are designated by
the same term dhyiina in Indian texts . Meditation2 is quite different
from meditationi , and should strictly speaking not be called medi
tation at all, or at any rate not in the way in which we have chosen
to use this term. Meditation2 , unlike meditationi , is not character
ized by absorption, bliss and cognitive effects . It rather has its
place in a wider belief system in which the suppression of all activ
ity is a sine qua non for escaping the effects of one ' s deeds, i . e .
escaping from karmic retribution. Meditation2 has its place i n a
number of early movements different from Buddhism that were
intent on such an escape, among them Jainism. Notably, the word
Yoga in the early texts covers practices that are of this nature.
In terms of the theory proposed in Bronkhorst (20 1 2), it appears
that absorption plays no role in meditation2 , mainly because it is
not based upon a profound relaxation of body and mind. Indeed, its
forcible, violent nature is not only clear from the descriptions pro
vided by texts close to its practitioners, but also from the criticism
directed at it in Buddhist texts that do not sympathize. It is here we
find, for example, the method of closing the teeth and pressing the
palate with the tongue in order to restrain thought, both in texts that
criticize and those that promulgate this practice. 1 0
Conclusion
It follows from the above that not all the practices that go by the
name meditation (in India: dhyiina, etc.) necessarily have much, or
indeed anything, in common. At the same time it is reasonable to
assume that practices that on the surface have nothing in common
may yet belong together. The main characteristics of meditationi,
for example - absorption, bliss, cognitive effects - may result
from a number of superficially different practices such as yogic
concentration, fixing the mind on God, reciting texts and rhythmic
movements . Even completely "non-religious" practices (say, surf10
See, e.g., Bronkhorst, 1 993a: 1, 4 8 .
40
JOHANNE S BRONKHORST
ing) may bring about states of absorption deep enough to create

bliss, though normally with no recognizable cognitive effects .
Seen in this way, the study of meditation takes us into a realm
that is not limited to meditational practice . We are here confronted
with an aspect of mental functioning that also finds expression
elsewhere. This is not surprising, because we are dealing in all the
se domains with the same human mind. A theoretical understand
ing of the functioning of the human mind is our only hope to ever
make sense of the variety of practices that we tend to assemble un
der the banner of "meditation" .
Words for "Meditation" in

Classical Yoga and Early Buddhism
Jens Braarvig
Even though "meditation" often may be quite undefined as used in

a modem, or "Western" context, it is definitely a much employed
word, designating a huge array of activities concerned with finding
peace of mind, mental health and ultimately self-development. As
such, it refers to an item which is understood to be a personal and
individual activity, an activity taught and collectively performed
within organizations, usually with a particular ideological back
ground religious or otherwise. This activity is often referred to as a
method or type of therapy in its more secular forms, while in a re
ligious setting it is more frequently referred to as a "way of spiritu
al development" . These organizations typically have leaders; ex
pert teachers who, in their religious forms, are often venerated as
superior, at least in the art of meditation and in the context of cer
tain narratives, seen as in possession of a trans-worldly perspective.
In its secular forms, "meditation" becomes a commodity which can
be bought for a certain sum, as a a particular economical routine
with therapeutic aims, while in the religious setting it also coin
cides with the peculiarities of religious economy and rhetoric. The
word "meditation" does, however, function well in modern lan
guages as a collective designation of mental disciplines, most of
42
JENS BRAARVIG
them derived from Indian and Buddhist traditions . From such start
ing points the word has penetrated into general usage within mod
em languages, and the practices designated with the word have
suffused substantial parts of modem religious life.
Thus, though meditation in some forms may be found in other
cultures, even those of Europe and the Middle East, most of the
concepts and rhetoric of modem forms of meditation seem to be
derived from an Indian background, generally through the agencies
and activities of Theosophy and various Buddhists sects ; firstly the
Pali tradition, then Zen and Tibetan meditation ideologies within
the Tibetan Diaspora - not to mention the multiplicity of medita
tion systems founded on the classical "Hindu" philosophies and
sects, and even the academic scholarly work on these traditions .
Thus, during the last hundred to hundred and fifty years, the activi
ty of "meditation" has seen a steep increase in the modem context,
accompanied with a steadily increasing terminology in Western
languages . This terminology is probably, at least historically, suffi
ciently connected with an Indian background to make it meaning
ful to delve into the plethora of Indian meditation concepts in
terms of trying to understand meditation as a phenomenon, be it
"Eastern" or "Western", and in trying to find out what meditation
is, or might be.
The above, very general, description of meditation would most
likely also hold strong for the Indian traditions of meditation, but
j udging from the classical literature of India, the belief in medita
tion as the solution to nearly everything, be it worldly aims or the
ultimate liberation, must be said to be very prevalent, much more
so than in other traditions . It is no surprise, then, that the Sanskrit
language displays an enormous terminology connected with that
activity, and that the various words referring to aspects of what we
in general may term "meditation" have different meanings in dif
fering contexts and ideological systems.
In the following pages, therefore, we will scratch the surface of
Indian thinking about "meditation" and gain a brief overview on
some much-used meditation words and how they acquire special
ized meanings in certain contexts . Emphasis will be put on the
classical Yoga system and the meditation words of the Buddhist
Abhidharma, as these may be said to give the historical premises
WORD S FOR "MEDITATION" IN YOGA AND BUDDHISM
43
from which the terminological complexity has grown. One can in

deed be surprised by the grandiose terminology connected with
what may seem to be a fairly simple human behaviour, namely sit
ting in this or that way with eyes closed or almost closed, and not
falling asleep .
I will thus relate to the words of "meditation" in two Indian
contexts which have a rich terminology of meditation practice, viz. ,
the "Classical Yoga" as described in Patafij ali ' s Yogasfitras and in
the traditional system of meditation in Buddhism. It is character
ized by its progress from the sensual realms of kiimaloka to the
form world of rfipadhiitu, through this sphere of existence into the
formless world of iirfipyadhiitu, resulting in the kind of meditation
which transcends the world of suffering and provides the final lib
eration from it. The terminology of this system is fairly universal
throughout Buddhism, though some of its importance has been lost
in the traditions of the Mahayana. The meditation words of Yoga
are often shared with those of Buddhism, but having been placed
into other semantic fields they receive other definitions and mean
ings, meanings which are also shared by other treatises in the same
meditation tradition as the Yogasutras. One can find, for example,
the complete set of technical terms of the a:f{iingayoga in the Bha
gavadgfta. 1
Clearly these two (I say two for the sake of simplicity) tradi
tions of meditation in India have a lot in common, they have grown
out of the common background of the Upani$ads and the origin of
meditational ascetism in India in the middle of the last millennium
B.C. Thus the terminologies are similar, but not identical. As we
will see, the flavour of the various words for meditation are, in
their context of the afore-mentioned traditions, different, and their
meanings may vary. To some extent this is influenced by the un1 The Yogasiitras have been edited a great number of times, and are easily availa
ble, in a commented translation by Georg Feuerstein ( 1 979), The Yoga-Siitra of
Patanjali; and in a classical edition by Rama Prasada ( 1 9 1 2), Patanjali 's Yoga
Sutras with a commentary of Vyiisa and the gloss of Viicaspati Misra, The Bud
dhist texts here employed are the standard Pali canon Suttapitaka, and for the
Mahayana sutras the general and standard formulations appearing in most of them
are employed, e.g. as in the Prajniipiiramitii, the Vimalakfrtinirdesa, the Ak.yaya
matinirde8a etc.
44
JENS BRAARVIG
derlying philosophies . Those of yoga build upon the principle of

the eternal and ineffable Self, the clfman, and its near-synonyms,
puruf!a : "inner man", jfva : "soul", or "the life principle", draf!tr:
"the witness" or "onlooker" . This has, to some extent, created a
meditation terminology differing from the more nihilistic princi
ples of Buddhism, negating the Upanifjadic Self with its selfless
ness principle, the anatman, and the principle of emptiness,
siinyata, which is a key concept in the Mahayana settings . Even
though the philosophical disagreements between the two main tra
ditions of Indian thinking are fairly great and a few variations have
developed within the field of meditational terminology, it was al
ways generally agreed upon that meditation and concentration are
the means to health, success and liberation from suffering. Such
outcomes result from the practice of meditation, with its origin in
the sramm:ia, or ascetic, milieus in this formative period of Indian
spiritual life. To put it simply, every tradition usually formulates its
creeds in its own language garb - like every trade formulates its
brand - and this is also the case with Indian meditation traditions
and their priests and meditation specialists . Thus the tradition of
yoga, as formulated in the Yogasiitras, has words and terminology
which are somewhat different from the Buddhist traditions as set
forth in the Pali canon, though the two traditions share the empha
sis on meditation and the practice of yoga as the way, indeed the
only way, to liberation and so forth. Only Mahayana Buddhism,
even if it has much of the same terminology of the afore-mentioned
form of Buddhism, places less emphasis on meditation as a way of
sitting, a method, or something to be practiced in solitude. Thus it
promulgates the view that a bodhisattva should always be in a state
of meditation, mindfulness or concentration, whatever he is doing
and, as per the ideal in the Bhagavadgzta, emphasizes social virtues
and ethical action as a way to human perfection. This view of med
itation, which is somewhat critical of the ascetic and solitary ideals
of yoga and early Buddhism, may have comparatively reduced the
importance of meditation in this tradition; yet when we look at the
Mahayana traditions historically, we still find that meditation is
considered to be very important.
In this way, and on a general level, Classical Yoga definitely
has much in common with the traditional Buddhist goals of medita-
45
tion, even though the ontological bases of iitmanlpuru$a and the

principle of aniitman may be quite opposite. Thus yoga aims at
placing the "seer in its own form" (tadii dra$fub
svarupe 'vasthiinam, I,3) and isolating the "self', "inner man", or
the "principle of seeing", from everything else (tadabhiiviit
smrzyogiibhiivo hiina1'{l taddrseb kaivalyam, II,25) and, as expressed
in the final verse of the work: "The suspension of the qualities as
being devoid of aims for the inner man is called isolation"
(puru$iirthasunyiinii1'{l gw;iinii1'{l pratiprasavab kaivalyam, IV, 3 4 ).
And: "The cause to be done away with is the connection between
the seer and the seen" (dra$frdrsyayob sa1'{lyogo heyahetub, II, 1 7).
Thus defined, the goal of yoga, which is brought about in part by
bodily discipline, but most of all by mental discipline - which in
deed is also true of Buddhism - is very similar to the goal of Bud
dhism, namely to minimize and get rid of the mens, the mind itself,
as set out in Yogasutra I,2 : "The effort [in question brings about]
the cessation of mental activity" (yogas cittavrttinirodhab, I,2). An
effort of concentration with the aim to get rid of the psyche itself is
definitely quite a radical psychology, but it is shared by both con
texts . When one has rid themselves of all thinking, or of that which
is "seen" by the eternal "seer", the Yogasutra would have this to be
what could probably be translated as absolute concentration . This
is namely the samiidhi, in which concentration is somehow thought
of as being its own object of concentration and thus the "seer" it
self and, having no support or "seed", is considered n irbfja (I, 5 1 ) .
It i s also the result o f a type o f knowledge, prajnii, which arises
from the lucid balance that occurs within when all mental activity
and reflective thinking has ceased, and when the concentration is,
as it is phrased, nirviciira (I,46-50). The idea that concentration can
exist without anything to concentrate on, must be connected with
the idea that "what" is performing the act of concentration, usually
in Yogasutra called "the seer" (equivalent with puru$a, iitman, etc.),
is the only entity left when everything else is omitted, nothing but
that which is left, so to say. This assumption, of course, is built on
the ontology shared by Yoga and Sii1'{lkhya, even by Vedanta and
other systems postulating an eternal self-principle.
There is also sabf}ab samiidhib (I,46 and preceding verses), the
type of concentration that has an obj ect and is connected with vi-
46
JENS BRAARVIG
tarka and vicara, expressions used for intellectual activity and in

vestigation. Perhaps "introspection" or "reflection" might be an apt
translation here for vicara, and "investigation" for vitarka. In this
state, concentration is also called samapatti, etymologically mean
ing "coming together", and then "attainment". One should not fail
to note that both the words samadhi and samapatti are connected
with the concept of j oining or keeping something together, loosely
connected with yoga. "Joining" presumably indicates the collecting
of diversified thoughts into a concentrated state, indeed the words
"concentration" and "focusing" also have some of the same import.
The usual Buddhist definition of samadhi is likewise in accordance
with these meanings, namely, that the "mind is directed towards
one point" ( cittasyaikagrata), a definition which is shared by the
Yogasutras : "The transformation of thought by means of concen
tration is the end of being diverted among all kinds of obj ects, and
the production of one-pointedness" (sarvarthataikagratayol:z
kayodayau cittasya samadhiparb:zamal:z, III, 1 1 ) .
It is of course not at all surprising that the Buddhist views on
mental discipline are very similar to those of the yoga schools; in
deed they grew from the same fertile intellectual ground and have
influenced each other throughout the course of their development,
and, being part of the same Sanskrit world of concepts, certainly
the semantics of these were naturally shared.
It seems now that the mentioned sabija forms of concentration
are only connected with the necessary evils of intellectual life, as
with that of logic, for example -tarka does indeed mean logic in
general, and forms of mental activity are also the pramafla, or
"means of knowledge". This is also in-tune with the Buddhist tra
dition, which developed logic with a definite sophistication, but
always looked upon it as inferior to the experience of the "reality",
or the "divine". Thus in the Yogasutras these kinds of mental activ
ity are mentioned, but they are rather to be done away with for the
sake of the prajna, of the absolutely concentrated state of samadh i,
where the essential state of all-knowledge is reached.
This kind of concentration, however, is reached rather by the
following methods, eight in total : 1 ) the control of one ' s ethical
behaviour, 2) one ' s self-control, then by 3) the correct postures,
and 4) control of one ' s breathing, accompanied by 5) drawing the
WORD S FOR "MEDITATION" IN YOGA AND BUDD H ISM
47
senses back from their outer obj ects . One cannot help but notice
the strong emphasis on control and effort required to reach the
three last, most essential members of the eight, namely those of
meditation proper which loosely may be translated as : 6) "keeping
focus", 7) "meditation" and 8) "concentration" . (yamani
yamiisanapriif!iiyiimapratyiihiiradhiiraf!iidhyiinasamiidhayo '$fiiv
angiini II,29 and explanations of the eight members in the follow
ing verses .)
In so keeping oneself focused on an obj ect, dhiiraf!ii, is defined
as "binding one ' s thought to a place" (de8abandhas cittasya
dhiiraflii III, 1 ) and, as a more intense form of mental discipline,
meditation is defined as continuous single-mindedness directed
toward an obj ect (tatra pratyayaikatiinatii dhyiinam III,3) while
samiidhi, the final member of the afore-mentioned eight and ulti
mate aim of yoga, takes over as being the only obj ect of concentra
tion itself: "Concentration is the shining forth of only that only ob
ject, as empty of any own form" (tad eviirthamiitranirbhiisarrz
svariipasiinya iva samiidhifl III,3 ) . From this also shines forth the
light of knowledge (tadjayiit prajniilokafl III,5), the knowledge that
the seer and the seen are definitely different, and thus the isolation
of the seer takes place. On the path to the final consummation of
meditation, however, all kinds of knowledge and powers are be
lieved to be attained, as is the belief in all Indian meditation cul
tures.
The grand vision of the Yogasiitras is even more extended in
the Buddhist context, as the Buddhists in addition correlated their
meditation experiences with a cosmological setting: The cosmos is
seen as really no more than the states of consciousness as experi
enced by those living in the corresponding world-spheres, thus
reaching subtle and thoughtless states of mind entails rising to
more subtle world-spheres in the Buddhist cosmological system,
ultimately transcending the cosmos altogether. At that point one
reaches nirviifla after death, or in the meditative state of vajrop
masamiidhi, "the concentration which is like a diamond", "touch
ing nirviifla while still in the body", also called nirodhasamiipatti,
"the attainment of cessation" .
As in many religions or movements built upon an ideology,
however, the conceptual systems are not complete from the begin-
48
JENS B RAARVIG
ning. Thus we find in what we can construct as early Buddhism

many terms for meditation and its cognates, but not necessarily as
yet completely systematized as what we find in the later systemati
zation and scholasticism of the A bhidharma.
The optimism of the Indian culture of meditation at the time of
early Buddhism is evident in the satipafthanasutta (and all its San
skrit counterparts), where the concept of satipatthana, in Pali, or
smrtyupasthana in Sanskrit, is explained as the only way for living
beings to be purified, to rid themselves of their suffering and de
pression and reach nirvilt:za (ekiiyano ayal?1 bhikkhave maggo
sattiinal'f1 visuddiyii sokapariddaviinaJ?1 samatikkamiiya duk
khadomanassiinaJ?1 atthagamiiya nayassa adigamaya nibbanassa
sacchikiriyiiya - yadidal?1 cattiiro satipatthiinii. 2). The word
satipatthana is usually translated today as "mindfulness" - indeed
a very apt translation, which has been integrated into a great num
ber of modern religious and therapeutic settings . "Awareness " is
another common English equivalent of the word. The word
upasthiina, meaning something like "standing by", has never been
properly understood in the context concerned, it is often translated
as "presence of', etc. The sati, or Sanskrit smrti, is however one of
the great words in the Sanskrit vocabulary, basically meaning
"memory" - it also denotes what every Indian of the upper classes
had to remember, namely the tradition of the interpretations of the
sruti, that which has been heard from the gods. The enormous em
phasis in Indian tradition on remembering has influenced a culture
of mnemotechnics and concentration and thus also a culture of
meditation, which indeed may be said to be a kind of "remember
ing" . This dichotomy is found in the Buddhist use of the word
smrti, which on the one side is to remember the Buddhist teachings,
but then also refers to remembering one ' s earlier lives since "be
ginningless time" - also a fruit of the meditational practice, accord
ing to the theory. Yet most of all sati/smrti denotes the practice of
what may be said to be remembering the present (also a proj ection
of the past, according to Buddhism), and thus being mindful, aware
of what one is in every moment. A long list of what to be aware of
(and what oneself is, then) is given in the satipafthiinasutta, classi
fied under the categories body, feelings, mind and states of con
sciousness (dhamma). Classed under body-mindfulness one can
WORD S FOR "MEDITATION" IN YOGA AND BUDDHI SM
49
find the popular "walking meditation", along with awareness of

other postures - somehow reminiscent of the body postures of Yo
ga, as is also the case with the awareness of breathing, reminiscent
of the prcil:zayama of Yoga. The Buddhist canon even devotes a
whole sutta to this, the Anapanasatisutta, which also, like Yoga,
prescribes correct posture : Secluded place, crossed legs, straight
back. It seems, though, that the Buddhist meditations are not re
garded by their classical practitioners as so much a type of control
as that of Yoga - all the kinds of nouns derived from the root yam,
meaning "to control'', are found in yogic terminology : yama, n iya
ma, smrzyama, praftayama, etc . The idea of Buddhism seems rather
to be that the peaceful reflection on feelings, thoughts and so forth,
will eventually bring about their cessation simply by regarding
them and then giving them up. Indeed, these two moments of "see
ing" and then "giving up" the various states of mind are described
at least in the later Abhidharma. Mindfulness therefore seems to be
sufficient as the ekayano maggab the one vehicle or way to en
lightenment.
Two other concepts which also have found resonance in modern
meditational "methods" or "types of meditation" are vipassana and
samatha, or vipasyana and 8amatha in Sanskrit. These two words,
which are poorly defined in the classical Buddhist literature, seem
rather to be qualities of meditation, the first one meaning some
thing like "insight (meditation)" (which it has often been translated
as) or even "expanded vision", which would be a more etymologi
cal translation. The second concept is translated as "peacefulness".
With the developing tradition of scholasticism of Buddhism,
however, the kinds of meditation so far mentioned, viz. ,
satipatthana, vipassana and samatha, are placed in the preparatory
stages of the carrier of the adept of Buddhist practice. In other
words, they belong to the stage where the ridding oneself of pas
sion, hate and delusion has not really started. This process of get
ting rid of the world, getting rid of all life and clinging to the pain
ful states of the world - be they coarse or subtle, belonging to the
world of passion or to the formless states - is described as increas
ingly subtle states of consciousness, and increasingly concentrated
states where the obj ects of meditation are decreasingly complex,
until the states of existence disappear altogether in order for vajro-
so
JENS BRAARVIG
pamasamadhi or nirodhasamapatti to happen, and subsequently

nirva'}Ja after death. These states are all together nine; one of the
world of passion, in which humans, animals, spirits, hell
inhabitants and the lower gods live, four of the world of form, and
four of the formless world, the last eight being described rather as
states of meditation than as places, which amounts to mostly iden
tical concepts in many Indian cosmologies . This system is similar
to Yoga in its being a transition from coarse to subtle states, from
the pratyahara, through dhara'}Ja and dhyana, to the consummation
of samadhi. In the Buddhist system, on the other hand, dhyana are
the four meditative states of mind of the four worlds of form and
samadhi, also here defined as concentration, is just a small part of
the second dhyana, which is very different from Yoga where it is
the summa of the development. The four states of meditation in the
formless world of Buddhism, which are a higher and formless kind
of concentration, are called samapatti, "attainments" (which in the
terminology of the Yoga system is a lower form of conditioned
concentration, connected with vitarka and vicara), "investigation"
and "reflection", as has already been translated. The terms vitarka
and vicara are similar in meaning in Yoga and in the Buddhist con
text. However, while the sati/smrti is of such importance in Bud
dhism as "mindfulness", etc., in Yoga it simply means plain
memory. While dhara'}Ja has a technical meaning in the building up
of samadhi in Yoga, in Buddhism this term, in the derived form
dhara'}Jf, originally mostly meant "memory", though later it ac
quired the meaning of mnemotechnical mantra, used as an aid for
meditation and the focus of concentration - this is of course aside
from all the magical connotations of dhara'}Jf in Tantric Buddhism.
These terms are more on the cognitive side of meditation, and as
such are on the vipasyana side in the traditional pair
vipasyanii/samatha, where the latter is the part which refers to "in
ner peace of mind" (the two are supposed to be "j oined in a team",
yuganaddha). Another term in Buddhism, nidhyapti, etymological
ly related with dhyana, from the root dhyai- ' to think' , is also a
term between the state of concentration and knowledge side of
meditation, best translated as "consideration" . This touches upon a
greater problem, namely what is the intellectual and knowledge
part, and what is part which refers to the mental peace of medita-
51
tion practices . In general, Buddhism tries to connect these episte

mological phases, as in the case of vipassana and samatha, while
Yoga tends to see concentration as also inclusive of the intellectual
cognitive part: when the nirvikalpasamadhi, "concentration with
out thought-constructions" sets in, one also believes that one be
comes omniscient and knows all phenomena in the world.
So let us here translate into English the Buddhist succession of
more and more subtle meditational states; nine in number, corre
sponding to nine worlds, and ending with the nirodhasamapatti,
the attainment of cessation, which is n irvafla after death and the
aim of Buddhist meditation:
" [The four meditations, dhyana, in the form-worlds, riipadhatu:] Here
monks, when one has detached oneself of passion and bad moments of
existence [that is, the world of passions] , one behaves in the way of
having attained the first state of meditation (jhiina, dhyana), which is
characterized by investigation (vitarka) and reflection (vicara), and by
happiness and pleasure born from being detached, after the appease
ment of investigation and reflection one behaves in the way of having
attained the second state of meditation, which because of inner clarity
and one-pointedness of thought is characterized by absence of investi
gation and reflection, and by happiness and pleasure born from con
centration (samadhi), being impassive as beyond any passion for hap
piness, being mindful and experiencing j oy through one ' s body, and
thus experiences what the saints see, and is impassive and mindful
(satima, smrtiman) one behaves in the way of having attained the third
state of meditation, which is characterized by absence of happiness,
after giving up pleasure and after giving up suffering and indeed hav
ing gotten rid of elatedness and depression one behaves in the way of
having attained the fourth state of meditation, which is characterized
by neither suffering nor pleasure.
[The four attainments, samapatti, in the formless worlds,
ariipyadhatu:] Having transcended completely all concepts of form,
after the disappearance of conceptual hindrances, being without any
mental activity concerned with conceptual diversity, one behaves in
the way of having attained the field of experience of endlessness of
space (akasananciiyatana, akasanantyayatana), where one experienc
es space as endless, having transcended completely the field of experi
ence of endlessness of space, one behaves in the way of having at
tained field of experience of endlessness of consciousness
52
JENS BRAARVIG
(vif'lfta1Jaftcayatana, vijnananant-yayatana), where one experiences

consciousness as endless, having transcended completely the field of
experience of endlessness of consciousness, one behaves in the way of
having attained field of nothing in particular (akincannayatana,
akirrzcanyayatana), where one experiences that there is nothing in par
ticular, having transcended completely the field of experience of noth
ing in particular, one behaves in the way of having attained field of
neither concept nor non-concept (nevasannanasannayatana,
naivasarrzjnana-sarrzjnayatana), and having transcended completely
the field of neither concept nor non-concept, one behaves in the way
of having attained cessation (nirodha) as witnessed. These, monks, are
the nine successive behaviours .
Idha bhikkhave vivicceva kamehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savit
akkarrz savicararrz vivekajarrz pltisukharrz pathamarrz jhanarrz upasampa
jja viharati. Vitakka vicaranarrz vupasama ajjhattarrz sampasadanarrz
cetaso ekodibhavarrz avitakkarrz avicararrz samadhijarrz pltisukharrz du
tiyarrz jhanarrz upasampajja viharati. Pltiya ca viraga upekkhako ca
viharati. Sato ca sampajano sukhanca kayena patisarrzvedeti. Yantarrz
ariya avikkhanti: upekkhako satima sukhaviharlti tarrz tatiyarrz jhanarrz
upasampajja viharati. Sukhassa ca pahana dukkhassa ca pahana
pubbeva somanassadomanassanarrz atthangama adukkhamasukharrz
upekkhasatiparisuddhirrz catuttharrz jhanarrz upasampajja viharati.
Sabbaso rupasannanarrz samatikkama patighasannanarrz atthangama
nanattasannanarrz amanasikara anatto akasoti akasanancayatanarrz
upasampajja viharati. Sabbaso akasanancayatanarrz samatikkamma
anattarrz vinna7Janti viftfta7Jancayatanarrz upasampajja viharati. Sab
baso vinfta1Jaftcayatanarrz samatikkamma natthi kinciti akincannayat
anarrz upasampajja viharati. Sabbaso akincannayatanarrz upasampajja
viharati.
Sabbaso
akincannayatanarrz
samatikkamma
ne
vasannanasannayatanarrz upasampajja viharati. Sabbaso ne
vasannanasannayatanarrz samatikkamma sannavedayita nirodharrz
upasampajja viharati.
!me kho bhikkhave, nava anupubba viharati. 2
While each of the limbs of the a/jfangayoga builds upon the one
before (tasya bhumi(iu viniyogafl, III,6), this is not the case of the
eightfold path of Buddhism; these items are to be practiced all to2
Mahiivaggo 9. 1 . 4. I : Anupubbavihiira suttwrz. The terms are found in many loci

of the Pali canon, but here the full process of development is given.
53
gether. However, the last three members o f the eightfold path are
meditation words, those of mental effort (vyayama from the root
yam-), mindfulness (smrti) and concentration (samadhi), the group
of three, though, collectively being called samadhi. These three are
reminscent of the last three members of Yoga, collectively called
sar(lyama (III,4 et passim), again meaning "control" . It is of course
nothing new that the two systems of eight members seem to be
competing systems of rhetoric trying to describe how to achieve
human development by meditation.
Another meditation word, bhavana, which denotes "to make
happen", or "to develop", and translated by Herbert Gilnther3 as
"making a living experience of', has rather an epistemological or
even pedagogical value : it is placed into the triad of srutamayf
prajna, "insight derived from hearing'', cintamayf prajna, "insight
derived from pondering on", and lastly, bhavanamayf prajna, "in
sight developed into real understanding". This denotes a process of
increased interiorization of learned knowledge rather than a pro
cess of meditation, though of course one might say that such interi
orization of knowledge mi ght be called a kind of meditation. With
time, however, bhavana developed into a word for meditation, as
did many other words for "pondering on" and "reflecting on", as
with the term nidhyapti, which is used in a Mahayana context and
may also mean "understanding" . The movement from srutamayf
through cintamayf to bhavanamayf, represents a movement from
what we might in modern language style "only intellectual
knowledge" as heard or learned, to something we take seriously
and reflect and ponder upon, to a knowledge cultivated within our
selves to be integrated and part of our inner being.
With the Mahayana, meditation words became somewhat less
important as part of this mostly, it would seem, literary movement
placed great emphasis on intellectual discussions on the one hand,
and on piety, faith, generous acts and ethics on the other. The
meditation practices of monks and recluses were often derided, and
the addiction to such a peaceful life, .amabhirata, was nothing for
the bodhisattva; he was in a state of meditation whatever he did,
and he could enter any samadhi at will, preferably with a fanciful
3 See for example Guenther ( 1 959).
54
JENS BRAARVIG
and long Sanskrit name. Additionally, the dhycmasvada, "tasting of

meditation", was worse than Hell, thus addiction to inner medita
tional disciplines was depreciated to some extent. 4 This did not
mean that meditation in all its forms would not further develop its
terminology, and with Tantric Buddhism the word sadhana meant
taking into the meditational practices of interiorizing a magical rit
ual for soteriological purposes, while the terms of utpattikrama and
ni$pannakrama, developed as the "form phase" and "emptiness
phase" of Tantric visualization.
We can see that the wortschatz of Yoga and Buddhist medita
tional practices are to some extent the same, but the placement of
the words within the two systems is different, and so thus are their
meanings. On occasion the meditation terminologies from the yo
ga-systems and the various sects of Buddhism have been promoted
as particular methods in modem religious endeavours, but it is of
ten difficult to see what distinguishes these methods from each
other. One may often suspect that the technical terms of meditation
are no more than rhetorical means used to promote this or that reli
gious sect or psychological/therapeutic business idea. In some con
texts, some of the "meditation words" may seem to an extent syn
onymous, however, in looking at the complexity of Indian words
for "meditation", one may well reflect upon the richness of lan
guage such activities generated in classical India. One could extend
this reflection further in considering how a huge, yet maybe not too
well-defined terminology, is being generated today in a global con
text, either by Sanskrit or Pali loanwords, by Japanese or Chinese,
or by translations and loan translations into Western languages . In
the end, most of the words are historically connected with the Indi
an contexts .
As in the Vimalakminirdefa 3 1 a2 and 40b6; Mahayanasutralaqikara 1 3 .28 and

commentary.
WORD S FOR "MEDITATION" IN YOGA AND BUDPHISM
55
Summary of terms
y : Yoga
b: Buddhism
m: Mahayana Buddhism
The Sanskrit form is given first, and the Pali second, if different.
bhavana cultivation of knowledge, cf. sruta, learned, heard, and

cinta, reflection, pondering on, with which bhavana creates a
trinity of increased understanding and awareness.
cinta b, m : pondering on, reflecting on, cf. sruta and bhavana.
dharm:za being mentally focused on an obj ect, the root is dhr-, to
uphold, support, keep, in the case, in mind, y: the first and least
developed stage of meditation
dharm:zf cf. dharm:za, the two words are from the same root. Orig
inally a prop, support; then, m: something to help remember and
keep in mind, mnemotechnical aid, focus or prop of meditation,
obj ect of meditation, mantra, magical formula.
dhyana, jhana b: the first four stages of meditation, cf. samadhi,
but also a general word for meditation; m: the most general
word for meditation, as in the list of "perfections",
dhyanaparamita; y: being continually focussed on and obj ect of
meditation, the second stage of meditation. Root: dhyai- cf.
nidhyapti.
nidhyapti also from the root dhyai- cf. dhyana, mostly m. The
more cognitive part of meditation, as such often best translated
as "consideration'', or reflection on", cf. vipasyana, cf. also vi
tarka.
ni$pannakrama m : "perfection phase", see sadhana and cf. ut
pattikrama.
sadhana "making it happen" literally, m: a meditational proce
dure in the form of a written text employed in the Tantras to in
struct both rituals and their interiorization as meditation. It usu
ally has two main phases, utpattikrama and ni$pannakrama.
The first one, the "generation phase" or "form phase", builds up
the devotion to the chosen deity with mantras an inner or outer
-
JENS BRAARVIG
56
rituals, while the second, the "emptiness-" or "perfection phase"

is where the meditator is supposed to merge with the deity in
shining light and emptiness.
samadh i y : advanced and absolute concentration, where there is
no duality between meditator and meditated on, of subj ect and
obj ect; b : states of concentration attained in meditation, and
thus the states of consciousness of gods, living in heavens cor
responding to such states of consciousness; m: the bodhisatva
can attain such states at will in any relevant situation.
samapatti generally "success", "attainment", in our context "suc
cess in meditation" or "attainment of meditational states"; in y :
similar to the concept o f samadhi; b : one o f the four final and
highest states of concentration.
Samatha, samatha - peace, b: inner peace, peaceful meditation.
smrti, sati - general word for remembrance, most important is to
remember one ' s former lives, and thus profit in the present from
all one has experienced and has had knowledge of in one ' s eter
nal cycle of rebirth in the past. The concept is more important in
b than y, and here remembrance is also connected to the present,
thus attaining the meaning of attention, recollection, awareness
and mindfulness. In b, where it received a particular emphasis,
the "practice of mindfulness" smrtyupasthana, satipatthana, 1s
seen as the only way to liberation.
sruta learned heard, cf. cinta and bhiivana.
utpattikrama "generation phase" or "form phase", see sadhana
and cf. ni$pannakrama.
vicara see vitarka
vipasyana, vipassana seeing all around, expanded vision, b : "in
sight meditation" . Cf. nidhyapti.
vitarka, vitakka y, b: mainly logical investigation, but as such
also a quality attained by meditation and concentration, coupled
with vicara, "introspection" or "reflection" .
vyayama mental control and effort, keeping bad thoughts away
and cultivating the good, preparation for meditation in b, item
no. 6 in the eightfold path, the a${ango margafl.
-
"Creative Contemplation"
(Bhiivanii)
in the Vij ii ana Bhairava Tantra

Bettina Baumer ' Sharada'
The Sanskrit language has a rich vocabulary for different kinds of

"meditation", which need to be distinguished carefully in order to
assess the richness of the spiritual traditions of (so-called)
Hinduism. 1 Some of these terms belong to the list of the eight
"limbs of yoga" (yogiinga) as described in Patafij ali ' s Yogasfitra,
such as : dhyiina (meditation, also in the sense of visualization),
dhiiraflii (concentration), and samiidhi (absorption), which have
been used in different Yoga schools and the relevant texts of
Tantras . However, one term has never been mentioned as a
particular practice or stage of yoga, although it plays a very
important role in the practice of meditation in various schools and
texts : Bhavanii, which has been variously translated as "creative
contemplation", "insight-contemplation" ( S . Vasudeva), "imagi
nation as intuitive and creative power" 2 (L. Silbum), "creative
1 Although Buddhism uses the same concepts, the implications are often different,
and hence no attempt is made here to compare them.
2 Silburn also translates it as "meditation creatrice identifianate" or "realization
mystique" .
58
BETTINA B AUMER
meditation"3 (R. Torella), "meditative realization" (L. Bansat

Boudon and K. D . Tripathi), etc . We may first look at some
definitions before giving examples of this practice and its
variations from the Vijfiana Bhairava Tantra.
Bhiivanii is derived from the verbal root bhii- "to become, to
be", with a dynamism implied, hence a contemplative practice
leading to a state of being. 4 One could therefore also translate it as
"transformative meditation", leading to identification. Padoux de
scribes it as "intense creative meditation that causes to appear to
the mind vivid images with which the meditator becomes identi
fied" ( 1 9 9 0 : 4 1 3 ). Thus, in texts of Yoga and Tantra, the result of
bhiivanii is often described as samiidhi (absorption) . To quote an
example from the Saiva text Svayambhuvasiltra-sangraha:
The Yogin, by being established in that (meditation), quickly finds ab
sorption. When absorption is well developed, one attains the desired
reward. Contemplating (bhiivaya1J1s) the thing which is the obj ect of
one ' s awareness, one achieves identification (tanmayo) (with the ob
j ect). When identification (is achieved) the mind becomes supportless,
as though non-existent. Then he indeed is (a Yogin) who has achieved
absorption, who, abiding (in that state) like one dead is unaware of
sounds etc. (Vasudeva, 2004 : 4 3 5 )
In the Riijamiirtaflda by king Bhoj a on the Yogasiitra :

Bhiivanii, ' contemplative insight' is the most general term used in the
context of meditation. It is the repeated mental engagement with an
obj ect of contemplation to the exclusion of all others . (Vasudeva,
2004 : 22 1 )
According t o the Saiva Agamas, tarka, o r discriminative insight, is

an important element of Yoga. Interestingly, it is sometimes identi3 "Apprehension of an inner, emergent divine consciousness" also described by
Jaideva Singh ( 1 979) as "the practice of contemplating or viewing mentally one
self and everything else as S iva".
4 This concept and practice could well be derived from the Upaniads, where we
find the repeated phrase ya evam veda sa eva bhavati, "he who knows thus be
comes it", the "it" referring to one form or other of brahman meditated upon. But
we are not going here into the history of this practice.
CREATIVE CONTEMPLATION IN VIJNANA BHAUlAVA
59
fied with bhfivana, a s i n Abhinavagupta' s Tantraloka ("Light o n

the Tantras"):
I t is certain that the learned sever the root of this tree ( o f differentiated
awareness), which is difficult to cut, with the hoe (kufhara) of correct
judgement (sattarka), its edge sharpened. The wise call it "insight
contemplation" (bhiivana), the cow which grants all wishes, who man
ifests even what is inaccessible to desire. (TA 4 . 1 3 - 1 4, translated by
Vasudeva, 2004 : 420)
The commentator, Jayaratha, adds that thanks to bhavana, what has

been unclear or confused "attains the clarity of the nature of pure
consciousness" (Vasudeva, 2004 : 22 1 ). By calling bhfivana "the
wish-fulfilling cow" (kamadugha), Abhinavagupta emphasizes the
powerful creative aspect of this contemplation. Even though it may
start from a form of imagination, the clarity of discrimination has
to precede it.
This meaning has to be kept in mind when this kind of medita
tion is described as "creative imagination" . We shall come to the
element of imagination in the context of practical examples from
the Vijfiana Bhairava.
The equally authoritative Malinfvijayottara Tantra of Kashmir
Saivism has a phrase describing "attentiveness in the contempla
tion of Siva" :
tadarthabhavanayuktarrz, which means literally "the insight

contemplation (bhfivana) of the meaning or substance (artha) of
the ultimate state of Siva (tat-paramarrz padam Sivatattva) " .
(Vasudeva, 2004 : 428)
=
In bhavana a transition takes place from "a discursive mode of

thought into an intuitive and non-discursive awareness [ . . . ] fo
cused on ultimate reality" (Bansat-Boudon and Tripathi, 20 1 1 : 50).
All this dynamism involved in the practice of bhavana shows its
connection with the divine Energy : Sakti. In Trika, or non-dualist
Kashmir Saivism as developed fully in Abhinavagupta in the 1 Oth1 1 th century, four ways or means to liberation are distinguished: In
way of descent, the non-way (anupaya), the Divine way (Sambhava
60
BETTINA B AUMER
upaya), the way of Energy (sakta upaya), and the lowest, individu
al way (a7Java upaya). Each one (except anupiiya, as the name
says) has its own practices and level of consciousness. The inter
mediary way is that of Energy, mediating between activity (kriya)
and the divine will (iccha), hence non-activity, as well as between
duality (bheda, difference) and non-duality (abheda) . Bhavana as
dynamic, transformative meditation is clearly situated at this level
of Energy, mediating between the individual and the divine. Thus
bhavana is rooted in the divine Energy, as it is experienced in an
intermediary zone of silence preceding thought and language, a
zone between thought-construct (vikalpa) and the thought-free non
dual state ( nirvikalpa ). 5 Yet it is also based on a conviction or in
sight, which it integrates into contemplation:
Bhiivana is ultimately but a form of pure energy considered in its inde
termination, therefore it resides in the most varied aspects of that en
ergy . . . (Silbum, 1 99 8 : 32).
Silburn therefore calls it the mystical zone, the "in between"

(madhya) .
These apparently contradictory ' definitions ' of bhavana will
become clear when considering the examples given in the Vijnana
Bhairava.
The Vijnana Bhairava is the most authoritative Tantra of non
dualist Kashmir Saivism in so far it describes explicitly 1 1 2 ways
of entering supreme consciousness. They comprise of various
forms of ' meditation' , concentration on breath (pra7Ja), experiences
taking their starting point from j oyful or painful sensations as well
as from aesthetic j oys such as listening to music, various practices
of "centering", i.e. focusing on the center between two breaths, two
thoughts, two obj ects, or two extremes like happiness and suffer
ing, etc. Then there are spontaneous or induced experiences with
out any previous practice, leading to sudden enlightenment or the
entering into the state of divine consciousness. One example is
5 I refer to the description given by Silbum in her introduction to the Vijnana

Bhairava ( 1 99 8 : 3 0-35).
CREATIVE CONTEMPLATION IN VIJNANA BHAIRA VA
61
lo oking down into an abyss or a deep well, which frees the mind
from all thoughts .
These practices and experiences can be classified according to
the three or four upayas as described in Abhinavagupta' s Tantralo
6
ka, as has been done by Swami Lakshman Joo .
Here we are concerned with those practices or meditations clas
sified under the way of Energy (Saktopiiya), and especially those
where the practice is described by the verb bhiivyate, connected
with bhavana. The verb itself expresses the dynamism of transfor
mation.
The noun bhavana occurs in five verses of significance (20, 3 9 ,
47, 1 45, 1 5 1 ) . In the introductory verse 2 0 , the connection of
bhavana with divine Energy is immediately established, thus plac
ing all the following practices in their proper context.
When one enters the state of Energy (foktyavastha) through a contem
plation free from distinction (from it), then one becomes one with S iva
(or: one attains the divine nature, sivarupf). For S akti is called the en
trance to S iva. 7 (Lakshman Joo, 2007 : verse 20)
It sounds like a tautology, but there is still a process of divinization

leading from bhiivana to the divine state, from S akti to S iva. This
also implies that S iva, the Divine, cannot be experienced directly,
but only mediated by its own Power. Any differentiating thought
would be an obstacle in this contemplation.
Bhiivana is further connected with contemplation of the void
(sunya), as in the following example :
BhairavI, by uttering the pravava (mantra) 8 and by meditating on
the void at the end of the protracted sound, one attains the state of the
Void by means of the Supreme Energy of the Void. (Lakshman Joo,
2007 : verse 3 9)
0
The Energy of the Void is here derived from the silence following
the recitation of mantra : It is through this silence passing via the
6
In his (oral) commentary (2007).

Saivfmukham: also "the face, the mouth" of S iva.
8 The pranava mantra is a monosyllabic or bija mantra, like Om, hum, hrim .
62
BETTINA B AUMER
supreme Energy of the void that the state of pure Void is attained.
There is thus a transition from the mantra to the void through S ak
ti, or from sound to silence and to the source of silenc e : sunyata.
A group of practices ( 4 3 -4 7) often called dharm:za, but here
more appropriately called bhavana, are concerned with meditation
on the body as empty. The purpose is to de-identify consciousness
from the body, and thus to reach a state of transparency. The Tan
tra suggests some variations of this contemplation, the first being:
One should meditate on the void in one ' s own body on all sides simul
taneously. When the mind has become free from thoughts, one experi
ences everything as the Void. (Lakshman Joo, 2 0 0 7 : verse 43 ) .
What i s significant in these practices i s the simultaneity o f concen

trating on different sides or parts of the body, which is very diffi
cult to achieve. It is precisely this simultaneity, however, which
releases the mind from being fixed in any particular place, there
being nothing to hold on to . Losing hold, another energy takes over
and empties the mind of all thoughts and identifications (nir
vikalpa). In verse 44 this is called "the energy that does not depend
on the body". Even a momentary experience of emptiness can lead
to freeing the mind from identifications :
If one contemplates in a thought-free way on any point in the body as
mere void even for a moment, then, being free from thoughts one at
tains the nature of the Thoughtfree ( S iva). (Lakshman Joo, 200 7 : verse
46)
"Contemplates" (vibhavayet) here does not mean a prolonged med

itation, but a momentary act of awareness that leads to attaining a
state of "sharing in the non-duality of consciousness, i.e. a momen
tary act leads to a transformation of the entire being. In this way
the verse generalizes the three preceding practices of emptying the
body consciousness. Nirvikalpa, "thought-free awareness'', can
never be attained through a practice specifically aimed at it, it ra
ther has to occur "by the way", in the middle of two things or
thoughts. By definition it cannot be the object of meditation, be-
CREATIVE CONTEMPLATION IN VIJNANA BHAUlA VA
63
cause in that case it would be a vikalpa, a "thought-construct"

b ased on duality.
The last verse in this group concerned with the body ( 4 7) aims
at a steady state of bhavana:
0
gazelle-eyed Goddess, if one contemplates on all the elements con

stituting the body as pervaded by void, then one ' s contemplation (of
the Void) will become firm. 9 (Lakshman Joo 2007: verse 47)
This steadiness depends on a state of awareness of the void (lit.

sky, niyad, always a symbol for all-pervasive emptiness). It dis
solves the consciousness of the body as something solid, substan
tial (dravya) .
A universal expansion of this dharm:za is when the body and the
universe are simultaneously contemplated upon:
If one contemplates simultaneously that one ' s entire body and the
world consists of nothing but Consciousness, then the mind becomes
free from thoughts and the supreme awakening occurs . (Lakshman
Joo, 2007: verse 63)
Verse 6 5 contains the same contemplation (without the verb

bhavayet, but smaret) , within the context of bliss (ananda):
The (yogI) should contemplate simultaneously on the whole world or
his own body as filled with his own bliss, then by his own blissful nec
tar he becomes united with the supreme bliss. (Lakshman Joo, 2 0 0 7 :
verse 65)
Simultaneous contemplation is again not possible in any obj ectified

way, it has to be a state of awareness beyond space and time and
therefore a state of Energy, as already stated. A subj ect-obj ect
meditation would be at the individual level, which is a level of du
ality.
These two practices may take their start from an act of imagina
tion. In the commentary by Swami Lakshman Joo :
tasya bhavana sa sthira bhavet.
64
BETTINA B AUMER
Imagine that this whole universe is filled with God-consciousness,

from toe to head. Think that you and this universe are the same. (But)
you have to adopt this consciousness with a thought-free mind. (Lak
shman Joo, 2007 : 69- 70)
Bhavana is then this in-between of imaginative thought and the

thought-free awareness resulting from it.
Bhavana can also be the transformation of a sensual experience,
leading from a limited j oy to the fullness of bliss, as even in the
apparently simple act of eating and drinking:
When one is filled with j oy arising from the pleasure of eating and
drinking, one should meditate on the state of fullness. Then the great
bliss will arise. (Lakshman Joo, 2007 : verse 72)
Contemplation using imagination at the beginning leads to immer

sion or absorption in the Divine, as in the following practice :
One should contemplate the entire sky which is the nature of Bhairava
as if it is pervading one ' s head. Then (one experiences) everything as
the form of Bhairava and one enters into the glory of His nature. (Lak
shman Joo, 2007: verse 85)
The sky is the all-pervasive form of Bhairava, and this bhavana is

transformed into light-energy. What this and other practices of
bhavana imply is an integration of micro- and macrocosm, or of
the body and the universe.
These meditations aim precisely at a state of non-duality, taking
their start from an act of imagination.
Thus meditation on Bhairava also takes the form of contempla
tion of darkness, outside and inside the body, merging with the
form of darkness of the Divine. Darkness is another way of empty
ing thoughts (verses 8 3 - 87).
Another way of universalizing meditation is to consider that not
only conscious beings, but even so-called inert obj ects are pervad
ed by the same consciousness :
"Knowledge, will etc. are not only found within me, they are also pre
sent in j ars and others obj ects". Meditating in this way on the omni-
CREATIVE CONTEMPLATION IN VIJNANA BHAIRAVA
65
present (Reality), one becomes all-pervading. (Lakshman Joo, 2007:

verse 1 05)
Here again, the meditator starts with a thought which is then trans
formed into the reality of a universal insight. This bhiivana serves
to overcome the dichotomy of subj ect-obj ect, one of the main aims
of an advaitic understanding of reality. 1 0 The important overcom
ing of the duality of self and other is the topic of another bhavana:
One should experience the consciousness also in the body of others as
in one ' s own. Giving up the concern for one ' s own body, one becomes
all-pervading within days . (Lakshman Joo, 2007: verse 1 0 7)
Contemplating the same consciousness in all bodies implies re

nouncing the identification with one ' s own body, overcoming its
limitations and thus leading to all-pervasion (vyapi), or universal
consciousness.
Only one verse in the Vijnana Bhairava takes devotion (bhakti)
as the starting-point of contemplation:
The intuitive insight which is born from intense devotion in one who
is detached is the very Energy of S atikara: ever contemplating on her
one becomes S iva. (Lakshman Joo, 2007 : verse 1 2 1 )
Several stages are involved in moving from devotion (which al

ways implies a kind of duality) to divinization. Intense devotion
both presupposes and produces detachment, out of which a state of
the mind or purified intellect (mati) arises. This itself is trans
formed into divine Energy (fakti sankari), leading ultimately to
divinization. The active force behind this is precisely bhiivana,
which has to use the divine Energy in a constant process of con
templation (nitya1]'1 bhavayet) .
Contemplation on divine qualities leads to enlightenment - but
these characteristics are negative :
10
Cf. the immediately following verse 1 0 6 : "The perception of subj ect and obj ect
is common to all embodied beings. But characteristic of yogis is that they are
aware of this relationship. "
66
BETTINA B AUMER
The unknowable, the ungraspable, the void, that which pervades even
non-existence, contemplate on all this as Bhairava. At the end (of this
contemplation) illuminatio11 will dawn . (Lak5hm;m Joo, 7007 : verse
1 27)
The contemplation therefore consists in negating any obj ectivity, in

emptying. Only then illumination (or awakening) becomes possible
(bodhasmrzbhava).
The following verse does not use the verb bhavayet, but it
shows a similar process leading to complete absorption
(samavefo).
Fixing one ' s mind on the external space which is eternal, supportless,
empty, all-pervading and free from limitation, in this way one will be
absorbed in non-space. (Lakshman Joo, 2007 : verse 1 2 8)
Here even the emptiness of space is transcended in the process of

absorption.
Bhavana as a meditation leading from duality to oneness is ap
plied in the differentiation between knowledge and the knower:
Since they have the same nature, knowledge and the knower should be
contemplated as inseparable. (Lakshman Joo, 2007: verse 1 3 7cd)
In the concluding verses, the Tantra substitutes ritual acts with spir
itual practice. Here we find a brief but revealing summary of what
bhavana is all about, as the recitation of mantra or japa, the most
common religious practice, is substituted by bhavana:
The contemplation on the supreme state which is done continuously,
that is real recitation (japa) in this (esoteric) tradition. The sound
(nada) which is sounding by itself is the real mantra to be recited.
(Lakshman Joo, 2007: verse 145)
A characteristic of bhavana is a repeated - and by repetition, con

tinuous - practice of contemplating on the highest state (there is a
play with words : pare bhave bhavana bhavyate). The transfor
mation occurring as a result of this exercise is not explicitly men-
CREATIVE CONTEMPLATION IN VIJNANA BRAIMVA
67
tioned, but rather implied. It has to be an entering or identification

with the supreme state .
In the end, the sacred place (k$etra) is substituted by bhiivanii :
The sacred place o f pilgrimage (k.yetra) consists in supreme contem
plation (para bhiivana) and the absorption into the S akti of Rudra, by
which all sins are removed and all (beings) are saved. How can there
be any other worship and fulfillment in relation to this (non-dual) Re
ality? (Lakshman Joo, 2007: verse 1 5 1 )
The real pilgrimage i s not external, but i s supreme contemplation

consisting in union with the Power of Rudra. It fulfills the same
goal which the pilgrim is in search of when visiting a sacred place,
namely purification from sins and salvation. 1 1
After going through the examples o f Vijfiiina Bhairava w e may
try to summarize the features of bhiivanii. First of all, it is a process
and not a static state like samiidhi, and this process takes its start
from a thought, a conviction or an imagination, which through
meditative integration is then transformed into the intended reality.
Or rather, what is operated is the transformation of the meditator,
moving from dualistic consciousness to the unity with the ' content'
of meditation. Again, as stated in the beginning, there is no subj ect
obj ect relationship implied, but rather a merging in that in-between
which may be termed as void, or as pure or divine Consciousness.
In the briefest definition given by Swami Lakshman Joo : "Bhiivanii
is directing your mind with awareness" (200 7 : 1 75). The transfor
mation operated is one leading from visualization to identification,
and hence from limited consciousness to its universalization, and
hence divinization.
11 This is a traditional etymology or hermeneutics of k$efra

analyzed in its two
syllables k$apm:za (removal of sins) and trii;:za (protection or salvation) .
,
The First Absorption
(Dhyana)
in
Early Indian Buddhism

A Study of So urce Material
fro m the Madhyama-agama
B hikkhu Analayo
Introduction
With the present paper I shall explore the practical implications of
the attainment of the first absorption (dhyana). 1 My source texts
are the " early Buddhist discourses " , which take us back to the be
ginning stages of Buddhist thought. 2 In order to complement a
prevalent focus in studies of early Indian Buddhism on the Pali dis
courses preserved by the Theravada school,3 I mostly utilize dis
courses from the Madhyama-agama preserved in Chinese transla
tion, representative of the canonical collections of the Sarvastivada
school. 4
1 I am indebted to Bhikkhu Brahmali, Rod Bucknell and Giuliana Martini for
comments on a draft of this paper.
2 Cf. in more detail Analayo (20 1 2 a).
3 For a study of the absorptions based on canonical and commentarial Pali litera
ture cf. Gunaratana ( l 996) [ 1 98 5 ] .
4 O n the school affiliation of the Madhyama-agama cf. L ii ( 1 963 : 242), Wald-
70
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
Description of the First Absorption

The standard description of the attainment of the first absorption in
Madhyama-agama discourses reads as follows :
Secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from evil and unwhole
some qualities, with [directed] awareness and contemplation, [with]
rapture and happiness born of seclusion, one5 dwells having attained
and accomplished the first absorption. 6
The basic aspects of this description, which recur similarly in the

canonical descriptions of the first absorption in discourses pre
served by other Buddhist schools, 7 can be divided into three main
themes :
1 . Seclusion from "sensual pleasures" and from "evil and unwhole-
some qualities"
2 . Presence of " [directed] awareness" and "contemplation"
3 . Presence of "rapture and happiness born of seclusion"
'
Before examining these three aspects in more detail ( in parts 2-4 of

my paper), by way of providing a background to my examination I
briefly explore the general purpose of such descriptions from the
viewpoint of meditation practice.
schmidt ( 1 980: 1 3 6), Enomoto ( 1 984), Mayeda ( 1 9 8 5 : 98), Enomoto ( 1 98 6 : 2 1 ),
Hirakawa ( 1 9 8 7 : 5 1 3), Minh Chau ( 1 99 1 : 27) and Oberlies (2003 : 4 8), with a
recent contribution in Chung and Fukita (20 1 1 : 1 3 -3 4) and a reply in Analayo
(20 1 2b : 5 1 6-52 1).
5 Here and elsewhere I employ the rendering " one" in order to make it clear that
the description does not intend excluding women from the practice, even though
the standard account of absorption attainment in early Buddhist discourse have a
"monk'', bhikkhu/f;ci:, as their subj ect. In such contexts, the reference to a
"monk" acts as an umbrella term for any practitioner and does not imply that the
passage is only concerned with male monastics or only meant for them; cf. the
gloss on bhikkhu (in the context of mindfulness meditation practice) at Ps I 24 1 , 3 ,
translated in Soma ( 1 98 1 [ 1 9 4 1 ] : 3 1 ).
6 MA 1 64 at T I 695a23 : Ml. M::fZ.5, 1"1';, 1'lllt M1:. i*JJt-'RlG
:it .
7 For a comparative survey cf. Meisig ( 1 990 : 543 -547).
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDr.IISM
71
This purpose i s reflected in a Madhyama-iigama discourse that

describes how someone who has attained the first absorption by
dint of proper practice reaches the second absorption. Not recog
nizing this experience for what it is, the practitioner comes to a
mistaken conclusion and thereby loses the attainment:
[The practitioner thinks] : 'I have lost the first absorption, my concen
tration has ceased.' That practitioner of absorption does not understand
as it really is: 'By cultivating right intention my mind, j oyful and calm,
has progressed from the first absorption to the second absorption,
which is superior in calmness.' Not having understood this as it really
is, [the practitioner] turns back the mind [from the second absorption]
and thereon loses the concentration. In this way a practitioner of ab
sorption, [who has actually] progressed, thinks to be regressing. 8
The converse can also happen, when someone prematurely at

tempts to progress from the first to the second absorption and
thereby even loses the level of concentration earlier attained. 9 Mis
takenly believing to have reached the second absorption, "in this
way a practitioner of absorption, [who has actually] regressed,
thinks to be progressing" . 1 0
Thus the listing of key aspects of the absorptions in the canoni
cal descriptions makes it possible to recognize the experience dur
ing actual practice, thereby avoiding wrong assessments of one's
progress or regress, which in turn undermine one's proper prac
tice. 11 In other words, a chief purpose of highlighting these key
8 MA 1 7 6 at T I 7 1 4a2 : '*::fJJt,, JE-!t', 1EH'ft,%-:::f 9;0 31D JOC : 'flt1 L,'fllIEJG'"
',J, J:lU1fHJJt' !FJx*=t,, MJ,,;f,J[,' :::f 9iD31DJOCE., 31Dfil"g1}!)1;:JE:,
310 1Tt'%"jffl fil!l fil . This discourse doe s not have a parallel in the Pali
canon.
9 A similar point is made in AN 9 . 3 5 at AN IV 4 1 8,6. The discourse compares an
attempt to reach the second absorption without having properly developed the first
absorption to a foolish cow which, trying to get to a new place on a mountain
without firmly planting her feet in the place she had been, is neither able to reach
the new place nor able to safely return to where she was before.
1 0 MA 1 76 at T I 7 1 4c4 : 310
1Tt,%-filjffl g!lj.
1 1 The same principle is also reflected in AN 6 . 7 1 at AN III 427, 1 , which high
lights the importance of properly recognizing what leads to decline and what leads
to progress, etc., though the exposition does not explicitly mention the attainment
72
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
aspects is to describe those aspects that are of particular relevance

from a practical perspective .
The function of this listing goes further, since the key aspects it
enumerates are indications about how to enter absorption, and the
successful putting into practice of these indications is what makes
for the actual attainment. Thus besides proper recognition, the pur
pose of the above description is also the providing of directions on
how practice should be undertaken. This comes to the fore in an
other discourse in the Madhyama-agama, which describes a practi
tioner who has attained the first absorption:
One does not keep that practice, is not mindful of its characteristic
marks, one is only mindful of and has perceptions related to the char
acteristics of engaging in sensual pleasures; one completely regresses. 1 2
Here regression happens because a crucial aspect of the first ab

sorption, " seclusion from sensuality", has not been properly main
tained. Lack of keeping up this quality when faced by the tempta
tion of sensual pleasures inevitably leads to regress. Another type
of practitioner, however, acts differently and is able to stabilize the
attainment of the first absorption:
One does keep that practice and is mindful of its characteristic marks,
one establishes mindfulness in accordance with the Dharma so as to
dwell with a unified mind. 1 3
This passage indicates that clear awareness of the "characteristic

marks" - in the present case in particular of remaining secluded
from sensual pleasures - is of considerable importance in order to
be able to stabilize the attainment of absorption. 1 4
of absorption.
12 MA 1 77 at T I 7 1 6b23 : i' :f )'l:Jltf'J, :fJl:ct;f, !lfEf'JW'\tJ!!\ ;!'J{ , i8ijl\JJ"!..
This discourse does not have a parallel in the Pali canon.
13 MA 1 77 at T I 7 1 6b28 : i' )'l:Jl:tf'J, Jl:ct;f , .TI:fr0 )$;, 9{.t - }i .
14 This is also reflected i n S N 40. 1 at S N I V 263 , 1 5, which describes how
Mahamoggallana's attainment of the first absorption was disturbed by the arising
of perceptions related to what is sensual and giving attention to them,
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDliISM
73
Thus the characteristic features highlighted in the standard de

scription of the first absorption provide clues to its actual attain
ment. The first of the above-mentioned three main themes indicates
"when" attainment becomes possible, namely when the mind is
secluded from sensual pleasures as well as from evil and unwhole
some qualities. The other two themes reveal "how" attainment will
be reached, namely by establishing [directed] awareness together
with contemplation and by dwelling in the experience of rapture
and happiness born of seclusion. In what follows, I will examine
each of these aspects in turn.
Seclusion from Sensuality

The obstruction caused by sensual pleasures to the gaining of the
inner peace of deeper concentration is a recurrent topic in the early
discourses. Another discourse in the Madhyama-iigama, addressed
to a wanderer of apparently somewhat hedonistic views, 15 explains :
Without having abandoned sensual pleasures, without being separated
from craving for sensual pleasures, that [someone] should have
dwelled, shall dwell [in future] or be dwelling now with a mind inter
nally at peace - that is impossible. 1 6
kamasahagatii sannii manasikarii samudacaranti, whose removal was required to

stabilize his attainment.
15 That the wanderer in question would have been holding hedonist views suggests
itself from the outset of the discourse, where he criticizes the Buddha as a "de
stroyer of being", MN 75 at MN I 502, 1 5 : bhilnahuno (on this term cf. also Barna
(198 1 [ 1 92 1 ] : 3 5 5), Saksena ( 1 9 3 6 : 7 1 3), Bhagwat ( 1 946 : 64), Horner ( 1 946: 287),
Alsdorf ( 1 965 : 46-47), Vetter (2000: 1 3 2 note 45), Norman (2004: 8 1 )) with its
counterpart in MA 1 5 3 at T I 670b l 7: :t.J&:ffu (where the last character may j ust
render bhil, cf. Hirakawa 1 997: 29 1 ) . The Pali commentary, Ps III 2 1 1 , 5, explains
that this wanderer was particularly opposed to the Buddha' s teachings on sense
restraint; cf. also the comment by Bodhi in N ai;iamoli (2005 [ 1 995] : 1 28 1 note
740) : "his view thus seems close to the contemporary attitude that intensity and
variety of experience is the ultimate good and should be pursued without inhibi
tions or restrictions".
16 MA 1 5 3 at T I 67 1 c 1 2 : 1J!l:B'=t". =1'-. pg ,1,,li,Efi , 'ifi , 4fi 11- ,
$\ii . The Pali parallel formulates the same in the following manner, MN 75 at
MN I 508,2 1 : "whatever recluses or brahmins who dwelt [in the past] , dwell [now]
or will dwell [in future] with a mind internally at peace, free from thirst [for sen-
74
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
The same discourse describes the predicament of indulging in sen

sual pleasures with the example of a leper who scratches his
wounds . Though the leper experiences satisfaction in this way, his
wounds will only get worse by being scratched. Indulging in sen
sual pleasures is similar, the discourse points out, as it will likewise
provide momentary satisfaction at the cost of increasing one's ten
dency to crave for more sensual pleasures .
A series of stark images illustrating the disadvantage of sensual
pleasures can be found in another discourse in the Madhyama
agama. One of these images compares indulging in sensual pleas
ures to a hungry dog that gnaws a meatless bone. 17 This simile
conveys a sense of brief pleasure without lasting satisfaction:
though the dog enj oys gnawing the bone, its hunger will not be ap
peased. Another simile from this discourse compares sensual
pleasures to holding a burning torch against the wind - one will get
burned unless one quickly lets go of the torch. Such unskilful han
dling of a burning torch illustrates that, from an early Buddhist per
spective, searching for happiness among sensual obj ects is similar
ly unskilful. Yet another simile illustrates the evanescent nature of
sensual pleasures with the example of experiences during a dream :
all vanishes as soon as one wakes up.
In sum, the initial stipulation in the standard account of the first
absorption points to the need to leave behind concern with sensual
pleasures in order to be able to access the inner peace of absorption
attainment. Attaining absorption, however, requires more than j ust
letting go of sensual pleasures. Another discourse in the Madh
yama-agama indicates that socializing will also obstruct the happi
ness of deeper concentration:
sual pleasures], they all . . . have abandoned craving for sensual pleasures and re
moved the fever of sensual pleasures", ye hi kec i samm:zii vii briihmm:iii vii viga
tapipiisii ajjhattaytZ vupasantacittii v ihal(lSU (Be: vihasuyt1) vii viharanti vii viharis
santi vii sabbe te . . . kiimatm:zhal{l pahiiya kiimapari/iihal{l pafivinodetvii; for a
comparative study of MN 75 cf. Analayo, 20 1 1 : 407-4 1 3 .
17 MA 203 at T I 774a20 and MN 5 4 at MN I 3 64, 1 2 . For a comparative study of
MN 54 cf. Analayo (20 1 1 : 3 1 3-3 1 7); for a translation of the similes in MA 203 cf.
Analayo (20 1 3 ).
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDHISM
75
One wishes to be in company, delights in company, closely associates

with company, does not wish to be separate from company, does not
delight in being alone in a secluded place, that [such a one] should at
tain the type of happiness that is reckoned noble happiness, the happi
ness that leads to dispassion, the happiness of seclusion, the happiness
of peace, the happiness that leads to complete awakening . . . that one
would attain this happiness easily, without difficulty - that is impossi
18
ble.
The types of happiness described here, a theme to which I will re

turn below, imply absorption attainment. According to the back
ground narration to this passage, the Buddha had chanced upon a
number of resting places set out for monks who had come together
to make robes . That is, the criticism implicit in his statement was
not about sensual distraction, but rather about distraction of a more
general type through excessive socializing. In sum, not only sensu
al pleasures properly so-called, but any extroversion needs to be
relinquished in order to be able to enter the experience of absorp
tion.
Seclusion from Unwholesome Qualities

The reference to qualities that are "unwholesome" or "unskilful"
18
MA 1 9 1 at T I 738a2 1 : :ftt m_ , m_, iJ"@"!nm_, /f:ftt . m_, /f1Yi)fm .

1", . :flXZ, -. ,,. IEftZ . . . ::6'13<0 . /fl!H. i
. The Pali parallel MN 1 22 at MN III 1 1 0,20 makes a similar stipulation
for "the happiness of renunciation, the happiness of seclusion, the happiness of
peace and the happiness of complete awakening'', nekkhammasukharrz paviveka
sukharrz upasamasukharrz sambodhasukharrz (Be and Se: sambodhisukharrz); where
as the Tibetan parallel in Skilling ( 1 99 4 : 1 96, 3) speaks in the same context of
"noble happiness, happiness of going forth, happiness of total seclusion, happiness
of peace, happiness of complete awakening'', 'phags pa 'i bde ba dang, nges
par 'byung ba 'i bde ba dang, rab tu dben pa 'i bde ba dang, nye bar zhi ba 'i bde
ba dang, rdzogs par byang chub pa 'i bde ba dang, for a comparative study of MN
1 22 cf. Aniilayo, 2 0 1 1 : 688-70 1 . The Chinese version's reference to "dispassion'',
literally "no desire", :flX , and the Tibetan version's "going forth", nges
par 'byung ba, reflect a recurrent vacillation in Buddhist texts between nai:jkiimya
and nai:jkramya, on which cf. also, e.g., B apat ( 1 946), Sasaki ( 1 963), Bapat ( 1 96 9 :
2f), Masefield ( 1 9 8 6 : 74), Sasaki ( 1 992 [ 1 986] : 1 - 1 4), Gethin ( 1 992a: 1 9 l f),
Norman (2004 [ 1 997] : 1 1 5), and Shukla ( 1 99 1 : cxxvif).
76
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
(akufola), 1 9 can be understood as representative of the five hin

drances, which the early discourses regularly present as the chief
obstacles to deepening concentration and mastery of the mind. 20
These five hindrances are:
- Sensual desire
- Ill-will
- S loth-and-torpor
- Restlessness-and-worry
- Doubt
The implications of the first two are fairly self-evident, in that the
tendency of the mind to react with desire and aversion has to be
appeased to gain mental calmness . The next two hindrances point
to the need of achieving a state of balance in the mind. In order to
be able to deepen concentration, slackness in the form of sloth or
torpor needs to be avoided as well as over-straining or pushing the
mind, which can result in restlessness. The significance of doubt as
a hindrance for the development of deeper concentration, however,
may at first sight seem less straightforward. Helpful indications can
be found in a Madhyama-agama discourse that treats the mental
obstructions to absorption attainment in considerable detail . The
discourse takes the form of an autobiographical report in which the
Buddha depicts his own struggle to achieve absorption. According
to this report, during his attempts to deepen concentration the Bud
dha-to-be experienced an inner vision of light and forms, which
soon disappeared again. On having this experience, he had the fol
lowing reflection:
'What in the world does not exist, can I see, can I come to know
that?' - in my mind this affliction by doubt arose. Because of this af
fliction by doubt, my concentration was lost and my [inner] eye disap
peared; [once] the [inner] eye had disappeared, the [experience] of
bright light and vision of forms I had earlier attained, that vision of
19 On the term kufola cf., e.g., Cousins ( 1 996b) and Schmithausen (20 1 3).
20
A more detailed discussion of the five hindrances and methods to overcome

them can be found in Analayo (2003a: 1 86-200), Analayo (2009 : 29-76) and
Analayo (20 1 3) .
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDIIISM
77
forms and bright light also disappeared. 2 1
That is, the doubt that at this point obstructs the deepening of con
centration is caused by the unfamiliarity with what happens, once
the world commonly experienced via the senses is left behind and
mental visions appear. Such a shift from the known world of senso
ry experience to an unknown terrain consisting of purely mental
exp eriences can in fact easily cause the arising of uncertainty of the
type expressed in the above passage, where one may wonder how
what is experienced during meditation fits into one's normal world
with its distinction between things that exist and things that do not
exist. 22
The same discourse continues by listing a series of other mental
obstructions that follow in the wake of doubt and need to be over
come before attainment of the first absorption becomes possible. 23
2 1 MA 72 at T I 5 3 6c27 : '::fit!t r:J:i il\ii (adopting the variant reading instead of
m), fl(; PJ J'l PJ 9;a11f ? ' fJ<;,t,, q:i :.Jlt,f,, IZSIJ!:c,f--&X:, JE:fffi It 1'.Ue ,
fl(;::zls:,PJT1 7\:: fffi J'l -ES, J'l-ES7\:: wfi) . The Pali parallel only indicates that
doubt arose, without specifying why, cf. MN 1 2 8 at MN III 1 5 8, 4 : "doubt arose in
me, on account of doubt my concentration fell away, when my concentration fell
away, the [inner] light and the vision of forms disappeared", vicikicchii kho me
udapiidi, vicikicchiidhikarm:zan ca pana me samiidhi cavi, samiidhimhi cute o bhii
so antaradhiiyati dassanan ca riipiinal'(t. The specification made in MA 72 about
what causes the doubt recurs in a more affirmative wording in the Abhidharma
kofabhii(fya 5 . 27, Pradhan ( 1 96 7 : 3 00, 1 2) : yat tat lake niisti tad ahal'(t jniisyiimi vii
drak(fyiimi vii, nedal'(t sthiinal'(t vidyata iti; and in a partial Tibetan parallel to MA
72 and MN 1 2 8 , D (4094) ju 276a6 or Q (5595) thu 20a8, which similarly reads:
gang yang 'jig rten na medpa gang yin pa de ni bdag gis shes pa 'am mthong ba 'i
gias med do . For a comparative study of MN 1 2 8 cf. Aniilayo, 20 1 1 : 73 1 -74 1 .
2 According to Brahm (2006: 93) "after your first experience o f a nimitta you
think, 'what on earth was that?' . " Brahm (2006: 1 44) further explains that such a
"nimitta is actually an image of one's mind. Just as one sees an image of one's face
when one looks in a mirror", and id. (2006 : 94) : "the nimitta is just a reflection of
your mind. If the nimitta is dull, it means that your mind is dull".
23 MA 72 at T I 53 9a28 lists "affliction by doubt", "lack of attention", "inertia",
"sloth-and-torpor", "excess of energy", "lack of energy", "fear", "elation", "con
ceit'', "perception of diversity" and "not contemplating forms"; ,f, . . . il\ii , J3(pg;l'J! , lli , ::t:llJ, ::t:t, flHw, [}t, f.\'!1Li,, ::5-Tfl!, Ila -ES. The listing in
MN 1 2 8 at MN III 1 60,27 enumerates "doubt", "lack of attention", "sloth-and
torpor", "fear", "elation", "inertia'', "excess of energy", "lack of energy", "long
ing", "perception of diversity" and "excessive meditation on forms"; vicikicchii . . .
78
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
Of particular significance in this listing is a reference found in both

versions of the discourse to "perception of diversity" that needs to
be left behind. This confirms a point already made above, in that
not only outright sensuality, but any type of extroversion by way of
the senses is not compatible with the first absorption. In fact,
though the standard description of the first absorption given in the
early discourses does not explicitly mention mental unification, the
same is, according to several discourses, a factor present during the
attainment of the first absorption. 24 A discourse in the Sarrzyukta
agama indicates that the obj ects of the senses are no longer per
ceived when the first absorption has been attained, 2 5 thereby coramanasikiiro . . . thfnamiddha1J1 (Be : thinamiddha1J1) . . . chambhitatta1]1 . . . ubbilla1]1
(Be : uppilla1]1, se: ubbila1J1) . . . dutfhulla1]1 . . . acciiraddhaviriya1]1 (Be: acciiraddha
vfriya1]1) . . . atilfnaviriya1]1 (Be : atilfnavfriya1J1) . . . abhijappii . . . niinattasannii . . .
atinijjhiiyitatfa1J1 riipiina1J1. The overall count o f eleven mental obstructions recurs
in the Yogiiciirabhiimi, T 1 5 79 at T XXX 3 3 8c l 0, which explains that the obstruc
tions to developing concentration with visions of light and forms are of altogether
"eleven types, namely doubt, eic., as explained in detail in the <iiscoum:", 13; +
lm, pJTID!f:W, 3c0 , a reference that can safely be taken as referring to the
resent exposition.
4 MN 43 at MN I 294,3 1 lists "unification of the mind", cittekaggatii, as one of
the mental factors present in the first absorption, as is the case for a more detailed
analysis of the first absorption in MN 1 1 1 at MN III 2 5, 1 5 . While for MN 1 1 1 a
parallel is not known, the parallels to MN 44 mention the same quality, MA 2 1 0 at
T I 788c20: -, L,, , and D (4094)ju 8a2 or Q (5595) tu 8b8 : sems rtse gcigpa; for a
comparative study of MN 43 and MN 44 cf. Analayo, 2 0 1 1 : 268-286. Another
relevant instance is an instruction for attaining the first absorption in SN 40. l at
SN IV 263,2 1 , which enj oins to "unify the mind" in the first absorption, citfa1J1
ekodikarohi (Be, Ce and Se: ekodi1J1 karohi). The reason unification of the mind is
not mentioned explicitly in the standard description of the first absorption could
be related to the prescriptive function of such descriptions I mentioned earlier. It
would be a misunderstanding of the purpose of these descriptions to assume that
the first absorption is without unification of the mind because this is not explicitly
mentioned, just as it would be mistaken to conclude that the first and the second
absorption are without mindfulness just because mindfulness is only mentioned in
the standard description of the third and fourth absorptions.
2 5 SA 5 5 9 at T II 1 46c6 indicates that, even though the six senses and their obj ects
are present and one is perceptive during the attainment of the first absorption, the
objects of these senses will not be experienced. A related position is taken in AN
9 . 3 8 at AN IV 43 0,22, according to which with the first absorption one reaches
the end of the "world", which the same discourse defines as representing the ob
jects of the five senses.
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDEISM
79
roborating that mental unification free from sensory distraction is

indeed characteristic of this level of concentration.
Another indication given in the present discourse is that in his
practice the Buddha at times gave "attention to the sign of light", as
a result of which the experience of inner light became stable. 26 The
present passage thus uses terminology that becomes prominent in
later commentarial literature, which details the stages of deepening
concentration through giving attention to the "sign" that then leads
to absorption.
The Presence of [Directed] Awareness and Contemplation

Besides the need to reach seclusion from sensuality and other men
tal obstructions, attainment of the first absorption also requires the
presence of " [directed] awareness" and "contemplation". These
two terms have vitarka and viciira as their Sanskrit counterparts .
Vitarka is etymologically related to tarka, which stands for thought
and logical reasoning. This etymological relation at first sight sug
gests, somewhat in contrast to the above mentioned quality of men
tal unification, 2 7 that conceptual thought continues during the first
level of absorption. 2 8
In fact, a discourse in the Madhyama-iigama describes a pro
gression of practice where merely leaving behind thought leads
over to the attainment of the second absorption. 29 Yet the corre
sponding passage in the Pali parallel mentions the first absorption,
26 MA 72 at T I 539a5 : fZ:l\:; ;f ; MN 1 2 8 at MN III 1 6 1 , 1 2 : obhasanimitta111
manasikaromi. Cousins ( 1 973 : 1 1 9), in an examination of the concept of the
nimitta as a mental sign that leads to deeper concentration, comments : "the most
striking evidence for the antiquity of the concept is to be found in the Upakkilesa
sutta" (i.e. MN 1 28). For a more general discussion of the term nimitta cf. also
Analayo (2003 b), and on its import in the present passage id. (2008 : 42 l f) .
27 A s Rahula ( 1 962: 1 93 ) rightly comments, "it i s not possible that a real one
pointedness of mind can exist in the company of reasoning and reflection", though
the conclusions he draws from this differ from mine, as he apparently was not
aware of the discourses (mentioned above note 24) that indicate the existence of
mental unification (or "one-pointedness of mind") in the first absorption.
28 This is a position taken by Griffiths ( 1 98 3 : 60), Stuart-Fox ( 1 9 8 9 : 82) and
Bucknell ( 1 993 : 3 97).
29 MA 1 02 at T I 589c9.
80
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
before coming to the second absorption. 30 The converse occurs in

another instance, where a Pali discourse proceeds directly from
leaving behind thought to the second absorption, while in this case
the Madhyama-agama parallel mentions the first absorption. 31
Though in these two cases the reference to the first absorption
could be due to the levelling tendency of oral transmission, the ab
sence of this reference could also be the result of an error during
oral transmission, since in both cases a leaving behind of vitarka
has been mentioned right before. This could have misled the recit
ers into continuing with the standard formulation of the second ab
sorption, which mentions leaving behind vitarka, thereby uninten
tionally omitting to recite the description of the first absorption. 32
Thus canonical support for assuming that it is possible to progres s
from a thought-free state directly t o the second absorption is doubt
ful, since this apparent possibility could j ust be the result of a
transmission error.
Another indication relevant to the present theme is that the se
cond absorption constitutes a noble type of "silence" . 33 Given that
another passage indicates that already upon attaining the first ab
sorption speech has ceased, 34 the reference to "silence" is clearly
3 0 MN 1 9 at MN I 1 1 7, 6 .
3 1 MN 1 2 5 at MN III 1 3 6,27 and M A 1 98 at T I 75 8b26.
3 2 This can be illustrated with MN 1 2 5 at MN III 1 3 6,25, which reads : ma ca . . .
vitakkam vitakkesi ti. so vitakkavicaranarrz vupasama. From the viewpoint of reci

tation, the negative injunction not to think "thoughts" could easily have lead on to
the idea of stilling of "thoughts". What makes such a shift even more probable is
the circumstance that in this way, after two instances of the word vitakka/vitarka
(vitakkarrz vitakkesl), a third repetition of the same term is made (vitakkavicara
narrz). Given the repetitive nature of the early Buddhist oral transmission, this
flows more naturally than continuing after ma ca .. . vitakkarrz vitakkesfti with so
vivicc ' eva kamehi, etc. On repetition as a central characteristic of the early Bud
dhist texts, cf. e.g. von Simson ( 1 965 : 5ff), Allon ( 1 997 : 273 ff), Weeratunge
(2004), Analayo (2007: 8ff) and Gethin (2007).
33 SA 501 at T II 1 32al 9 : "being completely established in the second absorption,
this is reckoned noble silence", =tJE1. , ::g; a statement made
similarly in its parallel SN 2 1 . 1 at SN II 273 , 1 4 : dutiyarrz jhanam upasampajja vi
harati, ayarrz vuccati ariyo tw;ih'fbhavoti.
34 SA 474 at T II 1 2 lb2: "at the time of attaining the first absorption, speech is
stilled", W tIEB , lJR;f,j[, a statement made similarly in its parallel SN
3 6 . 1 1 at SN N 2 1 7, 5 : pathamarrz jhanarrz (B0 and C0: pafhamarrz jhanarrz, S0: pa
-
81
not meant in a literal sense. The point behind the idea o f noble si
lence would rather be related to the function of vitarka and vicara
as verbal formations, 3 5 in that these mental factors are required for
being able to speak. The same two mental factors could also be
employed in a way that does not involve breaking into speech,
m erely standing for a directing of the mind towards a theme or ob
j e ct and sustaining it there. 3 6
Now, according to the autobiographical account of the Buddha's
progress towards absorption, as given in the Madhyama-agama
discourse discussed earlier, the Buddha had to struggle through
various mental obstructions before being able to attain the first ab
sorption. The same discourse reports that Anuruddha experienced
similar difficulties, while another Pali discourse describes that the
Buddha had to assist Mahamoggallana in attaining the first absorp
tion. 3 7 This is significant in view of the fact that, according to the
canonical listings of eminent disciples, Anuruddha and Mahamog
gallana excelled all other disciples with their concentrative attain
ments . 38 For them to nevertheless have needed the Buddha's per
sonal intervention to attain the first absorption implies that this lev
el of concentration requires a considerable amount of meditation
practice, even in the case of gifted practitioners . This in tum sug
gests that the first absorption already constitutes a deep level of
concentration. 3 9
thama1jhiina'f!'l) samiipannassa viicii niruddha hoti.
35 SA 568 at T II 1 50a24 : 1jf; , 111, , l& D fi, a definition found similarly in its
parallel SN 4 1 . 6 at SN N 293 , 1 5 : vitakkaviciirii vac'fsankharo. Another occur
rence of this definition in MN 44 at MN I 3 0 1 ,2 1 has a similarly worded Tibetan
counterpart in D (4094)ju 8a5 or Q (5595) tu 9 a5 : rtogpa dang dpyodpa ni ngag
fj 'du byed ces bya 'o.
6 Cousins ( 1 992 : 1 3 9) in the context of a discussion of vitarka speaks of "the ac
tivity of bringing different obj ects into firm focus before the mind's eye - be these
objects thoughts or mental pictures" . Shankman (2008 : 40) notes that, though in
the context of the first absorption vitarka and viciira must be representing some
degree of mental activity, they "should never be understood as thinking or musing
in the ordinary sense".
37 SN 40. 1 at SN IV 263 , 1 8 .
3 8 According t o EA 4 . 2 at T I I 5 5 7b6+9 and AN 1 . 1 4 at AN I 23 , 1 8+20, Mahii
moggalliina was outstanding for his mastery of supernormal powers and Anurud
dha for his divine eye.
39 In fact MA 84 at T I 56 l a7 indicates that "sound is a thorn for one entering the
82
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
That in the context of absorption attainment vitarka does not re

fer to conceptual thought would also have been the understanding
of the translator( s) of the Madhyama-iigama, as they instead speak
of " awareness", a rendering found also in other Agama discours
es. 40 By using the Chinese character "awareness" (I:) for this ab
sorption factor, different from the character they employ elsewhere
to render "thought" (), 41 the translators seem to express their un
derstanding of its practical implications . This would fit with an in
terpretation of the absorption factor vitarka as conveying the idea
of an application of the mind, in the sense of a directing of aware
ness that can take place in rather subtle ways.
For further progress in mental unification, even " [directed]
awareness" and "contemplation" need to be left behind. According
to the Madhyama-iigama record of the Buddha's own gradual
deepening of concentration, such leaving behind proceeds through
two stages . At first, only " [directed] awareness" is left behind.
With this level of concentration, vitarka as a way of directing the
mind is no longer required, yet the more subtle effort of sustaining
first absorption'', A.:fJJt1!rf PJJlwll, a statement made similarly in its parallel
AN 1 0. 72 at AN V 1 3 5, 1 : "sound is a thorn for the first absorption", pafhamassa
jhiinassa saddo kafltako . Since both versions continue by treating factors that need
to be overcome for attaining the higher absorptions as their respective "thorns", it
follows that from the perspective of both discourses hearing is an obstacle for the
attainment of the first absorption (on Mahamoggallana's hearing of sound, report
ed in Vin III 1 09,5, cf. Analayo, 2003 : 77 note 46).
40 JI: as the counterpart to savitakka in the descriptions of the first absorption is
found in DA 9 at T I 5 0c 1 9 (parallel to DN 33 at DN III 222, 5); MA 2 at T I
422b 1 2 (parallel to AN 7.65 at AN IV 1 1 8, 2 1 ) ; SA 483 at T II 1 2 3 b l (parallel to
SN 3 6 .29 at SN IV 236,3); and EA 3 1 . l at T II 666b 1 3 (parallel to MN 4 at MN I
2 1 ,3 5) . Hirakawa ( 1 99 7 : 1 062) lists vbudh, vfnii and vvid for JI:, which Soothill
and Hodous (2000 [ 1 9 3 7] : 480) translate as "to awake, apprehend, perceive, real
ize" and also as to be "aware" . The other term II. usually renders terms related to
vpas in the Madhyama-iigama, such as e.g. vipasyanii or anupasyanii, "insight" or
"contemplation".
41 E.g. MA 1 02 at T I 5 89c9 uses JI: in the context of absorption, but in the same
line of the text employs to refer to "thoughts", both occurrences paralleling the
use of vitakka in its parallel MN 19 at MN I 1 1 6, 3 5 and 1 1 7, 7 . The use of these
different renderings does convey the impression that the translator(s) were aware
of the difference between these two types of vitarka and endeavoured to render
them in such a way that they would not be confused with each other.
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDF.IISM
83
concentration implied by "contemplation" or vicara is still pre

sent. 42 Entry into the second absorption takes place when this more
subtle effort also falls away. The analysis provided in this way thus
involves three levels :
1)
2)
3)
Concentration with " [directed] awareness" and "contemplation",

Concentration without " [directed] awareness", but with "con
templation",
Concentration without " [directed] awareness" and without "con
templation" . 43
While the present scheme focuses on the gradual dropping away of

[directed] awareness and contemplation, the description of the four
absorptions highlights in particular the progressive refinement of
42 References to a stage of concentration where vitarka has been overcome but
viciira still persists can be found in several Pali discourses, cf. , e.g., DN 33 at DN
III 2 1 9, 1 8, SN 4 3 . 3 at SN IV 3 60, 1 1 , and AN 8 . 63 at AN IV 3 00 , 5 . In the case of
DN 3 3 , the fragments of the Sangzti-sutra have preserved a reference to these
three levels of concentration, K 484 Ve, Stache-Rosen ( 1 96 8 : 23), treated in full in
the Sangztiparyiiya, T 1 53 6 at T XXVI 3 8 9b4: .=:JE: , - {iiJ .=: .-:tfu, =11\ii
U(E{iij = .-:f:fu , .=.11\ii ifl\ii {iiJ .=: .-:f:fu . While SN 4 3 . 3 does not appear to have a
Chinese parallel, in the case of AN 8 . 63 a similar presentation can be found in the
parallel MA 76 at T I 543 c20 : { DJE, 11\ii YDJE , { 11\ii ifl\ii D
JE. The same three levels of concentration recur in Abhidh-k 8.23 as an exposition
"given in the discourses", cf. Pradhan ( 1 967: 448, 1 8) : trayab samiidhayab uktiih
sutre: savitarkab saviciirab samiidhi(l, avitarko viciiramiitrab, avitarko 'viciira.
43 MA 72 at T I 53 8c3 : DJE . . . 11\ii YDJE . . . 11\ii ifl\iiD JE , similarly
described in its parallel MN 1 2 8 at MN III 1 62, 1 4 : savitakkam pi saviciirarrz
samiidhirrz . . . avitakkam pi viciiramattarrz samiidhirrz . . . avitakkam pi aviciirarrz
samiidhirrz. Stuart-Fox ( 1 98 9 : 93) holds that the descriptions of the second type of
concentration in MN 1 28 and MA 72 differ, as according to him in MA 72 "the
second samiidhi is described as one in which vitakka is absent and viciira is re
duced. In the Pali version, viciira is simply stated to be present" . Yet, the j> used
in MA 72 to qualify D probably renders an equivalent to the qualification -matta
in the Pali version, the translator apparently taking -matta in the sense of qualify
ing viciira to be reduced in strength, so that the two versions rather seem to agree
in their descriptions. In fact, the expressions saddhiimattakena and pem
amattakena in MN 65 at MN I 444,28 have their counterpart in MA 1 94 at T I
749a3 in yfg and y, which confirms that in the Madhyama-iigama y can
render matta or mattaka (cf. also Hirakawa ( 1 997: 3 98), who under Y lists miitra
and miitraka); cf. also Bucknell (20 1 0 : 49f).
84
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
happiness; where level 1 of the above scheme corresponds to the

first absorption in the description of the four types of absorption,
while level 3 corresponds to the second and higher absorptions .
The scheme of four absorptions is found with considerably more
frequency in the discourses, reflecting the importance that the cul
tivation and refinement of happiness has for absorption attainment.
The Happiness ofAbsorption

The discourses repeatedly encourage developing the pleasure of
deep concentration, in contrast to the pleasure of sensuality, which
should be shunned. A discourse from the Madhyama-iigama ex
plains :
In dependence on the five sensual pleasures there arises rapture, there
arises happiness. This happiness is an ignoble happiness, the happi
ness of an ordinary worldling . . . it should not be cultivated, should not
be practiced, should not be made much of, I say that it should certainly
not be cultivated. 44
In contrast, if by attaining absorption one

dwells secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from evil and un
wholesome qualities . . . this happiness is a noble happiness, the happi
ness of dispassion, the happiness of seclusion, the happiness of peace,
the happiness that leads to complete awakening . . . which should be
cultivated, should be practiced, should be made much ot; I say that it
certainly should be cultivated. 4 5
44 MA 1 69 at T I 702c6 : IZSJ..fiiV'.J/J1, :.%:., .tltF, }L;K . . . ::f PJ
fl, ::f PJ f/ , /F PJ !Jr1[1 , f!(;)t:01$'J'l U ::f PJ . The parallel passage in MN 1 3 9 at
MN III 233 ,20 reads : "in dependence on the five sensual pleasures there arises
happiness and pleasure, this is reckoned sensual happiness, a dung-like happiness,
the happiness of the worldling, an ignoble happiness, it should not be engaged in,
it should not be cultivated, should not be made much of I say that this happiness
should be feared", pafka kiimagw:ie paficca uppajjati sukhasomanassal'{I (Be, Ce
and Se: sukhal'{I somanassal'{I), idal'{I vuccati kiimasukhal'{I m f/hasukhal'{I puthujja
nasukhal'{I (Se: puthujjanasukhal'{I m i/hasukhal'{I) anariyasukhal'{I, na iisevitabbal'{I
(Se: na sevitabbal'{I) na bhiivetabbal'{I na bahulfkiitabbal'{I, bhiiyitabbal'{I etassa
sukhassiiti vadiim i.
45 MA 1 69 at T I 702c 1 2 : ltlt JW;'l;::f ;g,L)ft . . . }fil, J!t' f*ti}:, [,
-
85
Another Madhyama-iigama discourse illustrates the way this hap

piness of the first absorption is experienced with the help of a simi
le that describes how soap powder is mixed with water:
Just as a bathing attendant who, having filled a vessel with bathing
powder, mixes it with water and kneads it so that there is no part [of
the powder] that is not completely drenched and pervaded with water,
in the same way . . . one completely drenches the body with rapture
and happiness born of seclusion so that no part within this body is not
pervaded by rapture and happiness born of seclusion. 4 6
Thus the experience of rapture and happiness is not merely a sign

post marking the attainment of the first absorption. Rather, the cul,iiM , IEz . . . PJ {, PJ , PJ ,IJ:1!J , !lt Jt m-WtJl UPJ {ii!, . MN 1 3 9 at MN III
233,25 indicates that if someone "dwells secluded from sensual pleasures, seclud
ed from unwholesome qualities . . . this is reckoned the happiness of renunciation,
the happiness of seclusion, the happiness of peace, the happiness of complete
awakening, it should be engaged in, it should be cultivated, it should be made
much of - I say that this happiness should not be feared'', vivicc ' eva kiimehi viv
icca akusalehi dhammehi . . . viharati, idam vuccati nekkhammasukhal'(l pavive
kasukhal'(l upasamasukhal'(l sambodhisukhal'(l, iisevitabbal'(l bhiivetabbal'(l ba
hullkiitabbal'(l, na bhiiyitabbal'(l etassa sukhassiiti vadiimi.
46 MA 81 at T I 5 5 5b20 : ggI)A5*R1J\.;fan\G, 1J\.5Ji)1'.j) JE1*
/f, ;lik . . . Mg5JUr)!'.jj 5l, 3t:m-Jl:c:t 9=1 Mg, 1* 7F; for
a full translation of MA 8 1 cf. Kuan (2008 : 1 5 5 - 1 65). The counterpart in MN 1 1 9
at MN III 92,28 additionally mentions an apprentice undertaking the same action
and notes that the ball made of bathing powder and water does not ooze. A back
ground to this simile is provided by passages like MN 93 at MN II 1 5 1 , 1 9, which
spe aks of going to a river to wash. oneself (the parallel MA 1 5 0 at T I 662c26 only
mentions approaching some water), probably reflecting the Indian practice of
bathing out in the open, such as by the side of a river. The Vimuttimagga, T 1 64 8
at T XXXII 4 1 7b8, then explains that j ust a s bath powder i n its natural state can
easily be scattered by the wind (which is indeed the case if one bathes out in the
open), so a mind without happiness and concentration will easily be scattered by
the five hindrances. That is, happiness and concentration are to the mind what
water is to the bath powder, whose kneading would then be comparable to the
action of vitarka and viciira. The theme of water as representative of happiness
continues with the similes for the second and third absorption, which by adapting
the water imagery reflect the different types of happiness experienced: from active
pervasion ( 1 st absorption), via natural pervasion (2nd absorption), to pervasion by
being fully immersed (3rd absorption).
86
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
tivation of such happiness is instrumental for achieving the attain

ment itself. In other words, the experience of happiness is what
leads the mind into absorption attainment. Owing to the attraction
happiness exerts on the mind, letting go of anything else takes
place naturally and results in mental unification.
The cultivation and gradual refinement of happiness that in this
way comes about through absorption attainment has its roots in
those practices that lay the foundation for concentration, delineated
in the canonical accounts of the gradual path. Of crucial im
portance in this respect is maintenance of ethical conduct, which
causes the happiness of blamelessness. 4 7
Another significant aspect of the gradual path is the practice of
sense-restraint. Countering the natural tendency for distraction and
extroversion in this way lays the foundation for the seclusion from
sensual pleasures mentioned in the description of the first absorp
tion. By dint of being properly undertaken, sense-restraint leads to
an unimpaired type of happiness. 48
An important source of happiness can also be found in content
ment, 49 whose potential for leading to a deepening of concentration
can hardly be overestimated. In fact, contentment directly leads to
a deepening of concentration, which is but the outcome of a mind
that is contentedly resting within. 50
The cultivation of happiness continues to lead to a progressive
47 MN 5 1 at MN I 3 46, 1 0 indicates that through ethical purity and contentment
one experiences anavajjasukha.
4 8 According to MN 5 1 at MN I 3 46,23 , sense-restraint results in experiencing

abyiisekhasukha.
49 The happiness of contentment has found a poetic expression in SA 1 095 at T II

288a23 and its parallel SN 4. 1 8 at SN I 1 1 4,22 which indicate that those who own
nothing live happily: lE{1i\ii pfi'jf, fffi 5'5, and susukharrz vata ffviima, ye
sarrz (S: yesan) no n 'atthi kincanarrz, cf. also Dhp 200, with Indic language paral
lels in the Gandhiiri Dharmapada 1 68, Brough (200 1 [ 1 962] : 1 45), Patna Dhar
mapada 257, Cone ( 1 989 : 1 70), and in the Udiina(varga) 3 0 . 49, Bernhard ( 1 965 :
405). This verse appears to express a pan-lndic attitude, as it has a counterpart in
the Mahiibhiirata 1 2 .268.4, Bevalkar ( 1 95 4 : 1 466): susukharrz bata ffviimi, yasya
me niisti kilrzcana, and in the Uttariijjhaym:za 9. 1 4, Charpentier ( 1 922 : 96): suharrz
vasiimo jfviimo, jesi mo natthi kirrzcafla.
so
On contentment in the Pali discourses in general cf. in more detail Analayo
(2006).
THE FIRST AB SORPTION IN EARLY INDIAN BUDDtnSM
87
deepening of concentration. Subsequent to the happiness of seclu

sion experienced during attainment of the first absorption, with the
second absorption one experiences "rapture and happiness born of
concentration" . 5 1 This happiness pervades the whole body compa
rable to a mountain spring that wells up naturally and floods the
surroundings . 52 With the third absorption, then, rapture is left be
hind and only happiness remains. 5 3 This pure happiness pervades
the whole body comparable to lotuses that have grown in the water
and remain under the water, being thus completely pervaded by
5 1 MA 1 64 at T I 695a26 : "having calmed [directed] awareness and contemplation,

[with] inward stillness and mental unification, without [directed] awareness and
without contemplation, [with] rapture and happiness born of concentration, he
dwells having attained and accomplished the second absorption", jf;ftE,)j,, pg)W,
-it}, 1';, -. 7J:::. :g: , i =t.'}/jf .
52 MA 8 1 at T I 5 5 5b29. The counterpart in MN 1 1 9 at MN III 93 , 1 0 differs
slightly, as it speaks of a lake with water welling up from within. The image of a
mountain recurs in a version of this simile in DA 20 at T I 8 5b2 l : "like a clear
spring of water at the top of a mountain", 3ID !lrffl7_j(, and in the Sanghabhe
davastu, Gnoli ( 1 978 : 243 , 1 8) : "a pond at the top of a mountain", upariparva
tal'{l . . . udakahrado (cf. also fragment 5 1 2v l in Wille ( 1 99 0 : 1 25)). The reference
to a spring on a mountaintop, self-sufficient and independent of any external
source, aptly conveys the aloofness reached by attaining the second absorption.
Though the first absorption is already aloof through being "secluded from sensual
pleasures'', it nevertheless is an experience which has not yet reached total aloof
ness (cf. SN 40. 1 at SN IV 263 , 1 5 , quote above note 1 4). With the attainment of
the second absorption, happiness and rapture are not only "born of seclusion'', but
additionally "born of concentration" proper, issuing in a state of "inward stillness
and mental unification" that is more decisively aloof than the first absorption
According to the Vimuttimagga, T 1 64 8 at T XXXII 4 1 8c27, the absence of any
inflow of water from the outside stands representative for the absence of vitarka
and viciira in the second absorption. The same work explains that the welling up
of water from within, which causes no waves, illustrates the welling up of happi
ness and rapture born of concentration that completely pervade body and mind
without causing any mental agitation.
53 MA 1 64 at T I 695a29: "secluded from rapture and desire, dwelling equanimous
and without seeking [for anything] , with right mindfulness and right comprehen
sion, experiencing happiness with the body, which is reckoned [an experience]
that the noble ones speak of as being established in a happy abode [through] noble
equanimity and mindfulness, one dwells having attained and accomplished the
third absorption", '1jE:g:tJX, :;K}!jf, IE , IE , ffi] jf; , pjfJt, pfi'
1. 1-=-t.!i[}/jf .
88
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
water. 54
The presence of this happiness disappears with the fourth ab
sorption, 55 which finds its illustration in the depiction of a person
covered from head to foot in a cloth. 5 6 Though the type of happi
ness experienced in the lower absorptions has disappeared, the
fourth absorption can still be reckoned "a dwelling in happiness
here and now". 5 7 This other form of happiness of the fourth absorp
tion is superior to the type of happiness experienced in the lower
.
ab sorpt10ns. 58
Thus the development of inner happiness, aloof from sensuality,
is clearly a central requirement for reaching the attainment of the
first absorption. The path towards its attainment and beyond it in54 MA 8 1 at T I 5 5 5 c l 0 . The counterpart in MN 1 1 9 at MN III 94, 1 notes that the
water that pervades the lotuses is cool.
55 MA 1 64 at T I 695b4 : " [with] the cessation of happiness and the cessation of
pain, and [with] the earlier cessation of rapture and displeasure, [with] neither
pain-nor-happiness, and with purity of equanimity and mindfulness, one dwells
having attained and accomplished the fourth absorption", , =i\')mz, %:zfs:.8
;mz, 7F=ii'/F, ffl';;,, 1 [i]t'!j[ftX:Wt}M .
56 MA 8 1 at T I 555c l 9, which indicates that this cloth is of seven or eight units
length. The counterpart in MN 1 1 9 at MN III 94, 1 6 does not give the size of the
cloth, but indicates that it is white. According to the Yogaciirabhiimi, T 1 579 at T
XXX 3 3 9c8, the whiteness of the cloth represents the mental purity reached with
the fourth absorption in terms of purity of equanimity and mindfulness. The Vi
muttimagga, T 1 648 at T XXXII 420c2, does not discuss the whiteness, but rather
explains that this simile refers to protection from heat or cold through being com
pletely covered by the cloth. Ps II 323,5 comments that the person's body is kept
warm by the cloth. The idea behind this imagery could be reflecting the circum
stance that the robe of a monastic can be used as a protection against heat or cold
and perhaps also against flies and mosquitoes when sitting down to meditate. In
fact, SA 1 1 84 at T II 320b24, SA2 99 at T II 408c28 and SN 7.9 at SN I 1 67,27 (
Sn 3 .4 at Sn p. 80,2) describe the Buddha seated in meditation with his head cov
ered with his robe. SA 1 1 84 and SA2 99 indicate that he had j ust shaved his head,
suggesting that he may have covered himself with his robe in order to protect his
freshly shaven head from insects.
57 MA 91 at T I 5 73 b2 9 : l'j! )zl;; }i5, with its counterpart in ditthadhammasukhavi
hiira in its parallel MN 8 at MN 4 1 , 1 8 .
5 8 That the happiness of the fourth absorption is superior to the happiness of the
third and lower absorptions emerges from SA 4 8 5 at T II 1 24b6 and its parallel
Sanskrit fragment SHT II 5 1 folio 41 V7-8, Waldschmidt ( 1 96 8 : 1 0) (in both cas
es the section that treats the fourth absorption is given only in abbreviation), as
well as from their Pali counterpart SN 3 6. 1 9 at SN IV 226,2 8 .
=
89
valves a progressive cultivation of happiness (illustrated below) .

This progressive cultivation reaches its completion with the su
preme happiness of attaining Nirvai:ia. 5 9
Factor Accomplished
ethical conduct
sense-restraint
1 st absorption
2nd absorption
3rd absorption
4th absorption
Nirvai;ia
Form of Happiness
happiness of blamelessness
unimpaired happiness
rapture and happiness born of seclusion
rapture and happiness born of concentration
happiness without rapture
dwelling in happiness
supreme happiness
Table 1. Progressive cultivation of happiness
59 MA 1 53 at T I 672a29: 53'!. and MN 75 at MN I 508,3 0 : nibbanaf!l

paramaf!l sukhar(l, cf. also Dhp 203 & 204, with Indic language parallels in the
GandharJ: Dharmapada 1 62f, Brough (200 1 [ 1 962] : 1 45), Patna Dharmapada 7 5 f,
Cone ( 1 989 : 1 23), and in the Udana(varga) 26.6, Bernhard ( 1 96 5 : 3 1 9).
90
BHIKKHU ANALAYO
Abbreviations
AN
Be
Ce
D
DA
Dhp
DN
EA
MA
MN
Ps
Q
SA
S A2
Se
SN
Sn
T
Vin
Anguttara-nikiiya
Burmese edition
Ceylonese edition
Derge edition
D'frgha-iigama (T 1 )
Dhammapada
D'fgha-nikiiya
Ekottarika-iigama (T 1 25)
Madhyama-iigama (T 26)
Majjhima-nikiiya
Papaficasiidan'f
Peking edition
Sarrzyukta-iigama (T 99)
other Sarrzyukta-agama (T 1 00)
Siamese edition
Sarrzyutta-nikiiya
Sutta-nipiita
Taish6 (CBETA)
Vinaya
Vipassana in Burma
Self-go vernment and the Ledi Anapana Traditio n
Gustaaf Houtman
A deity asks the Buddha:
Tangle within, without, lo ! In the toils
Entangled is the race of sentient things .
Hence would I ask thee, Gotama, of this :
Who is't can from this tangle disembroil
The Buddha replies:
The human being, 1 discreet, on virtue planted firm
In intellect and intuition trained;
The renouncer2 ardent and discriminant;
Can from this tangle disembroil.
This paper provides a case study of renouncer Hsayalei, a Burmese

vipassana practicing hermitess whose experiences I present in the
second part of this essay. This is preceded by a brief introductory sec1 Pe Maung Tin ( 1 92 1 -25) has "the man" but Mahasi ( 1 979) prefers "human being"
(lu).
2 Pe Maung Tin ( 1 92 1 -25 : 1 ) translates P. bhikkhu as "brother'', but Mahasi ( 1 97 9 : 4)
prefers yahan, the Burmese term for ordained monk. Insofar as this state involves
renunciation (from which begging arises), and in keeping with the notion of "monk
of-ultimate truth" as a sexless designation, I prefer the general term renouncer here.
92
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
tion on its emergence as a popular movement that gave rise to two

maj or historical vipassana traditions in Burma. It is followed by a
concluding part asking whether we can understand the differential
enthusiastic emphasis on vipassana in Burma over other forms of
meditation such as samatha without prior analysis of its evolution as a
tradition in its wider socio-political and historical context.
Vipassanii techniques3
There are endless works on the methodology of vipassana and on the
technicalities surrounding its practice and attainments in doctrinal and
commentarial works . In many cases, however, these have been
stripped of the contexts in which these traditions emerged. My inter
ests lie in understanding vipassana in the context of contemporary
Burmese biographical, cultural, and socio-political contexts from
which these methods emerged and where they are practiced. This
suggests vipassana has a lot to do with the foreigner but not quite in
the way scholars such as Sharf ( 1 995) have suggested, who locates
the popularization of vipassana principally in the demands of the
middle classes and as the result of a reification of "religious experi
ence" by scholars in the west:
The rationalization of meditation, coupled with the Westernized values of
the middle class patrons of urban meditation centers, led naturally to a
deemphasis on the traditional soteriological goal - bringing an end to re
birth. (Sharf 1 995 : 2 5 8 )
What Sharf overlooks is that each of these traditions has its own rami
fications . In the Burmese context not all are so readily reduced to
western influence, whether the western middle classes or Protestant
ism. Indeed, the traditions that I have observed in Burma are less
about copying or aping than they are the product of a conversation
and a genuine attempt to develop new vernacular senses of identity
whilst under siege both by foreign colonialists and by oppressive re
gimes. For example, anyone visiting the area of Monywa will find
that peasants in some villages in these areas are not only perfectly
3 For an excellent critique of those who would postulate vipassana as a separate tech
nique see Cousins ( 1 996a) .
VIPAS SAN.A IN B URMA
93
capable of engaging anyone on the array of methodologies for prac

ticing vipassanii without involving a single foreigner, but are them
selves engaged in debates, with some villages already having been
divided over which methods are best since the 1 93 0 s .
Furthermore, I see n o evidence that this development "represents
the final collapse of the traditional distinction between mundane and
supermundane goals - the distinction that served to legitimize the
institution of the lay-supported samgha" (Sharf, 1 99 5 : 2 5 8 ) : indeed,
the Sangha remains at the heart with its teaching and practice, and
esteem of the Sangha has not suffered any maj or erosion. What ap
pears true, however, is that vipassanii has increasingly come to be
seen as a separate tradition of its own, whereas in its early days it was
seen as part of a broader repertoire of activities. The concepts of
"practice" (pafipatti) and meditation (bhiivanii) have long been inter
preted as a broader activity, even involving acts like recitation or rep
etition. Further research needs to be done on the vernacular context of
the practice, but I cannot confirm Sharf s generalizations in relation to
these traditions insofar as they operate in Burma (he based himself
mostly on comments about Sri Lanka, which represents a different
case).
The earliest evidence of vipassanii popularization in Burma goes
back to the royal courts in the mid- 1 8 5 0s, when Burma was already
an emasculated kingdom partly under colonial rule. Hpo Hlaing, then
Minister of the Interior under King Mindon, and author of several
works on vipassanii (some while in exile), was stimulated to assert
vipassanii as an appropriate method in the courts whilst engaging for
eign knowledge : Hpo Hlaing proclaimed non-self as an attribute of
Burmese identity in the face of foreign invaders who he interpreted as
typically believing in asserting a self. Ledi Sayadaw, impressed with
Hpo Hlaing, inherited his interests in vipassanii, and was in touch
with western Buddhologists (more than western missionaries) . He
wrote his first work on vipassanii in 1 9 1 4 , entitled "for the benefit of
European Buddhists" (Wun-ni-ta, 1 9 5 6 : 1 7 5). What this suggests is
less that the Burmese were aping the west, but that they presented
interested western Buddhist visitors with a practice that would have
tickled their interest, whilst also demonstrating that it performed cer
tain functions in Burmese society with a strong following.
94
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
Vipassana practice, by observing all mental and bodily processes

as transient, leads to a theoretical and experiential understanding of
one ' s existence as conditioned: from questioning one ' s own mental
and physical make-up in life, practitioners graduate to questioning the
ethnic and socio-cultural enviromnent and the polity of which they
are part. In short, it posits an order beyond the self-evident order of
absolute identities of which we tend to habitually think ourselves part.
Vipassana has a history of adoption by political reformers (for ex
ample, Hpo Hlaing not only emphasised and wrote about vipassana
but also proposed a form of "traditional democracy"), and these tradi
tions are associated with a track-record of questioning the political
orders associated with British colonialism ( 1 824-48), during the par
liamentary democracy period ( 1 948-62), and also under the military
dictatorship in Burma since 1 962, including by PM U Nu and, more
recently, by Aung San Suu Kyi.
How do techniques aiming to interrogate one ' s own personal
make-up bring to the fore questions of larger magnitude, including
political ones? In presenting this technique in the context of the life of
a contemporary Burmese practitioner, I hope to return fo cus to what
propelled vipassana to public view in Burma, whilst bearing in mind
that this technique will signify very different things in other cultural
settings (e.g. today the technique is used worldwide to reform person
alities in psychotherapy to prisons).
Vipassana is presented by practitioners as the summum bonum of
Buddhist "practice" (patipatti) and as leading to realization of the es
sence of the Buddha' s post-enlightemnent teachings . It is glossed as
"beholding in a special, attentive manner the mind and the obj ects of
senses for such symptoms as impermanence [suffering, and ego
lessness] " . 4 Childers ( 1 922 : 5 80) gave its Pali meaning as "seeing
clearly, spiritual insight [ . . . ] produced by the successful exercise of
ecstatic meditation [ . . . ] an attribute of Arahatship", whereas Rhys
Davids and Stede ( 1 92 1 -25 : 627) preferred "inward vision, insight,
intuition, introspection" . It refers to a variety of techniques by which
practitioners come to terms with the true nature of existence and de4 Yoknan hnitpa go aneiksa sa thaw lekhkana a hpyin a htit shit hsin gyin gyin (MAA
1 98 0 : 1 53 ) .
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
95
velop an intuitive knowledge of the interrelationship between suffer

ing (dukkha), the impermanent nature of existence (anicca), and the
illusion of selfhood (anatta). Although emphasising practice over
scriptural learning, much like the Zen traditions of Japan, this practice
has spawned in Burma a gigantic vernacular literature of many thou
sands of books and pamphlets since the 20th century. They cover bi
ographies, histories, doctrinal reflections, translations of Pali works,
etc., to which foreigners are increasingly contributing their own body
of literature in other languages as these traditions come to the fore
internationally. In short, vipassana is Burma' s biggest export service
industry.
Since founding the first centre dedicated to practice, also by laity
in 1 9 1 1 , today there are well over a thousand centres in Burma in
several dozen distinct traditions conceived for practice by unordained
laity as well as monks . This represents a significant historical shift in
Burmese Buddhism, as there are no records of such institutions dedi
cated to widespread vipassana teaching to laity prior to the twentieth
century. Its popularization did not take place on any scale, among un
ordained Buddhists at least, until the 1 93 0s, when these techniques
came to be disseminated predominantly by pupils of the Ledi
Hsayadaw ( 1 846- 1 923) and by the Mingiln Hsayadaw ( 1 869- 1 954).
Though a famous role model in terms of his own meditative practices,
contributions by the Ledi Hsayadaw himself were mainly limited to
preaching and writing about the subj ect: he personally never taught
the unordained on any scale. Mingiln' s contribution, on the other
hand, did involve giving practical instruction to the unordained on
some scale, as he was involved in the earliest-known institutionalisa
tion of formal classes for the unordained in a centre founded for this
purpose by his disciples in 1 9 1 1 .
Nevertheless, it was mainly pupils of these two monks who took
vipassana methods to the masses. The big names in the 1 920s and 3 0 s
were the Kyaungban Hsayadaw ( 1 860- 1 927), Nyaungllin Hsayadaw
( 1 864- 1 93 3 ), Theikchadaung Hsayadaw ( 1 8 7 1 - 1 93 7), Mohnyin
Hsayadaw ( 1 873 - 1 964), Hsaya Thetgyi ( 1 8 7 3 - 1 946), Hanthawadi
Hsayadaw ( 1 8 86- 1 959), SUnlun Hs. ( 1 878- 1 9 52), Myat Thein Htiln
( 1 896-?) and the Weibu Hsayadaw ( 1 896- 1 977): possibly with excep
tion of Nyaungllin Hsayadaw, these had all been influenced in one
96
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
way or another either through personal contact with or reading the

writings of the Ledi Hsayadaw or the Mingun Hsayadaw.
Among the several dozen or so methods taught in Burma, teachers
will each teach their own vipassanii techniques that will typically
vary in detail and character from the techniques taught by their own
teachers. Since it is about practicalities, the way they teach will also
be tweaked to the personality and abilities of their students and will
undergo change over time. They may themselves practice other meth
ods in addition to the ones they teach. With a number of notable lay
and female exceptions, most teachers are ordained men. Although
periods of retreat vary considerably, anywhere between 1 0 days and
many months, what all techniques have in common is the emphasis
on the taking of moral precepts (sila) prior to beginning a course for
its duration, an emphasis on a regimented life, getting up early and
sleeping little, and not reading, writing or engaging in discursive
thought while practicing. Typically, teachers have daily sessions with
students, individually or in groups, engaging them on their experienc
es and advising them on how to best deal with these. Typically also,
teachers will first seek to stabilize the student ' s mind by focusing on
breath, after which broader techniques such as contemplation of the
body may be attempted.
Most vipassanii techniques popularized internationally today may
be traced back to two principal vipassanii lineages in Burma (Hout
man, 1 990; Cousins, 1 996a), though these lineages by no means en
compass all the traditions taught since. The two most influential tech
niques historically are the Ledi Hsayadaw "mindfulness of breathing"
(iiniipiina) and Mingun Hsayadaw "mindulfness" or "rising and low
ering of the belly" (thadfpahtan or hpaimgpein) techniques . The for
mer spawned several lineages of teachers, including lay teachers Saya
Thet Gyi, Ba Khin, Goenka, and (by reading) U Myat Thein Htun,
and monastic teachers such as Kyaungban/Mohnyin/Theikchadaung
Hsayadaws. The Mingun Hsayadaw tradition was the first to establish
a vipassanii practice centre for lay practice in the first decade of the
20th century, and spawned lay teachers such as U Myat Kyaw and
monk teachers such as Taungpulu Hsayadaw and the Mahasi
Hsayadaw: this is also the lineage that came to the centre of the polit
ical order under prime minister U Nu in the 1 950s.
VIP AS SANA IN BURMA
97
The Mahasi technique has been subj ect to controversy (e.g. B ond,
1 9 92: 1 64-65; Sharf, 1 995 :256-57; Jordt, 2007 :228). It is sometimes
re ferred to as a "dry insight" technique because, as taught to laity, it
contains little emphasis on prior practice ofthe samatha jhiinas (con
centration meditation). In particular, Sinhalese monks have criticized
this technique for the way breath is noted via the rise and fall of the
belly and what many interpret as an unnecessary bifurcation between
samatha and vipassanii. This technique is sometimes referred to as
more suitable for monastic practice, as retreats tend to be of longer
duration and a little less structured than the iiniipiina techniques . It is
revealing that this "dry insight" practice came under state support
during U Nu' s period of parliamentary democracy ( 1 948-62), when
samatha methods were particularly de-emphasised.
Largely through the teachings of Goenka, who returned from
Burma to India, the Ledi Sayadaw iiniipiina method is internationally
the more widely practiced among laity. It has been adapted to quick
and short courses that specialise in teaching lay people with little time
off. It is easy to understand with the first three days spent in attaining
mindfulness on breath passing through the nostrils, after which there
is a crossing over to vipassanii through contemplation of the body
(kayanupassana) .
U Nu fostered the institutionalisation of vipassana under his par
liamentary government between the years 1 948-62, which brought to
the fore new generations of teachers to disseminate these techniques
under the umbrella of state sponsorship, amongst whom the Mahasi
Hsayadaw was by far the most influential. The writings of John F .
Brohm ( 1 9 57), Winston King ( 1 96 1 , 1 964a, 1 964b, 1 97 1 , 1 980), the
auto-biographical travelogues and meditation experiences of Rear
Admiral Shattock ( 1 958, 1 988) and Byles ( 1 962, 1 965), and the vi
gnettes by Kornfield ( 1 977), and later work by Houtman ( 1 990,
1 999), Braun (2008), and Jordt (2007) have so far constituted the
main source material in English upon which our understanding of the
se traditions derive.
Winston King and J. F . Brohm demonstrated the link between
popularization of vipassanii techniques, attainment of national inde
pendence in 1 948, and the celebration of 2 5 00 years of Buddhism.
These events all took place whilst they were in Burma for their re
search and is expressed in a popular prophesy frequently recounted in
98
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
Burma concerning the conjunction between national independence

and the inauguration of a new 500 year time-period during which
vipassanii would become the most popular Buddhist practice leading
to enlightenment.
However, this literature focused primarily on the later Nu
subsidized "bare insight" generation of teachers, leaving the impres
sion that these techniques were, if not invented, at least first taken up
and popularised primarily by an urban western educated elite in the
course of this relatively late Nu-led religious revival. When read in
conjunction with scholarship on meditative traditions elsewhere in the
colonised Buddhist world, such as on Southeast Asian Buddhism by
such scholars as Bechert ( 1 966- 73 ), and in conj unction with material
on Sri Lanka, for instance that by Gombrich ( 1 9 8 3 ) and Carrithers
( 1 9 8 3 ), which sketch a similarly short historical horizon for Buddhist
meditational practice elsewhere, we are left with the view that vipas
sanii traditions are "without history", and are a modem reinvention.
There is a substantial body of vernacular in Burmese literature
pointing at historical evidence of the practice and teaching of vipas
sanii earlier than that. Braun (2008 : 6 1 ) has argued, based on Pranke ' s
work, for the lack o f assertion o f contemporary attainment o f arahat
ship in historical sources immediately before the 1 8th century. 5 It was
not until Mindon' s emphasis on discipline and sangha reform, and in
his patronage of the forest traditions, that the idea of arahatship as a
feasible attainment in the here and now emerged. A number of works
emphasising vipassanii originated in the middle of the 1 9th century,
but most are of 20th century origin. This literature reveals how vipas
sanii practice was subj ect to debate from the second quarter of the
1 9th century onwards, roughly coterminous with British encroach
ment on Burmese territory and the loss of self-esteem this brought to
members of the royal family. It involved monastic personalities such
as Thilon Hsayadaw ( 1 786-1 860), Htut-hkaung Hsayadaw ( 1 7981 8 80), Shwe-gyin Hsayadaw ( 1 822- 1 89 3 ), Hngetdwin Hsayadaw
5 "Pranke has noted that the V amsadipanai ( 1 799) and the Sasanasiddhipidipaka
( 1 8 1 2) take for granted that no arhats exist in the sangha. But the 1 83 1 Thathanalin
kara sadan states that enlightenment is possible for meditation practices, while the
1 8 6 1 Sasanavamsa states categorically that there are monks living in the sangha who
are arhats." (Braun 2008 : 6 1 )
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
99
( 1 83 1 - 1 9 1 0), and Hpondawgyi U Thila ( 1 832- 1 908), at least one nun,

namely Me Kin ( 1 8 1 4- 1 8 82), and members of the ministers of Min
don's Court such as Minister of Interior Affairs U Hpo Hlaing.
In supporting these personalities, King Mindon raised the profile
of Buddhist practice (including more broadly bhavana and vipas
sana), more than any authority figure before. Furthermore, his own
personal practice (though in a form not recognizable today) and en
couragement of these techniques between the 1 840s and the 1 870s
sets him apart from his predecessors in Burmese history. During his
rule, and as a result of his patronage, came to fame these earliest gen
erations of vipassana practitioners to whom contemporary teachers
trace back their lineage of practice. 6
Though Brohm and King, in their concern to document the Nu era,
did not cover historical dimensions prior to the Nu period, the correla
tion they identify between transformation in the political order and
popularisation of vipassana hold even in the Mindon period, for these
were the two grand periods of state sponsorship of Buddhist practice.
The Mindon and the Nu eras also marked either end of the colonial
period, when faith in Burmese Buddhist identity was most severely
shaken. In this sense vipassana is party to more than crossing the
threshold of death as part of some life-cycle ritual. In character with
the way Van Gennep (2004) derived his theory of rites of passage, it
also plays a role in that rite oftransition between one concept of polit
ical domain as opposed to another. Indeed, vipassana has a role to
play not only in the personal transformation of Burmese leaders, but
in the transformation of the Burmese people and their polity. 7
6 As Ferguson ( 1 975 : 257) put it, "After King Mindon [ . . . ] many lay people, particu
larly in Lower Burma, began to honour meditating forest monks, and some of these
developed the belief that meditation was superior to textual memorization as the
means to nirvana."
7 Van Gennep (2004) describes rites-de-passage as a j ourney that is marked across
both territorially across geographical boundaries, as well as across time, i.e. the dif
ferent phases of a life-cycle. In the last paragraph of the conclusion, Van Gennep
deals with Buddhist societies : once we enter ' circular' societies where life is per
ceived as endlessly repetitive rebirths (cf. 'rectilinear' societies where rituals are
understood as one-off in a single life-time), repetitiveness is an impetus towards
(meditation and also) philosophy.
1 00
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
If interest in vipassanii was triggered at times of political transi

tion, vipassanii has an important role to play in the transition of con
temporary Burma from post- 1 962 military state to democratic gov
ernment. To understand this question we need to understand Buddhist
meditative techniques as addressing, at one and the same time, ques
tions of the smallest magnitude in the sense of a personal technique
for manipulation of one ' s body and mind to gain personal enlighten
ment, and questions of the larger magnitude, which is the understand
ing of nature at large, the place of all entities within it, including those
of state, ethnic group and person. Furthermore, meditative attainment
lies at the heart of concepts of power, both of the supernatural and of
the political kind. The role of vipassanii in the post- 1 98 8 struggle by
National League for Democracy leaders such as Aung San Suu Kyi
has been noted in more detail elsewhere (Houtman, 1 999).
Hermitess Hsayalei
Hermitess Hsayalei (Little Teacher, abbrev. HL) explains to me in the
course of about fifteen in-depth interviews how she started her vipas
sanii contemplation practice in the Ledi iiniipiina tradition, what her
experiences were, and of her concerns about its vulnerability as a con
tinuous tradition. She convinces me that, paradoxically as it may
seem, she found certitude in its practice, which appears to assert such
radical doubts about the material and mental world most of us take for
granted.
Her account of herself gives us an immediate and lively introduc
tion to vipassanii as a Buddhist practice among practices, and as a
Buddhist institution among institutions . Her personal statements re
verberate in many ways in the discursive world surrounding this prac
tice wherever we care to look - whether it be in biographies, histories,
or preachings . Since such experiences are sensitive to misunderstand
ing, however, I have secured anonymity by not identifying her name,
the centre, or the exact region.
HL resides at a vipassanii centre. She had been closely involved in
setting up this centre j ust after World War II in the late 1 940s, and
lived in it for over thirty years . She helped generate most of the fi
nance to keep it going. Officially, she was in charge of running the
catering services, but unofficially she ran the centre virtually sin-
VIPASSANA IN BURMA
101
gle-handed. She also helped to solve problems contemplators faced,

particularly female ones. After a long search I had found someone
who was prepared to discuss some of the issues about which few
te achers had been willing to talk to me. HL was forthcoming and
open about her life and her relationships with the people around her,
which permitted understanding the life of someone closely involved.
HL characterised herself as a "hermitess" (yatheima) and not a
"nun" (thilityin ) . 8 She indicated that she was not a nun because she
wore brown robes characteristic of hermits instead of pink robes nuns
usually wear, and because she kept the Ten Precepts rather than the
Eight Precepts normally kept by nuns.
This point about morality is a crucial one . Without morality no
concentration can arise, and without concentration no vipassana can
be attempted, and no insight can be attained. Morality, therefore, is
the "bedrock" of otherworldly knowledge and is fundamental to all
forms of Buddhist practice. The nobility of a person is measurable by
the number of precepts adhered to : the monk, with 227 rules is on top
which, when enumerated further, becomes 95,03 6,000 Vinaya pre
cepts ; the novice with 70 rules is below that; the nun or yogi, with
either the 1 0 , 9, or 8 precepts at full moon and at monasteries and hol
idays lower down; the 8 precepts for laity living at home yet lower;
until finally there is the "normal" Buddhist with the 5 precepts . There
are many more or less well-known divisions in morality which I shall
not go into, 9 but this is to show how the Burmese are connoiseurs of
the finer points of morality as a vast system which varies depending
on the aims one sets oneself in life.
Given that there is no strong notion of self, morality is not, of
course, some permanent attribute of the person. Indeed, it is possible
to become a monk or a yogi and take the "high" precepts, to drop
them to the usual 5 when returning home. Historically, mishaps in the
8 Most Burmese Buddhists regard nuns as having low status, but increasingly there
are Burmese Buddhists who admire nuns, particularly those who take exams in scrip
tural learning at high level. As Mo-hnyin nuns are highly regarded, Hsayalei pre
ferred to be associated with that tradition (See also Mendelson 1 9 75 : 1 46).
9 For example, though the minimum is the 5 permanent moralities for all ordinary
people, there are also 5 special moralities for higher beings. Furthermore, there are
also the 6 moralities for female monks and female probationers (Awbatha 1 97 5 : 626).
Finally, there are the 1 2 moralities of the Hngetwin sect (Mendelson, 1 975 : 1 1 0) .
1 02
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
kingdom were attributed to bad morality on the part of the king, and
there is a strong causality attributable to one ' s transgressions or ob
servances of morality in the past. 1 0 It is a discipline which one "takes"
(yu thi) more or less of, and "wears" (wut thi) at different times of
one ' s life. If this morality is measurable by such delicate and precise
enumeration, meditational achievement is indirectly measurable by
the use of qualitative numeral classifiers, a classifier which distin
guishes lesser or higher beings when subj ecting them to a counting. 1 1
It i s possible to write a whole book on the implications o f these, but I
mention them here because HL has located herself at the "upper end"
of the morality scale for nuns, taking 1 0 precepts instead of the 8,
which indicates how serious she is about insight. 12
HL came from a merchant family trading in lime. When she was
young, her mother contracted Bubonic plague. Though she responded
to treatment and recovered, she was never again able to do any work.
Her father died of tuberculosis when she was fourteen. There was no
one to take care of the children. At the age of thirteen, while her par
ents were ill, she was put in the care of a merchant lady who sold j ag
gery, and with whom she worked to maintain her five younger sisters .
The lady at the market taught her all the secrets of business until the
age of nineteen, when she set up a little shop of her own, selling
household goods such as soap and matches . HL traded like this until
the age of thirty, when the event of the illness and subsequent death
of her mother' s sister, her favourite aunt, took place. This aunt had
lived with the family, where she helped to take care of HL ' s mother
and sisters; HL regarded her as a mother. When this aunt was ill in the
10
See, e.g., Sangermano ( 1 893 : 1 8); Lieberman ( 1 98 4 : 3 5-6).

The Buddha is counted as hsu, as are staircases and nets : "No one can measure
him; to speak of him, there are no words; what the mind might conceive vanishes and
all ways of speaking vanish. " (Suttanipata, v 1 07 4) This point about qualification of
selfin meditation vs. quantification of self in terms of morality and charity is btought
home in a perceptive paragraph by King ( 1 964b : 5 1 ), in which he recounts how a
meditator was chided for quantifying the merit achieved in meditation.
12
Interestingly, Burmese Buddhists never refer to the 500 rules of nuns, a reference
common elsewhere (See E. Lamotte 1 98 8 : 42). This may explain the impossibility of
women to be ordained in terms of a strong attitude by Burmese on the status of wom
en, rather than the historical disruption of lineage.
11
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
1 03
hospital, people in the hospital used to comment on how HL took care

of her aunt as if she were her mother.
It was at this time of stress during the illness of her aunt that her
interest in insight evolved:
At that time I met a market saleswoman who was somewhat older than I.
In a conversation with her my morale was not improved; she told me that
the way most people lived in this world was bound to lead to rebirth in
the lower four abodes. The only way out was to practise mental culture .
A man who had founded an insight centre was then running a transport
company, paddling onions and garlic between A and my home town. I
was told that he knew a lot about Buddhism. His teaching, so the market
saleswoman told me, was a teaching which could free from rebirth in the
nether hells .
HL decided to see this remarkable teacher:

I went to see him, and for the first time ever I forgot about my shop, and
no longer considered it the most important thing in my life. I started prac
tising by myself for about seven days off and on when I was free from
work.
Soon, however, her mother obj ected to her mental culture and did not
want her to visit the teacher:
The meditation teacher travelled, going to A, B , C, and D, and I dearly
wanted to attend his preachings in C, but my mother did not want me to
go . To my mind it was a shame not to go to hear this very important
means of release of rebirth. Eventually I went in spite of my mother' s ob
j ections to attend the first course the teacher gave in my hometown. It
was held in a building owned by the market saleswoman, and we were
asked to bring along five people for the course each, to make it worth
while.
HL ' s great sense of early bereavement facing death and illness, the
pressure upon her to provide for dependents while not mentally up to
the task, and finding in a teacher a symbol of renunciation from this
unsatisfactory life that she wished to pursue : these were indeed the
omens that had motivated the Buddha to renounce. HL ' s initial expe-
1 04
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
rience, then, was not so very different from the Buddha' s own experi
ence, and one can imagine that if a method is devised with a particu
lar problem in mind, that this will tend to be reused again and again
by others faced with similar conditions .
I asked HL to recount her experiences during her first course,
which she did somewhat reluctantly : 13
The experiences of destruction and birth (hpyit-pyet) 14 were many and
fast. My experience of these developed in two phases. First it felt as if
dough or wet sand was coming out of my body and particularly out of
my head, and was slowly dripping onto the ground. During the second
phase I felt as if only smoke was coming out of my body, going upwards.
This latter phase showed that I had made some progress, for they were
sensations of a less gross nature. I was later told that after smoke come
sensations of essence (a-ngwel), which is even finer.
The insight experience, then, moves from experiencing the body as a

"gross" experience ofimpermanence (the heavy movement of sand or
dough), to a finer experience (the swiftness of smoke or essence), un
til, at the point where her sense of body and mind disappeared alto
gether, there was no sensation left:
I soon had no sensations in the body anymore, nor of mind, and I felt as
if I could see the constituent elements of my body. Instead of feeling
"shapeful" I was conscious of the various constituent elements of the
body. At the time I did not realize the significance of these experiences,
but when I saw the teacher he approved of them, and explained to me
that it was the experience of impermanence. I was not convinced, and
still felt I did not know what impermanence was about. I did not under
stand the reality of the birth-destruction process, and only believed what I
could see with my eyes.
Insight experiences here, therefore, proceed according to a gradual

increased realisation of the process of birth and death in mind and
13 Meditation experiences should not be talked about openly.
14 Hpyit-pyet is commonly used in some meditation methods to refer to the feelings of
air flowing in and out of the nostrils. The experience of this leads to tha-ma-hta ' after
which an intuitive awareness of impermanence is aimed at, i.e. birth and destruction
of all phenomena.
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
1 05
body, not as a one-off event between the cradle and the grave, but as a
continuous process until there is no substance or continuity to them as
we normally think of them. In this way, the Mahasi puts it, within
every minute 50-60 acts of noting mental events are possible. These
make us realise the flux that goes on and challenges the structuring of
our experience by any other means but a mindfulness as they take
place. Discursiveness, here, is too slow and too misleading to keep up
with reality of being and of becoming.
Such experience, however, does not mean nihilism or a denial of
the reality of one ' s social obligations, for HL explains :
Another experience I had was that I saw three benefactors 1 5 in front of
my eyes: my mother, Daw U, and Daw T. I cried and I wanted to return
to them the debt of gratitude. I returned the debt of gratitude to them by
teaching them mental culture.
I asked how HL felt after these experiences when she returned hom e :
It affected my life immediately. I could, fo r example, n o longer smear
thanahka 1 6 onto my face. I would no longer wear beautiful clothing. In
fact I never smeared thanahka or wore beautiful clothing again. Though I
did go to my usual work at the market, I found that I could no longer chat
in the usual market language. I no longer performed my work properly,
and it became a problem to my younger sisters and my mother.
Her experience of her body as shapeless, insubstantial, and without

sensation, and her changes of mind, issued in her a changing of atti
tude to dress, make-up, use of language, and work. Once again, how
ever, HL asserts how this is not due to some sense of nihilism, for she
confirms her sensitivity to her "benefactors" of whom she had a vi-
15
Kyeizushin, or "masters of grace" denotes formally a class of ten beings which

includes : the Buddha; silent Buddhas; the Buddha' s left and right hand disciples;
one ' s mother; one ' s father; those who are more noble in age, qualities, morality and
so forth than oneself; those who feed and dress one; those who teach one the taya
(Buddhist teachings). During subsequent conversations with HL it became apparent
that she was fervently anti-communist because "they did not know their benefactors".
16
The bark root of the thanahka tree is used by women, pounded and then smeared
onto their faces as a cooling beauty cream.
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
1 06
sion in the course of the first session by inviting them all three to con
template :
Two of them did not need much convincing to come along, but Daw T
had cancer at the time, and her family did not like the idea of her going
out to practise mental culture. But when I cried, she understood how
much it meant to me, and came. She died shortly after contemplating.
I asked HL to explain to me her feelings during the second phas e :

I t was during this period that the meaning of the Buddha' s teachings be
came suddenly clear to me. Here I went up onto the "path ofknowledge"
(nyanzm
). 17
It was j ust prior to the middle of this path that HL experienced great
17 The "path of knowledge" is a technical reference to the 1 6 point scale of progres

sion of insight as laid down in the commentaries. It describes the experiences a suc
cessful yogi will have before achieving streamwinner (thawdaban), the first of the
four holy stages (ariya) which guarantee the cessation ofrebirth. Couched in terms of
the language of mental culture, this cannot be easily related to by non-practitioners
and it is therefore given only to those who have successfully achieved "the path of
insight" (nyanzin) . Briefly, it expounds 1 6 stages in the sensation and perceptions of
the yogi - paraphrased in my own words and slightly abbreviated: the knowledge
distinguishing between mind and matter (and awareness that there is no "I", only
mind and matter); the capacity to distinguish between cause and effect (doubt of past,
present and future existence of "I" is removed); the obj ect of noting disappears at the
same time as noting ("I", and everything, is realised to be nothing but "impermanent"
and "suffering", not worth hanging onto); one becomes aware that becoming and
destruction, previously thought to be long developments, are in fact lots of rapid be
comings and destructions (ecstasy develops); everything is seen in its aspect of disso
lution (strengthening awareness of non-self, suffering, and impermanence); fear oc
curs because of the rapid dissolution of all phenomena; knowledge of misery is de
veloped through the realisation that all psycho-physical phenomena rapidly dissolve;
these are observed as devoid of pleasure and as unreliable; all phenomena are seen as
suffering and the desire arises to renounce the body-mind and one attains further
energy this way to continue; characteristics of impermanence, suffering and imper
sonality come to be better appreciated and pains excessive to bear are encountered
which disappear when noted so that equanimity develops; noting becomes rapid and
without effort and glimpses of cessation (neik-ban) are attained; sudden realization of
a fleeting moment of cessation of all phenomenal processes; retrospection occurs
over the path of insight and of the holy ones.
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
1 07
fear: 1 8
Yet it all happened in stages and as I progressed I got at once terribly
frightened, and began to see this whole progression of experiences as an
enemy. I desperately tried to get rid of this fear, and I cried terribly.
It is with these situations in mind that the teacher is crucial, and HL

could not have done without his encouragement:
I went to see the teacher, who said that I should face this fear, that I
should go back and practise through it. He preached and encouraged me
a lot. I just did not know what to do with my body. I could not run away
from the sensations, for they were in my head. I could not discard my
body. Yet the encouragement by my teacher made me face my fears, and
I continued.
This is not unsimilar to what in western mysticism is referred to as the

"dark night of the senses", which is later followed by the "dark night
of the soul", which is a dying, first to the senses, and later to self. This
experience is frightening, for it involves abandoning all hitherto as
sumed certainties of life :
After some more practice I found my way out, and my knowledge about
impermanence became clear. Had I scaped and run away, I would have
never had this experience. My fear was the fear of intuitive realisation of
impermanence, but lacking the realisation that there was a way out of
suffering, disease, old age and death, and lacking the realisation that in
sight was the answer to all this. I have never told anyone these experi
ences except my teacher, not even my closest friend.
It is not usual to describe experiences in mental culture to others ex

cept one ' s teacher. The reason given is usually that it would harm the
person who would not believe the experiences happened, and it also
gives rise to misunderstandings . Yet because I had a deep interest in it
as a subj ect of study, HL allowed herself to answer these questions .
What happened when you returned home that time, I asked.
18
This is known as Bhaya N ana.
108
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
When I returned home, I just gave up all the work at the market, and this
caused big problems, as my younger sisters had no knowledge ofbuying
and selling. B efore insight I had always been fascinated by market life : I
used to be the last to leave the store, and when the gong went I just went
on working until all the others had packed up . But after insight I just
wanted to drop it all.
When I asked for HL ' s experiences during the third period, she said:
I do not want to talk about it. It is improper to do so. If people hear it and
say thadu, thadu, thadu. 19 then all is well, but if they do not believe it or
were to be j ealous, then it would be an obstacle to their spiritual quest.
But she did tell me eventually and not altogether reluctantly, for we
had established a sense of trust and it was all part of a running dia
logue over many sessions :
Through this experience of the realisation of birth-destruction I knew im
permanence, where there was nothing left. During the third sitting I faced
up to this : I was looking at my mind which was in my heart. It was no
longer, it was destroyed. There was at once nothing to look at anymore,
and the process of becoming-destruction had come to an end.
This achievement meant a mastery of the path. I asked what happened

on return home after this experience :
O n return home I could not live there anymore. I could not even talk
about things: this was all worldly talk. I had the urge only to talk and
read of "otherworldly" things.
Her personal j ourney had transformed her. Collective culture has no

agency in insight, which deals with the grand cosmological laws way
above convention, and it is this which allows people to extricate
themselves from the grip of collective culture and collective life. For
example, HL proposed that insight is "an avenue to short-cut fate"
(kan hpyat Zan), where the "sensations" (weidana) experienced during
19 _Thadu', literally "good", is said three times as a recognition of meritorious action.
It is usually said at the end of offerings somewhat like the Christian "amen" .
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
1 09
a sitting are nothing but the "undergoing of the debts of rebirth"

(wutkywei hkan sa thi). In other words, insight practice "kills" (that
thi) the retributions of past deeds which would have otherwise been
suffered in reality at some stage, some life, in the future. HL told me
about her experience.
I had the experience of feeling like a fish on land, and at one stage I
rolled about like mad exactly like a fish on land. No less than three peo
ple had to hold me, so violently did I shake.
In this case, HL attributed her experiences to the retributions of a past

life as a fisherman, whose demeritorious actions of killing fish she
experienced, the effects of which can be transcended.
Through insight, HL gradually extricated herself from what she
came to see as a misguided and doubtful life in society that encour
ages continuities and certainties that are simply not there. In other
words, through the personal culture of insight she gradually comes to
challenge the collective culture of discourse and convention, so that,
in the end, she can no longer live in the same way and, as a person
transformed by this experience, she opts out. Yet the society she opts
out from, as I have already referred to, had within itself this possibil
ity for personal culture, for HL came to know about insight from oth
er Buddhists vipassanii centres are stable features in Burmese socie
ty. Indeed, to the extent that the centre of Burmese society is at its
periphery - the monastery, and in particular the forest monastery personal culture is at one and the same time affirmed by the grand
tradition of renunciation so central to society, so central to everyday
life in terms of charity and morality, and yet at the same time appar
ently so peripheral to the continuities thereby established.
Furthermore, it is not as ifHL opts out completely, for the insight
centre engaged Burmese society, with business, and with other mon
asteries . So while, though in confidence, and with remarkable frank
ness, she had told me of her personal experiences, she also told me
about the difficulties she faces with learned monks who seem little
interested in the insight centre and prefer scholarly learning. With few
-
1 10
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
monks interested in the centre run by the "unordained", 20 she explains

to me the problems in respect of teacher-pupil succession when in
sight centres have no monastic head. Indeed, HL, who had devoted
her life to insight, and given so much of her life to the centre, re
counts her disappointments . She had donated a monastery j ust inside
the compound of the centre in the hope that the monks would take an
active interest in teaching and studying mental culture. They did not,
and merely went their way insisting on doing scriptural learning.
Additionally, some in the centre administration opposed her ideas,
seeing in her continued interest in concentration meditation and the
occult. Indeed, her initiative in building a pagoda was largely fi
nanced by bona fide practitioners of royal charity (dana) , seeking to
establish themselves firmly onto the path of concentration and sage
hood, rather than insight and purity. She also tells me of the difficul
ties she herself has with such concentration meditators who are con
stantly looking for openings in the centre to bestow big acts of charity
in order to attain grand merit appropriate to kings .
The nature of vipassana

I have presented a case study to show how vipassana experiences
may be understood and contextualised in a vipassana centre in Bur
ma. This particular practitioner is not necessarily representative of
vipassana practitioners more generally, but she has a long association
with the practice, and her experiences are of interest: her life as she
relates it exhibits a graduation of experiential awareness of the three
marks of existence. Sharf ( 1 995) argues that the tendency towards
emphasising religious experience is essentially a western influenced
impetus . He may well be right that many authors and scholars ofreli
gious studies have a tendency towards privileging religious experi
ence without demonstrating empirical support for their generaliza
tions, but I am not at all sure this argument can be used to generalize
about practitioners of this tradition everywhere for several reasons .
First, although we can argue about what modernization means, this
20
With the exception ofHL, who was an ordained nun. Though she considers herself
a hermitess, these are not normally ordained. Yet she was ordained by the method of
nuns, though she prefers to be known as a hermitess because of the different status
that this conveys - it is more highly regarded in Burma.
VIPAS SANA IN BURMA
111
particular practitioner most certainly had experiences that are not nec
essarily accounted for, related to or encompassed by any particularly
identifiable "western" influence. Her experiences are embedded in a
Burmese context, where references to renunciation are plenty in eve
ryday social and cultural discourse. Second, perhaps the rarity of re
lating her experiences have to do with the way such experiences are
indeed difficult to relate, interpret and contextualize, which explains
why these particular experiences are, in the Burmese context, rarely
spoken or written about. There is an inj unction on relating experienc
es suggesting higher levels of attainment - whether by laity or Sang
ha - for a good reason: the potential of political instability. The
powers attained in the various kinds of meditation have value for as
pirants to political and military leadership. Also, there is no easy vo
cabulary for relating these experiences (although Cousins ( 1 996a)
does a good j ob giving an oversight of canonical/commentarial terms
involved).
Sharf s criticism of vipassanfi as a product of the west and of ex
perience largely as an invention, leaves little room for analysis of this
practitioner in Buddhist Burma, a country with a record surely of one
of the longest uninterrupted socio-political and cultural experiences
with Buddhism. Here renunciation, unlike in Japan, is today part of
everyone ' s vocabulary and, furthermore, also a regular practice with
temporary ordination and opportunities for practicing meditation
within reach of most Burmese households, who already support the
estimated 400,000 monks, nuns and novices in the country.
Sharf ( 1 995 : 23 3 , 243) has suggested that "While we do find some
contemporary Theravada teachers touting the benefits of exalted med
itative experience, they are invariably associated with modern reform
movements stimulated by contact with Western missionaries and Oc
cidental scholarship", and that the reason for the stature ofvipassana
and Zen in the West "is no mystery", since "partisans of both vipas
sanfi and Zen have been largely responsible for perpetuating the im
age of Buddhism as a rational, humanistic, contemplative creed that
eschews magic and empty ritual" . While he has many features right
- that these are often linked to reform movements, are on the whole
against extensive ritual, that many will frown on magic, and also that
western discourse may be transfixed on religious experience in the
last century, etc. - he does not quite get to the historical and bio-
1 12
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
graphical contexts of these movement and their early beginnings to

make the j udgments he has .
Cousins ( 1 996a) makes a different and, in my view, more useful
argument centred more closely on his detailed grasp of the experienc
es involved as a practitioner himself, with both the canoni
cal/commentarial traditions and the actual history and diversity of
meditational practices in Theravada South East Asia. Although he
recognizes a change in the substance of this tradition towards isolat
ing vipassanii over other reforms based on different Buddhist practic
es emphasised hitherto, his view is not particularly that emphasis on
religious experience is exaggerated or necessarily the product of the
west, but simply that it requires explanation as to why some medita
tion traditions have eclipsed others in some Buddhist countries and
also in the international arena. In particular, his view of the Burmese
emphasis on dry insight is that it has eclipsed what historically, based
on his research in the early canonical/commentarial sources and in
other countries such as Thailand and Laos, were more commonly
found as combined samatha-vipassanii practices . Cousins raises the
issue of the balance of samatha and vipassanii in Burmese methods,
and what he feels is a comparative emphasis on vipassanii as a tech
nique that somehow bypasses samatha in the popularized dry insight
methodology .
What we have learned of from this case study is, as Cousins in
deed suggests, a much more complex situation. Samatha practitioners,
associated with a hierarchical polity, power and grand donations,
forge their way into supporting the vipassanii centre that HL was part
of, and yogis themselves frequently cross the threshold towards more
dedicated samatha practice even in vipassanii centres . When the
monks went onto the streets in processions during the "saffron revolu
tion" of September and October 2007, they did so sending loving
kindness (metta), one of the most common samatha practices . I am in
agreement with Cousins, therefore, that the tendency to render every
thing in vipassanii terms can be quite misleading.
Short of seeing the prevalent emphasis on vipassanii in 20th
century Burma as an enigma or as some western influence, I here
wish to consider the more specifically political dimensions to the
problem. Royalty would typically seek to exercise a firm grip on
claims to enlightenment and would patrol grand acts of charity such
VIP AS SANA IN BURMA
1 13
as building pagodas. In a post-royal Burmese world since abolition of

the monarchy in 1 8 85, we have perhaps underestimated the particular
political conditions that have given the impetus to an emphasis on
vipassana and samatha and, conversely, the political conditions to
which samatha and vipassana practitioners aspire : these may better
explain differential emphasis on either method, both regionally and
historically .
Let me unpack this idea. HL emphasises that vipassana permits
"burning" of kamma and thus is capable of short-circuiting the rounds
of rebirths. Yet kamma itself is a necessary ingredient for hierarchical
differentiation for a monarchy to arise and be sustained. King Mindon
and his courtiers advocated vipassana as helpful in the court and
among monks he supported, but with no monarchy in the Burmese
context to patrol and limit claims to Buddhist enlightenment subse
quently, vipassana was freed for laity to take to it en masse since
then. This suggests that the polity and mental culture impact one an
other. I have elsewhere argued (Houtman, 2009) that the loka
nibbana axis represents the primary axis around which Burmese polit
ical oratory orients itself, even among the most secular politicians and
certainly among the most popular ones, even if this rhetoric manifests
itself differently over time. To the extent that the polity itself has nib
bana in its sights, not least by the building of pagodas in commemo
ration of the Buddha' s enlightenment, we cannot dissociate either
vipassana or samatha from the polity. Indeed, as I have already ar
gued, the liberalization of attainment to nibbana as everyone ' s busi
ness under the immediate post-independent parliamentary democracy
ofU Nu, who institutionalised the bare insight tradition, is associated
with a vision of a collapsed royal hierarchical polity where a demo
cratic political order would be one outcome. So the techniques taught
both, have political consequences, and in themselves participate in
changes in these conditions . This is how I see the perpetual engage
ment of these traditions by successive democracy leaders such as
Aung San Suu Kyi, but also military leaders such as Tin U; where
vipassana affords transformations of identities from hierarchical army
personnel into democrats and, in cases such as General Ne Win and
Sein Lwin, where vipassanfi permits easing into retirement.
When the Ledi Sayadaw entered the forest to discover the intrica
cies of vipassana, he did so inspired by Hpo Hlaing in response to the
1 14
GUSTAAF HOUTMAN
dangers posed by the British colonial invasion of Upper Burma and

the threat of collapse of the moral fibre of society as represented in
the destruction of Buddhism by colonial intervention. Here, occupy
ing governments, whether of the British or Japanese occupation
al/colonial variety, have little opportunity to legitimate or insert them
selves. Where governments have done so subsequently, however, they
have done so in Burma mostly as patrons of vipassanii as a non
violent path to nibbiina (cf. the confrontational paths of samatha and
occult arts practised by the weikza) in encouragement of self-restraint
on the part of its citizens, which explains the growth of this particular
technique in Burma after national independence. This compares with
Thailand, where royalty maintains strict hierarchical control over spir
itual achievements, and where vipassanii never received quite the
same reception historically .
Ever since the Burmese generals have taken on royal airs in the
1 990s, however, new vipassanii methods have emerged in public
view supporting potentially hierarchization of achievements that for
mally conj oin attainment of samatha-jhiina with the practice of vipas
sanii, such as by the Pa Auk Sayadaw.
Conclusion
There is plenty of scope here for exploring the relationship between
prevailing polities and the manifestations of meditation techniques
where, for instance, democracies, monarchies and military regimes
may foster very different meditation techniques and experiences. Sa
matha leads to powers controlling rebirth and stands at the pinnacle of
hierarchical relationships that serve a purpose particularly during mil
lennial moments, as it did during the peasant rebellions of Saya San
and the discourse of the Thakins in the 1 920s until the late 1 93 0s .
Aung San was widely interpreted as a rebirth o f samatha-practicing
Weikza Bo Bo Aung in 1 93 9 on the eve of the Japanese invasion, fo
cusing hope on him for hastening demise of British colonialism as
illegitimate . More recently, however, military patronage of samatha
explains the popularization of the Pa Auk Sayadaw methods. Much
more work is needed to fully understand the interplay between the
samatha and vipassana traditions and between these techniques and
the polity. To understand this fully, we must also engage the enor-
VIPASSANA IN BURMA
1 15
mous vernacular literature available and the exact historical condi

tions of their arising and perpetuation.
Contemplation of the Repulsive

Bo nes and Skulls as Objects ofMeditatio n
Bart Dessein
Introduction
Again: contemplate on the marks [of the corpse] after death, the daily
gradual change - up to seven days:
[ . . . ] the dead corpse gradually changes; its substance deteriorates with
the day. [Contemplate on the] bluish corpse and the other repulsive
[stages of the corpse] as they appear in succession: with the belly
swollen; and streams of rotting pus trickling slowly, and extremely
stinking; and with all kinds of insects that appear. 1
The visual confrontation with the body in different stages of

decomposition, as described in the above passage from the
Dam6duolu6 chdn fing, by all likelihood is one of the most
unsettling experiences of one ' s own mortality. The body reduced to
bones and skull has therefore in many religions become highly
instrumental to visualize the transitoriness of mundane life, and by contrast - the true value of the supermundane. In the Indian
religious context where the deceased are disposed of by burning,
1 T. 6 1 8 : 3 1 6a1 4-2 1 (Jl* iiHft'.!jl. Dam6duolu6 chanffng) .
118
BART DES SEIN
cremation grounds were (and still are) a common sight. 2 By

consequence, the state of perturbation (sarrivega) upon being
confronted with a corpse was (and still is) a recurring experience . 3
While the Buddhist conception of death is, on the one hand, part of
a larger Indian religious tradition, death was, on the other hand,
interpreted in a peculiar Buddhist way . 4 In Buddhism, death
(marm:za) is the twelfth of twelve members of the so-called chain of
dependent origination (pratftyasamutpiida) that symbolizes the
eternal turning of the life circle (sarrisiira) . 5 This implies that death
not only is the final instant of one ' s present life span, but
simultaneously contains the beginning of a new life. As it is the
human predicament that human life is characterized by suffering
(dufzkha), this new life will be characterized j ust as much by
suffering as the present life is. Attaining liberation (nirvii"(la) from
suffering therefore consists of bringing this eternal continuation of
the cycle of life to a halt. When this is achieved, the last stage of
death will no longer lead to a new birth. Contemplation on death as
the transitory point between this life and the next thus serves a
double function: control and freedom. It has to give the meditator
control over his passions which would, through karmic retribution,
invoke a new birth; and, by revealing the true state of existence, i.e.
impermanence, it serves him to liberate himself from worldly
aspirations, and to further him on the path to salvation. 6 In this
respect, contemplation on bones and skulls as visualizations of
2 See Wilson ( 1 99 6 : 1 6- 1 7).
3 On the notion "saf!lvega" and the transition from the state of shock to that of
delight, and from delight to understanding: see Coomaraswamy ( 1 977: 1 79- 1 85).
4 See Reynolds ( 1 979). On the importance of death in Indian culture: see Bond
( 1 980).
5 The complete
series is: ignorance (avidyii), formations (saf!lskiira),

consciousness (vijftiina), the psycho-physical complex (niimariip a), the six
faculties (.s,ar;liiyatana), contact (sparfa), feelings (vedanii), craving (tr$1'Jii),
grasping (upiidiina), existence (bhava), birth (jiiti), and old-age and death
mara1Ja).
See B ond ( 1 98 0 : 248). Williams ( 1 997 : 2 1 4) remarks that when the body is not
used for noble ends, it is considered to be disgusting. The body gains value as
obj e ct of meditation, serving to convince the adept of its impermanence, thus
generating enthusiasm for following the teaching of the Buddha. See also Despeux
(200 8 : 1 3 1 ) .
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. B ONE S AND SKULLS
1 19
death and impermanence has developed into an essential

constituent of the Buddhist religious practice that aims at liberation
from mundane life and attainment of salvation, because it
recognizes the repulsiveness (asubha) of the body and thus
subverts the basis for all physical desires. It is to this development
of "contemplation of the repulsive" (a8ubhabhavana) as an
essential element in Buddhist religious practice, i . e . , as a peculiar
type of culturally dependent and concentrative meditation, that we
tum our attention in the following pages. 7
Sources
The earliest stratum of textual evidence for most, if not all,
investigations into doctrinal issues of early Buddhism, is formed by
the Si.itra and the Vinaya literature. Investigation of the origins of
"contemplation of the repulsive" is no exception to this. As in
many other constituents of the Buddhist doctrine, the "repulsive"
( asubha) is the focal element of a series of matrkas, numerical lists
of elements, as they occur in both the Nikaya collections of the Pali
canon and in the Chinese versions of the Agama collections . 8
These numerical lists were further developed and discussed in
the Abhidharma literature. "Contemplation of the repulsive" is
addressed in the following Abhidharma works : Buddhaghosa' s
Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) of the Pali canon; the
Sarvi.istivi.ida *Abhidharmamahavibhii$fisastra (Great Commentary
on the Abhidharma), Dharmatrata' s *Sarrzyuktabhidharmahrdaya
(Essentials of the Abhidharma with Miscellaneous Additions),
7 Notice that a special type of meditation on death (Pali: marm:ziinusatti), different
from meditation on bones and skulls, exists. See on this: B ond ( 1 9 8 0 : 243 -247)
and Boisvert ( 1 996). Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga VIII recommends this
practice for everyone, though the death of others rather than one ' s own death is
suggested for this practice. See on this: Shaw (ms.). For the categorization of
meditation as culturally dependent: see Holen (ms.). For qualifying the
contemplation of the repulsive as a type of concentrative (as opposed to non
concentrative) meditation: see Holen (ms.) and Ellingsen (forthcoming).
8 On the development and the use of miitrkiis : see Cousins ( 1 982 : 1 ), Bronkhorst
( 1 985b), and Gethin (l 992b : 1 49). See also D essein (20 1 1 ). On the problem of
knowing what exactly the Buddha taught from the early Buddhist texts: see
Wynne (2007 : 1 -4).
120
BART DES SEIN
Vasubandhu' s Abhidharmakofo ( Storehouse of the Abhidharma),

and Saqlghabhadra' s Nyii,yanusara (Conformance to Correct
Principle); 9 and the Mahaprajfiaparam itasastra (Treatise on the
Great Virtue of Wisdom), attributed to Nagarj una.
Buddhaghosa' s Visuddhimagga (hereafter Vism) is a 5th century
commentary on the Theravada Abhidharma, compiled in Sri
Lanka. 1 0 The 6th chapter of this work is entirely dedicated to the
"contemplation of the repulsive". The *Abhidharmamahavibha
$asastra is a commentary on Katyayaniputra' s *A$fagrantha I
Jfianaprasthana, the youngest of a series of seven fundamental
Abhidharma texts of the Gandhara Sarvastivada School, written
around the beginning of the Common Era. The textual format of
this work - a vibha$a - is typical for the Kasmiri Sarvastivadins,
who became known as the Vaibhaikas. The work is attributed to
500 arhats, and has to be dated around the 2nd century CE. The
Chinese version of this work was done by Xuanzang' s translation
team from 6 5 6-659 AD (T. 1 545). 1 1 Dharmatrata' s *Smrzyuktabhi
dharmahrdaya has to be dated in the beginning of the fourth
century AD. 1 2 It is a commentary on Dharmasrethin' s *Abhi
dharmahrdaya (Essence of the Abhidharma), a work written in the
beginning of the Common Era, 13 and probably postdating the
9 Also
the Sarvastivada *A bhidharmamrtarasa (Taste of the Nectar of
Abhidharma), T. 1 5 53 : 975b l l - 1 2 ( lliiJ ft i:Hi Apitan ganlitwei litn),
mentions the "contemplation of the repulsive", however does not address the issue
in any detail. See Van Den Broeck ( 1 977: 69-70).
10 See Nakamura ( 1 98 0 : 1 1 6 - 1 1 7). The work was edited by H. C . Warren (revised
by D . Kosambi) as Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosacariya, Cambridge MA :
Harvard University Press, 1 950; and translated into English by Bhikkhu N ai;iamoli
as The Path of Purification, Colombo : R. Semage, 1 95 6 .
1 1 See T.2 1 54 : 5 57a1 8 - 1 9, 620c l 2- 1 6 ( !ffl 5I:f51: Kaiyuan shijiizo lit) . See also
Willemen, D essein and Cox ( 1 9 9 8 : 229-23 9).
12 For the lifetime of Dharmatrata: see T.2 1 4 5 : 74b25 (tf:\ .=,jl Chu sanzizng
jijz).
13 According to Jiaojing' s (tl) introduction to Dharmatrata' s *Sal'(lyuktabhi
dharmahrdaya, T.2 1 4 5 : 74b23 -24, Dharmasrethin wrote his work "during the
time of the Qin and the Han". This is confirmed by J'C PUguang in his 1* c
Jitshe litn ji, T. 1 82 1 : l l c 1 2- 1 3 , a Chinese commentary on the A bhidharmakosa,
written around AD 655-665. Here, we read that Dharmasrethin lived around the
fifth century after the Buddha' s nirvi'i1Ja. In ail Jizang' s -=- - Sanlitn
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPUL SIVE. B ONE S AND SKULLS
121
Jfianaprasthana. 1 4 In his commentary, Dharmatrata appears t o be

influenced by the philosophical developments of the Kasmiri
*Abhidharmamahavibha!fasastra. This shows that the Vaibhaika
interpretation of Sarvastivada philosophy had become the dominant
one in the 4th century CE. The Chinese version of Dharmatrata' s
work was done by Sarpghavarman in AD 434, together with W
B iioyun who translated the words, and IJI. Huiguan who wrote
down the translation (T. 1 5 52). 15 Both Dharmatrata and
Dharmasrethin wrote their works in Gandhara. Along with a
similar work by Upasanta, entitled *Abhidharmahrdaya, and
equally written in Gandhara, 1 6 these works lead to the famous
Abhidharma-ko8a by Vasubandhu. In this work, Vasubandhu
criticizes the Vaibhaika viewpoints . There are two Chinese
versions of the A bhidharmako8a : one by Paramartha, done in AD
5 6 5 (T. 1 5 5 9 , JfriJ Jtmf Apidam6 jushe shilim), and one
done by Xuanzang and his translation team, of AD 6 5 3 (T. 1 5 5 8 JfriJ
Jtmf Apidam6 jushe lun). 17 The Nyayanusara is a work
by Sarpghabhadra, who lived in the 4th or 5th century. 18 He was a
xuanyi, T. 1 8 5 2 : 2c2, however, we read that Dharmasrethin lived more than 700
years after the Buddha' s nirviil)a. See on this: Ryose ( 1 98 6 : 2-3).
i4 See Frauwallner ( 1 9 7 l a: 7 1 -72); Willemen ( 1 975 : viii); Armelin ( 1 97 8 : 7- 1 2);
Ryose ( 1 9 8 6 : 4). The extant Chinese version of this work (T. 1 5 50, 11J g'E;f11L,'
Apitan xznlim) was done on Mount Lu (JI LlJ ) by Sarpghadeva with the help of
ill Huiyuan in AD 3 9 1 .
1 5 T.2 1 45 : 74b22 ff. , c3-7. For Huiguan see T.2 1 4 5 : 57a3 -b l 5 . The Chinese
translation by Sarpghavarman et al. of Dharmatrata' s *Sarrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya
has been translated into English by Dessein ( 1 999) as Sarrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya.
Heart ofScholasticism with Miscellaneous Additions.
1 6 Upasanta lived one generation pior to Dharmatrata. The Chinese translation of
his work (T. 1 5 5 1 *Abhidharmahrdaya, g'E; ft'L' Apitan xznlitn jlng) was
done by Narendraya8as together with ! Fiizhi in AD 563 . See T.2 1 4 9 : 3 0 1 a2 3 24 (:k $1: Datang nezdian lit); T.2 1 5 7 : 954b l 4- 1 7 ( :lC !i'Jr JE;f)(
Zhenyuan xznding shijiao mitlit); and Dessein (20 1 0) .
1 7 The Chinese translation of this work b y Xu:inzang has been translated into
French by L. de La Vallee Poussin ( [ 1 923 - 1 93 1 ] 1 97 1 ) as L 'A bhidharmakofo de
Vasubandhu. Traduction et Annotations. 6 vols.
1 8 The life of Sarpghabhadra is connected to the life of Vasubandhu, author of the
Abhidharmakofo. As there is, as yet, insufficient evidence to settle the dates of
Vasubandhu definitely to either the fourth or the fifth century, also the lifetime of
1 22
BART DES SEIN
Kasm.Ira monk who was learned in the Vibhiisii and who criticized
19
the viewpoints of Vasubandhu. The Chiese version of the
Nyiiyiinusiira was done by Xuanzang between 6 5 3 -654 (T. 1 562).
The Mahiiprajfiiipiiramitiisiistra, finally, is a commentary on a
long recension of the Prajfiiipiiramitiisutra. The Chinese version
was done by Kumarajiva in the 5th century (T. 1 5 09 :::k ..ltMU Da
zh z'du
' lun
' ) . 20
The "contemplation of the repulsive" is the focus of further
attention in the Dam6dui5lu6 chtin jfng ( Sutra on Meditation by
Dharmatrata) (T.6 1 8), a text translated into Chinese by
Buddhabhadra (3 59-429) around AD 4 1 2. The Dharmatrata of this
text is a different person from the author of the Sarvastivada
*Smrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya. 2 1 In fact, the Dam6dui5lu6 chtin jfng
is not a text by Dharmatrata, but a text done by Buddhasena, and
entitled Yogiiciirabhumi. 22 Buddhabhadra was of Indian descent.
His family hailed from Kapilavastu but had moved to N agarahara
in present-day Afghanistan. After his ordination, Buddhabhadra
moved to Kasmir where he became the disciple of Buddhasena. At
that time, the region of Kasmir, the region in which the
*Abhidharmamahiivibhiiiisiistra had been compiled, was a place
where many Chinese monks went to study meditation (dhyiina). 23
Around 4 1 0 AD, Buddhabhadra lived in Chang' an. He was later
invited to the South of China by Huiyuan who resided on Mount
Sarghabhadra cannot be settled with certainty yet. See on this Cox ( 1 99 5 : 53).
On the problem of dating Vasubandhu: see Anacker ( 1 984 : 7 - 1 1 ), Frauwallner
( 1 9 5 1 ) , Hirakawa ( 1 973 : ii-x), Nakamura ( 1 9 8 0 : 1 09), Takakusu ( 1 904), La
Vallee Poussin ( 1 97 1 : Vol. 1 , xxiv-xxviii), Pradhan ( 1 97 5 : 1 3 - 1 4), Mej or ( 1 98990), Schmithausen ( 1 992 : 396-3 97).
19 See Cox ( 1 995 : 54-55).
20 See Lamotte ( 1 970: v-lv). This Chinese version was translated into French by
Lamotte ( 1 970) as Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse de Nagarjuna (Mahii
r:raji'iaparamitasastra) . .
1 There further i s a Dartantika Dharmatrata, mentioned as one o f the four
masters of the *A bhidharmamahavibha:Ja and author of the ti::\ HI Chiiyao jfng
(T. 2 1 2) . See on this Dessein ( 1 999, vol. 1 : xxii-xxiv) .
22 See on this Renou and Filliozat ( 1 996: 4 1 7) .
23 Renou and Filliozat ( 1 996 : 40 1 -2, 4 1 7) .
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE . B ONES AND SKULLS
1 23
Lu. It is on Mount Lu that Buddhabhadra translated Buddhasena' s

text around 4 1 2 AD. 24
The Nature of " Contemplation of the Repulsive "

Above, death was defined as the transitory point between this life
and the next, contemplation on which serves a double function:
control over one ' s passions, and furthering the adept on the path to
salvation through liberation from worldly aspirations . 25 There
indeed is textual evidence that the practice of contemplation of the
repulsive primarily serves as an antidote (pratipak$a) for lust
(raga), one sub-form of which is sexual desire. Against the
background of the Buddhist concept of karmic retribution
(karmavipaka) and the continuation of the cycle of life, sexual
activity is especially loathsome as it not only implies that one,
driven by lust, does not progress on the path to salvation, but also
implies one ' s personal responsibility for the continuation of
suffering in a future life.
In the Chinese Shen guan fing ( .!13- l.W, , Sutra on the
Observation of the Body ) , the human body is described as
something oozing, full of diseases, and utterly impure : 26
Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was in S ravasfi. At
that moment, the Buddha said to the bhi/cyus: [ . . . ] [The body]
is constantly impure and needs to be washed continually. It is
to be ashamed of. [ . . . ] Why do you not detest it? [ . . . ] When
cast aside on a burial ground, it is of no more use . It is eaten by
foxes and wolves. Why would you see it as not detestable?
Who says it is to be loved? As the Buddha has said: "It has
little abilities and a lot of faults . [ . . . ] It has two hundred white
bones. The bones have one hundred twenty joints . There are
24
Our textual material for an investigation into "contemplation of the repulsive" is

supplemented by contemporary witnesses of the practice. See Obeyesekere ( 1 98 9 :
1 3 1 - 1 3 3 , 1 47) and Boisvert ( 1 996). S e e also Shaw (ms.).
25 See on this Collins ( 1 997: 1 85). It can be recalled here that the Buddha decided
to renounce his princely life when, among others, having seen a dead body . It,
moreover, is in attaining nirviilJa that the Buddha vanquished Mara, the "king of
death'' . See Bond ( 1 9 8 0 : 2 4 1 ) . See also B oyd ( 1 975 : 1 40- 1 42).
26
T.6 1 2 : 242a28-cl 7 (ill, Shen guan jfng) . See also Despeux (20 0 8 : 1 3 2).
124
BART DES SEIN
nine openings that are constantly leaking. [ . . . ] One hundred

diseases are extreme. There is the unity of flesh and blood.
There is growing of human skin and muscles . There is cold,
heat and wind in it. There is excretion. There are one thousand
worms that all appear from the body. There are also nine
openings [ . . . ] that emit unclean things . There is the dripping of
the nose. There is spitting from the mouth. There is flowing
from below the waist. There is excretion from the lower holes.
All these come from the body. [When one is] together with
dead people on a burial ground, one can witness that [the body]
is together with what is bad. [ . . . ] What man cherishes, [he]
later regrets".
The Buddhist interpretation of the human body as something

impure, is part of the Indian tradition that sees the body as
constantly exposed to the threat of the outside world (in the form of
dirt), and polluted from within (in the form of bodily discharge). 2 7
A human being is not only prone to pollution as an individual, he
also, as remarked above, transmits this indelible pollution to his
children through sexual activity. This makes pollution a collective
and hereditary symptom. Pollution as thus understood permeates
the whole caste system that organizes (Hindu) Indian society, with
different degrees of (im)purity ascribed to different hereditary
castes. An individual ' s functioning within society therefore implies
a higher or lower degree of exposing oneself to pollution. 2 8 In
Indian society, therefore, exceptional attention is paid to purity and
pollution. In the Buddhist context, the accentuation of purity also
has a metaphorical meaning: The fact that monks and nuns live
lives that renounce all bodily pleasures can be seen as an extension
of the social consciousness of the caste system. Putting themselves
27 See Lannoy ( 1 9 7 1 : 1 46- 1 4 7). Also outside the Indian tradition, the very fact of
embodiment means pollution. As remarked by Williams ( 1 997: 209), "The body,
embodiment, genuinely is and has been a source of great suffering for many
people throughout history". Even in cases where the body may be perceived as a
source of enj oyment, the possibility that it at any moment can turn into a source of
suffering, and the eventual certainty of death, place physical enj oyment under
constant threat.
28 See on this Lannoy ( 1 97 1 : 1 46- 1 48); Collins ( 1 997: 1 97- 1 8 8); and Williams
( 1 99 7 : 209).
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE . B ONES ANU SKULLS
125
outside of society, they are by the other members of society seen as

"pure" . 29 This fundamental aspect of the body and of sexual
activity explains why "contemplation of the repulsive" came to
occupy a prominent role in Buddhist practice, thus highlighting the
connection between physical health and spiritual health. 30 Put
differently, controlling and/or avoiding bodily pollution - and
especially sexual desire - is favorable for one ' s spiritual life and is
conducive to enlightenment.
29 Williams ( 1 997 : 1 87) remarks that, "on the individual level, the ideal-typical
Buddhist monk or nun lives a religious life in which the body, sex, and death are
perceived to be immediately and inextricably related: they constitute the realm of
desire, suffering, and rebirth from which release, nirvii"(la, is sought". It can
further be mentioned here that pieces of cloth found in cremation grounds is one
of the possibilities mentioned in Vism : 62 for a monk to procure his robes. The
yellow color of the monk's robes is associated with the color of the executioner' s
clothes. See Rhys Davids and Stede ( 1 992 : 2 1 2); Rahula ( 1 974 : 8). This
symbolizes that monks have died to profane existence. See also B ond ( 1 980 : 252253). In contradistinction to the sriivaka who, contemplating the repulsive, wants
to enter nirvii"(la rapidly, the bodhisattva in the Mahayana feels compassion with
all beings. He knows that worldlings suffer because of lust, hatred and ignorance .
That is why the bodhisattva teaches the notion of the bluish corpse t o those beings
who like colors, and proceeds according to what they desire after. He, however,
knows that also the repulsive is composed and therefore, actually, impermanent
(See T. 1 509: 2 1 8b 1 8-c 1 8) . Where in early Buddhism the renunciation of the body
is on a par with a social dimension of renunciation of worldly life, and thus of
purity, of the monk and nun; in the Mahayana, this social dimension is extended to
working for the benefit of all sentient beings . As Williams ( 1 997 : 2 1 6) states : "It
is no longer a question of deconstruction in meditation and reconstruction in social
behavior, but rather two types of meditation linked to different stages on the
spiritual path and therefore different doctrinal categories. The ideal then is that the
use of the body realized and appreciated through meditation on the bodhicitta, and
the beneficial ways in which one can help others, should be expressed in actuality
through the bodhisattva' s social involvement and engagement".
3 0 See AN III : 1 6 (Hardy, ed., 1 95 8a) Bodily secretions, particularly those whicl:
come from below the waist, such as are mentioned in the passage of the Shen guiir.
ffng quoted above, are not only polluting, but can also represent a physical, mental
and spiritual weakening. See on this Lannoy ( 1 97 1 : 1 53 ) . For classical sources or
the particularly polluting nature of the body below the navel : see Meyer ( 1 9 3 0 : 2489, note 5). On the association of sex with a loss of spiritual power in Theravad2
Buddhism: see Spiro ( 1 98 2 : 297-299). In this respect, Buddhist writers were heirs tc
the Briihmanic world-view. See on this Williams ( 1 997 : 2 1 0). On the possibility of 2
Briihminic origin of Buddhist meditation: see Wynne (2007 : 1 1 3 - 1 1 7).
126
BART DES SEIN
That the body is a hindrance to enlightenment explains why in

the third parajika of the Pali Vinaya (hereafter Vin), "defeat," the
Buddha urges the monks to develop the contemplation of the
repulsive:
At one time the enlightened one, the lord, was staying at VesalI
in the pavilion of the Gabled Hall in the Great Wood. At that
time the lord talked in many ways to the monks on the subj ect
of the impure, he spoke in praise of the impure, he spoke in
praise of developing [contemplation of] the impure, he spoke
thus and thus in praise of taking the impure as a stage in
meditation. [ . . . ] Then the monks said: "The lord has talked in
many ways on the subj ect of the impure, he spoke in praise of
the impure, he spoke in praise of developing [the
contemplation of] the impure, he spoke in praise of taking the
impure as a stage in meditation" . These [monks] dwelt intent
upon the practice of developing [contemplation of] the impure
in its many different aspects ; [but] they were troubled by their
own bodies, ashamed of them, loathing them. 3 1
This "contemplation of the repulsive" primarily serves to
eliminate bodily passion. This is stated in the following:
The specific nature of contemplation of the repulsive is the root
of merit (kufolamula) of being without lust [ . . . ] because it is a
32
remedy for lust.
3 1 Vin III : 68 (Oldenberg, ed. , 1 964b); Homer ( 1 949: 1 1 6) . See also Vin 1 : 1 52
(Oldenberg, ed., 1 964b), Homer ( 1 962 : 202). Also in the Satipaffhiina-Sutta (DN
II:295 [Rhys D avids and Carpenter, eds., 1 947] and MN 1 : 5 8 [Trenckner, ed.,
1 964] ) a monk compares his own body to that of a corpse, in this mentioning nine
stages of decomposition of the corpse. See also MN l:424; AN IV : 3 5 7 (Hardy, ed.,
1 9 5 8b).
3 2 T. 1 54 5 : 206c 1 5- l 7 (* [A bhidharma]mahiivibhii$ii[Siistra], lliif JUii!t;;\;J'MU.1>
Apidam6 da pip6shii lun). See also T. 1 5 5 8 : 1 1 7b 1 0 ; T. 1 5 6 2 : 67 1 a6
(* [Abhidharma]Nyiiyiinusiirasiistra, llilJ Jl . Jl .il !l Apidam6 shun zhengl'f
lun); T. 1 509: 2 1 7c 1 8 - 1 9 . According to T. 1 5 52: 925c27-926al ( *Smr1yuktiibhi
dharmahrdaya [Siistra], lliif it 'L' Za iipitan xfnlun) and T. 1 5 5 8 : 24-27,
attachment to color is cured by contemplation of the repulsive, and attachment to
carnal enj oyment is cured by equanimity (upe'/cyii). Equanimity (upe'fcyii), as
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. BONES AND SKULLS
1 27
Therefore : "Contemplation of the repulsive is a gate that

leads to the noble path". 33 The pre-eminence of lust explains
the following:
Contemplation of the repulsive is [a type of] mindfulness that
is aimed at an obj ect. It was said in the Sutras that some
bhikrjus were staying in an arw:zyaka, some were sitting under a
tree, some were united in a quiet room, sitting in lotus seat and
with their bodies upright. [All] wanted to abide in
contemplation aimed at an obj ect in order to stop lust and to
liberate themselves from lust. [ . . . ] As this is the case for
breaking off lust, this is also the case for breaking off hatred
(dvea), lethargy (styana), sleepiness (middha), excitedness
(auddhatya), and perplexity (vicikitsii) . Lust is the most
important one of the five hindrances (nivarm:za), and it is the
first [of the series] . That is why the antidote for what is most
near is explained, i.e., "contemplation of the repulsive" . When
lust is broken off, the other [four] will subsequently also be
broken off. 3 4
The *Abhidharmamahiivibhii$iisiistra explains that sensual obj ects

of the realm of sensual pleasure in all possible forms of
decomposition are the obj ect of "contemplation of the repulsive" :
Question: "Does contemplation of the repulsive only take one
part of all [possible forms of decomposition of] matter of the
realm of sensual passion as obj ect?" Answer: "It has all
[possible forms of decomposition of] matter of the realm of
sensual passion as obj ect" . Question: "When so, how then does
this confirm to what is said in the Sutras? As the Sutras say that
the Honored One, when not extinguished yet, was sitting under
a tree in a wood. When the first part of the night had passed,
there were four heavenly women who all had lustful ideas and
showed their beauty. They came to where the Honored One
was sitting, brought their palms together, brought reverence,
discussed by Wynne (2007 : 1 23), implies that one is aware of something and
indifferent to it.
33 T. 1 545 : 205a27. See also T. 1 509: 2 1 8b 1 4 - 1 7.
34 T. 1 54 5 : 205b l-9.
128
BART DES SEIN
retreated and stood at one side, and spoke to the Honored One :
[ . . . ] At that moment, the Honored One made this reflection: "I
have to bring up contemplation of the repulsive regarding
them" . His thoughts then had already entered the first
meditation (dhyana), but he could not bring up contemplation
of the repulsive. He proceeded until he entered the fourth
meditation, but still could not bring up contemplation of the
repulsive. He thereupon thought: "These four heavenly women
contain matter of all kinds [in them] , and therefore I cannot
observe them as unclean. If they would simply only make one
kind of matter, I definitely would be able to observe the
repulsiveness [in them] " . He thereupon told them : "Ladies, is it
possible that you all manifest the bluish corpse for me?"
Thereupon, all heavenly ladies performed a bluish corpse, but
the Honored One could not consider them as unclean. He let
them manifest yellow and red, but he still could not [consider
them as unclean] . He then thought and said: "If you make a
white-colored skeleton, I will definitely be able to observe the
uncleanliness," and thereupon he told them : "Ladies, could you
change your bodies to white [skeletons] for me?" They did so,
but he still was unable to observe the uncleanliness [in them] ,
because it was difficult to bring forth detest regarding the
heavenly women who were so beautiful" . Question: "Why did
the Honored One let the heavenly ladies make blue, yellow, red
and white - four colors?" Answer: "Because he wanted to
observe all deteriorating characteristics of matter. Furthermore,
because the change in characteristics of matter [makes it] easy
to bring up detest. Furthermore, because the blue color makes it
easy to bring up the concept of a bluish (vb:(ilaka) corpse;
because the yellow color subsequently leads to the conception
of a swollen (vyadmataka) corpse; because the red color leads
to the idea of a bleeding (vilohitaka) corpse; and because the
white color leads to the idea of a skeleton (asthika).
Furthermore, blue, yellow, red, and white are the basis of all
colors". 35
35 T. 1 545 : 206c26-207a23 . T. 1 552: 933 c4-7 explains that the development of
contemplation of the discolored corpse serves to abandon attachment to color; that
the development of contemplation of a skeleton from which skin and flesh have
been removed serves to abandon attachment to contact; and that the development
of contemplation of bones serves to abandon attachment to places. According to
T. 1 55 8 : 1 1 7b23 -28, contemplation of the bluish and other corpses serves to
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE . B ONES ANJJ SKULLS
1 29
Once contemplation of the repulsive regarding matter has been

successful, then also the loathsomeness of sound, smell, taste and
the tangible as obj ects of our senses can be understood. In this
sense, contemplation of the repulsive can cure desire for all sensual
objects . 3 6
" Contemplation of the Repulsive " in Sutra Literature

The "repulsive" ( asubhii) is the focal element of a series of miitrkiis
in Sutta/Siitra literature. From these miitrkiis, it can be deduced that
"contemplation of the repulsive" developed from one of a series of
types of contemplation, each serving as antidote for a different type
of evil, to a peculiar type of contemplation on different types of
eliminate desire for colors; contemplation of the cut up and scattered corpses
serves to eliminate desire for nice forms; contemplation of the worm-infested
corpse and of the skeleton serves to eliminate desire for the tangible; and
contemplation of the immobile cadaver serves to eliminate desire for honors.
Vism : 1 5 8 - 1 59, explains that the bloated suits one who is greedy about shape since
it m akes evident the disfigurement of the body ' s shape; the livid suits one who is
greedy about the body ' s color since it makes evident the disfigurement of the
skin' s color; the festering suits one who is greedy about the smell of the body
aroused by scents, perfumes, etc. , since it makes evident the evil smells connected
with this sore, the body; the cut up suits one who is greedy about compactness in
the body since it makes evident the hollowness inside it; the gnawed suits one who
is greedy about accumulation of flesh in such parts of the body as the breasts since
it makes it evident how a fine accumulation of flesh comes to nothing; the
scattered suits one who is greedy about the grace of the limbs since it makes it
evident how limbs can be scattered; the hacked and scattered suits one who is
greedy about a fine body as a whole since it makes evident the disintegration and
alteration of the body as a whole; the bleeding suits one who is greedy about
elegance produced by ornaments since it makes evident its repulsiveness when
smeared with blood; the worm-infested suits one who is greedy about ownership
of the body since it makes it evident how the body is shared with many families of
worms; and the skeleton suits one who is greedy about fine teeth since it makes
evident the repulsiveness of the bones in the body. The contemplation of the nine
types of corpse is also outlined in T. 1 509: 2 1 7b6-c 1 8 and 2 1 8a l 3 -29. One
particular type of matter under discussion as to its usefulness for the practice of
contemplation of the repulsive is the material body of the Buddha. Different
opinions on this are given in T. 1 54 5 : 207b2- 1 0 . See on the latter also Harrison
( 1 982) and Williams ( 1 997 : 2 1 9).
36 T. 1 545 : 207c5-23 .
130
BART DES SEIN
"foulness". The shortest such list is the one included in AN III :446.
Here, "contemplation of the repulsive" is one of a series of three
types of contemplation that each take another type of evil as obj ect:
( 1 ) contemplation of the repulsive ( asubha) as antidote for lust
(raga), (2) development of loving kindness (metta) as antidote for
vice (dosa), and (3) development of wisdom (panna) as antidote
for ignorance (moha). The first two types of contemplation of this
series are part of a list of four types of contemplation in AN IV: 3 5 3 ,
3 5 8 : ( 1 ) contemplation of the repulsive a s antidote fo r lust, (2)
development of loving kindness as antidote for malice (vyapada),
(3) development of mindfulness on in-breathing and out-breathing
( anapanasati) as antidote for distraction (vitakkupa ) , and ( 4)
development of the thought of impermanence (anicca) as antidote
for the conceit "I am" (asmimana). 3 7
A list in which "contemplation of the repulsive" is developed as
such is the list in AN II : 1 50, 1 5 1 , 1 55 - 1 56, 38 where the
contemplation of ( 1 ) the unloveliness of the body, of (2) the
repulsiveness of food, of (3) distaste for all the world, and of ( 4)
the impermanence in all activities, are said to lead to (5) the
thought of death being well implanted. 39 These five are also listed
MA: T.26, p. 492b23-2 5 (Madhya m agam a , i:j:I iiJ * Zhong ah!m jlng).
On the conceit "I am", Williams ( 1 997: 207) remarks that the body, in Buddhism,
"is not an independent entity set against others, "me" contrasted with and in
opposition to "you", but is just the coming together in a patterned heap of a
collective of material elements, a coming together which, in conjunction with the
mind, is capable of sensing". See also Dharmasarp.gltisutra (Vaidya, 1 96 1 : 1 24).
3 8 Morris, ed. , 1 9 5 5 .
39 The perception of the repulsiveness o f fo o d regards the transformation o f fo o d
i n the process of eating, digestion, and excretion. F o o d a s thus regarded only
serves to maintain the body during the monk' s crossing over to nirvafza. See on
this Vism : 3 47 . See also Collins ( 1 997: 1 93 ) . Williams ( 1 997: 2 1 8) remarks that
pollution, in Brahmanic culture, is intimately related to issues of food: "Food can
very easily become polluted through contact with the ground, the bodily fluids of
another, or an outcaste and so on (Lannoy, 1 97 1 : 1 5 1 -4). Polluted food pollutes
the eater. One ' s own bodily fluids are the body ' s discards, again polluting to
oneself and others". In the Udayanavatsarajaparivartasiitra, e.g., it is said that the
nine holes of the body ooze due to pollutions from various foods. See on this Paul
( 1 979: 43). This explains why, in India, glorified beings with pure bodies are
frequently thought not to eat, and not to emit bodily fluids of any type. Williams
( 1 997: 2 1 8-2 1 9) remarks that there is a myth, well known in Buddhist circles, that
37 Parallel
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. BONE S ANJ) SKULLS
131
in AN III : 83 , 1 42- 1 43 . Five types, albeit different from the previous

series of five, are also mentioned in AN III : 79, 277 : ( 1 ) the thought
of foulness, (2) the thought of death, (3 ) the thought of peril, (4)
the thought of cloying of food, and (5) the sense of distaste as to
the world.
A list of seven types of contemplation figures in DN II : 7 9 and
III : 2 5 3 , 40 and in AN IV:24, 1 4 8 : ( 1 ) impermanence (anicca), (2)
not-the-self (anatta), (3) unlovely things (asubha), (4) peril
(iidfnava), (5) renunciation (pahiina), (6) dispassion (viriiga), and
(7) ending (nirodha) . Another list of seven is found in AN IV:46,
1 4 8 : ( 1 ) unattractive (asubha), (2) death (marm:za), (3) cloying of
food ( iihiire pafikkftla ), (4) all-world discontent (sabbaloke
anabhirata), (5) impermanence (anicca), (6) of all therein (anicce
dukkha), and (7) of no self in ill (dukkhe anatta). Still another list
of seven is given in the Chinese version of the Dfrghiigama, ft
* Chang iihim jfng: "What are the seven elements? The first is
observing that the body is unclean, the second is observing that
food is not clean, the third is acknowledging that the world is not
happy, the fourth is constantly thinking on the contemplation of
death, the fifth is bringing up the contemplation of impermanence,
the sixth is the contemplation of impermanence and suffering, the
seventh is the contemplation of the suffering of non-self'. 4 1
A list of nine types of contemplation is given in DN III : 2 8 9-290
and in AN IV: 3 87, 465 : ( 1 ) foulness (asubha), (2) death (marm:za),
(3) repulsiveness of food (iihiire pafikkiila ), ( 4) universal
wretchedness (sabbaloke anabhirata), (5) impermanence (anicca),
( 6) ill in impermanence ( anicce dukkha ), (7) no self in ill ( dukkhe
relates how in the beginning, beings were "mind-made" and born without sex
distinctions. These beings did not eat gross material food. As time went on,
however, a scum formed on the surface of the earth. Some beings tasted it. As it
was delicious, other beings also started eating it. With the eating of food, beings
lost their radiance and bliss, their bodies became coarse, and sex distinctions
appeared. With these came all kinds of immoral behavior. Food thus causes
cosmic decadence. T.3 1 7 : 889c 1 2 - 1 6 (Afil.a Biiotiiifing) informs us that as soon
as a child starts to eat, worms enter its body and stay with the individual. See also
Despeux (200 8 : 1 3 1 ) .
40 DN: III, Carpenter, J.E. (ed.) ( 1 947)
41 T. 1 : l l c26-29 (Dfrghiigama, ffi: llliJ Chting iihtin jfng).
BART DES SEIN
132
anatta), (8) renunciation (pahiina), and (9) freedom from passion

(viriiga) . A different list of nine is given in the Chinese version of
the Dfrghiigama, Chang iihan jlng: "What are the nine factors that
are brought up? They are the nine contemplations : ( 1 ) the
contemplation of the repulsive, (2) the contemplation that food is
not clean, (3) the contemplation that all worldly things are not to be
loved, ( 4) the contemplation of death, ( 5) the contemplation of
impermanence, (6) the contemplation of impermanence and
suffering, (7) the contemplation of suffering and non-self, (8) the
contemplation of final destruction, and (9) the contemplation of
being without desire" . 42
A list of ten types of contemplation is given in DN III:29 1 , in
SN V: 1 3 2- 1 3 3 , 43 and in AN V : 1 0 5 , 3 0 9 : 44 ( 1 ) the idea of the foul
(asubha), (2) death (marm:za), (3) repulsiveness in food (iihiire
patikkiUa), ( 4) distaste for all the world (sabbaloke anabhirata), (5)
the idea of impermanence (an icea), ( 6) of ill in impermanence
(anicce dukkha), (7) of not-self in ill (dukkhe anatta), (8) the idea
of abandoning (pahiina), of (9) fading (viriiga), and of ( 1 0) ending
( nirodha ). A list of ten types, albeit different, is also mentioned in
AN V: 1 09 : ( 1 ) permanence (anicca), (2) not-self (anatta), (3) foul
( asubha ), ( 4) disadvantage (iidfnava ), ( 5 ) abandoning (pahiina ), ( 6)
revulsion (viriiga), (7) fading (nirodha), (8) distaste for all the
world (sabbaloke anabhirata), (9) impermanence in all compounds
(sabbasankhiiresu anicca), and ( 1 0) concentration on in-breathing
and out-breathing (iiniipiinasati).
That these types of contemplation serve renunciation of worldly
life is evident from the Itivuttaka of the Pali canon, more precisely
from the text entitled Asubha. 45 In the translation by Moore ( 1 965),
we read: 46
The one that seeth what is impure in the body,
With his thoughts fixed on inhalation and exhalation,
Seeing the tranquility (samatha-) of all the Aggregates,
42 T. 1 : 56c22-24.
43 Feer, ed. , 1 960.
44 Hardy, ed., 1 958c.
45 Windisch ( 1 94 8 : 80-8 1 ) .
4 6 Moore ( 1 96 5 : 99-1 00).
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. B ONES AND SKULLS
133
Ardent at all times,

This monk verily hath proper vision
Inasmuch as he is emancipated here (in this world);
If he is good and hath attained Insight,
He is a sage that hath escaped the yoke of earthly existence.
The connection between the physical and the mental is also evident
from the following matrka in AN 1 : 4 1 -42, 47 that combines the
mental states listed in the above mentioned matrkas with states of
decomposition of the body : ( 1 ) consciousness of the foul (asubha),
(2) death (marm:ia), (3) repulsiveness of food (ahare pa{ikkula), ( 4)
non-delight in all the world (sabbaloke anabhirata), (5) of
impermanence (anicca), (6) of the ill in impermanence (anicce
dukkha ), (7) of the non-existence of the self in impermanence
(dukkhe anatta), (8) of abandoning (pahana), (9) revulsion (viraga),
( 1 0) of ending (nirodha), ( 1 1 ) of impermanence (anicca), ( 1 2) the
not-self (anatta), ( 1 3) of death (marm:ia), ( 1 4) of repulsiveness in
food (ahare pa{ikkUla), ( 1 5) non-delight in all the world (sabbaloke
anabhirata), ( 1 6) of the skeleton (atthika), ( 1 7 ) the worm-eaten
corpse (pu/avaka), ( 1 8) the dismembered corpse (vicchiddaka), and
( 1 9 ) the bloated corpse (uddhumataka) . 4 8 Three of the four states of
decomposition of the corpse mentioned in the above list are also
mentioned in SN V: 1 3 2 : (1) the corpse as skeleton (atthika), (2) the
worm-infested corpse (pu/avaka), and (3) the bluish corpse
(vinilaka); and in SN V : 1 3 1 : ( 1 ) the worm-infested corpse
(pu/avaka), (2) the bluish corpse (vinflaka), (3) the dismembered
corpse (vicchiddaka), and (4) the inflated corpse (uddhumataka).
All types of contemplation listed in these matrkas have in
common that they ( 1 ) envisage the impurity of the body, of food,
of worldly things, etc . , and, (2) serve to make the one who
contemplates aware of the impermanence of everything mundane.
They thus serve the function of control and freedom mentioned in
the introduction to this article. 49 With these lists, we enter the
actual domain of "contemplation of the repulsive," focused on the
47 Morris and Warder eds., 1 96 1 .
4 8 The fact that this list contains some elements double, points to the process in
which the matikas developed. See on this Dessein (20 1 1 ) .
49 S e e also MN I:49; DN II: 3 0 5 ; SN II :2, etc. S e e also B ond ( 1 9 8 0 : 2 3 9).
134
BART DES SEIN
corpse in different stages of decomposition. Eventually, the Pali

Abhidhamma came to differentiate ten such states of
decomposition of the corpse, while nine such states became
standard for the texts of the Northern tradition. Thus, in
Buddhaghosa' s Vism : 1 4 5 - 1 46, 1 5 5 - 1 57, the following ten states
are listed: ( 1 ) the bloated corpse (udhumiita), i.e., bloated by
gradual dilation and swelling after the close of life; (2) the livid
(vinflaka), i.e ., with patchy discoloration; (3) the festering
(vipubbaka), i.e., trickling with pus in broken places; ( 4) the cut up
(vicchiddaka), i.e., opened up by cutting it in two as is the case
with corpses found on battle fields or in a robbers ' forest or on a
charnel ground where kings have robbers cut up, or in the jungle in
a place where men are torn up by lions and tigers; 5 0 (5) the gnawed
(vikkhiiyitaka), i. e ., chewed here and there in various ways by dogs,
j ackals, etc . ; (6) the scattered (vikkhittaka), i.e., strewed about in
this way : here a hand, there a foot, there the head; (7) the hacked
and scattered (hatavikkhitakaka), i.e., hacked, and scattered in the
way described above; (8) the bleeding (lohitaka), i.e., it sprinkles,
scatters blood, and it trickles here and there; (9) the worm-infested
(pu/uvaka), i. e ., it sprinkles worms when, at the end of two or three
days, a mass of maggots oozes out from the corpse ' s nine orifices;
and, finally, ( 1 0) the skeleton (atthika). The standardized list of
nine states of the Northern tradition has eight of the ten states we
find in the Pali tradition, i.e., omitting the gnawed (vikkhiiyitaka)
corpse and the hacked and scattered (hatavikkhitakaka) corpse, and
adding the corpse when burnt (vidagdhaka). The list thus is : ( 1 ) the
livid (vinzlaka); (2) the bloated corpse (vyiidmiitaka); (3 ) the
festering (vipuyaka ) ; ( 4) the cut up (vidhutaka) ; ( 5) the bleeding
(vilohitaka); (6) the worm-infested (vikhiiditaka); (7) the scattered
(vik0iptaka); (8) the skeleton (asthika); and (9), the body as burnt
bones (vidagdhaka) . 5 1
5 0 Vism : 1 56 explains that the practitioner should get a monastery attendant or one
studying to become an ascetic or someone else to put such a corpse together in
one place. If he cannot find anyone to do this, he should put the corpse together
himself, using a walking stick or a staff in such a way that there is only a finger' s
breadth separating the parts.
51 See T. 1 54 5 : 205a9- 1 1 . Of these sub-forms of contemplation of the repulsive,
the most common sub-forms are : the cadaver reduced to bones, the worm-infested
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. BONES AND SKULLS
135
"Contemplation ofthe Repulsive " in the Abhidharma Literature

Preparation of the Practice
As mentioned in the introduction to this article, the visual
confrontation with bones and skulls by all likelihood is one of the
most unsettling experiences of one ' s own mortality, ensuing a state
of perturbation (sar(lvega) . The extreme nature of this
contemplation had the result that meditation on cremation grounds,
although being mentioned as one of four dwellings suitable for an
ascetic among the dhutangas in the Vina ya, 52 nevertheless became
a rather marginal practice, conducted by only some members of the
Sa:rpgha. In Vism : 1 1 4 , we read that, while the meditation teachers
held that all persons could benefit from meditating on death
(marm:ia), some teachers taught that the contemplation of the
repulsive (asubhabhiivana) was "a special meditation subj ect for
those individuals who are dominated by lust (raga)" . 53
Even for these monks, going into "contemplation of the
repulsive" when not properly prepared might be a perilous
cadaver, the bluish cadaver, the scattered corpse, and the bloated corpse. This
enumeration has no fixed order. *ltllil.r Za iihcin jfng, T.99: 22 1 b27-28 has
"bluish, bloated, worm-infested, scattered;" llil.r Zengyf iihcin jfng, T. 1 2 5 :
780a1 9-2 1 has "skeleton, bluish, bloated;" and T. 1 2 5 : 789b2-5 : "bluish, bloated".
In Zengyf iihcin jfng, the sub-forms are mentioned among a series of other
contemplations that do dot belong to the standardized series of nine
contemplations of the repulsive. The Abhidharmakosavyiikhyii (Wogihara, 1 97 1 :
5 5 , 1 . 1 -2) refers to a sutra that has the following list: vinrlaka, vipuyaka,
vyiidhmiitaka, vipafumaka, vilohitaka, vikhiiditaka, vilcyiptaka, asthika, and
asthisarrikalikii.
52 Vin V : l 3 1 and 1 9 3 . See also Vism : 59-8 3 ; T. 1 42 1 : 26al 8-20 (Mahfsiisaka
vinaya, Sj )j) $ U U 1i ?H MishiisiiibU hexi wiifenlii); T. 1 42 8 : 582b l 5 - 1 7
(Dharmagupta[ka]vinaya, 1211 7.t Sifen Zii). See also Dantinne ( 1 99 1 : 1 5-2 1 ) .
Gombrich ( 1 98 8 : 94) describes the dhutaftgas a s the outer limit "to what the
Theraviidin tradition will sanction by way of mortifying the flesh" .
53 The primordiality of sexual lust is testified in the following passage from the
Sutra literature : "Monks, when a monk lives much with the perception of the foul
(asubhasafifiii) heaped around (paricita) the mind, the mind draws back, bends
back, turns back from the attainment of sexual intercourse (methuna
dhammasamiipattiyii) and is not distracted (na sampasiiriyati) thereby" (AN 4 : 4647). See also Shaw (ms. : 9).
136
BART DES SEIN
undertaking. This is evident from the story, included in SN V : 3 20,

of how the Buddha taught the monks to practice contemplation of
the repulsive in a cremation ground, whereupon he left for a
fortnight of solitary meditation himself. Upon his return, he noticed
that the number of monks had significantly decreased. When asked
for the reason of this decrease in monks, his disciple Ananda told
him that, as a result of their meditative practice on corpses, the
monks felt shame over their bodies and loathed it, and up to thirty
monks a day killed themselves. Therefore, Ananda asked the
Buddha to teach them another meditation practice. The Buddha
then taught them the meditation on in-breathing and out-breathing
(anapanasmrti). 54 The latter type of meditation that was also
frequently mentioned in the early matrkas contains elements in
common with the contemplation of the repulsive, as its obj ect is
also related to the body and its impermanence. 55
In line with this, Vism : 1 46 states that a meditator is only
allowed to go to a charnel ground to develop the contemplation of
the bloated corpse, the first type of corpse in the standardized list
of the Southern tradition, after he has been instructed in this type of
meditation by a teacher. Even then, he is not allowed to go to the
charnel ground without informing the elder of the community or
some well-known bhikkhu, because: "If all his limbs are seized
with shuddering at the charnel ground, or if his gorge rises when he
is confronted with disagreeable obj ects such as the visible forms
and sounds of non-human beings, lions, tigers, etc. , or something
54 See also Wilson ( 1 996: 4 1 ) .

55 Wilson ( 1 996: 43): " Steady attention t o the inhalation and exhalation of breath
leads the meditator to achieve insight into the arising and cessation of all
phenomena. Thus, minding the breath, like dwelling in cremation grounds, entails
awareness of the decay that is the natural condition of all composite beings" . For a
more elaborate version of this story : see Vin III : 68, referred to above. See also
Despeux (2008 : 1 3 3 , 1 3 6). T.6 1 8 : 3 1 8c9- 1 0 explains that contemplation of the
repulsive is primarily aimed at composed matter, while mindfulness on in
breathing and out-breathing starts from the four elements as such. Mindfulness on
in-breathing and out-breathing can be used to develop all four meditative stages of
the realm of form. See on this Shaw (ms .), and Kuan (20 1 2) . For a discussion of
the use of one ' s body (through in-breathing) at prayer and meditation in early
Christian monasticism: see the contribution by Johnsen (20 1 3 : 1 95 - 1 99).
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. B ONES AND SKULLS
137
else afflicts him", 5 6 that someone can come t o rescue him. Rescue
of the meditator might also be necessary if he was attacked by
robbers . When going to the charnel ground, the practitioner should
also pay attention to all signs on the road leading thereto, so as to
be able to find the way back. He, in addition, should not approach
the charnel ground upwind, "For if he did so and the smell of
corpses assailed his nose, his brain might get upset, or he might
throw up his food" . When it is impossible to approach the charnel
ground downwind because of some hindrance on the way thereto,
such as a mountain, a river, or a ravine, the meditator should cover
his nose with the corner of his robe. 5 7
One more important element of preparation is verification of the
sex of the corpse, for, as Vism : l 46 informs us : "Perhaps the body is
of the opposite sex; for a female body is unsuitable for a man, and
a male body for a woman. If only recently dead, it may even look
beautiful; hence there might be danger to the life of purity". 58
The Actual Practice of "Contemplation of the Repulsive "

After enumerating the nine states of decomposition of the body as
listed above, the *Abhidharmamahiivibhii:tasastra informs us that
the actual practice of "contemplation of the repulsive" starts with
concentrating one ' s mind in the place between the eyebrows . The
reason this is so, is directly connected to the obj ect of this kind of
contemplation: sensual lust. As the text states :
It i s as when experiencing lust, desire i s first brought up in the
male (puru:jendriya) and the female faculty (str1ndriya), and
then gradually expands to the whole body. [Therefore,] the one
who practices contemplation of the repulsive likewise first
makes j oy for nobility (arya) arise in its [appropriate] place (i.e.
56 N iiI).atnOli ( 1 95 6 : 1 87).
57 Warren ( 1 9 5 0 : 1 48, 1 52); N iil).atnoli ( 1 95 6 : 1 8 8 - 1 89, 1 93 ) .
5 8 N iil).atnoli ( 1 95 6 : 1 87). This i s repeated i n Vism : 1 50 . MN : "Even when
decaying a woman invades a man' s mind and stays there" . Also in the
prescriptions for meditation on loving kindness, compassion, and sympathetic j oy,
monks and nuns are recommended not to begin by taking a member of the
opposite sex as their obj ect. See Vism : 296, 3 1 4, 3 1 6 .
138
BART DES SEIN
the place between the eyebrows), and then expands it to the

whole body. 5 9
The *Abhidharmamahavibhii$iiHistra then gives a detailed

description of how precisely the process of this contemplation
unfolds . There is a short practice, an extended practice, and a
combination of both the short and the extended practice. For the
short practice, the practitioner first goes to a burial chamber. There,
he contemplates such characteristics of the corpses as their being
bluish. 60 Having taken up these characteristics well, he returns, sits
down, and contemplates these characteristics again. When, in this
process, his mind is disturbed or he does not understand, he has to
go back to the burial chamber, and observe the characteristics again,
as he did before. When he has understood and his mind is not
disturbed, he has to return to his abiding place quickly, wash his
feet, sit in lotus seat, and adj ust his body and mind so as to allow
himself to become free of all hindrances. He has to think about the
characteristics he has previously observed in order to let the
supreme power of resolve move over and become part of his body.
5 9 T. 1 54 5 : 205al2- 1 5 . Notice that "expanding t o the whole body" also
characterizes mindfulness on in-breathing and out-breathing, given as alternative
for "contemplation of the repulsive" by the Buddha in SN V : 3 20.
60
In Vism : 1 5 0- 1 5 1 , apprehending the bloated corpse (the first type of corpse
mentioned in the Pali tradition) is explained in more detail. The practitioner has to
observe ( 1 ) the color of the corpse (black, white or yellow-skinned), (2) the mark,
i . e . , a body in the first, middle or last phase of life; (3 ) its shape, i .e ., the shape of
head, neck, hand, chest, belly, navel, hips, thigh, calf, foot; ( 4) its direction, i.e.,
down from the navel and up from it, or, alternatively, I am standing in this
direction; the sign of foulness is in that direction; (5) its location, i.e., the hand is
in this location, the foot in this, the head in this, the middle of the body in this, or
alternatively, I am in this location; the sign of foulness is in that; and ( 6) its
delimitation, i.e., this body is delimited below by the soles of the feet, above by
the tips of the hair, all round by the skin; the space so delimited is filled up with
thirty-two pieces of corpse; or, alternatively, this is the delimitation of its hand,
this is the delimitation of its foot, this is the delimitation of its head, this is the
delimitation of the middle part of its body; or, alternatively, he can delimit as
much of it as he has apprehended thus: "Just this much of the bloated is like this".
When not successful yet, the practitioner has to apprehend it by (7) its j oints, i.e.
the 1 08 j o ints, (8) by its openings, (9) by its concavities, ( 1 0) by its convexities,
and ( 1 1 ) all round. The same eleven steps are listed for the contemplation of the
skeleton ( Vism : l 57).
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPUL SIVE. B ONES ANIJ SKULLS
139
H e has t o start from the bluish corpse, and proceed up to the burnt
bones. Having come to the burnt bones, he first has to observe the
foot bone, and then the ankle bone, the shinbone, the knee bone,
the thigh bone, the tailbone, the hip bone, the spinal column, the
ribs, the upper-arm bone, the forearm bone, the elbow, the wrist,
the hand bone, the shoulder, the neck, the chin, the teeth, and,
finally, the skull. Having contemplated this impurity with power of
resolve (adhimok$a), he has to concentrate his attention between
the eyebrows . Hereafter, this attention goes over to the application
of mindfulness on the body (kayasmrtyupasthana), and so up to
and
including
the
analysis
of
the
elements
(dhatuvyavasthanabhavana). This completes the short practice. 6 1
For the extended practice, the practitioner does the same
practice as described for that of the short. When having
concentrated his attention between the eyebrows after
contemplation of the different bones, however, the practitioner
does not proceed to the application of mindfulness on the body, but
he has to shift his attention to observation of the skull, the teeth, in
this way proceeding up to and including the contemplation of the
foot bone. After having in this way observed the own bones with
the power of resolve, he has to observe the bones of others,
gradually expanding his reach to one bed, one room, one temple,
one garden, one city, one field, one river, and one country, and,
reaching all within the seas . In his mind and eyes, all these places
are full of bones . He then gradually contracts his attention to the
observation of his own bones again. Regarding his own body, he
contracts his attention to the foot bone and then develops his
attention again to the observation of the skull. When, in this way,
having observed all impurity with the power of resolve, he has to
concentrate his attention between the eyebrows. Hereafter, his
attention shifts to the application of mindfulness on the body, and
so up to and including the analysis of the elements, as next steps
towards the noble path. This completes the extended practice. 62
61 T. 1 545 : 205b l 4-28. Application of mindfulness on the body, on feelings, on
thoughts and on phenomena, referred to here, concerns the proper identification of
one ' s experiences, i.e. "sati" . See on this SN V : l 98, and Kuan (20 1 2) . For the
relation of "sati" to metacognition: see op. cit. : 5-6, 1 9 .
62 T. 1 5 4 5 : 205b28-cl 1 .
140
BART DES SEIN
For the combination of both the short and the extended practice,
the practitioner starts with going to a burial chamber to observe
such corpses as the bluish one, and he follows the same procedure
as with the extended contemplation: i.e., observing all within the
seas as full of bones, and, shifting his attention, observation up to
his own skull. He thereupon, however, does not, as is the case for
the extended practice, concentrate his attention between the
eyebrows to shift to the application of mindfulness on the body and
to the analysis of the elements . He, on the contrary, after having
concentrated his mind between the eyebrows for a while, does the
process all over again until the point is reached where he masters
the process. Only then does he, for the last time, concentrate his
mind between the eyebrows, and shifts to the application of
mindfulness on the body and up to the analysis of the elements . 63
This repeated process is done in order to prove one ' s sovereignty in
the process : when one has attained sovereignty from the actual
obj ect of contemplation, i.e., the bones and skulls as concrete
obj ects of meditation, one can repeatedly and at will do the
process. 64
It is further explained that, actually, three subtypes of
contemplation of the repulsive apply to all three methods of
contemplation: the yoga master who practices contemplation of the
repulsive either is a beginner (iidikiirmika), or he is already familiar
with the practice (krtaparijaya), or he is an absolute master
(atrikriintamanasikiira). This is explained as follows : With respect
to the short practice, the beginner is the one who goes to a burial
chamber and observes the characteristics of bluish and other
corpses there, who thinks about the characteristics he has
previously observed in order to let the power of resolve move over
and become part of his body, starting from the bluish corpse, and
so up to the burnt bones. 6 5 The one who is familiar with the
practice is the one who, having observed the foot bone in the ashes
and having thus continued to the observation of the skull, discards
63 T. 1 545 : 205cl l - 1 8 .
64 T. 1 545 : 205c 1 8-2 1 . T. 1 5 5 2 : 93 6a2- 1 4 explains this as varieties o f scarceness
and varieties of limitedness of supporting objects and self-dependence.
65 T. 1 545 : 206a1 4 - 1 7 .
141
one part and concentrates o n another part. 66 The absolute master i s

the practitioner who, having observed impurity with the power of
resolve, concentrates his mind between the eyebrows, and then pro
ceeds to the application of mindfulness on the body and the analy
sis of the elements . 67
Also with respect to the extended practice, three types can be
discerned. The beginner is the one who does the process from
going to a burial chamber up to observing the ashes of the own
body. 6 8 The one who is familiar with the practice is the one who
develops the process to the concentration on the foot bone and so
up to the skull, whereby he discards one part and concentrates on
another part. 69 The absolute master is the one who, having
observed with power of resolve, concentrates his mind between the
eyebrows . 70
For both the extended and the short practice, the beginner is the
practitioner who does the process from going to a burial chamber,
to observing the ashes of the own body . 7 1 The one who is familiar
with the process is the practitioner who concentrates his attention
on the foot bone and develops up to the skull, whereby he discards
one part and observes another part. 72 The absolute master is the
practitioner who continues the process at this point. 7 3
From the above, it appears that in all three types of
contemplation, the absolute master is the one who goes over to the
application of mindfulness on the body (kiiyasmrtyupasthiina), i.e.,
the one who goes one step further towards the noble path. A s this is
possible with all three kinds of contemplation, this implies that
there is no qualitative difference between the short, extended and
combined contemplation. Rather, the difference appears to be
related to the personal meditative skills of the practitioner. The
66 T. 1 5 4 5 :
67 T. 1 5 4 5 :
6 8 T. 1 5 45 :
69 T. 1 5 45 :
70 T. 1 5 4 5 :
71 T. 1 54 5 :
72 T. 1 54 5 :
73 T. 1 5 4 5 :
206al 7-20 .
206a20-23 .
206a23 -25 .
206a25-28.
206a28-b l .
206b l -4 .
206b4-7.
206b7-8. These three types are also discussed in T. 1 5 5 2 : 907c25-908a8;
T. 1 5 5 8 : 1 1 7b22-c22; and T. 1 562: 67 1 a1 8-672b4.
1 42
BART DES SEIN
mentioning of "application of mindfulness on the body" and of

"analysis of the elements" in the description of this practice,
connects "contemplation of the repulsive" to the noble path that
serves to eliminate the passions and to lead the practitioner to
liberation.
Position of "Contemplation of the Repuls ive " in the Noble Path

In his introduction to Sarp.ghavarman' s translation of
Dharmatrata' s *Smrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya in the Chu siinzangfiji,
Jiaojing informs us that the work of Dharmatrata corresponds to
the four noble truths : The truth of suffering (dubkhasatya) is
represented by the first chapter ( W. ifb jiepfn), an analysis of the
eighteen elements (dhiitu) . The truth of the origin (samudayasatya)
is represented by three chapters : the second chapter (ff xing pfn)
that deals with formations (sarriskiira), the third chapter ( ye
pfn) that deals with actions (karman), and the fourth chapter (
shf pfn) that deals with contaminants (anufoya) . These four
chapters thus discuss the foundations of human actions and the
actual actions as they lead to rebirth. The third Buddhist truth, the
truth of cessation (nirodhasatya), is represented by the fifth chapter
( Jf ifb xiansheng pfn) that addresses the stages of nobility that
can be reached by the adept. The fourth truth, the truth of the path
(miirgasatya), is represented by the sixth ( :!& i:Po zhi pfn) and
seventh (JEtflo ding pfn) chapters, in which the forms of knowledge
and forms of meditation the adept gains and practices when on the
noble path are discussed. 74 As the contaminants (anusaya) are the
74 T.2 1 45 : 74b25-c3 . In fact, the text consists of eleven chapters. Chapters eight
through eleven, however, give additional information on the topics discussed in
the previous seven chapters. Watanabe and Mizuno ( 1 93 2 : 7ff.) suggest a slightly
different analysis: the truth of suffering corresponds to the first and second
chapters; the truth of the origin corresponds to the third and the fourth chapters;
the truth of cessation corresponds to the fifth chapter; and the truth of the path,
finally, corresponds to the sixth and scyent. ;;hapters. See also Prnuwallner
( 1 9 7 1 b : 1 2 3 ) . Armelin ( 1 97 8 : 1 3 ), in accordance with Yamada ( 1 95 9 : 1 1 7)
explains that the truth of suffering corresponds to the first and second chapters,
that the truth of the origin corresponds to the third and fourth chapters, the truth of
cessation to the fifth and sixth chapters, and the truth of the path to the seventh
chapter. The doctrinal connection between knowledge gained and meditation
1 43
ultimate cause of our actions, we can consider the fourth chapter

that deals with the contaminants and the fifth chapter that deals
with the stages of nobility as the core chapters of the text. 7 5 Indeed,
the actual doctrine can be reduced to the following: worldlings
(prthagjana) have ten contaminants that are the ultimate cause of
their actions that, in their tum, are responsible for the continuation
of the life cycle. These contaminants have to be abandoned through
the path of the four noble truths . At the end of this process,
knowledge of destruction (k$ayajniina) and knowledge of non
origination (anutpiidajniina) arise. 7 6 With this, one reaches
liberation.
In the final formulation of the S arvastivada path to salvation,
before entering on this noble path of vision, there are a series of
preparatory exercises that serve to bring the practitioner into the
correct mental state to start eliminating his contaminants . The first
of these preparatory exercises is "contemplation of the repulsive".
This is the first topic discussed in the chapter on nobility
(xiansheng p'fn ) of the *Sarrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya. 77 It is
followed by concentration on in-breathing and out-breathing, an
element that was also listed in the early miitrkiis, and the analysis
of the elements, also mentioned in the description of the practice of
contemplation of the repulsive in the *Abhidharmamahiivibhii$ii
siistra. The analysis of the elements concerns the six elements
($af/dhiitu) that form everything mundane : earth (prthivl), water
(ap), fire (tejas), wind (viiyu), space (iikiifo), and consciousness
(vijniina). This type of concentration also thus regards the
impermanence of everything mundane. 7 8 About these three
preparatory exercises, the *Sarrzyuktiibhidharmahrdaya states that
"contemplation of the repulsive" makes one transgress attachment
practiced while on the path to salvation, however (see Cox, 1 992), render the latter
interpretation doubtful. See also Dessein ( 1 999, vol. 1 : xxxv).
75 See Frauwallner ( 1 97 1 a: 86).
76 See on this T. 1 552: 947al l - 1 3 . For a study of the annihilation of defilement:
see Dessein (2009).
77 T. 1 5 5 2 : 907c25-908a8 .
7 8 According t o Schmithausen ( 1 976: 253), mindfulness (smrti) which is
mentioned in the description of the four meditative stages (dhyiina), originally
merely concerned the body . T.6 1 8 : 3 1 8b2 informs us that the development of the
analysis of the elements serves to eliminate the idea of "I am" (asmimiina).
1 44
BART DES SEIN
to sensual pleasure; "mindfulness on in-breathing and out

breathing" makes one transgress deliberation (vitarka) and thought
(vicara); 79 and "development of the analysis of the elements"
makes one transgress conduct of views (dF;ticarita)". 80 As samadhi
implies a greater degree of control over the mind or consciousness
(citta, vijnana) 8 1 than these preparatory exercises do, they are, in
themselves, no forms of samadhi yet; they merely serve to
convince the practitioner of the loathsomeness and impermanence
of everything mundane. They are followed by four forms of
application of mindfulness : on the body (kayasmrtyupasthana), on
feelings
(vedanasmrtyupasthiina) ,
on
thoughts
( citta
smrtyupasthana ) , and on entities (dhiitusmrtyupasthiina). As the
*Smrzyuktabhidharmahrdaya states : "When the devotee already
abides in contemplation of the repulsive, mindfulness on in
breathing and out-breathing, and development of the analysis of the
elements, then the body, feelings, awarenesses and factors each are
truly observed" . 82 This means that, through these four forms of
application of mindfulness, the body is seen as impure (asubha),
feelings are seen as characterized by suffering (du(lkha), thoughts
are seen as impermanent (anitya), and entities are seen as selfless
(anatmaka). These applications of mindfulness make three "roots
of merit" (kufolamula) increase : absence of desire (alobha),
absence of hatred (adve$a), and absence of ignorance (amoha), a
list of three that is identical to the numerical list (matrka) of three
types of contemplation we find in AN III :446 . 83 These three are, in
their tum, followed by four elements that are conducive to
enlightenment (nirvedhabhiigrya) : warmth (il$man), top (murdhan),
patience
(k$iinti),
and
the
highest
worldly
factor
(laukikagradharma). Warmth is the state of mind in which the
practitioner completely understands the four noble truths; top is the
79 On these notions : see Swearer ( 1 973 : 445). On the parallels between the
practice of in-breathing and out-breathing, and cognitive psychology : see Kuan
(20 1 2)
80
T. 1 5 5 2 : 908b2-4 . This is also discussed i n T. 1 5 5 8 : 1 1 7b l l - 1 7; T. 1 562: 67 1 a612.
81
See Swearer ( 1 973 : 44 1 , 443).
82
T. 1 5 5 2 : 908b24-25 .
83
S e e also T.6 1 8 : 3 1 7a28, 3 1 8b l .
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE . B ONES AND SKULLS
1 45
moment in which the practitioner definitively is on the way to the

noble path, without possible regress; patience is the state of mind
in which one rej oices the four noble truths; and the highest worldly
factor is the transition point from being an ordinary person to being
a noble person. With the highest worldly factor, the devotee enters
on the noble path.
The noble path concerns the three realms of the Buddhist
cosmology : the realm of sensual passion (kamadhatu), the realm of
form (riipadhatu), and the realm of formlessness (ariipyadhatu).
The realm of sensual passion consists of five spheres of existence :
beings in hell (naraka), hungry ghosts (preta), animals (tiryagyoni),
humans (manu$ya) and gods (deva). The realm of form consists of
four states of elementary trance (dhyana), each inhabited by a
number of different types of gods. In between the sensual realm
and the first trance state, there is a stage that is called the pre-trance
( anagamyadhyana ) ; in between the stage of the first trance and the
stage of the second trance, there is a stage called intermediate
trance (dhyanantara). Above the realm of form, there are four
stages of immaterial trances (samapatti), i.e ., trances that take an
immaterial obj ect. 84
It is obvious that, as material obj ects of meditation, bones and
skulls, as well as the practitioner himself, belong to the realm of
sensual passion. A human being, while physically belonging to the
realm of sensual passion, can - through meditation - uplift himself
spiritually to one of the higher trance states . Contemplation of the
repulsive is therefore explained to pertain to ten stages : the
meditative stage of the realm of sensual passion ( 1 ), the
intermediate trance (2), the four meditative stages of the realm of
form (3 -6), and the preliminary trances (7- 1 0), whereby the
preliminary trances are adj acent to the actual trance stages . It is in
the preliminary trances that one is liberated from defilements,
whereupon, in the actual trances, one takes possession of this
liberation. 85 In this way, one who has reached the first trance stage
is free from lust (kama); one who has reached the second trance
84 For a description and qualification of these immaterial trances, see Shaw (ms.).
8 5 T. 1 545 : 206c22-23 . See also T . 1 5 5 2 : 9 3 0 c l 1 - 1 6, 933cl l - 1 2;T. 1 5 5 8 : 1 1 7c25-27;
T. 1 562: 672b 1 7- 1 8; T.6 1 8 : 3 1 6b20-22.
146
BART DES SEIN
stage is free from deliberation and thought (vitarkavicara); one

who has reached the third trance stage is free from j oy (priti) ; and
one who has reached the fourth trance stage is free from in
breathing and out-breathing ( cmiipana). 8 6
"Contemplation ofthe Repulsive " in the Dam6duolu6 chan ffng

We started this article with a quotation from the Dam6duolu6 ch<in
jing, a sutra that focuses on "contemplation of the repulsive" .
Stylistically, the Dam6duolu6 ch<in jing is composed of two parts :
a part written in verse, successively dealing with mindfulness on
in-breathing and out-breathing, contemplation on the repulsive, and
the analysis of the elements, 8 7 and a prose part that deals with the
four forms of immeasurable samiidhi, the aggregates (skandha),
sense-fields (iiyatana), and the twelvefold chain of dependent
origination. 88 These elements are the fundamental elements of the
doctrinal framework for liberation from the mundane, for which
"contemplation of the repulsive" serves as an essential preparatory
practice.
Using the verse form to describe the three preparatory practices
as described above, brings the content of this part in line with its
doctrinal aim : As all verses consist of five characters, with a
syntactic break in between the second and the third syllable
(character), recitation of this text results in a monotonous litany,
and thus is conducive to bringing the practitioner into a trance state.
This is reinforced by the many repetitions the text contains . In such
86 See DN III :226, 290; AN N :409. According to Vism : 1 48, 1 5 9, "contemplation
of the repulsive" only belongs to the first dhyiina, a stage which is characterized
by the disappearance of lust. See for this also Shaw (ms.), and Kuan (20 1 2) .
According to T. 1 5 5 8 : 1 5 l b6, "contemplation of the repulsive", when developed in
the first trance state, is an antidote for attachment to color, while, when developed
in the second trance state, is an antidote for attachment to color of the first trance
state. In the third trance state, there is no more attachment to color of the second
trance state that should be annihilated. T. 1 509: 2 1 8b l l excludes "contemplation
of the repulsive" from the third meditative state of the realm of form. See also
Bronkhorst ( 1 99 3 a: 89).
8 7 T.6 1 8 : 3 0 l c l 1 -3 1 9c3 . The description of "contemplation of the repulsive" in
this text is generally in line with its description in the Sarviistivada Abhidharma
works.
88 T. 6 1 8 : 3 1 9c4-3 25c2.
CONTEMPLATION OF THE REPULSIVE. B ONES ANU SKULLS
1 47
a trance state, the practitioner can visualize the corpse in different

stages of decomposition, without the need to physically abide on a
charnel ground, i.e ., it refers to the combined practice of
9
"contemplation of the repulsive" addressed above. 8
89 Obeyesekere ( 1 98 9 : 1 3 3 ) remarks that, in contemporary Sinhalese society, for lay

people, there is no actual physical obj ect at hand when going into this kind of
contemplation. The layperson has to evoke this putrescence through various
metaphors of revulsion, the most conspicuous being that of feces. For other
references to internally derived visualization practices, both in early textual
materials and contemporary practices: see Shaw (ms.) and Kuan (20 1 2 : 1 6), with
reference to MN I : 5 8 .
Red Snakes and

Angry Queen Mothers
Hallucinatio ns and Epiphanies
in Medieval Dao ist Meditatio n
Stephen Eskildsen
Introduction
A particular sort of vision sequence is described in six different
Daoist texts of diverse date and origin. It commences with an
encounter with a fiery Red Snake (danshe ftTI), which is directly
followed by an appearance of the ancient goddess, the Queen
Mother of the West (XIwangmu I BJ); these initial two visions
are then succeeded by further visions . To my knowledge, the
following texts describe this sort of vision sequence:
1 ) Kushi sz chlzz fa )._ ii[ }il:/, -T (The Method for Entering the
Chamber and Contemplating the Baby) 1
1 This text is found in the early Northern Song (jcSR ca. I 025) anthology, Yunjf
qzqian *];t--1:; (DZ I 0 32/TT677-702), 5 5/9b- 1 4a. (Texts included in the Ming
(El}:j) Daoist Canon [Daozang @] are cited by the formula DZ/TT. The "DZ"
number denotes the number by which the title is catalogued in Schipper and
Verellen (eds.) 2004, The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the D aozang;
1 50
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
2) Taishang himyuan zhenlit A\ l:. /!B 5G Jl: ijZ (True Record of the
Chaotic Origin of the Most High) 2

3 ) Xianticm Xuanmiao Yitnl1 Taishang Shengmu zfchuan xiandao .tfc::R.
:WP .:li fr. A\ J: .. -BJ:. Ji 1.$ fw m (Way o f Immortality Helpfully
Transmitted by the Most High Holy Mother, the Mysterious and
Wondrous Jade Maiden of the Prior Heaven) 3
4) Hitnyuan shengji /!B5G..c (Holy Chronicle of the Chaotic Origin) 4
5) Zhiizhen neidan jiyao mi Jll: pg fl" (Collected Essentials on
Internal Alchemy from the Genuine Ones ) 5
6) Dacheng jieyao ::k PIHtl! (Expedient Essentials for the Great
Accomplishment) . 6
Item 1 , in my view, could date to the early medieval period (pre4th century); it takes the form of a discourse uttered by Laoz1 ::t r
and i s free o f terminology or allusions suggestive o f influence from
Buddhism or from influential Daoist movements of the 4th century
onward (such as the Shangqing J:W' or Lingbao it :ff ). Items 2
and 3 are Tang Dynasty (6 1 8-906) compilations that incorporate a
variety of earlier material and present it as teachings once uttered
by Lord Lao ::t (a more august title for the divinized Laozl) to
his disciple Yin X1 j3' j: at the Hangii Pass iE! and in the
the "TT" number denotes the fascicle of the Daoziing [ 1 926 Shanghai Reprint
Edition] in which the text is contained).
2 DZ954/TT604. As Franciscus Verellen points out, the Tang (/l!f) authorship of
this text appears clear from how it avoids using the character shi it!: that was made
taboo during that period in deference to Li Shimin '$it!: (Emperor Tfilzong 7,\.
* [r. 626-649]) . In Verellen' s view, this text "stands as an early representative of
a new phase of the development of Laozi' s annals", that "took shape against the
background of the sage' s adoption as the Tang imperial family ' s ancestor". See
Schipper and Verellen (eds.) 2004) vol. 1 : 4 1 4-4 1 5 .
3 DZ868/TT579.
4 DZ770/TT5 5 1 -5 5 3 . Compiled by Xie ShOuhao 'if, ca. 1 1 9 1 .
5 DZ 1 2 5 8/TT999. Compiled Xuanquanzi 3:: -'f .
6 The two most complete editions of this text i n circulation are those published by
Shanxi Renmin Chiibanshe w A il l\&1 of Taiyuan 7,\. ( 1 988; prefaces
dated 1 929 and 1 93 3 ) and Zhenshanmei Chiiblinshe J!i;'@f il l\&1 ofTaipei Ji
( 1 966). The latter Taipei edition bears the title, Tiiinjf m iwen *:fl;Jiltlz:: (Secret
Writ on the Functioning of Heaven).
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHERS
151
Zh6ngnan mountains 1i w (where the famous L6uguan ifl:fl

monastery now stands) . 7 Item 4 is a later (Southern Song ilj*; late
1 2th c.), much lengthier compilation of Lord Lao lore that
incorporates much of the same material as items 2 and 3 . Item 5 is
a collection of writings related to internal alchemy (neidcm P'1 H ) 8
meditation compiled during the Yuan period, around 1 3 00; the
compiler appears to have been associated with the highly
influential Quanzhen :i: School. Item 6 is a lengthy internal
alchemical manual most likely written in the early 20th century; its
author professes affiliation to the Quanzhen L6ngmen F lineage,
and is particularly strongly influenced by the writings of the Qing
( 5 ) period (ca. 1 700) internal alchemist-Buddhist monk Liu
Huayang :f!ip . The author may also have been connected to one
of the "redemptive societies" (e.g. T6ngshan She IE] :@f t, Xiantian
Dao )t; :l(J!! ) 9 that rose to prominence in the late imperial and
Republican ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 948) periods .
In sum, the approximate dates of the texts that describe the
vision sequence involving the Red Snake, Queen Mother, etc.
range over a span of 1 500 or more years . During this span, Daoism
certainly changed and evolved drastically in its doctrines and
practices. Various questions thus arise. What causes the vision
sequence to come about? What meditation techniques are
7 The Hangli Pass was a mountain pass of great strategic importance, located to
the northeast of Lingbiio city, in Herran iiJ1i Province. The L6uguan Monastery is
located in Zh5uzhi '.!iii: [ (f,!ll ) county, near XI' iin [1(, ShiinxI (Shaanxi) [
Province .
8 Internal alchemy is the type of meditation theory and practice that began t o
emerge around the late Tang t o early Song, an d has been predominant within
Daoist circles (and beyond) since about the 1 1 th century onward. It is
characterized by its appropriation of the metaphysics and terminology of
laboratory alchemy (of the variety represented by the classic text, Zhouyi
ciint6ngqi f,!fJ l1'lJ ), which it applies to contemplative techniques and psycho
hysiological processes.
Societies of this sort expound doctrines that profess to constitute the essential
truths of all the great religions, and are typically engaged in philanthropic
undertakings along with spirit-writing, liturgical services and internal alchemical
meditation. See Goossaert, 2007: 3 1 3 - 3 1 4 ; Lin Wanchuan, 1 9 84, vol. 1 : 1 62- 1 8 3 ;
Wang Jianchuan, 1 995 : 57-82; and DeKorne, 1 94 1 .
1 52
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
employed to induce the visions? What is the perceived significance

and purpose of the vision sequence? What other explanations might
there be for these phenomena (especially in terms of psychology)?
Why does the vision sequence get described in so many sources of
so many different periods? Have practitioners over the centuries
actually had the same visions? If so, is it due to a similarity in
technique, regimen, or some other persisting factor? Have
practitioners of different periods perceived the significance and
purpose of the visions similarly? Of course, the recurrence of the
vision sequence in texts of various periods might merely be a
matter of textual borrowing, rather than any actual recurrence of
mystical experience; even so, what is it about the imagery that has
compelled so many generations of Daoists to cite it?
This paper will focus on two of the above-listed texts, namely,
Ritshi sz chizl fa and Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit (a comprehensive
study of the data in all six texts will require a much lengthier study).
It will discuss in some detail what each of these two texts has to
say about the vision sequence, how it is induced, and what its
significance is . It will conclude with some comments regarding
what the data from the two texts might bring to bear in addressing
some of the questions brought up in the preceding paragraph.
Ritshi sf chizzfa
Ritshz sz chizifa commences with Laoz1 describing the attributes of
his Dao ilt, among which he first takes note of its elusiveness
toward our ordinary senses. He states, "My Dao emerges from
obscurity and is formless. Look at it and it cannot be seen. Listen to
it and it cannot be heard. Follow it and you cannot see its rear.
Beckon it and you cannot see its head" 1 0 liltIJ'tt@rm % fJ'i,
Z. ::f PJ Ji Z.::f PJ !iQ \liz::f Jl1i iiliz::f Jl i't . The Dao,
Laoz1 also states, is vast enough to envelop the universe, and yet is
also small enough to fit inside a single thin hair. It is the creative
force that emanates and integrates through the functioning of the
10
Yunji qfqiiin, 5 5/9b.
1 53
yfn and yang llW, sun and moon, sky and earth, husband and
wife, the eight trigrams and the like.
Elusive though the Dao may be to the ordinary senses, Laoz1
nonetheless goes on to describe a meditation regimen by which the
Great Dao can indeed be made to appear. Laoz1 states, "Observe
how my yfn and yang converge their essences and together feed
milk. This is called ' nurturing the Baby ' . Do not miss the proper
times" u fi :H llW 5t ff if ojij L .tl:t lf T iJJ ERJ * . In
other words, within one ' s own person there are psycho
physiological processes that are the working of Laozr (viz. , the
Dao) which take the shape of the interplay of the bipolar yfn and
yang forces and which serve to nourish an inner "Baby". It is by
attentively observing these psycho-physiological processes that the
subtle Dao can be observed. However, it is essential that this
meditation be carried out at the exact proper times on each day
otherwise, it is useless . On jia lt3 (# 1 ) 12 and gu{ (# 1 0) days one
must practice during the chin (7-9 a.m. ), si B (9- 1 1 a.m. ) z{ T
( 1 1 p.m. - 1 a.m.) and ch6u R ( 1 -3 a.m.) hours . On y { Z (#2) and
ren - (#9) days one must practice during the yin (3-5 a.m.),
mao gp (5-7 a.m.), wu q:. ( 1 1 a.m . - 1 2 p.m.) and shen $ (3-5 p.m.)
hours . On b lng p;=j (#3) and xfn * (#8) days, one must practice
during the hili * (9- 1 1 p.m.), you w (5-7 p .m.), wei * ( 1 -3 p.m.)
and xil Bt (7-9 p.m.) hours . On ding T (#4) and geng JJit (#7) days,
one must practice during the z{ T ( 1 1 p.m. - 1 a.m.) and wu q:. ( 1 1
a.m.- 1 p.m.) hours . On WU Jj(; (#5) and j{ a (#6) days, one must
practice during the mao gp (5-7 a.m.) and you W (5-7 p.m.) hours .
In sum, then, one is told to meditate for 8 hours per day during
six out of every ten days (days # 1 -3 , 8- 1 0), and to meditate 4 hours
per day on the other four days (days #4- 7). 1 3 One is to "enter the
room" (rushi )\) to commence the regimen on the w itz{ )::l(; -=f
,
11
Yunji qfqian, 5 5/ l Ob.
12 In the traditional Chinese method, days and years are designated and
enumerated according to a sequence of ten characters known as the "ten heavenly
stems (gan T)". Jia and guf are, respectively, days 1 and 1 0 in this sequence.
1 3 Yunji qfqian, 5 5/ l Ob- l l a.
1 54
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
day ( #25) of the sexagenary cycle; 1 4 presumably the choice of day

for commencing the undertaking is crucial, since the specifications
as to which hours the practitioner should meditate on each day are
based on the assumption that they have commenced the regimen on
the wuzr day. It would appear that the proper synchronization of
one ' s activities (mental and physical) with the rhythms of the
natural cosmos is essential. The total duration of the regimen is to
be 1 00 days, or until the " divine radiances" (shenming '13 )
become visible. The regimen also requires certain protocols
pertaining to hygiene and diet, although these are not described in
detail. Laoz1 does state, "Completely sincere, you shall eat little, in
order to observe purifications and precepts. Clean your heart; bathe
your head and body" mzJl d> it 1f ffl(; ;l)t il,, ;IJ[\ ;ltoJ. . 1 5
Laoz1 states that in "practicing my Dao" 1!?rm one needs to
first make calm the "female and male" (pinmu 4tt!'), which refers
to the two kidneys, and to the yuanqi jG#( (primal energy) thereof.
Of this yuanqi, the q i #( (apparently the yfn aspect of a bifurcating
primal energy) constantly goes downward, while the yuan 7G (the
yang emanation of the primal energy) constantly ascends upward.
The yuan is red, and the qi is white. When the ascending yuan
reaches the heart, the heart will tend to waver, causing the yuan to
turn back downward again. The practitioner thus needs to keep the
mind calm. The yuan needs to lodge calmly with the "feminine and
masculine" (cixi6ng 11tt!J;t ) of the heart, which is also known as the
Hall of Light (mingtang '.). Together the couple in the heart
nourishes the yuan to form it into the B aby (chizf T). The Baby,
we are told, is "natural" (ziran ?). Through contemplation the
practitioner is to cause the B aby to ascend to the Cavern Chamber
(dongfang [P] m ) between the eyes, where he can be with the
Genuine Person (zhenren A ), who is his guardian minister
(suweizhichen fEHtiZ J=ii: ) . The Genuine Person arrives unclothed
14 Chinese days or years can also be enumerated in a sequence of 60 days,
designated by sequential combinations of the ten heavenly stems with the twelve
earthly branches (zhf :X).
1 5 Yilnj{ q lqiiin, 55/13b.
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHEB.. S
1 55
in the Cavern Chamber, and gazes down at the ascending B aby.

When the Baby arrives, the Genuine Person remains standing there.
The Genuine Person only comes and stays because he wants the
Baby to ascend. If, due to a wavering heart, the Baby does not
ascend, the Genuine Person will neither return (from where, I do
not know) nor stay; thereby nothing can be accomplished. 16
To sum up the essentials of the method so far then, one needs to
serenely, at the proper hours on the proper days, allow the subtle,
gendered and personified forces of the body to undergo the natural
and necessary processes. Apparently, it is primarily or entirely by
being calm that one enables the yuan of the kidneys to rise to the
heart, where the parental forces can nurture and form it into the
Baby, and then enable the Baby to rise to the head where he is to
benefit from the protection of the Genuine Person. From this point
on, the Baby represents the center of the individual ' s subj ective
awareness and vitality; one now inhabits the personality of the
Baby, and is under the tutelage of the Genuine Person.
The practitioner is not specifically told to visualize these inner
personalities, or to invoke them through incantations or talismans ;
although such techniques are perhaps tacitly implied or allowed.
The general impression here is that the practitioner, rather than
guide or manipulate the inner forces, is to simply allow and
observe the natural phenomena that should appear at the specific
hours as long as they are able to maintain their serenity. In doing
so, one apparently first focuses attention on the region of the
kidneys, then after a while on the heart, and finally on the head, in
the area between the eyes. It is unclear as to what degree one
actually sees or feels the presence and activity of the yuan, the q i,
the male and female, the masculine and feminine, the B aby and the
Genuine Person. It appears, however, at least that the initial
ascension from kidneys to heart is detectable because it brings with
it an inner excitement or agitation that needs to be brought under
control.
When he (or she, perhaps, if the practitioner is female) ascends
to the head, the Baby is met by a Genuine Person who "returns"
16
Yiinji q fqiiin, 5 5/ 1 l a-b.
1 56
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
there-from where the Genuine Person "returns" is not at all clear.

Does the Genuine Person come from some other part of the
practitioner' s body or psyche (the subconscious, perhaps), or is the
Genuine Person a guardian spirit of sorts who comes from outside?
In any case, the ascension of the Baby from heart to the head, we
are told, brings with it some unusual experiences .
When the B aby begins the ascension he becomes visible,
although he does not look like a baby. Laozl' states, "His form
resembles a Red Snake, and his radiance illuminates people.
Suddenly he arrives and attaches to a person' s face, with the sound
of a torch fire" %1:PHt , J1t A o :m r iJ Aoo , *f2:k
!fl* Startling though this may be, one should remain calm, and
after a while the fiery snake will abruptly disappear. Laozl' further
states that the Red Snake is the "essence of the sun" 8 z;fj that
"takes on a fiery form and comes to attach itself to a person" 1"F :k
% , 3J( )\ . It is of greatest importance that one does not become
agitated, because any sort of mental agitation will prevent the Baby
from ascending, and making it impossible to bring forth what one
is supposed to bring forth later (viz., more epiphanies). 1 7
Once the fiery Red Snake has been seen, and done so calmly,
the B aby will have successfully ascended to the Cavern Chamber
in the head to be with his protector, the Genuine Person. From this
point on, Laozl' tells us, the practitioner (who is now personified by
the Baby) "can converse with the Genuine Person" &' JI;}\!.
Laoz1 further states, "At times, your eyes will suddenly see a bright
formless yellow. Your body, due to the transformations will see the
Queen Mother of the West (XIwangmu) 1 8 riding on a phoenix
chariot, with six red dragons harnessed behind, and with three
vermilion sparrows in front" 1 9 q:i m r Jl iE $'15$'15 rm %
tt IEl 1tJl ll9 .:EtlJ:*ll.M Z.. !l'l: 1& 1\ $1J !l'l: ffiJ =. *
17 Yunji q zqian, 55/1 2a.
1 8 The supreme female Immortal who dwells on Mt. Kiinlun * W ; her cult/lore
existed already by the Warring States Period). Around 3 B . C . there flourished a
popular cult that worshipped the Queen Mother in the hope that she would bestow
immortality. For an in-depth study see Cahill, 1 99 5 .
19 Yunji qfqian, 55/1 2a-b.
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHER.S
1 57
The Queen Mother and the numinous creatures will appear very
hazy and murky, and after a while will disappear abruptly on their
own. Again, as in the case of the fiery Red Snake, Laoz1 says that
one need not and must not be scared. To make matters more
complicated, however, the Queen Mother is likely to try to make
the individual converse with her. She must not be answered to,
even though this will make her angry . She is likely to persist with
her queries, and remain angry if she is continued to be ignored.
However, if one continues to calmly ignore her, the Genuine
Person will eventually come to the rescue, by speaking to the
Queen Mother on the practitioner' s behalf.
Once the disgruntled Queen Mother has passed on, Laoz'i tells
us, "the Great Dao will come and appear" :::k m 310! . When the
Great Dao appears, "body and form will be vast, brilliant and
without shape or sign" 20 % JJ Bl BE rnH!U . Regrettably
unclear here is whether the "body and form" referred to is the
Dao ' s, the practitioner' s, or both. Laoz1 seems to be saying that the
Dao, even in its epiphany, bears no form or appearance of the s ort
that can be described by words or even seen in the conventional
sense; or, perhaps Laoz1 is speaking of a state of contemplative
oblivion where awareness of one ' s own body is lost.
Whatever the case, Laoz1 tells us that amidst this vast, ineffable
brightness, "Above, you will see the sun, moon and constellations
as though they were there, and yet not there. There will be
Heavenly Masters and Genuine Persons coming and appearing,
along with all sorts of entertainers and musicians" J: Jl!. B jj 1N
1f o &' 1f ip J{. A * Jl!. o 1 - JI#ij . One must not
,
look at these wondrous things, nor look at the Immortals and Jade
Maidens (Xianren Yu.nil 1w A3S.3c) who will also appear. One will
also encounter "dragons, tigers, birds and beasts" nm. but
"must not become frightened" t i7J - fil . In sum, Laoz1 states, all
these sights should be calmly disregarded, since they are "not real"
A. "They are merely the essences and spirits of the five viscera
20
Yunji qlqiiin, 5 5/1 2b- 1 3 a.
1 58
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
and six bowels within your body. They are not the true Dao" 2 1 f_.
-T- % r:F .IrJl 1\ IW *:tEl3 , J{.:JJ'! ill .
Laozi goes on to say that when the Heavenly Masters and
Genuine Persons come, "you must remain calm and focused" '--Ji. 1l.'
7E , and thereby "converse well with the person (or, perhaps,
people)" 'ff AJ- j . Who, exactly, is this person or people (ren
A) with whom one is supposed to converse? Is one supposed to
converse with the Heavenly Masters and Genuine Persons, even
though they are mere illusions crafted by the spirits of the viscera
and bowels? Is this statement contradictory to what was stated
before? Or rather, are the Heavenly Masters and Genuine
Persons-unlike all the other sights-now understood to be
genuine epiphanies? Or, perhaps, one is supposed to be conversing
with that particular Genuine Person whom the Baby had first met
when he ascended to the Cavern Chamber between the eyes, and
who had kindly protected and mentored him (i. e . , the practitioner)
through the confrontations with the Red Snake and the Queen
Mother. Whatever the case, one ' s comportment and speech needs
to convince the Dao/Laozi that one is "faithful" (xin f). Laozi
states, "When I see your faithfulness, I will proclaim the Dao to
you. Spreading wide the ropes, I will show it all to you. , ,n 1-Ji r
f 15 -T-m 'J& H ;!=tfo.\Jlitl 5i!.T Thus, this mysterious and elusive
Dao, whatever it is, entails certain far-ranging insights, unspecified
here, that only Laozi in person can reveal-only if one has proven
to be "faithful" during the course of the contemplative process.
Laozi states that "the divine radiances will become visible" f$
Bjj;i'l within 1 00 days of commencing the regimen, after which
one is to quit. Thus it appears that the visual and auditory
epiphanies should come about in 1 00 days if the practice is carried
out properly and diligently. Why one should quit the regimen at
this point is not stated. Was there perceived to be some sort of
problem or danger that might occur if an individual were to persist
21
22
Yunjf q!qian, 5 5/ 1 3 a.
Yunjf qlqian, 55/1 3 a.
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHER,8
1 59
longer in the regimen in hope of greater blessings and revelations?

Were such deeper blessings and revelations considered impossible?
At any rate, the tangible benefits said to accrue as a result of the
1 00-day regimen are by no means slight. Laoz1 states that "your
refined spirit will be pervasive and penetrating, and you will be
able to walk 1 0,000 tf at a time" t$51EJ JE;tl:E, and that
"your going and coming will be swift and rapid, like that of the
wind and rain" 23 ti* M:k* Ji, m;j . Laoz1 stops short, however,
of promising immortality or heavenly ascension. In all likelihood,
practitioners who had completed and benefited from this
enlightening and invigorating regimen hoped to graduate to even
more sophisticated methods that did carry the promise of earthly or
celestial immortality. What such methods might have consisted of
we cannot know, although one might conj ecture that they involved
more intensive contemplative and dietary regimens, or perhaps
laboratory alchemy .
Taishang himyuan zhenlu

The descriptions of the Red Snake-Queen Mother vision sequence
in Taishang hunyuan zhenlu are found near the end of the text in a
lengthy segment that commences with the phrase, "Lord Lao
said . . . " (Uiojun yue Jg El ). For convenience of discussion I shall
refer to this segment as "LLS#4", since it is the fourth in a series of
segments (LLS# l -LLS#4) appearing over the text ' s last five pages,
each of which commences with the phrase "Lord Lao said . . . " For
some reason, the four LLS segments are disembodied from the
text ' s narrative of Lord Lao ' s j ourney and encounter with Yln Xi;
in this respect they are unlike the text ' s numerous other discourses
by Lord Lao, which are embedded into the narrative.
The great difficulty encountered with Taishang hunyuan zhenlu
is that of trying to ascertain the specific meditation technique that
is supposed to bring about the visions of the Red Snake and Queen
Mother. The meditation technique so meticulously laid out in Rushz
sf chzzz fa is not found here. Although Taishang hunyuan zhenlu
23 Yunji qlqiiin, 5 5/ 1 3b.
1 60
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
does describe a wide variety of meditation techniques in various

degrees of detail, it leaves matters ambiguous as to which
technique, if any of them, is the one that is supposed to bring forth
the visions of the Red Snake and Queen Mother. A contemplative
technique that is found in LLS#4, and hence would seem to have
the closest connection to the visions, is the method of the Nine
Rooms fL . ; unfortunately the description of this method is among
the vaguest and least intelligible portions of the text.
Taishang himyuan zhenlu is a composite of Lord Lao lore and
immortality teachings that had accumulated over some length of
time. When one examines the teachings and training methods put
forth in the text, they prove to be highly diverse and sometimes
incongruent in content so as to suggest provenance from diverse
periods and schools . It would appear that the editor of the text
incorporated various teachings which he/she or someone earlier
had come to ascribe to Lord Lao. Interspersed between some
segments of narrative and discourse are commentary passages
(commencing with the phrase, "the discourse says" [lun yue B ] )
which provide some help in understanding and contextualizing the
practices described by Lord Lao, and which to some degree reflect
the editor' s personal leanings. However, these commentary
passages do not adequately clarify whether or how the various
methods complement each other, or how they rank in priority.
The commentary at the very end of the text suggests that the
process of "entering the room", which leads to visions of the Red
Snake, Queen Mother, etc., is precisely what Yin X1 underwent
during the three years of solitary training that Lord Lao required
him to undergo before he could accompany him on his subsequent
western j ourney for the "enlightenment and conversion of the
assorted common folk of Tianzhu ( 7:: India), Daqin C ::k *
Palestine, or the imperial Roman Province o f Syria)24 and other
24 This, at least, seems to be what the name Daqin referred to during the Tang
Dynasty, when we find it used in Nestorian Christian literature to refer to the
region where Jesus was active. The classic Western-language study on Nestorian
Christianity in Tang China is Saeki Yoshiro, 1 93 7 . See also Malek (ed.), 2002 and
2006.
161
nations" 2 5 1.t M ::k HM 1Z..A. The editor also seems to

have thought that the three years of seclusion in the room could
bring about the requisite visions and effects as long as one was
single-minded and diligent, and that the specific content of one ' s
practice-whether it b e meditation, scripture recitation, drug
ingestion or the circulation of inner qi-could vary considerably.
As we have seen, however, the regimen in Ritshi s'f chizzfa entailed
a specific meditation technique, and was supposed to last only 1 00
days. One wonders whether such may have also been the case in
the source text for the hallucinations and epiphanies described in
LLS#4 (was its source the Ritshi s'f chizz fa?), and whether that
source text had presented it as teachings bestowed upon Ym Xi by
Lord Lao .
Most puzzling is the issue of how one is supposed to regard
laboratory alchemy. Early on in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit, we find
Lord Lao telling Ym Xi, "Close and block your emotions and
desires, enter into a back room, refine metal and eat qi; this is what
comes first" M i HlWc A.: :31 it .. . 26 A little further
on Lord Lao states, "If you desire Divine Transcendence, you must
first ingest the Reverted Cinnabar and Golden Liquid. Thereupon if
you preserve your spirit you can ascend as an Immortal and
become a Genuine Person on high. If you do not ingest the
Reverted Cinnabar and Golden Liquid, you are j ust tormenting
yourself in vain" & &' Wc:f$ 1w &' )IGH!Hf:fJ-:31-& JJ1f:lt:f$ p
1w J:J!{..A &::fHIHl:fJ-:31 E![ "i5El= . 2 7 If one were to regard
all the teachings set forth by Lord Lao in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit
25 Taishang hUnyuan zhenlu, 27b.
26 Taishang hUnyuan zhenlu, 7a.
27 Taishang hunyuan zhenlu, 8b. Very likely, the textual source drawn upon here
is the Taishang Uiojiin zhi5ngjfng :kJ:: * * (DZ 1 1 6 8/TT839; also found in
Yunji q fqiiin 1 8- 1 9, where it bears the title Liiozf zhi5ngjfng *-T- 9=1 ). In section
21 this text states, "If you cannot ingest the Divine Cinnabar and Golden Liquid,
you but belabor yourself with intensive contemplation, only to torment yourself in
vain" /I' ijUHO t , &' 1'S' Jj:. . ( l / 1 6a) Internal historical
references suggest that the Taishang Liiojiin zhi5ngjfng may date as early as the
Latter Han period ( 1 st or 2nd century). See Schipper and Verellen (eds.), 2004 vol.
1 : 92-94.
1 62
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
as conforming to a coherent system, one would have to conclude

that the practitioner who sees the Red Snake and Queen Mother is
supposed to be practicing laboratory alchemy.
One might then also speculate that in instances where adepts
actually did see the hallucinations or epiphanies, this may have had
something to do with the effects of alchemical drugs. One should
note, however, that Ritshi sz chiz'f fa says nothing about ingesting
drugs (although it is possible that practitioners were supposed to do
so after the completion of the 1 00 days in the meditation room, if
they desired the highest levels of immortality). The topic of
alchemy is never brought up again in any of the discourses in the
remaining seventeen pages of Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit. There one
finds numerous discussions on contemplative and physical
practices, each of which seem to promise supreme immortality if
carried out faithfully and exclusively . Perhaps there was a tacit
understanding that Golden Liquid and Reverted Cinnabar are to be
ingested before any of these methods are carried out. However, it
seems more likely that the incongruence is real, owing to the fact
the editor has intermixed material originating among proponents of
alchemy with material issuing from non-alchemists .
The most prudent course would seem to be to regard individual
segments of discourse in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit as self
contained units that draw upon different sources and Daoist
schools . This of course makes it difficult to speculate as to which
segments, in their contents and origins, are directly related LLS#4,
yet, as we shall see, there does seem to be some degree of
closeness and cohesiveness in the provenance and content of
LLS## l -4 . Justification for such conj ecture is to be found when
one examines the placement of parallel passages in Xiiintiiin
Xuanmiao Yitm1 Taishang Shengmu zzchuan xiiindao and Hitnyuan
shengji. The latter of these two texts also indicates where LLS## 1 4 are supposed to fit into the narrative.
In LLS#3 , Lord Lao describes how to "enter the quiet room" (rit
jingshi Al 1i[ or "enter the room" [ritshi )\1i[]). He states that the
regimen must always commence on the final day of the year ( churi
B ), and that prior to this one must prepare themselves through
bathing and 25 days of ritual abstention and discipline )td;f\}j':;f ffl(;
1 63
= + Ii 8 . The quiet room should be entered only after "the cloud

souls and white-souls are harmonious inside the body" 51' rp
;fO f . I f the spirit (shin :f$1 ) is disharmonious, this will lead to
confusion, commotion and unease. Thus, Lord Lao states, "For the
sake of worthies of later times, I shall now describe the prodigies"
J!iJl f Jf ITTt - -28
LLS#4 appears to constitute that description of prodigies . There
Lord Lao states that when an individual "enters the room", the Red
Snake will come and attach to their heart. If they manage to not be
frightened by this, they will be able to converse with the Genuine
Person. Alternatively, the Queen Mother of the West may be seen
riding in a phoenix carriage, attended by six red dragons in back,
and three vermilion sparrows in front. The individual must remain
calm, and be careful not to converse with her, even if she becomes
angry. If her anger does not subside, the Genuine Person will sp e ak
to her on their behalf. After the Queen Mother leaves, the Great
Dao will come and manifest itself. 29
What we have here is thus strikingly similar to what we saw in
Kushi sf chiz'ffa. Lord Lao, nonetheless, here does not say that the
Red Snake is the Baby, nor does he link the coming of the Red
Snake to the ascension of the Baby; indeed, he makes no mention
of any Baby in this particular passage (although he does in LLS# 1 ) .
He also does not say that the Red Snake is the essence of the sun.
Is this because the meditation method is significantly different
from that of Ritshi sf chiz'f fa, and simply does not involve any
B aby or sun or observation thereof? The Genuine Pers on does,
however, enter into the picture here as the mentor and protector,
and by maintaining composure and silence in the face of the Red
Snake and Queen Mother, the individual partakes in an epiphany of
the Dao.
Lord Lao in LLS#4 goes on to state that when the Great Dao
appears, one will see the sun, moon and stars up above. Perhaps the
individual will be visited by Heavenly Masters and Genuine
Persons who are accompanied by singers and musicians, or by
28 Taishang hunyuan zhenlu, 25a-b.
29 Taishang hunyuan zhenlu, 25b.
1 64
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
Immortals and Jade Maidens; one must not pay any attention to
these. Dragons, tigers, birds or beasts may come to attack, but one
must not be scared. As Lord Lao states, "These are all the doing of
the subtle spirits in your body; they are not real" Jl:t -T % 9=r fft$
JiJT ill . 30 As we have seen, all of these illusory apparitions
wrought by corporeal deities are also mentioned by Laozl'. in Rushz
sf chzz1fa.
In LLS#4, Lord Lao goes on to describe many additional
apparitions . He mentions that one may encounter "an old woman
and a person of strange form" w])t %, whom must neither
be spoken to nor associated with. 31 After 25 days in the quiet room,
"two women" m -!x. will come wishing to converse, but one must
not speak with them, nor with the "academy student" ffj: who
will come calling at the 45-day juncture. At the 60-day juncture
"two bright stars will come and linger above the room for three
days" 1l. J: 1f m 1E.fill -=- B , but one need not feel that this is
strange. 3 2
At the 85-day juncture, Lord Lao states, "a white-haired old
gentleman, riding on a white deer, will come to beckon you" :ff B
0* 8 Yffi -* O'f -T . It is at this point that one is to finally break
their silence. One should say to the white-haired elder, "I am still
burdened with the transgressions of my forebears . I am still unable
to bring forth worthies" 1%1f jf[;}.. $ jf{ * Jf fil . 33
The reason why the practitioner is not supposed to ignore this
white-haired elder would seem to be because he is no mere illusory
apparition, but is an authentic epiphany. In fact, the possible
3 0 Taishilng hUnyuan zhenlit, 25b.
3 1 Xiandao jfng liU:l::l: ![ (DZ862/TT578; 7a-8a), another meditation text of likely
early medieval date (see Schipper, Verellen (eds.), 2004 vol. 1 : 95) contains a
description of a visionary encounter that is rather similar. There we find Laozl'.
telling his interlocutor that a practitioner of solitary confined meditation is likely
to encounter a vision of a white-haired old woman attended by a maiden. One
must not talk to them. Laozl'. also states that the vision may cause the practitioner
to shake in the arms and legs, or babble incoherently from the mouth. See
Eskildsen, 200 8 : 2 59-29 1 .
3 2 Taishilng hitnyuan zhenlit, 25b-26a.
33 Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit, 26a.
1 65
implication here is that he is none other than Lord Lao . One can
find instances within Lord Lao lore in which he is said to have
ridden on a white deer. One source, Cui Xuanshan' s 1E -P: w
Laixiiing ji 1**1c (Record of Lai Village), quoted in the Taiping
yulan XfiP I:, cites a stele stating that Lord Lao, mounted on a
white deer, entered Mother Li' s *HJ: womb, and was born 72
years later in Quren Hamlet, Lai Village in Ku County =' ffl:i
1= !1'l. . 34 Hunyuan shengji describes an episode in which Lord Lao,
at the end of a prior earthly soj ourn, ascended to heaven on a white
deer. 35
Lord Lao in LLS#4 goes on to state that at the 1 05-day juncture
"a Heavenly Master will come to examine the merits and virtues of
your ancestors" f'f * ffi3K-TfB.*J}J 1 . Hereupon, one should
humbly say to the Heavenly Master, "The transgressions and faults
from past generations have not been exhausted. It is simply for this
reason that I diligently train myself in this room" 5t1 l'.J 3K :l*
.A lJ 11!)1: !]0 i:j:i ffi-* Thus, as we can see, the undertaking of
isolated contemplation constituted at least in part an exercise for
the purgation of hereditary guilt. 3 6
Humble statements of the sort to be uttered here toward the
white-haired elder and the Heavenly Master are perhaps what
Laozi in Rushi sz chizzfa is alluding to when he says that if one is
able to "converse well with the person (or possibly people)"
).j:g. g you will be deemed "faithful" (xin 113 ), and consequently
have the Dao proclaimed to them. One should note, however, that
at this point in LLS#4, the regimen has continued past the 1 00-day
j uncture, which in Rushi sz chizz fa was the point of termination.
Lord Lao in LLS#4 prescribes a much longer regimen which is to
bring much more wondrous results .
34 This passage is found in Taiping yitlan j\:'f1!1Hf, fascicle no. 3 6 1 . Ta iping
yitlan is an encyclopedia compiled in 984 by LI Fang $fl)], by order of Song
Emperor Taiz6ng ,;t:?f;.
35 S e e Hitnyuan shengji, 2/45a-b. This episode also occurs i n Y6ul6ng zhuan Jf
1$ (DZ774/TT555; by Jiii Shanxiang WlffE, ca. 1 0 86- 1 1 00), 3/3a.
36 Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 26a.
1 66
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
By speaking humbly and appropriately to the epiphanies (white

haired elder and Heavenly Master), the practitioner opens further
the door of opportunity for greater wonders . If the practitioner still
has considerable hurdles to overcome, however, at the 1 2 5-day
juncture, Lord Lao states, "there will be one thousand battle
chariots and ten thousand cavalry standing 300 steps away from
your room" =. B :V -=f * lit . , which you should not
consider strange. 37 It appears here that the individual is to be
confronted again with illusory apparitions that perhaps embody
deep-seated, instinctual fears of harm and death. (Or, perhaps, the
understanding is supposed to be that the troops are genuine,
auspicious epiphanies of divine envoys that arrive for the
practitioner' s protection.)
At the 1 50-day j uncture, Lord Lao states, "evil spirits
impersonating your father, mother, wife and children will come to
test you" .t if! .ll} r :X.-BJ:r *r ; however, one must simply
maintain composure. Confronting apparitions of one ' s parents,
wives and children is a trying experience, albeit perhaps for
different reasons for different .people. In what way these
apparitions are supposed to be a "test" is unclear, although
everybody certainly carries a great deal of complex, deep feelings
towards those closest to them. This far into their seclusion, a
practitioner would understandably be liable to feel lonely and
nostalgic toward their closest of kin, but might also harbor feelings
of guilt, envy or resentment that could be unsettling. 38
Whatever the specific nature of the peril imposed by the
familial apparitions may be, it is the final hazard specifically
mentioned. After this, one can begin to reap the benefits . At the
1 80-day j uncture, Lord Lao states, "in your room, you will
naturally clearly know about all matters pertaining to safety,
danger, survival and perishing throughout the nation" pg S)j Q
9=1 fitff. l: ; furthermore, "all lined up in the body, the palaces
and mansions will appear before you" J!: YLl 9=1 8' Jff Jt . In other
words, one obtains wide-ranging clairvoyant powers and can also
37 Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 26a.
3 8 Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit, 26a.
1 67
see the inside of one ' s body with all its organs. At the 280-day
j uncture, "all malignant diseases will be eradicated from your
body, and wicked qi will not come upon your body" % @ (p;J \'
:*\. ::::f 1J D . Finally, after 1 000 days, "all wounds, scars,
blemishes, bums and bruises will disappear, and you will become a
Genuine Person" :Jfff<Ji)f i j;A * . 3 9
Lord Lao continues the discourse in LLS#4 by enumerating the
"Nine Rooms" (jiushi tL *), which appear to be nine types of
contemplation that one is supposed to successively, progressively
undertake. It would seem that these nine contemplation methods
are supposed to be practiced one after another during the 1 000 days
in the quiet room described above, since they are enumerated in
LLS#4 . Interestingly, a concept of "Nine Rooms" as a regimen of
secluded contemplation by which an individual bodily transforms
into a Divine Person (shenren !fl A) is mentioned in the Taiping
fing chao j( -Sjl- i') ; 40 thus perhaps a method of such sort was
already being practiced during the late Han Dynasty (ca. 2nd c.
C .E.). Unfortunately, from the descriptions that we have in both
Taishang himyuan zhenlit and Taipingfing chao, it is very difficult
understand exactly how the contemplation techniques of the "Nine
Rooms" are to be carried out. Nonetheless, I shall try to make some
sense of it.
The First Room, according to Lord Lao in the LLS#4, is the
Contemplation for the Expulsion of Wickedness (qitxie sf *" ,ffi,).
In this contemplation, we are told, "Three Spirits serve as its guard.
Great Yang resides at its left and instructs it. Great Yin dwells at its
o
39 Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 26a-b.

40 DZ I 1 0 l b/TT746-747 . Ta iping jfng chiio is a Tang period text meant as a
synopsis of the 1 70-fascicle Taipingjfng j\:->f- (much of which is now lost) . It is
well known from standard histories that a Taiping scripture (the Taiping q fnglfng
shU jl:: ->f- Ji obtained by a certain Yu Ji 'f a or [Gan Ji -=fa]) circulated
during the Han () and was advocated by various parties, including the Yellow
Turban rebels of the Way of Great Peace (Taiping Dao :t:->f-it) that rose up in
1 84 C.E. The degree to which the Taiping jfng chew and the Taiping jfng
fragments (those preserved in the Daoist Canon; (DZ 1 1 0 1 a/TT746-755) preserve
Han material is a hotly contested issue. See Schipper and Verellen (eds.,) 2004 vol.
1 : 277-280, 493-494; Hendrischke, 2007.
1 68
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
right and keeps it company. Great Harmony dwells inside and

benefits it" . 4 1 --=:t -'if J: $ 1C z J: JiS-:t=!z J:jflJ }iS
l*J :fU z What are the three spirits of Great Yang, Great Yin and
Great Harmony guarding? Are they perhaps guarding a "Baby"
( chzz( $-=f) of the sort that figures so prominently in the Rushz sf
chzz( fa? What exactly are these Three Spirits? Are they perhaps
equivalent to the three cloud-souls (hun ;l), 42 or rather, are they
perhaps the spirits of the Three Ones that inhabit the Three
Cinnabar Fields (dantian ff 83 )? (As we shall see below, a method
for visualizing these is described in LLS# l .)
From the brief descriptions of the remaining eight "rooms" that
follow, it remains difficult to reconstruct the specific methods
employed and the overall underlying theory. 43 From the second
41 Taishang himyuan zhenlu: 26b.

42 A traditional Chinese theory maintains that a person possesses multiple souls,
and that these souls fall into two categories; the three cloud-souls (him ) and the
seven white souls (po ). Cloud-souls are of celestial, yang nature and origin,
while the white-souls are chthonic and yin 1i.
43 Second Room: Contemplation for Rectifying the Body (zhengshen sf .IE !ir }j!!, ) "Combine with the essence and qi to take control. Ghosts and specters shall all
dwell outside . Gaze at what is right and what is not right. House the spirit(s)
inside. See if they can be completed or not." ffif 3@.!jo/Jf fi5 )7 r .IE
:f .IE "6:1'$ g r*J :t PJ p\t:f fil
Third Room: Contemplation for Bringing forth Rectitude (zhizheng sf 'j( JE ,lj!!, ) "Essence, qi, ghosts and specters all combine into one, as though they were living
in a city (?). Spirit(s) dwells outside of them. Do not consider this strange." ff
;t4o/J \'if 5tm 9=1 t$ 5;l'Or H&z
Fourth Room: Contemplation of Great Rectitude (dazheng sf * lE }i!!, ) - "A
person' s essence can have a small merging with the spirit(s). " Aff ft$ 11' if ill
Fifth Room: Contemplation of Extreme Rectitude (jizheng sf *11 .IE ,\!l,) - "The
genuine spirit( s) can enter inside it, and the essence and qi come after it. Ghosts
and specters dwell outside of it. Thereby say, ' Go ! "' J;:f$ 1A;lt r*J ff{jzz 3l
4o/J Ji5 ;It Yr 7J B -$: ill

Sixth Room: Contemplation of Deep Rectitude (shenzheng sf *lE }i!!, ) - " Spirit
and essence are rectified, and the circulation of qi is rectified. Thus they find their
place. Old qi, ghosts, specters, wickedness and evil are thereby eliminated." 1$ ff
.IE ff .IE ;tt M 3il4o/JB R 1: ill
1 69
through sixth "rooms", Lord Lao describes how the practitioner is

to observe the functions, movements and interactions of their
essence , qi -. and spirit :f$ , 44 as well as the "ghosts and
specters" (gufwit * ) that dwell and intermingle with them.
Progressively, the practitioner' s essence, qi and spirit move toward
harmony, while the ghosts and specters are forced into a marginal
position. At the end there emerges a completely rectified and
unified Spirit, integrated with the body and at total ease. During the
seventh "room", the practitioner is to witness the arrival of a Great
Genuine Spirit (dazhenshen :k J!t:f$), which perhaps is understood
as a product of the merging of essence, qi and spirit; whatever the
case, the ghosts and specters, in deference to this Great Genuine
Spirit, all leave. During the eighth "room", the practitioner' s body
(shen 51' ) merges fully with the Great Spirit to "become a person"
Seventh Room: Contemplation of Correct Truth (zhengzhen sf .IEJ'{. ) - "The
Great Genuine Spirit arrives. All the wicked ones recognize him as superior, and
thus all are eliminated. Only the Genuine Spirit remains. " ::k Jt tljl $-ftZ.
Jttljl tl: ill
Eighth Room: Contemplation of the Mysterious Cavern (xuandong sf 1rJi'J . ) "Your body and the Genuine Spirit combine to form a person. From morning to
evening never think of a single worldly affair on earth." Jttljl $il' ffilc;A ill __
67 *'1':1:1l!.J:1-tl- OO -ill
Ninth Room: Contemplation of the Great Cavern (dadong sf ::kifPJ ,\!1,) - "You have
already become a Genuine Person. Accord with the qi and lie down. The Dao of
the Great Cavern is there intact. " SgX;JtA ill !1iW ::kili'J i!! fff (Taishang
himyuan zhenlu, 26-27a)
44 The triad of "essence, qi and spirit" figures prominently in various Daoist texts
of various periods, albeit with some variation in the nuances and interrelationships
of the three terms. "Essence" is probably best understood as that which nourishes
or generates life; at the most concrete level it manifests itself as bodily fluids,
especially as seminal fluid. "Qi" is that which animates a body, and which can
take the form of breath or of currents of energy (used in its much broader sense,
"qi" denotes the basic "stuff' of the universe that can condense into solid matter
or rarify into ether or even formlessness). "Shen" is that which bestows
consciousness and intelligence. The three members of the triad can be transmuted
from one into another. The standard view would be that essence, when refined,
becomes qi, and that qi, when refined, becomes spirit. However, according to
some pre-Han texts, the sequence of refinement (in ascending order) goes from qi
to essence to spirit (see Roth, 1 996: 1 2 3 - 1 48).
1 70
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
(weiren A.A.); the implication here would seem to be that mind

and body are in full harmony, integrated in the eternal, universal
life and consciousness-the Dao-and also that the body has
transformed into a deathless state . Furthermore, throughout the day
and night, the practitioner is no longer inclined to give any thought
to earthly, secular matrers . By -die ninth "room' ' , the practitioner
will have become a Genuine Person (zhenren J{..A.), and thus need
to do nothing more than "accord with qi and lie down" lll -. rm .
After enumerating the Nine Rooms, Lord Lao explains that
since one is no longer supposed to have any knowledge of human
affairs while in the quiet room, the door to the room should be
firmly closed so as not see any other person. If food is needed,
one ' s attendant should prepare the food and place it outside by the
door, so that it can be retrieved for oneself. If the attendant notices
that food is no longer being taken, he or she need not worry nor
panic. This is because one is "transforming your countenance, and
naturally the time will come for you to leave" # A%
8* .45
Thus, in order to be free of any need to deal with other people
or to occupy oneself with any matter other than contemplation, one
is assumed to have an attendant who assists with the provision and
preparation of food, and other needs . Eventually, we are told, a
time will come when a practitioner will not partake of the food
given, which might ordinarily lead others to think that they are ill,
starving or dead. No such concern is in order, however, since the
individual is undergoing the transformations that will result in their
"leaving" as a Genuine Immortal. The body of a Genuine Immortal
apparently does not require food.
The correspondence or intimate relationship between this
portion of LLS#4 and Taiping jfng chao is clearly apparent. In
Taiping jfng chao it is stated that Worthies (xianzhe '.li 1!r) can
undergo the successive practice of the "Nine Rooms" to "change
their countenances. Therefore they are holy persons of the heavens
above; clearly they must no longer concern themselves with the
45 Taishang hUnyuan zhenlu, 27a-b.
171
times and affairs o f common folk" Jij %W , ep ;8cl:.A ill ,

J:f!!. Fsi .:J= i:I)j . The transformation they undergo in the
meditation room is one that "accords with the qi" .il .46
Taishang himyuan zhenlit concludes with comments not by
Lord Lao, but by the text ' s anonymous editor. The editor states that
while in the meditation room, one should "be intent upon observing
a pure retreat and reciting scripture, or upon ingesting medicines
and circulating the qi, or upon contemplating the truth and refining
. . " -""' * '3': ;;ti: a; L( MB" RI:! /.- g MB" EB ""' 4>'1;; ' ii nfr -P.: '*
your sp mts
,1'J, 1 i FS i'b::: .!l)(dJ IX. 1T .!l_x. , c..i, )11Jii: fr , c..i, J:l: }:J\. J.E!
;ffl t)] . Whatever means one chooses, one must diligently and
single-mindedly "seek the Dao" (qiudao >Kil!); as a result, one will
"thereby be able to penetrate and feel, transform the body and
change the visage, and thereby attain immortal flight" Jj [J'TJ ;,@
;it; Jij 1w .47
Thus, in the view of the editor, the actual content of one ' s
practice within the quiet room can vary. The editor concludes by
saying that YYn X1, after training for three years as directed by Lord
Lao, was rej uvenated in countenance, and his visage became
golden. After this he went to Chengdu nil: (in Sichuan 12] } 1 I ). In
the view of the editor, the fact that he went to Chengdu is symbolic
of the fact that his "study of the Dao was totally (dou [du] )
completed (cheng nil:)" *il!n\l: .48
The editor' s opinion aside, we still ought to speculate further as
to whether there were in fact specific meditation techniques among
those described in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit that were intimately
connected to the visions of the Red Snake and Queen Mother
(described in LLS#4) to begin with. In LLS# 1 , Lord Lao describes
46 Taiping fing chew, 5/1 4a. I t should also be noted, however, that the enumeration
of the "rooms" in Taishang himyuan zhenlit betrays subtle evidence of Six

Dynasties-Tang Daoism of the Shangq!ng variety in how it designates the Ninth
Room as the "Contemplation of the Great Cavern", and says that a Genuine
Person is one who has accomplished "the Way of the Great Cavern" ; the central,
most highly revered scripture of the Shangqmg corpus (dating to the latter half of
the fourth century) is the Dadong zhenfing :*:IPJ J!lj,lll. (True Scripture of the Great
Cavern).
47 Taishang hitnyuan zhenli1, 27b.
48 Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 27b .
1 72
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
methods for "visualizing the Three Ones" ( cun sanyf :ff - -) and
for "guarding the One" (shouyf 'f -), which might plausibly be
considered as having at one time been connected specifically with
the nine contemplations of LLS#4 (and Taiping jfng chao, for that
matter) . That such was quite possibly the case is hinted at strongly
in Xiantian Xuanmiao Yimil Taishang Shengmu zzchuan xiandao
and Hunyuan shengjz. In both of these texts we find Lord Lao
stating, "Gentlemen who cultivate the Way and obtain the Inner
Elixir can extend their years . Those who obtain the Outer Elixir
can ascend to Heaven. The Three Ones and the Nine
Contemplations are the essentials of inner cultivation. The Nine
Cinnabars and the Golden Liquid are the ultimate among Outer
Elixirs. If you practice these in tandem you will certainly
accomplish the Dao" 49 f:@: Z :f l*J ft PJ Ui:F :f >7r ft PJ
R- - - fL ,1, l*J fz m tLtt1>7rttzfli1m ifrmf
Z :@: nlG . Both texts then shortly after have Lord Lao
describing the Way of the Three Ones and the method for Guarding
the One in words closely matching LLS# l , while also enumerating
the Nine Contemplations by names that closely match those given
to the Nine Rooms in LLS#4 . 50 Hunyuan shengjz locates these
discourses firmly within the narrative framework, including them
among the teachings conferred by Lord Lao upon Yin Xi at the
guard station at Hangu Pass. After this, we are told, Yin Xi
49 Himyuan shengji, 3/1 3 a; Xiantian Xuanmiao Yimil Taishang Shengmu zfchuan

xiandao, 5 a-b.
5 0 Himyuan shengji, 3 / 1 4b- 1 6a; Xiantian Xuanmiao Yimil Taishang Shengmu
zfchuan xiandao, 6a-7a. The Nine Contemplations are enumerated as : 1 )
Contemplation o f N o Evil (wilxie s f il\Of!H!:l, ) ; 2 ) Contemplation fo r Rectifying the
Body (zhengshen sf JE :!'f )i!::, ) ; 3) Contemplation for Bringing forth Governance
(zhizheng sf 3&JE ,Jtl,); 4) Contemplation of Great Rectitude (dazheng sf :kJE ,Jtl,);
5) Contemplation of Extreme Rectitude (jizheng sf flijjf ,Jtl,); 6) Contemplation of
Bodily Rectitude (shenzheng sf :!'f JE ,Jtl, ); 7) Contemplation of Correct Truth
(zhengzhen sf JEJl;,Jtl,); 8) Contemplation of Cavern Mystery (dongxuan sf 11PJ 1r
,\!:!, ); and 9) Contemplation of the Great Cavern (dadong sf :kilPJ ,Jtl,). Neither text
provides any description or summary of what each contemplation entails-unlike
LLS#4 .
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHERS.,
1 73
resigned his government post and retired to his mansion in the

Zh6ngnan mountains, bringing Lord Lao with him as his guest.
In Taishang himyuan zhenlu, in LLS# l , Lord Lao states that in
order to visualize the Three Ones, one must first visualize the
inside of the head. One cun --J 51 beyond the eyebrows is the Hall of
Light. Another cun beyond this is the Cavern Chamber, and
another cun deeper is the Muddy Pellet (niwan :lb n), which is also
known as the Upper Cinnabar Field. Inside the Upper Cinnabar
Field is the Baby (chizf $ -T ), whose style name (zi -'=F ) is
Yuanxian JI; )t , and personal name (ming 15 ) is Diqing $ YP .
Three cun in height, he wears a red (chi $) turban, red robe and
red shoes. Next, one is to visualize the inside of the heart, which is
known as the Crimson Palace (jianggong ';'), and which is the
Middle Cinnabar Field. There dwells the Genuine Person (zhenren
Jl: A.), whose style name is Z1dan -T:ft and personal name is
Gui.ingj ii.in )1G. He is also three cun tall and clad in red. Next, one
should visualize the Gate of Life (mingmen frr F ) Palace located
three cun under the navel; this is the Lower Cinnabar Field. In
there lies the Infant (y'fng 'er 7t.), whose style name is Yuanyang
JI; and personal name is Guxuan 1': ; he likewise three cun tall
and clad in red. Then, one should visualize the Lower One (Infant)
seated on a golden couch with a j ade armrest stirring essence (j'fng
) in a golden cauldron with a j ade spoon. After this one should
visualize the Upper One (Baby) coming down, along with the
Middle One (Genuine Person) at its left. The Lower One, who is
holding the cauldron and spoon and is standing at the right of the
Middle One, first feeds the essence to the Upper One, and then to
the Middle One. After one has thus drunk ten mouthfuls
(apparently the practitioner is supposed to swallow saliva as they
visualize the feeding of the Ones), one is to visualize the Upper
One returning to its dwelling. Then one is to feed the Lower One
and visualize it returning to its dwelling. Next, one should visualize
5 1 One cun during the 3rd century was equal to 2.4 centimeters. During the Tang
Dynasty (7th - 1 0th c.) it was equal to 3 . 1 centimeters. Roughly speaking, thus, a
cun is equal to one inch or a bit more.
1 74
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
a white vapor (qz ) the size of a cart wheel coming over oneself,
and then visualize a red vapor coming to cover over the white
vapor. After this one can lie down. Additionally, inside the Cavern
Chamber there is a white vapor the size of a chicken egg and
shining like the moon. These visualizations should be carried out
day and night. 52
In some ways, the technique and physiology (or perhaps physio
theology?) described here are reminiscent of Rushz sf chzz( fa. In
LLS# l the B aby and the Genuine Person figure prominently, there
is interaction between the indwelling forces/spirits of the head,
chest and lower abdomen, and there is "feeding" involved. The
most important difference is that LLS# l calls for conscious
manipulation of the inner spirits and forces by means of active
imagination, whereas Rushz sf chzz( fa seems to require primarily
that one stay calm, so that the desirable physiological phenomena
can unfold naturally as they are supposed to . LLS# l also tells the
practitioner to practice the method day and night; apparently the
maximum benefit is to come by practicing as long and frequently
as possible. In the case of Rushz sf chzz(fa, the meditation is only to
occur at specific hours on each day, and the duration of the entire
regimen is limited to 1 00 days.
In LLS# l , Lord Lao goes on to describe the benefits of
"guarding the One" (sh6uyf 'f -). Lord Lao states that if the
practitioner' s mind is on the One (the Dao) in all situations and
activities, the One will protect them, provide for their needs, and
fulfill their wishes. Essence must be retained within because
essence is the "river flow of the blood vessels and the numinous
spirit that guards the bones. If [essence] leaves, the bones dry up,
and if the bones dry up, you die" 53 :3(;ffi 1fiIJJ Z. J i l -mE , 'f 'ftZ. i H
1% "* fl!J 'ft fil , 'ft fil f!1J :JE . Qz transmutes into essence, which
transmutes into spirit, which transmutes into the Infant, which
transmutes into the Genuine Person, which transmutes into the
B aby. This is the True One (zhenyf - ). If the practitioner guards
the One, they can travel anywhere within Heaven and Earth and
o
52
Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 23 a-b.
53 Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit, 24a.
RED SNAKES AND ANGRY QUEEN MOTHEB.. S
1 75
have nothing to fear. After guarding the One for a long time, the
One will become visible, and once it is visible, the 3 6,000 gods in
the body will propel the body upward, and the practitioner will
ascend to Heaven in broad daylight. Such is the outcome for
superior gentlemen (shangshi l:. ). Middling gentle-men
(zhOngshi r:J::i ) will at least be able to avoid disease and live long.
Even inferior gentlemen (xiashi r ) , by having their minds on
the One, can survive calamities when they occur. 54
Thus, the divine physiological personages of Infant, Genuine
Person and Baby are actually progressive transmutations of q i,
essence and spirit. The most refined transmutation is the Baby, the
True One, which actually is supposed to manifest itself (it is not
merely imagined or visualized) to the practitioner if they persevere.
When one ' s inner divinity manifests, the inner spirit-forces
converge with a potency that brings about immortal ascension; this,
at least, is the case if one proves to be among the most prodigious
practitioners . Thus, the benefits promised surpass considerably
what is promised in Rushi s'i chiz{fa.
Interestingly, Lord Lao also acknowledges that "guarding the
One" can bring about frightening experiences. He states, "If in
practicing the Way of Guarding the One you have bad dreams or
see apparitions, you should never tell others about it. Just rectify
the mind and continue to contemplate the One, and you will not be
harmed" 55 -'1 - Z.. m 1 ?.; l:it-5!'1!: iV 12.f, 1!i-A. 1LtE 1 L.,-JW :::f
"P. ({< $
""'l !ft.. -p .
Thus, the regimen-especially if pursued with persistence and

rigor-can wear on one ' s mind and nerves . We are however
reassured that this too is something that the One-the eternal,
universal Dao that dwells and acts in the individual-will protect
the practitioner from if faith, composure and rectitude are
maintained. Why one should not tell others about the bad dreams
and apparitions is not made clear. Perhaps telling others constitutes
54 Taishang hunyuan zhenlu, 23b-24b.

55 Taishang hunyuan zhenluTaishang hunyuan zhenlu, p . 24b.
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
1 76
a violation of trust with the Dao, which may hinder one ' s prospects
of further progress. 5 6
In LLS#2, Lord Lao speaks of the wonders and benefits that
unfold through sheer clarity and stillness (qfngjfng ff). In both
Xiiintiiin Xuanmiao Yimil Taishang Shengmu zfchuan xiiindao and
Hunyuan shengji, a passage identical to this segment appears, and
is conj oined directly with a description of the 1 000-day sequence
of visions and strange phenomena-including the Red Snake and
Queen Mother-found in LLS#4 . 57 As far as what one would
discern from these two texts, the visions and strange phenomena
would seem to come about directly as a result of this clarity and
stillness. According to Hunyuan shengji, this discourse combining
LLS#2 with the vi sionc;/strnnge phenom ena sequence of LLS#4
was conferred upon Yln X1 by Lord Lao at Yln Xl' s mansion in the
Zh6ngnan mountains, after Yln X1 had resigned his government
post. Interestingly, this combined discourse appears virtually word
for word in Zhiizhen neidiin jiyao. 58 In this internal alchemical text
of ca. 1 3 00, however, the discourse is attributed (apparently) 5 9 to
56 Xiandao jfng (Sa) contains the following passage, which would seem to confirm
this interpretation of LLS# l : Someone asked, "If I see specters, will they stop
[coming if I] tell [other] people about them, or not?" Laozi said, "If you tell
people, the spirits will no longer come. Specters are the intermediaries of the
Genuine Persons. Do not yell insults at them. The sound of their footsteps is
good." F" m J! l1!f A 6 ::f :t;-=f B A1!f :'f$ 1i::f* l1!f:ffe(. A z
m '.I ITTIT '*
57 Himyuan shengji, 3/1 6b- 1 7a; Xiiintii'm Xuanm iao Yimil Tilishang Shengmii
zfchuan xiiindao7b-8a.
5 8 DZ 1 2 5 8/TT999, 2/9a- 1 3 a. Compiled by a certain Xuanquanzi :i:-=f (Master
of the Completion of Mystery), perhaps around 1 3 00. Xuanquanzi, an otherwise
obscure figure, also compiled the Zhenx iiin zhizhf yiilit J1(. {ill 1r 11'i
(DZ 1 25 6/TT998; A Record of Sayings that are the Direct Instructions of Realized
Immortals), an anthology of discourses by the famous Quanzhen masters Ma Yu
iii ( 1 1 23 - 1 1 84), Tan Chiiduan f miliffi ( 1 1 23 - 1 1 85), Liu Chiixuan Ll m
( 1 1 47 - 1 203), Qiu ChiijI Ji m :f! ( 1 1 43 - 1 227), Hao Datang ::k Ji ( 1 1 40- 1 2 1 2)
and Y"tn Zhiping ;13";!;.>f ( 1 1 69 - 1 2 5 1 ) .
5 9 The passage is found within a section of Zhiizhen neidiin jiyao that bears the
heading, Jindiin huohou b ijue shi 'erjit f:l- .1<. {1*Wc+= 1JJ . This section is
constituted by two segments of verse, each of which is followed by a segment of
prose commentary. The first prose commentary segment commences with the
t
1 77
the semi-legendary internal alchemist/immortal Lti Dongbin 1Pl

l t rather than to Lord Lao . 60
In LLS#2, Lord Lao states that through clarity and stillness one
can "practice the Dao to transform the body" ff:@: 1,tm and "bind
qi together to form spirit" e#l:PlGt$ . Through purity, one may
"feel" (gan !@) the Dao, and because of one ' s stillness, the Dao
"responds" (yzng ff!). One should concentrate the mind and senses
on the inside of the body, and avoid all careless thought, speech
and movement. Hereby "the colorless colors" fAA 5 z 5 can be
seen, "the soundless sounds" ;fAA z heard, "the flavorless
flavors" fAA i9K Z i9K tasted and "the wordless words" Z
revered. "Divine radiances" t$ , "blessed virtues" ti f, and
"harmonious qi" :fO #\: will come upon one as a result. The mind
will become sagacious and bright, and as a result, one will gain the
ability to foresee future events in dreams. 6 1
Thus, if one were to j udge solely from LLS#2, it would seem
that all one needs to do in order to fathom the ineffable subtleties
of the Dao is to maintain clarity and stillness of mind, and that the
specifics of what one visualizes or focuses the mind on are
unessential. If one is to regard LLS#2 and the LLS#4 vision
sequence as constituting a natural cohesive unit, it would seem that
simple clarity and stillness maintained in a condition of solitary
confinement is what brings forth the Red Snake and the Queen
Mother.
In sum, unlike Rushz sz chzzz fa, which describes with relative
clarity the specific meditation technique and regimen that is to
bring forth the Red Snake, the cantankerous Queen Mother and so
forth, Taishang hunyuan zhenlu leaves the reader uncertain. While
the editor gives the impression that it is the diligence of one ' s
practice, not the specifics o f the method pursued (which does not
words, " Genuine Man ChUnyang (Lil Dongbin ' s sobriquet) said . . . " #4J J.: A .
The second prose commentary segment is where the discourse that concerns u s i s
found. Though this second segment does not start with the words, "Genuine Man
Chunyang said . . . ," such an attribution seems implied.
60
Zhuzhen ne idiin jiyao, 2/8a-9a.
61
Taishang himyuan zhenlit, 24b-25 a.
1 78
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
necessarily even have to be meditation) that matters, such was

perhaps not the attitude of whoever composed the original source
text describing the Red Snake-Queen Mother vision sequence. We
are left with a collection of several different possible methods and
approaches including the Eating of Qi, recitation of scriptures
(especially the Daode jfng), the Visualization of the Three Ones,
the Guarding of the One, the simple maintaining of inner Clarity
and Stillness, the method of the Nine Rooms, and the ingestion of
medicines (alchemical or otherwise).
Conclusion
In comparing what Ritshi sz chizffa and Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit
have to say about the Red Snake-Queen Mother vision sequence, a
few contrasts can be readily pointed out. Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit
describes a longer sequence of visions and phenomena that occur
over the course of a much longer regimen, which also promises to
bring forth much more glorious results and benefits . Whereas
Ritshi sz chiz{fa describes clearly the specific meditation technique
that is supposed to induce the vision sequence, Taishang hitnyuan
zhenlit leaves us unclear as to what meditation technique-if any
specific one at all-is supposed to serve this purpose. However,
among the various meditation methods mentioned or described in
Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit, several appear likely to bear an intimate
connection with the Red Snake-Queen Mother vision sequence;
one of these-the Way of the Three Ones in LLS# l -involves a
"Baby" and is fairly similar to the method of Ritshi sz chiz{ fa.
Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit also contains statements strongly
endorsing laboratory alchemy, and could be read as suggesting that
the adept experiencing the Red Snake-Queen Mother vision has
ingested alchemical drugs, and is under their influence. Ritshi sz
chiz{fa makes no mention of laboratory alchemy at all, although it
does leave one wondering whether practitioners of its 1 00-day
isolated contemplation method might have graduated on to some
other more advanced, esoteric method promising supreme
immortality-which conceivably could be laboratory alchemy.
Perhaps the most noteworthy characteristic of Ritshi sz chiz{fa s
meditation technique is that it seems to primarily entail passive
'
1 79
observation of spontaneous psycho-physiological phenomena,

rather than the manipulation of physical forces by means of mental
auto-suggestion. The Red Snake, Queen Mother, etc. are not
purposely imagined or visualized; rather, they seem to
spontaneously emerge out of a pure, calm mind as vivid visual
impressions. One wonders, indeed, whether such has to be the case,
in that the method of active imagination or visualization might
hinder the spontaneous emergence of subconscious mental contents .
Among the meditation methods in Taishang himyuan zhenlu, the
method of sheer "clarity and stillness" described in LLS#2 most
certainly fits the model of "passive observation" (as opposed to
"manipulation"); in light of this, maybe it is the most natural and
efficient method for inducing the vision sequence. Such certainly is
the assumption conveyed in Xiantian Xuanmiao Yunil Taishang
Shengmu zzchuan xiandao, Himyuan shengji and, for that matter,
Zhuzhen neidan jiyao the internal alchemical anthology of ca.
1 3 00, likely compiled by a Quanzhen School adherent. That a
Quanzhen adherent would take an interest in a method that induces
vivid visions through sheer clarity and stillness makes sense, since
the straightforward cultivation of clarity and stillness (qzngjing 1-fi
H; or "clarity and purity" [qzngjing m1c'Jl-]) and the inducing of
visions and other trance phenomena were key concerns of the early
Quanzhen School. 62
Does the vision sequence come about as a result of
subconscious mental contents bursting into the conscious mind in
meditation? And if it does, what sorts of feelings, memories or
archetypes might the various images embody?
Both Ritshi sz chizf fa and Taishang hitnyuan zhenlu describe
the Red Snake as something fiery and bright, which comes up
before one ' s face abruptly, in a manner likely to invoke fright. A
cross-cultural parallel of sorts that comes to mind here is the
Tibetan Buddhist notion of the moment of Clear Light, which
naturally occurs at the moment of death (or in the depths of
meditative absorption, at the culmination of the Highest Yoga
-
62
See Eskildsen, 2004 : 2 1 -3 8, 95 - 1 1 4 .
1 80
STEPHEN ESKILD SEN
Tantra), 6 3 and which in almost all cases frightens the dying person
and sends his/her consciousness into the bardo state-the
intermediate condition between death and rebirth during which one
encounters all sorts of deluding visions, which will cause one to be
reborn into various sarp.saric conditions if one develops strong
feelings of dread or attachment to them. The Red Snake in our
Daoist texts is similarly bright and shocking (though fiery red
colored, rather than clear), and serves as a prelude to numerous
subsequent visions .
The clear light of Tibetan Buddhism is nothing less than the
Dharmakaya (/ashen ! ) or True Suchness (Tathii, zhenru Q),
which is identical to one ' s own innate Buddha Nature (Tathiigata
garbha, foxing 1 't ) ; by calmly merging into it one attains
Buddha-hood here and now. Ritshz sf chzzz fa states that the fiery
Red Snake is a guise taken on by the Baby that has been reared by
one ' s innate male and female (yfn and yang) forces and is rising
from the heart to the head. This B aby is perhaps best understood as
personifying one ' s pure consciousness and pristine vitality, which
if properly brought to full capacity can come to possess profound
insight and long life, or perhaps even omniscience and eternal life,
if nurtured to its full potential (such would also seem to be what is
signified by the Great Genuine Spirit mentioned in Taishang
hitnyuan zhenlit, LL S#4). One might say that the Baby and its fiery
serpentine epiphany are something like the Buddha Nature that
manifests as the Clear Light. In the terms of Jungian depth
psychology, one might also understand these images as proj ections
of subconscious forces at work in a psychotherapeutic progress
toward human wholeness (i. e . , individuation) . The B aby, the Red
Snake and the Great Genuine Spirit might perhaps be understood
as embodying the archetype of the "self' (the essence of human
wholeness wherein conscious and subconscious are integrated), or
perhaps as the world-creating spirit (Mercurius, prima materia)
imprisoned or concealed in matter, which acts as an agent of
healing and renewal of one ' s personality. 64
63 See Powers, 1 99 5 : 247-248, 283-3 1 0 .
6 4 S e e Jung, 1 96 8 : 3 - 3 7, 1 44, 292-293 .
181
The Baby, one should note, originates as the red-colored yuan

that rises to the heart from the kidneys. The kidneys, in traditional
Chinese physiological theory, were considered the primary organ
instrumental to reproduction and sexuality. The heart was
associated with conscious thinking and feeling. Through mental
will, power and composure, one is to mobilize one ' s sexual energy
in a manner conducive to good health and create a harmonious
interaction between one ' s rational mind and one ' s raw drives and
instincts . Through further sustained harmony of mind and body, a
Baby emerges that is "natural" (ziran ). The Baby seems to
constitute a freshly emerging center of consciousness and personal
energy that is of a pure, authentic nature, unencumbered by the
delusions and anxieties attached to ego-hood. It should certainly be
noted here that these notions of harmonizing mind and body (or
spirit and energy) in a manner that refines innate vital force
through a process, the focus of which transfers progressively from
kidneys to heart to head, are also fundamental to
Quanzhen/L6ngmen internal alchemy; whose adherents would
come to reiterate (and perhaps, I wonder, to re-experience) the Red
Snake-Queen Mother vision sequence in Zhuzhen neidiin jiyao and
Dacheng Jieyao.
Ritshi sf chizlfa also states that the Red Snake is the essence of
the sun that comes to one from the outside. Thus, the Red Snake,
being both B aby and solar essence, is said to be an entity that
dwells within the body, but also comes from the outside. Perhaps
this is tantamount to saying that the pristine consciousness and
vital force at the depth of one ' s being is identical to the
consciousness and force-the Dao (or in Mahayana Buddhist terms,
the Dh ar m akiiya ) that enlivens the whole world. Perhaps, also,
these paradoxical insights result from the author' s having
experienced a state of consciousness where distinctions between
inner and outer (or self and obj ect) were blurred or irrelevant.
In any case, Ritshi sf chizf fa seems to affirm that if one can
encounter the Red Snake with equanimity, your core awareness
will inhabit the person of the B aby, which had momentarily
manifested itself in a blazing, serpentine countenance. One
apparently never actually sees the Baby in the form of a baby,
-
1 82
STEPHEN E SKILD SEN
rather, personal awareness from here on looks out from the eyes of
the B aby and witnesses the manifold epiphanies and hallucinations
that subsequently come forth. One first encounters the Genuine
Person and the Queen Mother of the West (with her impressive
retinue) ; it would seem that the former is to be regarded as an
epiphany of a holy, benevolent Immortal, and the latter as a
hallucination (or at best a demon in disguise). This, perhaps, is why
one is to converse with the Genuine One, and not with the Queen
Mother.
Rush! sf chizffa indicates that the Genuine Person comes from
somewhere for the specific purpose of meeting and mentoring the
Baby, although it is unclear whether he is to be understood as
coming from outside the practitioner' s body and psyche, or from
within. In psychological terms, the Genuine Person would seem to
embody one ' s mental faculties of rationality and self-control. The
Queen Mother, on the other hand, could perhaps be understood, in
Jungian terms, as the anima-i.e., the archetype representing the
subconscious, which in men is by nature feminine and affective, is
prone to manifest itself as female figures in dreams and visions,
and which is the deposit of all experiences that men have with
women. 6 5 Perhaps the same interpretation l:ould be gben regarding
the "old woman and a person of strange form" Pw1SZ. % :W and
the "two women" !;:: that are said to appear in Taishang hunyuan
zhenlu (LLS#4 ). Whatever the case, further descriptions in
Taishang hunyuan zhenlu (LLS#4) indicate that these encounters
with female figures form a gateway to visions and communications
that would seem to embody deep-seated concerns and emotions
embedded in the subconscious . The concerns pertain to the guilt of
oneself and one ' s ancestors, and the feelings seem to be those of
fear, affection, guilt, envy, resentment and longing toward those
people whom one is most intimate with.
In sum, Daoist isolated contemplation regimens-especially
those of the sort involving passive inner observation rather than
active imagination-seem to have a way of reproducing visions
and auditions of similar content that reflect deep-seated thoughts
65
See Jung, 1 96 7 : 39-4 1 .
1 83
and feelings of a sort quite universal to the human experience.

Confronting these with equanimity is said to change and empower
one greatly both mentally and physically. If one is to accept certain
Buddhist (esp ., Tibetan) and Daoist (esp ., internal alchemical)
speculations on death and the disembodied state, confrontations of
this sort are also bound to occur at the time of death, and
66
equanimity is of the essence in that situation as well.
66 Tibetan Buddhism and Daoist Internal Alchemy can be said to share the
assumption that their advanced contemplative techniques replicate the dying
process . Tibetan Buddhist Highest Yoga Tantra bears the character of "death
rehearsal" wherein one replicates the death experience (all the while stopping
short of disembodying the consciousness), so that one will be able to comport
oneself in the optimal manner when death actually occurs. Daoist internal alchemy
endeavors in its advanced stages to repeatedly bring about temporary separation of
the spirit from the body, with hope that the spirit will ultimately liberate itself in a
condition of total freedom and invulnerability. Daoists also had theories on how to
confront the visions at the onset of death, in the event that it occurs prior to the
full perfection of the Yang Spirit (yangshen *$). See Mullin, 1 98 6 : 1 2 6- 1 9 1 ;
Eskildsen, 2006: 3 7 3 -409; Eskildsen, 2009: 87- 1 0 3 .
Daoist Clepsydra-Meditation
Late Medieval Quanzhen Mo nasticism
and Co mmunal Meditatio n
Louis Komj athy
During the late medieval period of Chinese history, specifically

during the Yuan 7G dynasty ( 1 279- 1 3 68), Quanzhen :fro: (Com
plete Perfection) Daoist monastics began practicing a form of
communal meditation called zuobO fir*! (lit., "sitting bowl"),
here translated as "clepsydra-meditation" . Within the context of
Quanzhen monastic life, Quanzhen adepts utilized a sinking-bowl
water-clock as a time-measuring device for religious praxis .
I n this chapter, I discuss late medieval Quanzhen monasticism,
the Quanzhen sinking bowl-clepsydra as a monastic implement and
ritual obj ect, the clepsydra hall and clepsydra retreat, as well as the
actual practice of clepsydra-meditation. For this, I analyze and pro
vide selected translations of the two primary late medieval Quan
zhen monastic manuals, namely, the late thirteenth or early four
teenth century Quanzhen qfngguf :fro:1'Flm (Pure Regulations of
Complete Perfection; DZ 1 2 3 5 ) by Lu Daohe mJifp (Tongxuan
:@ $,: [Pervading Mystery] ; fl. 1 280- 1 3 60 ?), and the anonymous,
fourteenth century Quanzhen zuobO jiefa :fr;:- flr' (Practical
1 86
LOUIS KOMJATHY
Methods for the Sinking Bowl-Clepsydra from Complete Perfec

tion; DZ 1 229). 1
With respect to the comparative study of meditation, the late
medieval Quanzhen Daoist materials draw our attention to various
dimensions of religious praxis . Clepsydra-meditation was a com
munal monastic practice : During the winter clepsydra retreat,
Quanzhen monastics gathered around a sinking bowl-clepsydra to
practice intensive meditation for one hundred days. These details
reveal the importance of context for meditation practice. Clepsy
dra-meditation was not simply a technique; it was a complete aes
thetic and religious experience . We may thus imagine the overall
setting of meditative praxis; in the case of Quanzhen clepsydra
meditation, we must locate it within the larger parameters of Daoist
monastic life, which consisted of precept study and application,
adherence to monastic regulations, spiritual direction, study, litur
gical performance and scripture recitation, work duty, and so forth.
By extension, we may consider whether a given practice is solitary,
communal, or a combination of both. We may also reflect on the
relative accessibility, distribution, and inclusivity of a given prac
tice. For whom is the practice intended? In a parallel manner, the
Quanzhen materials inspire us to consider the importance of com
munity and place for religious praxis . This includes corresponding
opportunities for training and spiritual guidance under community
elders as well as the influence of place. How might a given place, a
mountain hermitage for example, deepen one ' s meditation practice?
The Quanzhen use of a particular ritual implement, the sinking
bowl-clepsydra, also brings the physical and material dimensions
of meditation into high relief. We need to consider the place and
function of material culture in religious praxis . What kinds of art
and obj ects inform and are utilized during meditation practice? Are
there unique aesthetics to different types of meditation? Moreover,
the Quanzhen materials, like tradition-specific methods more gen
erally, reveal meditation as lived religiosity. It is a spiritual disci
pline rooted in a more encompassing way of life. As the following
pages document, there was a Daoist worldview and conception of
1 Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are my own. Catalogue numbers for
Daoist collections follow Komjathy, 2002.
DAOIST CLEPSYDRA-MEDITATION
1 87
time that informed the practice of Quanzhen clepsydra-meditation.

Do different practitioners engender different realities and inhabit
different cosmoses? In sum, I would suggest that the comparative
study of meditation, what is emerging as the interdisciplinary field
of Contemplative Studies, needs to consider meditation from a
comprehensive and integrated perspective. This includes the multi
faceted religious dimensions of meditative praxis .
Late Medieval Quanzhen Monasticism

Quanzhen 3':: (Complete Perfection) Daoism began as a local
religious community characterized by asceticism, alchemical praxis,
and mystical experience (see Komjathy, 2007). In its early phases
of organization and institutionalization, Quanzhen became first a
regional religious movement and then a monastic order with na
tional distribution. On the level of institutional history, each of the
first-generation adherents, the direct disciples of Wang Zhe 11"
(Ch6ngyang _iJ [Redoubled Yang] ; 1 1 1 3 - 1 1 70), contributed to
the growth of Quanzhen as a religious movement and subsequent
monastic order. With ShanxI CS (Shaanxi) and Shandong Llr}f[
as the early centers of religious activity, they trained their own dis
ciples; guided lay believers ; formed working relationships with
local magistrates ; secured patronage from all segments of the Chi
nese population; built and renovated hermitages and temples; and
became increasingly recognized by imperial courts . Primarily un
der the direction of Qiu ChujI Ji:JJ,Mm (Changchlin * [Perpetual
Spring] ; 1 1 48- 1 227), the third patriarch and successor of Ma Yu 1%
I (Danyang ff [Elixir Yang] ; 1 1 2 3 - 1 1 84) as national leader,
and his disciples, the second-generation Quanzhen adherents,
Quanzhen became a nation-wide monastic order with increasing
diversity with respect to demographics, doctrine and training mod
els. This growth and transformation benefited greatly from Qiu ' s
famous westward j ourney t o meet Chinggis Qan (Genghis Khan; ca.
1 1 62- 1 227; r. 1 206- 1 227) during the years of 1 220 to 1 223 . Qiu
was accompanied by nineteen select disciples, including individu
als who would play a maj or role in the growth and flourishing of
the Quanzhen monastic order. The meeting, actually a series of
1 88
LOUIS KOMJATHY
meetings, occurred in the Hindu Kush (near present-day Kabul,

Afghanistan) and resulted in the Qan granting Qiu, and the Quan
zhen order by extension, de facto control of the whole of northern
China' s monastic communities, Buddhists included. 2 Upon his re
turn to northern China in 1 223, Qiu was installed as abbot of the
newly-restored Tianchang gum .:Rffe:fi (Monastery of Celestial
Perpetuity), which was later renamed Changchlin gong ffe:$'8
(Palace of Perpetual Spring) and then Baiyun guan B fi (White
Cloud Monastery) (see Koyanagi, 1 934; Marsone, 1 999; Li, 200 3 ;
also Yoshioka, 1 979). 3 During the last four years o f Qiu ' s life,
Quanzhen was transformed from a regional religious movement to
a nationwide monastic order, growing enormously in membership.
Qiu continued to follow the pattern established by Wang
Ch6ngyang, Ma Danyang, and Wang ChuyI I- (Yuyang ::E.
[Jade Yang] ; 1 1 42- 1 2 1 7), that is, meeting halls for lay patrons in
support of hermitages and monasteries. We know that while resid
ing in Tianchang guan, Qiu Changchlin was involved in the estab
lishment of eight associations, all affiliated with Tianchang guan
(see Xry6u ji, DZ 1 429: 2. 1 6a; Komjathy, 2007 : 5 8 ) . All of these
events occurred during the Jurchen-Jin 31Z: dynasty ( 1 1 1 5- 1 234) and
Southern Song * dynasty ( 1 1 27- 1 279), and within the foreign
controlled northern regions of China.
A pivotal moment in Quanzhen history of course corresponds to
the death of Qiu Changchlin, the last first-generation adherent, in
1 227. Qiu was succeeded as Quanzhen Patriarch and national reli-
2 This resulted in an influx of Buddhist monks into the Quanzhen order and in
Quanzhen gaining control of some Buddhist temples, though how many were
occupied remains debated. While more research needs to be conducted, there was
clearly cross-pollination between Quanzhen and Chan Buddhism. For example,
members of the Quanzhen monastic order adopted dimensions of Chan Buddhism,
including monastery layout, monastic structure, and monastic rules. A natural
comparison would be between the Quanzhen q'ingguz and the Chrinyuan qzngguz
)Jl!j[j[;{:l;i! (Pure Regulations for Chan Monasteries) . On the latter see Foulk, 1 987;
Yifa, 2002. My preliminary comparison revealed few similarities.
3 This temple in Yanjing :R.: (present-day Beijing ;:!t:R,:) would become the
primary monastic headquarters of the Quanzhen order and its L6ngmen ll' F
(Dragon Gate) lineage from this historical moment into the contemporary period.
1 89
gious leader by his disciple Ym Zhipfng :j=l-Ifl (Qinghe rflJ

[Clear Harmony] ; 1 1 69- 1 2 5 1 ), who in turn transferred leadership
to U: Zhichang '.$ 1it (Zhenchang 1it [Perfect Constancy] ;
1 1 93 - 1 256), another one of Qiu' s direct disciples, in 1 2 3 8 . 4 With
the help of other second-generation Quanzhen luminaries, such as
Wang Zhijm ::E.3:1 (Qiylin [Perched-in-Clouds] ; 1 1 7 8- 1 26 3 )
and Song De:fang -* 1)7 (Piyun tit [Wrapped-in-Clouds] ; 1 1 8 3 1 247), the Quanzhen monastic order became a nationwide religious
movement with large numbers of adherents, both monastic and lay.
Quanzhen continued to gain power and increase in membership
during the years of 1 222 to 1 280, partially due to its attraction as
the primary tax-exempt religious institution during the Mongol
Yuan dynasty ( 1 279- 1 3 68). 5 Quanzhen monasteries and temples
were established throughout northern China and its clerical mem
bership grew, so that by the late thirteenth century there were some
4,000 Quanzhen sacred sites and 20,000 monks and nuns (Goos
saert, 200 1 : 1 1 4- 1 8). 6 However, Buddho-Daoist court debates were
held in 1 25 8 and 1 28 1 , the loss of which by the Daoist side result
ed in a series of anti-Daoist edicts by Qubilai Qan (Khubilai Khan;
Emperor Shizii iit;f.[; r. 1 260- 1 294) of the Mongol-Yuan dynasty.
4 F or lineage charts of the early Quanzhen movement and first six patriarchs see
Komjathy, 2007 : 378-8 1 . On the second- and third-generations see Ren, 200 1 :
2 . 72 8 ; Li, 2003 : 460-6 1 .
5 Various dates are given for the establishment o f the Yuan dynasty, but it was in
1 279 that the Southern Song was finally defeated and the Mongols gained control
of the whole of China. The Mongol-Yuan dynasty was the first non-Chinese ruled
dynasty to have nationwide control. Although such historical patterns date back to
the Toba-Wei WI! dynasty (3 86-5 3 4), the Mongols set a precedent for national rule
of the indigenous Chinese population by a foreign people that prepared the way
for the Manchu-Qing ))ff dynasty ( 1 644- 1 9 1 1 ) . Interestingly, the Manchus were
the later descendants of the Jurchens.
6 Like Daoist monasticism more generally (see Kohn, 1 997; 2003 ; 2004a; Reiter,
1 99 8), Quanzhen monasticism is understudied. The most comprehensive study is
Vincent Goossaert's dissertation ( 1 997; see also Zheng, 1 995), and one hopes that
it will eventually be revised and published. S ome important work on late imperial
and early modem Quanzhen has also appeared in print. See Hackmann, 1 920;
1 93 1 ; Yoshioka, 1 979; Esposito, 1 99 3 ; 2000; 200 1 ; 2004; Goossaert, 2004; 2007;
Liu, 2004a; 2004b; Komjathy, 2008; 2009. On modem Quanzhen monasticism see
Herrou, 2005.
190
LOUIS KOMJATHY
This culminated in the burning and destruction of Daoist texts, tex

tual collections, and printing blocks in 1 2 8 1 (only the Daode jfng
!Hi was to be spared) (see Yao, 1 980; Zheng, 1 99 5 ; Goossaert,
200 1 ) . Although devastating at the time, these events did not pre
vent Quanzhen' s long-term development as a monastic order. "In
fact, it had already gained recognition as an ' orthodox, ' valuable
part of Taoist religious tradition, and secured its place in the insti
tutional and ideological construction of Taoism as an ascetic order
devoted to both individual self-cultivation and communal disci
plines" (Goossaert and Katz, 200 1 : 92). Quanzhen temple con
struction and restoration continued throughout the Yuan dynasty,
and the commission and erection of steles remained fairly constant
from 1 2 3 0 through 1 3 50 (Goossaert, 1 997 : 1 1 ) . Moreover, in 1 3 1 0
Emperor Wuzong itt * (r. 1 3 0 8- 1 3 1 1 ) bestowed honorary posthu
mous titles on maj or Quanzhen figures (see Jinlian xiangzhuan
{{$, DZ 1 74 : 3b-9a).
The thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries were thus the
height of early Quanzhen monasticism, that is, the monastic order
that developed under the leadership of Qiu Changchiin and his dis
ciples and that became the dominant form of Daoist monasticism
during the Yuan dynasty. 7 In its late medieval monastic expression,
Quanzhen adherence and practice represented the institutionaliza
tion of its earlier ascetic and eremitic commitments . This included
incorporating rows of meditation hermitages in monastic architec
tural layout, instituting ordination rituals and a standardized line
age-based name system, and developing monastic regulations
(Goossaert, 1 997: 1 1 3 - 3 42 ; 200 1 ). During the Yuan dynasty,
Quanzhen Daoists, both monks and nuns, thus entered a more fully
developed ordination process and monastic system. This involved
living in formal monasteries and temples with a regimented sched
ule that included ethical guidelines and monastic regulations, soli-
7 It was during this period of Chinese history that Quanzhen incorporated more
adherents of the so-called Southern School (Nanzong ii*) of internal alchemy as
well as more features derived from Chan Buddhism. These and other dimensions
of intra- and interreligious interaction deserve further study.
191
tary and communal meditation, a s well as communal ritual. 8 The

early Quanzhen emphasis on abstinence from the Four Hindrances
(alcohol, sex, wealth, and anger) also became codified in monastic
rules, which incorporated a shift towards vegetarianism. 9 Quietistic
meditation and internal alchemy remained the primary forms of
meditation, though the Quanzhen monastic communities also
adopted a form of communal meditation centering on the bowl
clepsydra (discussed below).
With respect to the present chapter on Quanzhen clepsydra
meditation, which was a communal monastic practice, a number of
noteworthy features of late medieval Quanzhen monasticism de
serve note. These details come from the only extant Yuan-dynasty
Quanzhen monastic manuals, namely, the late thirteenth or early
fourteenth century Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection and
the fourteenth century Practical Methods for the Bowl-Clepsydra
8 A thorough study of early Quanzhen ritual has yet to be undertaken. Preliminary

research indicates that members of the early Quanzhen religious community
accepted liturgical performance as relevant to Daoist religious life. Having been
trained by unnamed, non-Quanzhen Daoists, they performed and participated in
the two primary forms of Daoist ritual, namely, zhai 'h!if -purification and jiao @
offering rites. Mature Quanzhen ritual accepted the standardized form of Lingbao
!!! fl (Numinous Treasure) Daoist ritual, but also quickly incorporated much of
the maj or new, late medieval ritual and exorcistic traditions, such as Tianx1n _X,C,,
(Celestial Heart), Wulei .li.1 (Five Thunder), and so forth. See Tsui, 1 99 1 : 26-27;
Goossaert, 1 99 7 : 1 62-68; 200 1 ; Eskildsen, 2004 : 1 7 1 -93 . Unfortunately, there are
no early or late medieval Quanzhen ritual and liturgical manuals. See Schipper
and Verellen, 2004. Information on earlier Quanzhen ritual must be gleaned from
stele inscriptions and hagiographies. The only relatively early Quanzhen liturgical
works are a simple birthday celebration for Zhongli Quan and Lil Dongbm
(Jzndiin dayao xiiinpai ftjc1lIJ5w, DZ 1 070: 3 a- 1 0b; tr!. Eskildsen, 1 98 9 :
3 95-408) and a brief salvation-through-sublimation (liandit tit ) rite (Dao/a

huiyuan ,lli )i\;]t, DZ 1220: j . 2 1 0).
9 My preliminary research indicates that vegetarianism was not universally
adopted or advocated in the early Quanzhen community. This would make sense
in terms of geography, as seafood is one of the primary forms of sustenance in
Shandong. Of the first-generation adherents, it seems that Ma Danyang and Qii'i
Changchun were the most committed to vegetarianism as an expression of
wisdom and compassion.
LOUIS KOMJATHY
1 92
mentioned at the beginning of this essay. 1 0 The former may be read

as an attempt to ensure the preservation of the inner world, the
lived religiosity and communal experience, of the Qminzhen mo
nastic institution. B ased on its content, one can surmise that it is
meant to be a prescriptive model for late medieval Quanzhen mo
nastic life. The text provides some glimpses into the informing
concerns, communal organization and institutional structures of
earlier Quanzhen monasticism. Consisting of thirteen primary divi
sions, the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection emphasizes the
importance of the following: discernment concerning who is admit
ted into the monastic order; novices ' spiritual direction under
community elders ; monastic structures (hierarchal ordering based
on seniority) and protocol, including rules; as well as meditation
based training, including clepsydra retreats (Sab; discussed below).
The Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection also provides an out
line of a standard, daily monastic schedule: 1 1
3 am-5 am:
5 am-7am:
7am-9am:
9am- l l am :
1 l am- lpm:
l pm-3pm:
3pm-5pm :
5pm-7pm:
7pm-9pm:
9pm- l lpm:
1 lpm- l am :
l am-3 am:
1
Wake-up
Morning meal
12
Group meditation
Individual meditation
Noon meal
Group meditation
Formal lecture or interviews
Group meditation and tea
Scripture recitation
Personal time
Complete, annotated translations of both of these texts are included in my The

Way of Complete Perfection: A Quanzhen Dao ist Anthology (Komjathy, 20 1 3 a),
which is an anthology of Quanzhen texts in English translation.
1 1 DZ 1 23 5 : 6a; cf. Yifa, 2004: 3 9 ; Welch, 1 967: 427.
1 2 Yao ( 1 9 8 0 : 9 1 ; 2000 : 5 8 9) translates himzuo r.Efo{:/S (lit., "mixed sitting") as
"group meditation", while Goossaert ( 1 997: 274) translates it as "meditation non
stricte". While both are viable, the overall context suggests that this is a
compulsory, communal meditation period. The other double-hours reserved for
meditation would be a personal or voluntary training period. In either case, there
are three periods of communal meditation and three periods of private, individual
practice.
1 93
Taken as a whole, the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection

thus provides a fairly comprehensive model of Quanzhen monastic
life, 13 though the degree to which it is representative of daily life in
late medieval Daoist monasteries deserves more research. In con
trast, and as analyzed below, the Practical Methods for the Bowl
Clepsydra is a much more concentrated work, focusing on the spe
cifics of the construction and utilization of a bowl-clepsydra for the
winter meditation retreat.
Chinese and Quanzhen Clepsydras

A clepsydra (Grk. : "water thief'), or water-clock, is a device that
uses the flow of water under gravity to measure time. Water flows
either into or out of a vessel, and the height of the water in the ves
sel is a one-to-one function of time from the beginning of the flow.
Various types of clepsydras have been employed as time
measuring devices . The most common ones have been the "outflow
clepsydra", which measures time by the height of the water in a
vessel out of which water flows, and the "inflow clepsydra'', which
measures time by the height of the water in a vessel into which wa
ter flows . Both the simple outflow clepsydra and the simple inflow
clepsydra have a certain deficiency : the flow-rate of water from a
vessel depends on the height of the water in the vessel, and this rate
changes as the vessel drains. That is, the water flow is not constant.
In China, clepsydras were among the earliest time-measuring
devices, where they were most often referred to as "drip-vessels"
(louhu :Yffifil ) or "graduated drippers" (kelou U :i,lffi ; louke :Yffifil U ).
The earliest kind o f Chinese clepsydra was the outflow type, and
this continued in occasional or parallel use with other types of wa
ter-clocks down to relatively late times . From the beginning of the
Early Han dynasty (206 BCE 8 CE) onwards, however, the inflow
-
1 3 Although beyond the confines of the present study, the reader should remember
that clepsydra-meditation took place within the larger context of Quanzhen
monastic life . This included precept study and application, adherence to monastic
regulations, spiritual direction, study, liturgical performance and scripture
recitation, work duty, and so forth. On earlier Daoist monasticism see Kohn, 1 997;
200 3 ; 2004a; Reiter, 1 998.
LOUIS KOMJATHY
1 94
type, with an indicator-rod borne on a float, came into general use

(Needham et al. , 1 95 9 : 3 1 5- 1 6; 1 96 0 : 85). At first there was only a
single reservoir, but it was soon understood that the falling pres
sure-head in this vessel greatly slowed the time-keeping as the res
ervoir emptied.
Throughout the centuries two principal methods were used to
avoid this difficulty, including both poly-vascular (multi-vessel)
and overflow tank types of clepsydra. A hybrid combination of the
se methods was also employed. 14 In the former, one or more com
pensating tanks were placed between the reservoir and the inflow
receiver. In the latter, an overflow or constant-level tank was in
serted in the series. It seems that most of the Chinese clepsydras
used an indicator-rod (tianf6u .X 1') attached to a float. Here the
inflow receiver had a small hole in its top through which the in
dictor-rod gradually rose as the water filled the vessel and the float
maintained its buoyancy on the surface of the water. Interestingly,
one of the oldest extant clepsydras is a poly-vascular inflow type,
complete with float indictor-rod, constructed in 1 3 1 6 . This clepsy
dra is roughly contemporaneous with the Quanzhen practice of
clepsydra meditation. In the case of this representative poly
vascular inflow clepsydra, the indictor rod contains the names of
the double-hours . Song dynasty (960- 1 279) sources in turn list the
following types of clepsydras :
l.
Inflow float and indictor-rod clepsydra (j6ujian f1fri; J6ulou rsiZ!ffi ) ;
2. Sinking indictor-rod, i.e. outflow clep sydra (cherifian ZXTfri; xialou

rZJffi )
3 . Steelyard clepsydra, with balance and weights ( chenglou fil}z)ffi ;
quanheng lou tlfjrz!ffi )
4 . "Unresting" or "continuous" (water-) wheel clepsydra (bitxz lou
.,z!ffi ; lunlou !llffii z!ffi )
(Needham et al., 1 95 9 : 3 1 8- 1 9 ; 1 96 0 : 2 5, 90, n. 5) 1 5
14 Illustrations of these and similar clepsydras may be found in Needham et al. ,

1 9 5 9 : 3 1 6; 1 96 0 : 8 6 .
15 F o r discussions of the history of Chinese time-measuring devices s e e Needham

et al., 1 9 5 9 : 284-390; 1 960; 1 965 : 435-546. On Chinese clepsydras in particular
see Maspero, 1 93 9 ; Needham et al. , 1 9 5 9 : 3 1 3 -29; 1 96 0 : 85 -94; 1 96 5 : 466-80;
195
Another, less well-known and only occasionally used type of wa

ter-clock was the "sinking bowl-clepsydra". In this type of clepsy
dra, a bowl with a hole in it is placed on the surface of water. The
bowl slowly fills and eventually sinks . The duration of its floating
(or sinking) is taken as a unit of time, and the size of the hole could
be adj usted to increase or decrease the duration of time . Needham
et al. ( 1 95 9 : 3 1 5, n. h; see also ibid. : 3 2 5 , n. c; idem 1 96 0 : 8 5 , n. 4)
mentions a sinking bowl-clepsydra either designed or utilized by
the Buddhist monk Huiyuan (3 3 4-4 1 6). This type of clepsy
dra consisted of a series of lotus-shaped bowls arranged to sink one
after another during the twelve double-hours. The sinking bowl
clepsydra is clearly a simpler type of water-clock, easily construct
ed, transported, and reproduced.
The sinking-bowl type of clepsydra was the one utilized in
Yuan-dynasty Quanzhen monasticism, and Quanzhen monks had a
detailed technical understanding of this device. In fact, the tech
nical information documented in the Practical Methods for the
Bowl-Clepsydra suggests that Quanzhen Daoists made significant
discoveries through experiential testing, observation and refine
ment. The Practical Methods for the Bowl-Clepsydra provides pre
cise instructions on the production of a sinking bowl-clepsydra
(zuobi5 ilflf\I**) Here zuobi5, literally, "sitting-bowl", first and
foremost refers to a sinking bowl-clepsydra, that is, a small bowl
with a hole in it that is placed in a larger bowl filled with water.
We might refer to this type of Quanzhen water-clock as the
"paired-bowl clepsydra", and it is important to remember that the
Quanzhen water-clock was a "bowl-clepsydra".
Hua, 1 99 1 . For some basic information on clepsydras in Christian monasticism

see Agamben, 20 1 2 : 1 8-22.
1 96
LOUIS KOMJATHY
Saxon Bronze Sinking bowl-clepsydra. Source: Science Museum,

South Kensington, United Kingdom 16
T h e s m a l l b o w l gradual ly fi l l s with water and s i n k s .
ZuobO sec
ondari l y refers to a spec i fi c type of Quanzhen meditation practice

that involves group meditation i n which a s i nking bow l - c l epsydra
is uti l i zed. In thi s respect, it may refer to "cl epsydra-med itation",
or "meditati on-with-the-bow l " . Here the bowl i n q uestion i s the
17
c lepsy dra, rather than a monk ' s indivi dual eating bowl .
1 6 Unfortunately, I have not been able to locate a Chinese sinking bowl-clepsydra.

The present example is a replica of the original bronze bowl (ca. 800 CE) found in
a bog in County Antrim, Northern I reland. It is of the type which was employed
by the Ancient Britons, probably under the influence of the Druids, for measuring
intervals of time. The bowl has a small hole in the bottom, and in use it was
placed on the surface of water, which slowly leaked into it until, after a certain
interval of time, the bowl sank. The interval was the unit of time; in the case of
this bowl, approximate ly one hour. http ://www.sciencemuseum.org. uk/images/
!063/ 1 0327397.aspx. Accessed on June l , 20 1 3 . I am grateful to the Science
M useum/Science & Society Picture Library for permission to use the image .
1 7 The extra-canonical Qlnggul xuanmiao H- ;ij1, YI. iz'
Y (Pure Regulations of
Mysterious Wonder; ZW 3 6 1 ), of unknown provenance, identifies Seven
Treasures (qlbao -t }l ), or material possessions of l ate imperial monastics: rush
mat, robe, bowl, palm-leaf hat, palm-leaf fan, satchel, and staff ( l 0 . 5 9 8 ) . A
1 97
In order to ensure accurate time-keeping, the Quanzhen sinking

bowl-clepsydra had to adhere to exact measurements. According to
the Practical Methods for the Bowl-Clepsydra, copper (tong [ii] ) is
the best material for making the containers . The use of copper for
the bowls probably developed for three principal reasons : first, it
was readily available; second, it is easily worked and formed into
the desired shape, as copper is fairly ductile and malleable; and
finally, it has a relatively high degree of resistance to corrosion, as
the oxidized layer that occurs through the interaction of water and
air stops further, bulk corrosion in copper. For the larger water con
tainer, the main guideline is that it is large enough to store an ap
propriate amount of water and to incorporate the actual sinking
bowl-clepsydra. The size and weight of the small, sinking-bowl
should be as follows : "The small one must weigh five liang and
must be three cim and four fen in height. The bottom surface
should be four cim and seven fen in width. The top and bottom
should [thus] be four [cim] when measured perpendicularly" (DZ
1 22 9 : l b). The text in turn advises one to use fifty Taipfng j\: l]Z
(Great Peace) coins fo r determining the weight. Converting these
ancient Chinese measurements into those utilized in common
Western usage, the sinking bowl-clepsydra should weigh about 8 . 5
ounces, o r 240 grams. It should b e about 3 .4 inches high and about
4 . 7 inches wide at the base. By metric standards, this would be
about 8 . 6 centimeters high and 1 1 . 9 centimeters wide . 1 8 The text in
turn instructs one to drill a small hole, about the size of a needle
eyelet, into the center of the base of the sinking bowl-clepsydra.
When this bowl is placed into the larger water container, the water
misreading of zuo bo might assume that it meant some form of meditation that
utilized an individual monk ' s bowl.
18
These technical specifics on the size and weight are somewhat perplexing
because the Practical Methods for the Bowl-Clepsydra suggests that the
corresponding sinking bowl-clepsydra measures time according to two primary
time divisions : from miio gp (5 am-7am; early morning) to you @ (5pm and 7pm;
early evening), and from you to miio . If this were the case, the clepsydra hole
would need to be quite small because the vessel is so small itself. However, such a
device would have the advantage of easy portability. One can also imagine a
bowl-clepsydra that measures a specific practice duration rather than abstract
"time".
198
LOUIS KOMJATHY
begins to move through the small hole, and the sinking bowl
clepsydra begins to fill and sink . 1 9
The Clepsydra Hall and Clepsydra Retreat

As mentioned, Quanzhen clepsydra-meditation was a communal,
monastic practice. For this reason, we should have some
knowledge of the architectural layout and social context of the
practice. B ased on extant historical sources, it appears that at least
some Quanzhen monasteries contained a clepsydra hall (batang
:), sometimes appearing as an enclosure hall (huantang :),
and held annual winter clepsydra retreats, also referred to as zuobi5
. The clepsydra hall was either a separate residence for itiner
ant monks and employed for communal meditation or a meditation
hall specifically modified for the winter retreat. Based on our
Quanzhen texts and roughly contemporaneous sources, we may,
following Goossaert ( 1 997: 227; Taiqzng yuece, DZ 1 483 : 5 . 3b-4a;
cf. Welch, 1 967 : 49), reconstruct the layout as follows : 20
19 In the future, one can envision a proj ect to reconstruct the Quanzhen sinking
bowl-clepsydra. This process could be assisted by consultation with the collective
memory of indigenous peoples who continue to use such time-measuring devices.
For example, Hermann Diels reported that a North African tribe utilized such a
clepsydra as a type of hour-glass for the control of irrigation-water sluices into the
twentieth century (Needham et al., 1 95 9 : 3 1 5 , n. h).
20 S ometimes the order of seniority and corresponding monastic hall positions
follow the twelve terrestrial branches, beginning With Zl T and ending with hai Yi,.
1 99
Clepsydra
Sleeping Chambers
I
I
Meditation Platform
Approximation of a Late Medieval Quanzhen Clepsydra Hall

The Quanzhen clepsydra hall was thus a meditation hall orga
nized around the sinking bowl-clepsydra, which was located in its
center. The monastic community gathered around the ritual obj ect
as a time-keeping device for communal meditation. Monastics sat
around the perimeter of the hall, most likely facing inward as one
dimension of the practice involved contemplating the clepsydra as
a material and symbolic obj ect.
According to the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection (DZ
1 23 5 : S ab), certain Quanzhen Daoist monasteries held winter clep
sydra retreats . Such retreats began on the first day of the tenth lunar
month and extended through the winter solstice and the lunar New
Year until ten days into the first lunar month. During this time,
monastics engaged in intensive meditation practice for one hundred
days. 2 1 Clepsydra-meditation was thus a communal meditation re21
In this way, the clepsydra retreat may be seen as an institutionalization of the

earlier Quanzhen ascetic and eremitic practice of "meditation enclosure" (huandii
'), which often involved periods of meditative seclusion for one hundred days.
On the latter see Goossaert, 1 99 7 : 1 7 1 -2 1 9; 1 999; Komjathy, 2007 : 1 57-66 . On
the former, see Goossaert, 1 997: 2 5 3 - 5 8 ; 200 1 .
200
LOUIS KOMJATHY
treat practiced from roughly the beginning of winter through to the

beginning of spring (by traditional Chinese reckoning). In this way,
it parallels the winter Chan (Zen) meditation retreat (Jpn. : ango '17;
$; also sesshin * ' C..' /:jl 1 C..' ), which is in turn modeled on the tradi
tional Indian rain retreat (Pali : vasso ; Skt. : vara). In the Chinese
case, the retreat moves through the apex of yin and the initial
growth of yang (winter solstice) and the lunar New Year (a mo
ment of both completion and new beginnings), and culminates with
the increasing ascendancy of yang in the beginning of spring. The
latter is associated with the first node of the Wood phase, lichiin iL
lf: ("spring begins"), and symbolizes new life. The Pure Regula
tions of Complete Perfection in turn informs us that the clepsydra
retreat involves periods of movement and stillness, that is, walking
and seated meditation practice. During the periods of movement,
monastics were permitted to engage in ordinary or leisurely activi
ties, but during the periods of stillness, strict meditative discipline
was required. As monastics practiced communal meditation in
rows, a bowl-master (zhUbO flr*I) would walk around on pa
trol in the style of Chan communal meditation.
If there are those who have fallen asleep , are nodding off, or shifting
their bodies, the bowl-master first walks around on watch with the en
couragement stick. He suspends the stick over the body of the adept
who has fallen asleep. Then he strikes [the adept' s shoulders] three
times and withdraws. Afterwards, [the offender] attentively takes hold
of the encouragement stick, quietly gets up from his position, and be
gins inspecting the others. He is replaced in turn by the next offender.
As long as the clepsydra-meditation has not yet ended, the bell has not
22
yet sounded, and the "stillness" placard has not yet been substituted,
one may not enter or leave, speak, or move without a reason. Anyone
who does not abide by these regulations will be disciplined. (DZ 1 23 5 :
5 ab ; also l Oa)
22 It seems that there was a "stillness placard" (jingpai Jll1f! ) and a "movement
placard" (dongpai ilJ l\11f ) which were hung respectively when meditation
commenced and ended.
201
Here "encouragement stick" is my rendering of xiangban {!Hoc,

which literally means "incense [thus offering] board" . It corre
sponds to the "wake-up stick" (Jpn. : keisaku ; also kyosaku) in
Chan Buddhism. The encouragement stick, also referred to as "dis
cipline stick", is a thin, elongated and flat stick used to hit inatten
tive monastics on the shoulders during communal meditation. Alt
hough open to interpretation, I would suggest that it is not, princi
pally, a form of punishment. Rather, it may be seen an act of com
passion aimed at assisting awakening. This reading is supported by
the identification of the patrolling monk with the disciplined monk
and the subsequent exchange of positions : through a process of
spiritual identification, each sees the other capable of spiritual
awakening to their Dao-nature (daoxzng )!! 1!), their innate nature
which is the Dao . Moreover, analyzing the practice in terms of the
actual ritual implement as well as the somatic location of the strike
and corresponding psychosomatic experiences, two additional
points may be made. First, the encouragement stick was probably
made out of relatively pliable wood. 23 It thus would have made a
loud sound and created a stinging sensation when contacting with
one ' s skin and muscles. That is, the experience differs markedly,
both in intention and action, from that of getting rapped on the
knuckles by an old-school Catholic nun ' s wooden ruler, an experi
ence often proj ected onto the Chan experience by Westerners ex
posed to earlier forms of Catholic parochial school where corporeal
punishment was the norm. 24 Second, the actual, rather than imag
ined, action targets a specific location on the upper shoulder, name
ly, the soft, muscular center of the shoulder blade. If analyzed ana
tomically and energetically, specifically from a Chinese medical
23 Unfortunately, this point must be conj ectural because the texts do not provide
specific guidelines for materials and design. I had hoped to find clarification in
contemporaneous Chan texts, but preliminary research suggests that the earliest
Chan references to the xiiingbc'in date from the Ming and Qmg dynasties. T.
Griffith Foulk (Sarah Lawrence College), Morten Schliltter (University of Iowa),
pers. comm. In contemporary Zen Buddhism, there is a lighter, summer and a
heavier, winter version of the wake-up stick. The former is intended to activate the
corresponding point through lightweight robes, while the latter must penetrate
heavy, winter robes.
24 For a modem American account see Kapleau, 1 98 9 : 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 52-53, 206-8 .
202
LOUIS KOMJATHY
perspective, we find that the strike hits an area that generally corre
sponds to three acupoints : Tianz6ng :X* (Celestial Gathering; SI1 1 ; in the depression of the shoulder blade), XInshU , c.,, (Heart
Shu-point; BL- 1 5 ; about three inches laterally from the fifth verte
bra), and/or Jianjfog m fr (Shoulder Well; GB 2 1 ; apex of the tra
pezius) (see Ellis et al. , 1 9 89). Briefly stated, Tianzong, the elev
enth point on the small intestine meridian, is associated with the
heart and is a maj or gathering place of qi. XInshU, the fifteenth
point on the urinary bladder meridian, is the Shu -point of the
heart; these points indicate an "association point", in this case an
acupoint on the urinary blad der mridian. a E: sociated with the heart.
Jianj fog, the twenty-first point on the gall bladder meridian, is a
Jiaohui -t'-point, or the intersection point of various yang merid
ians (foot shaoyang [gallbladder] , hand shaoyang [triple warmer] ,
foot yangmfng [stomach] , and yang-linking vessel). 2 5 Under my
reading of the monastic and meditative use of the encouragement
stick, it energetically activates the heart, associated with con
sciousness and spirit from a Chinese and Daoist perspective, as
well as the entire organ-meridian system. It would be the equiva
lent of a moderate, but concentrated bioelectrical shock.
The Practical Methods for the Bowl-Clepsydra also provides
important technical details concerning the use of the bowl
clepsydra. It advises practitioners to account for the waxing and
waning of sunlight by adjusting the weight of the bowl-clepsydra;
this was done by subtracting and adding coins as follows (lunar
month/morning coins/evening coins) : l st/ 1 1 /9 ; 2nd/ 1 0/ 1 0 ; 3rd/9/ 1 1 ;
4th/ 1 / 1 9 ; Sth/0/20; 6th/1/1 9; 7th/9/1 1 ; 8th/ 1 0/ 1 0 ; 9th/ 1 1 /9 ;
1 Oth/1 1 /9 ; 1 1 th/20/0 ; 1 2th/1 9/1 . 26 This is especially interesting be
cause it reveals a distinctive Daoist view of time. Here "time" is
not the colossal hoax of clocks and calendars; it is a flexible and
2 5 I am grateful to Kate Townsend of the Daoist Foundation and Center for D aoist
Studies for her assistance in clarifying the specific associations of these points.
26 These can be mapped with rough 24 seasonal node correspondences, beginning

with Spring B egins (approx. February 5) and ending with Great Cold (approx.
January 2 1 ) . Note that the Chinese lunar year generally begins in late January or
early F ebruary on the Gregorian/Western calendar; thus, the first lunar month
tends to be + 1 in relation to the Gregorian/Western calendar.
203
transformative cycle marked by seasonal and energetic shifts, espe

cially in relation to the changing sunlight, or influence of yang.
Astronomically and cosmologically speaking, seasons result from
the yearly revolution of the earth around the sun and the tilt of the
earth' s axis relative to the elliptical plane of revolution. The effect
of axis tilt is observable from the change in day-length and the alti
tude of the sun at noon (the culmination of the sun) over the dura
tion of a year. The summer solstice (longest day of sunlight) is, in
turn, when the north-pole is closest to the sun, while the winter sol
stice (shortest day of sunlight) corresponds to its farthest distance
from the sun. During the equinoxes, the hours of daylight and night
are equal. Considered comprehensively, the amount of sunlight
begins to increase after winter solstice until it reaches its zenith at
summer solstice (extreme yang); and sunlight then begins to de
crease until it reaches its nadir at winter solstice (extreme yin).
Generally speaking, in the central part of the northern hemisphere,
where sections of China, Europe, and the United States are located,
the sunrise and sunset times during 20 1 3 are as follows : 27
27 This data comes from the United States Naval Meterology and Oceanography
Command (USNO) and the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). See http ://aa.usno .navy.mil and http://www. srrb.noaa.gov.
Accessed on June 1 , 20 1 3 . I have used San Diego, California as the source
location.
204
LOUIS KOMJATHY
Node/Western Date"'0
Sunrise
Solar Noon"
Sunset
Hours of
Spring B egins: 2 . 4
Rain Water: 2 . 1 8
Excited Insects : 3 . 5
Spring Equinox: 3 .20
Clear Brightness : 4.4
Grain Rain: 4.20
Summer B egins : 5 . 5
S light Fullness: 5 .2 1
Bearded Grain: 6 . 5
Summer Solstice: 6 .2 1
S light Heat: 7 . 7
Maj or Heat: 7 .22
Autumn B egins : 8. 7
Limit of Heat: 8 .23
Pure Dew: 9 . 7
Autumn Equinox: 9 .23
Cold Dew: 1 0 . 8
Frost Descends: 1 0 .23
Winter B egins : 1 1 .7
Light Snow: 1 1 .22
Heavy Snow: 1 2 . 7
Winter Solstice: 1 2 .22
S light Cold: 1 . 5 . 1 4
Maj or Cold: 1 .2 0 . 1 4
7:39
7 :23
7:01
6:37
6: 1 3
5 :49
5:30
5 : 14
5 : 07
5 : 06
5:13
5 :25
5:39
5 : 54
6:08
6 :23
6:38
6:53
7:10
7 :27
7 :42
7:53
7:56
7:51
12:48
12:48
1 2 :45
12:41
12:37
12:33
12:3 1
12:30
12:32
12:36
12:39
1 2 :40
1 2 :40
12:36
12:32
1 2 :26
12:21
12: 1 8
12: 1 8
1 2 :20
1 2 :26
12:33
12:39
1 2 :45
17:58
1 8 : 14
1 8 :3 1
1 8 :47
1 9 : 02
1 9: 1 8
19:33
1 9 :48
2 0 : 00
2 0 : 06
20:05
1 9:57
1 9 :4 1
19:19
1 8:56
1 8 :29
1 8 :05
1 7 :43
1 7 :25
1 7 : 14
1 7 : 09
17:14
1 7 :24
1 7 :40
1 0h l 9m
1 0h5 1 m
l l h3 0m
1 2h 1 0m
1 2h49m
1 3h29m
1 4h3m
1 4h34m
1 4h53m
1 5h0m
1 4h52m
1 4h32m
1 4h2m
1 3h25m
1 2h48m
1 2h6m
l lh27m
1 0h50m
1 0h 1 5m
9h47m
9h27m
9h2 1 m
9h28m
9h49m
Daylight
Table I. Changing sunlight during 2 0 1 3 .

This of course varies based upon one ' s relative proximity to the
equator and north-pole/south-pole, or a given place ' s latitude. Ex
amining this chart on a basic level in terms of the beginning of the
seasons, we find the relational pattern of day and night with respect
to the eight primary nodes : ( 1 ) Spring begins ( 1 0h 1 9m of light;
1 3h4 1 m of darkness); (2) Spring equinox ( 1 2h 1 0m of light;
28 The date follows the American convention of month followed by day.
29 The solar noon is the apex of the sun, or the highest vertical point of the sun
above a specific location. It is when the sun passes through the meridian
(longitude) of the selected location.
205
1 l h50m of darkness); (3) Summer begins ( 1 4h3m of light; 9h57m

of darkness); (4) Summer solstice ( 1 5h0m of light; 9h0m of dark
ness); (5) Autumn begins ( 1 4h2m of light; 9h5 8m of darkness); (6)
Autumn equinox ( 1 2h6m of light; 1 l h54m of darkness); (7) Winter
begins ( 1 Ohl Sm of light; 1 3 h45m of darkness); (8) Winter solstice
(9h2 1 m of light; 1 4h3 9m of darkness). As mentioned above, one
adj usts the descent-rate of the sinking bowl-clepsydra by adding or
subtracting coins . In terms of the eight nodes, one uses 1 1 /9, 1 0/1 0,
1 / 1 9, 0/20, 1 1 /9, 1 0/ 1 0 , 1 9/ 1 , 20/0, respectively. This reveals a
clear tracking of shifts in sunlight patterns and cosmological being.
The Quanzhen Daoist guidelines and employment of the sinking
bowl-clepsydra in turn reveals an accurate understanding of as
tronomy, mathematics, horology, hydrology, and metallurgy.
The text also maps the directions of sunrise and sunset (3b) and
provides a chart of the lunar and solar phases ( 4a ).
0
-j8
;"'it
z..
=:
E3
Fl
l:l:\
Chart ofPerfected Ninefold Yang

The chart is framed by the opening lines of the anonymous,
sixth-century Yinfu Jing t4t,lf ( Scripture on the Hidden Talisman;
DZ 3 1 ; trans . Komj athy 2008, handbook 7), which here refers to
LOUIS KOMJATHY
206
seasonal and cosmological attunement: "Observe the way of heav

en; attend to the activities of heaven" . This diagram generally de
picts the moon phases from the new moon on the first day of the
month, through to the full moon on the fifteenth, and ending with
the final moment of the waning crescent on the thirtieth day. 30 This
primary diagrammatic level is supplemented by the solar cycles
mapped according to twelve hexagrams from the Yifing *
(Classic of Changes).
Day 3 : Z i "1- : Fu-return = = : 1 1 th
month: Heavy Snow & Winter
Solstice
Day 5 : Ch6u 11:: : Lin-descent = = :
:
Day 1 8 : Wu if: Gou-meeting
5th month: Bearded Grain & Summer Solstice
Day 20 : Wei * : Dun-concealed
1 2th month: Slight Cold & Great

Cold
= =:
Day 8: Yin 1:: Tai-peace

-: 1 st
month: Spring B egins & Rain Water
Day 1 0 : Mao 9 : Dazhuang-great
Day 23 : Shen : Pi-standstill :: :::

7th month: Autumn Begins & Limit
of Heat
form
: 2nd month: Excited Insects & Spring Equinox
Day 1 3 : Chen BJZ: Guai-certainty
: 3 rd
month: Clear Brightness

Grain Rain
Day 1 5 : Si B : Qian-heaven
4th month: Summer Begins &
Slight Fullness
&
_ _
6th month: S light Heat &

Great Heat
Day 25 : You jllj : Guan-observation

: 8th month: Pure Dew & Autumn Equinox
Day 2 8 : Xu ,r:IG : Bo-flayed : 9th

month: Cold Dew & Frost Descends
Day 3 0 : Hai $; : Kun-earth :

1 0th month: Winter Begins and
Slight Snow3 1
Table 2. Solar cycles according to the twelve hexagrams.
30
There are eight primary lunar phases: new moon, waxing crescent (right-side
illumined), first quarter, W1L'l'.ing gibbous, full moon, waning gibbous (right-side
darkened), third quarter, waning crescent. The new moon and full moon are
especially significant moments in Daoist practice.
3 1 These are hexagrams 24 (initial yang), 1 9, 1 1 , 34, 43, 1 (complete yang), 44
(initial yJ:n), 3 3 , 1 2, 20, 23, and 2 (complete yJ:n), respectively.
207
Beyond these highly technical aspects, we should also recognize

the poetic and symbolic dimensions of the bowl-clepsydra as an
obj ect and in practice (see Pure Regulations of Complete Perfec
tion, DZ 1 23 5 : 9a- l l b). On the most basic level, the character bO
consists of jfn ("metal") and hen ::z!s: ("root"), which includes
mu * ("wood"). 3 2 As an alchemical symbol, this character repre
sents the j oining of Metal (white tiger) and Wood (azure dragon),
corresponding to the unification of qi and spirit through alchemical
transformation. Similarly, the sinking of the bowl corresponds to
concentrating on the lower elixir field (dantian ft S3 ), the navel
region, so that qi becomes stored. Just as the water of the larger
container is displaced, so too the adept' s qi circulates through the
body ' s organ-meridian networks . Just as the smaller container fills
with water and sinks to the bottom of the larger one, so too qi sinks
into and becomes stored in the lower elixir field as the body ' s en
ergetic center. One returns to the Root through alchemical forging
and refinement.
Quanzhen Clepsydra-Meditation
As we have seen, Quanzhen clepsydra-meditation was a form of
communal and monastic Daoist meditation. Quanzhen monastics
practiced this form of meditation within the larger patterns of mo
nastic life. According to our Yuan dynasty sources, this type of
Daoist meditation utilized a sinking bowl-clepsydra, a water-filling
bowl with a small hole in its center, as a time-keeping device. Dur
ing the clepsydra retreat, which was a hundred-day winter retreat
beginning on the first day of the tenth lunar month, monastics
gathered together for intensive communal meditation. This oc
curred within a meditation hall, referred to as the clepsydra hall, in
the center of which a clepsydra stand was placed. Monastics in turn
gathered around and practiced seated meditation facing towards the
centrally-located clepsydra. Our sources thus provide information
on the actual ritual obj ect, the architectural layout of at least some
3 2 The variant character bi5 flf,$: consists ofjou ffi ("j ar" ; earthenware pottery) and
hen * The former, which would have an Earth-phase association, might be taken
as a symbol for the center, the lower elixir field, and stillness.
208
LOUIS KOMJATHY
Quanzhen Daoist monasteries, as well as the overall format of the

winter clepsydra retreat. With these various details in place, we
may now ask a more difficult question: what methods did Quan
zhen monastics employ during clepsydra-meditation?
It seems that "clepsydra-meditation" was the larger framework
under which individual Quanzhen monastics practiced various
meditation techniques . That is, "clepsydra-meditation" refers to the
use of a water-clock during meditation and to a specific framework
of meditative discipline. It does not refer to a standardized and re
quired method. According to the Pure Regulations of Complete
Perfection, "Everyone practices quiet sitting (jzngzuo f!W) in ac
cordance with the methods appropriate to his own accomplish
ment" (DZ 1 2 3 5 : 6a). It thus seems that individual monastics may
have practiced different techniques suited to their specific spiritual
needs and level. However, based on extant texts, it is unclear if a
stage-based system was utilized. The texts suggest that Quanzhen
monastics practiced quiet sitting as well as internal alchemy
( neidiin I*! ft). Here I will provide a discussion, based on reasona
ble conj ecture and inforrned hypotheses, of pcrential n: editation
methods utilized within the context of late medieval Quanzhen
Daoist monasticism.
We may begin by noting that the Pure Regulations of Complete
Perfection suggests that stillness-based and emptiness-based medi
tation was the primary collective method (DZ 1 23 5 : l b, 6b, 9a1 1 b ). In keeping with classical and foundational Daoist meditation
practice, this is a form of quietistic or apophatic meditation within
which one enters a state of stillness and emptiness, allowing
thoughts and emotions to dissipate naturally until one merges with
the Dao. It is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. With
respect to the larger Daoist tradition, this practice receives a variety
of technical names : baoyz m - ("embracing the One"), jzngzuo flW
("quiet sitting"), ritjzng /\f!W ("entering stillness"), shouyz 9"'
("guarding the One"), xznzhiii 1 G' ("fasting of the heart-mind"),
and zuowang ;$ ("sitting-in-forgetfulness") (Kohn, 1 987; 1 98 9 ;
Roth, 1 99 1 ; 1 997; 1 999a; 1 999b; Komjathy, 20 1 3b). I n the context
of internal alchemy practice, or stage-based alchemical transfor
mation, quiet sitting is often the initial and final method utilized.
209
According to the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection,

Adepts who have the aspiration become affiliated with an illuminated
teacher. In the morning they receive guidance, while in the evening
they engage in ritual activity. They put what they hear into practice.
They study the scriptures and classics. With reverence, they hold to
the pure regulations . From morning to evening, they offer incense and
light candles in respectful gratitude to the heavens and earth. They
prostrate themselves before the sages and worthies, as well as serve
their teachers and elders . They become accomplished throughout their
various activities. They concentrate body and heart-mind by aligning
the body and practicing quiet sitting. 33 They do not give rise to impure
thoughts. Keeping the spinal column erect, [with the legs crossed in
front of the body,] the right foot is placed underneath and the hands
are joined in tranquil silence. The heart-mind remains unconcerned
with the external, and the eyes remain closed. Sit for one to two
watches. (DZ 1 23 5 : l b)
In the context of Quanzhen, quiet sitting, whether solitary or com

munal, was practiced under the guidance of a spiritual director, a
community elder who had experience with the practice. It was not
auto-didactic. In addition to emphasizing the importance of spiritu
al guidance from one ' s master-father (shifu fl] ::X: ) , elders
(daozhiing Jl!-R ) and Companions of the Dao (daoyou Jl! ) (see
ibid. : 1 Ob), this passage provides details on posture, principles, and
duration of quiet sitting. The standard seated posture seems to re
semble what is commonly referred to in a modern context as "mod
ified Burmese posture". This body-alignment parallels the half
lotus posture except that the feet and ankles remain on the
mat/floor. The spine is erect, the crown-point is aligned with the
perineum, and the shoulders are aligned with the hips. The mudra
(shouyin -=FF'.P), or sacred hand gesture, in question is unclear, but
the passage indicates that the "hands are j oined". This might refer
33 "Quiet sitting" translates jingzuo if, which also is rendered as "tranquil
sitting'', "stillness meditation", or "sitting-in-stillness". The standard practice
parallels "silent illumination" (mozhao J.ltf!fl) in the Caodong (Jpn. : Soto) Wrllil
lineage of Chan Buddhism. On the latter see Bielefeldt 1 990; Leighton, 2000.
Emphasis is placed on stillness and emptiness.
210
LOUIS KOMJATHY
to the standard Buddhist dhyiina ("meditation") mudrii, in which

the right hand is placed on top of the left with the thumb-tips
touching and the hands resting on the lap or near the navel. Alter
natively, the mudrii might be the Daoist zfwu -Tlf mudrii, which is
often referred to as the Taij i .tti or yin-yang mudrii in con
temporary Daoism. It is also the hand configuration used in modern
Daoist bowing, but its historical development is currently unknown.
The adept is also informed that the eyes should be shut, and one
can reasonably assume that the tip of the tongue is touching the
upper palate. Finally, the passage recommends sitting for "one to
two watches'', which would correspond to a period of two to four
hours in the evening.
Later on in the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection, one
finds a section titled "Hymn of the Clepsydra Hall" (9a- 1 1 b ). Here
the Quanzhen Daoist receives the following instruction on medita
tion practice:
The Way of Complete Perfection is the ocean; the heart-mind of im
mortal sagehood is the well-spring. At the center is the luminous Great
Ultimate; 3 4 on the inside is the hidden gourd-heaven. Your expansive
mind pervades the Center, which resembles a numinous abyss that
surges forth. The center of the bowl penetrates the base, 35 causing the
Spirit Water to ascend as saliva. If elevated luminosity abides, one
must face the Sovereign at the center of Emptiness. If highest adept
ness resides, 3 6 one must remain pliable when according with the
Source. If you rest within the ripples, the heart-mind comes to resem
ble clear blue water. If you are still among the wind-blown waves, in
nate nature takes on the structure of the Gold Lotus. Unified aspiration
is silent and unaffected. The three minds are purified and free from ag
itation. 3 7 If the water does not overflow, one is calm to the point of ab
sorption. If you are tranquil, you can be complete.
34 Great Ultimate translates taiji :t:tii, literally, "great ridgepole" . It refers to yin
yang interaction, and thus to the source of all differentiated identity.
35 The author is moving back and forth between the dual meanings of xfn 'L' as
"heart-mind" and "center".
3 6 An allusion to chapter 8 of the Daodejfng. See also chapters 1 5 , 4 1 , 65, and 6 8 .
37 "Three minds" (siinxfn .:::_ ,r,, ) is a technical Buddhist term that designates
consciousness of past, present and future. As a Daoist technical term, it may also
designate the "three centers", the three elixir fields.
211
This is clepsydra-meditation for practicing concentration, of enter

ing the chamber to cultivate accomplishment. Find the center within
emptiness, and the grotto will be penetrated. Act in accordance with
this real location in order to attain complete pervasion. Join heaven
and earth within the half-sheng vessel. 3 8 Hide away your emotions and
innate nature within the bowl-chamber. Fuse the ancestral qi of the
mysterious origin. Rouse the perfect currents of the Grand Kalpa. (DZ
1 23 5 : 9ab)
The aspiring Daoist adept is also informed,

You must pacify your thoughts and purify your heart-mind, revert
your emotions and return to your innate nature. In your activities, it is
essential that your serenity is constant; in your eating and drinking,
you must refrain from excess. When the uncontrolled heart-mind is
extinguished, there is the silent illumination of original spirit. When
the perfect breath is regulated, there is melded infusion of wisdom and
life-destiny. When entering meditation, contain your radiance in dark
ened silence by means of an empty heart-mind (ibid. : 9b- 1 Oa) .
And
Model yourself on the sages and immortals [who meditated] in dark
ened quietude and secret residence; emulate the Perfected [who resid
ed] in meditation enclosures by means of abyss-like abiding. Attain
this in calm stillness, enj oy this in quiet suchness, and investigate this
in the bowl-chamber. Living in great monasteries with their arrayed
rows or among enlightened individuals residing together is truly a rare
opportunity and exceptional chance (ibid. : l Ob) .
These passages direct the aspiring Quanzhen adept to focus on

emptying and purifying the heart-mind of excess emotional and
intellectual activity. From a Daoist perspective, the heart-mind (xfn
, c.,,) refers to both the physical heart and the psychosomatic center
of oneself. In its habituated and conditioned state, the "ordinary
heart-mind" (s'llx fn {1t 1 C..' ) is the source of agitation and turbidity
3 8 Half-sheng 7t vessel is a symbolic name for the lower elixir field, the navel
region.
212
LOUIS KOMJATHY
(dongzhu6 lb); it is associated with mundane thoughts, desires,

emotions, and concerns . In its realized and awakened state, the
"awakened heart-mind" (wuxfn lil..' ) is the source of clarity and
stillness (qfngjzng mif); it is associated with one ' s Dao-nature
(daoxzng i!:Hi) and original spirit (yuanshen 7GW). In the classical
statement on the matter, Daoist quiet sitting involves "emptying the
heart-mind and filling the belly" (xii qi xfn J!l[ :Jt 1 l..' , shi qi fa jif :Jt
Jli; Daode jfng, ch. 3 ) . From a Quanzhen perspective, as one emp
ties the heart-mind and stores qi in the lower elixir field (diintian
!HE ; also referred to as hutiiin :X ["gourd-heaven"]), two psy
chosomatic and energetic experiences occur: spiritual insight and
divine radiance emerges in the heart-mind, and numinous qi infus
es the entire body. These views are influenced by earlier Daoist
scriptures such as the fourth-century B CE Daode jfng J]ifJ!( *
(Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power), sixth-century C E Yfnfu
jfng itlf* ( Scripture on the Hidden Talisman; DZ 3 1 ), eighth
century Qfngjzng jfng r1Jif* (Scripture on Clarity and Stillness;
DZ 620), as well as various alchemical treatises (see Komjathy,
2007).
The Pure Regulations of Complete Perfection emphasizes the
importance of the heart-mind as the spiritual center, with its associ
ation with innate nature, purified consciousness, and spirit, through
the use of a variety of technical terms: Scarlet Tower (jiangque **
M), Numinous Palace (Unggong JI'), and Empty Chamber (xiishz
!.&*) (9b, 1 Ob). Reconstructing the actual process of quiet sitting
from the above passages, one empties and stills the heart-mind un
til only emptiness and stillness remains . One allows thoughts and
emotions to dissipate until the numinous presence of the Dao fills
one ' s being. This is accomplished by concentrating on the lower
elixir field, the lower abdomen or navel region. It is called "return
ing to the Source" (gufgen !w1H). Such meditative praxis requires
dedicated and prolonged practice, perhaps even a renunciant orien
tation and a monastic community. One passes through various
stages : from maj or agitation and minor agitation, through minor
stillness and maj or stillness, to meditative absorption. In this state
of stabilized stillness, one realizes silence as one ' s innate nature,
213
the center o f one ' s being which i s the Dao . The text speaks o f this
as "suchness" (ziran ), "absorption" (ding AE), and "comple
tion" (cheng fflt). This is complete alignment and attunement with
the Dao through meditative praxis, a meditative experience of mys
tical union with the Dao.
As mentioned, it seems that quiet sitting was the foundational
and most common method utilized in Quanzhen monasteries and
during clepsydra-meditation. The emphasis on stillness- and emp
tiness-based meditation, or Daoist apophatic meditation, is con
firmed by the fact that Quanzhen monastics compiled a guide to
meditation attributed to the founder of Quanzhen Wang
Ch6ngyang. Specifically, discourses 7, 8, 9 and 1 3 (3b-5b) of the
Ch6ngyang lijiao shiwu fitn m. .ll. + 11. (Redoubled Yang' s
Fifteen Discourses to Establish the Teachings ; DZ 1 2 3 3 ; abbr.
Ch6ngyang shiwu lim, Lijiao shiwu lim, or Shiwu lun) appear in the
fourteenth-century Qunxian yaoyu zuanji {Ul Bfr (Collec
tion of Essential Sayings from Various Immortals; DZ 1 2 5 7 : 2.2b4a) (see Komjathy, 2008, handbook 8). The latter text is roughly
contemporaneous with the Pure Regulations of Complete Perfec
tion and Practical Methods for the Bowl- Clepsydra. Similarly, with
respect to Quanzhen internal alchemy practice, there is the Dadiin
zhizhr ::kft i1rm (Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir; DZ 244), an
illustrated manual of stage-based neidiin practice attributed to the
third Quanzhen patriarch Qiii Changchiin. Although there is no
scholarly consensus on issues of dating and attribution, it appears
that this text was compiled, based on earlier material, between the
years of 1269 and 1 3 1 0 . This would make it either slightly earlier
or roug hly contemporaneous w1'th our primary sources. 39 I n a more
comprehensive account of late medieval Quanzhen monastic prac
tice, these texts, in combination with a variety of other non
Quanzhen materials, could inform a fuller appreciation of the di
versity of Daoist meditation practice. Unfortunately, at present we
do not have a clear sense of the distribution and circulation of these
.
39 Annotated translations of both the Ch6ngyting lijiao shiwu litn and the Dadiin
zhizhf appear in rny The Way of Complete Perfection: A Quanzhen Daoist
Anthology (Kornjathy, 20 1 3 a). This work includes introductions to the texts that
address issues of dating and attribution.
214
LOUIS KOMJATHY
texts, so it is impossible to know their degree of influence and ap

plication.
Reflections on the Bowl

On the first day of the tenth lunar month during the late medieval
period of Daoist history, Quanzhen monastics gathered together for
the winter clepsydra retreat. As members of a monastic community,
they practiced communal meditation for a period of one hundred
days, roughly from the first winter node, lidong li0:- ("winter be
gins"), through to the lunar New Year and first vernal node, llchiin
li* ("spring begins"). This helped to establish a cosmological
and energetic orientation for the year: one practiced intensive
meditation during winter, the time of deep yin, associated with
darkness, stillness, and silence, through the winter solstice, the zen
ith of yin and initial return of yang, until spring began, with its
promise of new life, growth, activity, and flourishing. Quanzhen
monastics gathered in the clepsydra hall, a meditation hall oriented
toward a centrally-located water-clock. As the sinking bowl
clepsydra filled with water and descended, the aspiring Quanzhen
adept also entered a state of deep stillness, an interior silence that
matched the external darkness. They found the stillness at the cen
ter of their being, their innate nature which is the Dao manifested
as sacred presence. If attentive, dedicated and consistent in their
meditative discipline, they discovered that the bowl was simultane
ously ritual obj ect, monastic implement, communal orientation
point, and interior chamber.
Bibliography
Agamben, Giorgio (20 1 3). The Highest Poverty: Monastic Rules and Form-of
Life . Adam Kotsko (trans.). Stanford : Stanford University Press.
Allon, Mark ( 1 997). Style and Function: A Study of the Dominant Stylistic Fea
tures of the Prose Portions of Pali Canonical sutta Texts and the ir Mnemonic
Function. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies of the Interna
tional College for Advanced Buddhist Studies.
Alsdorf, Ludwig ( 1 965). Les hudes Jaina, Etat present e t taches fittures. Paris:
College de France.
Anacker, S. ( 1 984). Seven Works of Vasubandhu - the Buddhist Psychological
Doctor. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Analayo (2003 a). Satipatthiina, The D irect Path to Realization. Birmingham:
Windhorse.
Analayo (2003b). "Nimitta", in W.G. Weeraratne (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Bud
dhism, 7 ( 1 ) , 1 77- 1 79 . Sri Lanka: D epartment of Buddhist Affairs.
Analayo (2006). " Santutthi", in W.G. Weeraratne (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Bud
dhism, 7 (4), 755-756. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist Affairs.
Analayo (2007). "Oral Dimensions of Pali Discourses: Pericopes, other Mnemon
ic Techniques, and the Oral Performance Context". Canadian Journal ofBud
dhist Studies, 3, 5-3 3 .
Analayo (2008). "Upakkilesa Sutta", in W.G. Weeraratne (ed.). Encyclopaedia of
Buddhism, 8 (2), 420-422. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist Affairs.
Analayo (2009). From Craving to Liberation: Excursions into the Thought-world
of the Pali Discourses (1) . New York: Buddhist Association of the United
States.
Analayo (20 1 1 ) . A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikaya. Taipei: Dharma
Drum Publishing Corporation.
Analayo (20 1 2a). "The Historical Value of the Pali Discourses", Inda-Iranian
Journal, 5 5 , 223-253 .
Analayo (20 1 2b) . Madhyama-agama Studies. Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing
Corporation.
Analayo (20 1 3). Perspectives on Satipatthana. Birmingham: Windhorse.
218
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armelin, I. (trans.) ( 1 978). Le Coeur de la loi supreme. Traite de Fa-cheng. Abhi

dharmahrdayasastra de Dharma.r!. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul
Guethner.
Armstrong, Karen ( 1 993). A History of God. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Awbatha, Ashin B iwuntha Mahteimyat ( 1 975). Thudeithana thayokpya abidan [A
reference dictionary] . Rangoon: ThUdammawadi Saponhneiktaik.
Baier, Karl (2009). Meditation und Moderne. Zur Genese e ines Kernbereichs
moderner Spiritualitiit in der Wechselwirkung zwischen Westeuropa,
Nordamerika und Asien. B and I. Wtirzburg : Konigshausen & Neumann.
Bansat-Boudon, Lyne and Kamaleshadatta Tripathi (20 1 1 ) . An Introduction to
Tantric Philosophy. The Paramarthasara of Abhinavagupta with the Com
mentary of Yogaraj a, London: Routledge.
Bao 'enlim 1Vl,. Xuzangjlng 62 no. 1 2 0 5 . http ://tripitaka.cbeta. org/X62nl205
002 (accessed 5 December 20 1 3 ) .
Bapat, P . V . ( 1 946) "Nekkhamma", i n R . Bhandarkar e t al. (eds.). B . C . Law Vol
ume, Part 2, 260-266. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
Bapat, P. V . ( 1 969). "Chinese Madhyamagama and the Language of its B asic
Text", in B. P. Sinha (ed.) Dr. Satkari Mookerji Felicitation. Varanasi :
Chowkhamba Publications.
Bareau, Andre ( 1 957). "Les controverses relatives a la nature de l'arhant dans le
bouddhisme ancien". Inda-Iranian Journal l, 24 1 -250.
Barna, B enimadhab ( 1 9 8 1 ) [ 1 92 1 ] . A History of Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philoso
phy. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass.
Bashir, Shahzad (20 1 3 ) : "Movement and Stillness: The Practice of Sufi Dhikr in
Fourteenth-Century Central Asia". In Eifring, 20 1 3 a: 20 1 -2 1 1 .
Baumer, Bettina (trans.) (2008). Vijnana Bhairava: Das gottliche B ewusstsein.
1 1 2 Weisen der mystischen Erfahrung im Shivaismus von Kashmir. Frankfurt:
Verlag der W eltreligionen.
Bechert, Heinz ( 1 966, 1 967, 1 973). Buddhismus, Staat, und Gesellschafl in den
Liindern des Theravada Buddhismus, Band XVII, vols. 1 -3 . Schriften des In
stituts filr Asienkunde, Hamburg.
Bernhard, Franz ( 1 965). Udanavarga. Vol. 1 . Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht.
Bevalkar, Shripad Krishna ( 1 9 54). The Santiparvan [Part III: Mok$adharma, A]
Being the Twelfth Book of the Mahabharata, The Great Epic ofIndia. Poona:
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
Bhagwat, N.K. ( 1 946). "Did the Buddha Kill the Child in Man (Bhfrqa)?" in R.
Bhandarkar et al. (eds.). B. C. Law Volume, Part 2, 6 1 -7 5 . Poona: Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute.
Bielefeldt, Carl ( 1 990). Dogen 's Manuals of Zen Meditation. B erkeley : University
of California Press.
Boisvert, M. ( 1 996). "Death as Meditation Subj ect in the Theravada Tradition".
Buddhist Studies Review 1 3 , 1 , 3 7-54.
Bond, G. D . ( 1 9 80). "Theravada Buddhism' s Meditations on Death and the Sym
bolism of Initiatory Death". History ofReligions 1 9, 237-258.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
219
B ond, G. D. ( 1 992). The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Rein
terpretation and Response. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
Boyd, J. W. ( 1 975). Satan and Mara: Christian and Buddhist Symbols of Evil.
Leiden : E.H. Brill.
Brahm, Aj ahn (2006). Mindfulness, Bliss, And Beyond: A Meditator 's Handbook.
Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Braun, E . (2008). "Ledi Sayadaw, Abhidhamma, and the development of the
modern insight meditation movement in Burma". PhD thesis, Harvard Univer
sity.
Brahm, John F. ( 1 957). "Burmese Religion and the Burmese Religious Revival".
PhD thesis, Cornell University.
Bronkhorst, Johannes ( 1 985a) . "On the chronology of the Tattvartha Sutra and
some early commentaries" . Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Sudasiens 29,
1 5 5- 1 84 .
Bronkhorst, Johannes ( 1 985b). "Dharma and Abhidharma". Bulletin of the School
of Oriental and African Studies 48.2, 3 0 5 -320.
Bronkhorst, Johannes ( 1 993a). The Two Traditions ofMeditation in Ancient India.
Second edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Bronkhorst, Johannes ( 1 993b). "Remarks on the history of Jaina meditation'', in
Rudy Smet and Kenj i Watanabe (eds.). Jain Studies in Honour ofJozefDeleu,
1 5 1 - 1 62 . Tokyo : Hon-no-Tomosha.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (2009). Buddhist Teaching in India. Boston: Wisdom Publi
cations.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (20 1 2). A bsorption: Human Nature and Buddhist L ibera
tion. Wil I Paris : University Media.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (ms.). "The History of Jaina Meditation". To appear in Ei
fring, forthcoming a.
Brough, John (200 1 ) [ 1 962] . The Giindhiirf Dharmapada, Edited with an Intro
duction and Commentary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Bucknell, Roderick S . ( 1 993). "Reinterpreting the Jhanas". Journal of the Interna
tional Association ofBuddhist Studies, 1 6 (2), 3 75-409.
Bucknell, Roderick S . (20 1 0) . "Taking Account of the Indic Source-text", in K.
Meisig (ed.). Translating Buddhist Chinese, Problems and Prospects, 45-52.
Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Byles, Marie ( 1 962). Journey into Burmese Silence. London: Allan and Unwin.
Byles, Marie ( 1 965). Paths to Inner Calms. London: Allan and Unwin.
C ahill, Suzanne ( 1 995). Transcendence and Divine Passion: The Queen Mother of
the West in Medieval China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Cardoso, Roberto, Eduardo de Souza, Luiz Camano and Jose Roberto Leite
(2004). "Meditation in Health: An Operational Definition", Brain Research
Protocols 1 4 : 5 8-60.
Cardoso, Roberto, Eduardo de Souza, Luiz Camano and Jose Roberto Leite
(2008). "Meditation for Health Purposes: Conceptual and Operational
Aspects", in Bernardo N. De Luca (ed.). Mind-Body and Relaxation Research
Focus, 2 1 3 -224. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
220
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, J. E . (ed.) ( 1 947). The Dlgha-Nikiiya. Vol. III. Pali Text Society. Lon
don: Oxford University Press.
Carrithers, Michael ( 1 983). The Forest Monks of Sri Lanka: An Anthropological
and Historical Study. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Charpentier, Jarl ( 1 922). The Uttariidhyayanasiltra, Being the First Miilasiitra of
the Svetiimbara Jains, Edited with an Introduction, Critical Notes and a
Commentary. Uppsala: Appelbergs B oktryckeri Aktiebolag.
Childers, R. C. ( 1 922). A Dictionary of the Pali Language. Rangoon: Buddha
Sasana Council.
Chung, Jin-ii and Takamichi Fukita, (20 1 1 ) . A Survey of the Sanskrit Fragments
Corresponding to the Chinese Madhyamiigama. Tokyo : Sankibo Press.
Clark, David H. and F . Richard Stephenson, ( 1 977). The Historical Supernovae.
Oxford etc. : Pergamon Press.
Collins, S. ( 1 997). "The Body in Theravada Buddhist Monasticism", in S. Co ak
ley (ed.) . Religion and the Body, 1 85 -204. Cambridge : Cambridge University
Press.
Cone, Margaret ( 1 9 89). "Patna Dharmapada". Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1 3 ,
1 0 1 -2 1 7.
Coomaraswami, A. ( 1 977). "Sarvega: Aesthetic Shock", in R. Lipsey (ed.).
Coomaraswami ] : Selected Papers on Traditional Art and Symbolism, 1 791 8 5 . B ollingen Series 89. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Cousins, L . S. ( 1 973). "Buddhist Jhana: Its Nature and Attainment According to
the Pali Sources". Religion, 3, 1 1 5 - 1 3 1 .
Cousins, L . S . ( 1 982). "Pali Oral Literature", in Ph. Denwood and A . Piatigorsky
(eds.). Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern, 1 - 1 1 . Collected Papers on
South Asia No. 4 . London: Curzon Press.
Cousins, L . S. ( 1 992). "Vitakka/Vitarka and Vicara: Stages of Samadhi in Bud
dhism and Yoga". Inda-Iranian Journal, 3 5 , 1 3 7- 1 57.
Cousins, L . S . ( 1 996a) . "The Origins of lnsight Meditation", in T. Skorupski (ed.).
The Buddhist Forum 2 : 3 5 -62. London: School of Oriental and African Stud
ies, University of London.
Cousins, L. S. ( 1 996b). "Good or Skilful? Kusala in Canon and Commentary".
Journal ofBuddhist Ethics, 3 , 1 3 6 - 1 64 .
Cox, C. ( 1 992). "Attainment through Abandonment: The Sarvastivadin Path of
Removing D efilements", in R. E. Buswell Jr. & R. M. Gimello (eds.). Paths to
Liberation: The Marga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, 6 3 - 1 05.
Kuroda Institute. Studies in East Asian Buddhism 7. Honolulu, HI: University
of Hawaii Press.
Cox, C . ( 1 995). Disputed Dharmas. Early Buddhist Theories on Existence : An
Annotated Translation of the Section on Factors Dissociated from Thought
from Sanghabhadm 's Nyaysrni$i'\rn. Studia Pliilol ogic. Bucl<lliica Monograph
Series XI. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.
Dantinne, J. ( 1 99 1 ) . Les qualites de l 'ascete (DhutagU1Ja) : Etude semantique et
doctrinale. S . l. : E ditions Thanh-Long.
DeKome, John C. ( 1 94 1 ). The Fellowship of Goodness: A Study in Contemporary
Chinese Religion. Grand Rapids, MI: John C. D eKome.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
22 1
Despeux, C. (2008). "L ' acces au sacre par la meditation. Techniques bouddhiques
et taolstes", in M. Masson (ed.). Le sacre en Chine, 1 2 9- 1 44 . Homo Religi
osus Serie II, No . 7 . Turnhout: Brepols.
Despeux, Catherine and Livia Kohn (2003). Women in Daoism. Cambridge, MA :
Three Pines Press.
Dessein, B . (trans.) ( 1 999). Smriyuktiibhidharmahrdaya: Heart of Scholasticism
with Miscellaneous Additions, 3 3 - 3 5 . 3 vols. Buddhist Tradition Series. D elhi:
Motilal Banarsidass.
Dessein, B. (2009). "Contaminants and the Path to Salvation: A Study of the
Sarvastivada Hrdaya Treatises". Asian Philosophy 1 9/ 1 , 63-84.
Dessein, B . (20 1 0) . "The Abhidharma School in China and the Chinese Version of
Upasanta' s *Abhidharmahrdaya(Siistra)" . The Eastern Buddhist New Series
4 1 /2, 49-69.
Dessein, B . (20 1 1 ) . " ' Thus Have I Heard' and Other Claims to Authenticity : De
velopment of Rhetorical D evices in the Sarvastivada Satpiidiibhidharma
Texts", in Christoph Anderl (ed.). Zen Buddhist Rhetoric in China, Korea and
Japan, 1 2 1 - 1 62. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Duyvendak, J. J. L. ( 1 942). "Further Data Bearing on the Identification of the
Crab Nebula with the Supernova of 1 054 AD., Part I: The Ancient Oriental
Chronicles". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 54, 9 1 -94.
DvivedI, Vraj avallabha (ed.) (1 984) [ 1 978] . Vijfiiinabhairava(l. Varanasi: Motilal
Banarsidass.
Eifring, Halvor (ed.) (20 1 3 a). Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam:
Cultural Histories. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Eifring, Halvor (20 1 3 b). "Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam: Techni
cal Aspects of Devotional Practices", in Eifring, 20 1 3 a: l - 1 3 .
Eifring, Halvor (ed.) (forthcoming a) . Asian Traditions ofMeditation. Planned for
publication 20 1 5 .
Eifring, Halvor (ed.) (forthcoming b 20 1 5). Meditation and Culture: Th e Interplay
ofPractice and Context. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Eifring, Halvor (ms.). "What Is Meditation?" To appear in Eifring, forthcoming a.
Ellingsen, 0. (forthcoming) "Biomedical Classification of Meditation Tech
niques". To appear in Eifring, forthcoming b .
Ellis, Andrew, Nigel Wiseman and Ken B o s s ( 1 989). Grasping the Wind: An Ex
ploration into the Meaning of Chinese Acupuncture Point Names. Brookline,
MA : Paradigm Publications.
Enomoto, Fumio ( 1 984). "The Formation and Development of the Sarvastivada
Scriptures", in T. Yamamoto (ed.) . Proceedings of the Thirty-First Interna
tional Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, Tokyo-Kyoto
31st August - 7th September 1 983, 1 97- 1 98 . Tokyo : T5h5 Gakkai.
Enomoto, Fumio ( 1 986). "On the Formation of the Original Texts of the Chinese
Agamas". Buddhist Studies Review, 3 ( 1 ), 1 9-30.
Eskildsen, Stephen ( 1 989). "The Beliefs and Practices of Early Ch'iian-chen Tao
ism". MA thesis, University of British Columbia.
Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen
Tao ist Masters. Albany : State University of New York Press.
222
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eskildsen, Stephen (2006). "Emergency Death Meditations for Internal Alche

mists". T 'oung Pao, vol. 92, fasc. 4-5, 3 7 3 -409.
Eskildsen, Stephen (2008). " Some Troubles and Perils of Taoist Meditation" .
Monumenta Serica, vol. 56, 259-29 1 .
Eskildsen, Stephen (2009). "Ne idan Methods for Opening the Gate of Heaven" . In
Livia Kohn and Robin Wang (eds.). Internal Alchemy: Self, Society and the
Quest for Immortality, 87- 1 0 3 . Magdalena, NM: Three Pines Press.
Esposito, Monica ( 1 993). "La Porte du Dragon: L ' e cole Longmen du Mont Jin' gai
et ses pratiques alchimiques d' apres le Daozang xubian (Suite au canon
taoYste )". PhD thesis, Universite de Paris VII.
Esposito, Monica (2000). "Daoism in the Qing ( 1 644- 1 9 1 1 )", in Livia Kohn (ed.)
Daoism Handbook, 623 -658. Leiden: Brill.
Esposito, Monica (200 1 ) . "Longmen Taoism in Qing China: Doctrinal Ideal and
Local Reality". Journal of Chinese Religions 2 9 : 1 9 1 -23 1 .
Esposito, Monica (2004). "The Longmen School and Its Controversial History
during the Q ing Dynasty", in John Lagerwey (ed.). Religion and Chinese So
ciety, vol. 2, 62 1 -98. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Feer, L. (ed.) ( 1 960). Sal'f'lyutta-Nikaya, Part V- Maha-vagga. Pali Text Society.
London: Luzac & Co.
Ferguson, J. P. ( 1 975). The Symbolic Dimensions of the Burmese Sangha. PhD
thesis, Cornell University.
Ferrer, Jorge N. & Jacob H. Sherman (2008). "Introduction: The Participatory
Turn in Spirituality, Mysticism, and Religious Studies. In Jorge N. Ferrer and
Jacob H. Sherman (eds.). The Participatory Turn: Spirituality, Mysticism, Re
ligious Studies, 1 -80. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Feuerstein, Georg ( 1 979) . The Yoga-Siitra of Patanjali: A New Translation and
Commentary. Kent: Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd.
Foulk, T. Griffith. ( 1 987). "The Ch' an School and Its Place in the Buddhist Mo
nastic Tradition". PhD thesis, University of Michigan.
Frauwallner, E. ( 1 9 5 1 ) . On the Date of the Buddhist Master of the Law. Serie
Orientate Roma, III. Rome : Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
Frauwallner, E. ( 1 97 l a). "Abhidharma-Studien, III: Der Abhisamayavadal,1" .
Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde Siid- und Ost-Asiens XV, 69- 1 2 1 .
Frauwallner, E . ( 1 97 lb). Die Entstehung der buddhistischen Systeme. Gottingen:
V andenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Gethin, Rupert ( 1 992a) . The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi
PakkhiyEl Dhamma. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
Gethin, Rupert ( 1 992b) . "The Matikas: Memorization, Mindfulness, and the List",
in J. Gyatso (ed.). In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and
Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, 1 4 9- 1 72. Albany : State Uni
versity of New York Press.
Gethin, Rupert (2007). "What's in a Repetition? On Counting the Suttas of the
Sa111yutta-nikaya" . Journal of the Pali Text Society, 29, 3 65-387.
Gnoli, Raniero ( 1 978). The Gilgit Manuscript of the Sanghabhedavastu, Being the
1 71h and Last Section of the Vinaya of the MiilasarvElstivEldin. Vol. 2. Rome :
Istituto Italiano per ii Medio ed Estremo Oriente .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
223
Gombrich, Richard ( 1 983). From Monastery to Meditation Centre : Lay-meditation

in Modem Sri Lanka. In Philip D enwood and Alexander Piatigorsky (eds.).
Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern. London: Curzon Press.
Gombrich, Richard ( 1 988). Theravada Buddhism : A Social History from Ancient
Benares to Modern Columbo. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Goossaert, Vincent ( 1 997). "La creation du taoi:sme modeme : l' ordre Quanzhen".
PhD thesis, E cole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Section des Sciences Reli
gieuses.
Goossaert, Vincent ( 1 999). "Entre quatre murs. Un ascete taoi:ste du XIIe siecle et
la question de la modemite" . T'oung-Pao 8 5 : 3 9 1 -4 1 8 .
Goossaert, Vincent (200 1 ) . "The Invention of an Order: Collective Identity in
Thirteenth-Century Quanzhen Taoism" . Journal of Chinese Religions 2 9 : 1 1 1 38.
Goossaert, Vincent (2004). "Counting Monks: The Quanzhen Clergy, 1 7001 9 5 0", in John Lagerwey (ed.). Religion and Chinese Society, vol. 2, 699-77 1 .
Hong Kong: Chinese University o f Hong Kong.
Goossaert, Vincent (2007). The Tao ists ofPeking, 1 800-1949: A Social History of
Urban Clerics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Goossaert, Vincent and Paul Katz (200 1 ) . "New Perspectives on Quanzhen Tao
ism: The Formation of a Religious Identity". Journal of Chinese Religions 2 9 :
9 1 -94.
Griffiths, Paul J. ( 1 983). "Buddhist Jhana: A Form-Critical Study" . Religion, 1 3 ,
55-68.
Guenther, Herbert V. ( 1 959), Sgam-po-pa: The Jewel Ornament of Liberation .
London: Rider & Co., 1 959.
Gunaratana, Henepola ( 1 996) [ 1 985] . The Path of Serenity and Insight: An Expla
nation of the Buddhist Jhiinas. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass.
Hackmann, Heinrich ( 1 920). "Die Monchsregeln des Klostertaoismus". Ostasiat
ische Zeitschrift 8: 1 4 1 -70.
Hackmann, Heinrich ( 1 93 1 ). Die dreihundert Monchsgebote des chinesischen
Tao ismus. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenshapen.
Hanneder, Jiirgen ( 1 998). Abhinavagupta 's Philosophy of Revelation: An Edition
and Annotated Translation of Miilinfslokaviirttika I, 1 -39. Groningen Oriental
Series Volume XIV. Groningen: Egbert Forsten.
Hiinshiin lfwren mengy6uji Ll.iA.JI. Eds. Cao Yue VIE!& and Kong Hong
fL 72;: . Beij ing: Beijmg rushilguan chilbiinshe, 200 5 .
Hardy, E. (ed.) ( 1 958a) . The Anguttara-Nikiiya. Vol. Ill Pancaka-nipiita and
Chakka-nipiita. Pali Text Society. London: Luzac & Co.
Hardy, E . (ed.) ( 1 95 8b). The Anguttara-Nikiiya. Vol. IV. Sattaka-nipiita, affhaka
nipiita and navaka-nipiita. Pali Text Society. London: Luzac & Co.
Hardy, E. (ed.) ( 1 95 8c). The Anguttara-Nikiiya. Vol. V. Dasaka-nipiita and ekiida
saka-nipiita. Pali Text Society. London: Luzac & Co.
Harrison, P . M. ( 1 9 82). "Sanskrit Fragments of a Lokottaravadin Tradition", in L.
A. Hercus, F . B . J. Kuiper, T. Raj apatirana, and E. R. Skrzypczak (eds.). In
dological and Buddhist Studies: Volume in Honour ofProfessor J W. de Jong
224
BIBLIOGRAPHY
on his Sixtieth Birthday, 2 1 1 -234. Canberra: Australian National University,

Faculty of Asian Studies.
Hemacandra ( 1 9 86) [ 1 977, 1 9 8 1 ] . Yogasastra. Muni Jambuvij aya (ed. and
comm.). B ombay : Jaina Sahitya Vikasa Mai;i\}ala.
Hendrischke, Barbara (2007). The Scripture on Great Peace: The Taiping j ing
and the Beginnings of Dao ism . B erkeley : University of California Press.
Herrou, Adeline (2005). La vie entre soi: Les moines taoi'stes aujourd'hui en
Chine. Nanterre: Societe d'Ethnologie.
Hirakawa, Akira ( 1 973). Index to the Abhidharmakoabha(fya - Part I: Sanskrit
Tibetan-Chinese. Tokyo: D aizo Shuppan.
Hirakawa, Akira ( 1 987). "Buddhist Literature : Survey of Texts", in Mircea Eliade
(ed.) The Encyclopedia of Religion, 2, 5 09-529. New York : Macmillan Pub
lishing Company.
Hirakawa, Akira ( 1 997). Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary. Tokyo: Reiyukai.
Holen, Are (20 1 3 ) . "Acem Meditation and Other Meditation Practices". In Are
Holen and Halvor Eifring, Acem Meditation: An Introductory Companion. 2nd
ed., 59-66. Oslo : Dyade Press.
Holen, Are (ms.) "The Uses of Attention in Modem Meditation Practices" . To
appear in Eifring, forthcoming a.
Homer, I. B. ( 1 946). "Gotama and the Other Sects" . Journal of the American Ori
ental Society, 66, 283-289.
Homer, I . B . (trans.) ( 1 949). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka) . Vol. I:
Suttavibhanga. London: Luzac & Co.
Homer, I. B . (trans.) ( 1 962). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka) . Vol. IV:
Mahavagga. London: Luzac & Co.
Houtman, G. ( 1 990) "Traditions of Buddhist Practice in Burma". PhD thesis, Uni
versity of London.
Houtman, G. ( 1 999). Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: A ung San Suu
Kyi and the National League for Democracy. Tokyo University of Foreign
Studies, ILCAA.
Houtman, G. (2009) . "Spiritual and familial continuities in Burma' s ' secular'
politics". In Buddhist Approach to Political Conflict and Peace Development:
UND V Conference Volume, The International Buddhist Conference on the
United Nations Day of Vesak Celebrations, 4-6 May, 2009 : 27-4 1 .
Hua, T6ngxu * rol Afl. ( 1 99 1 ). Zh0nggu6 Zemke cp WJ ),\HU. AnhuI: Anhui: kej i
chUbanshe.
Jingye zhlffn )jl- * :l;D )f: , Xitzangjlng 62 no . 1 1 83 . http ://tripitaka. cbeta. org/
X62nl 1 83 _00 1 (accessed 5 December 20 1 3 ).
Johnsen, Henrik Rydell. (20 1 3) . "The Early Jesus Prayer and Meditation in Greco
Roman Philosophy", in Eifring, 20 1 3 a, 9 3 - 1 06.
Jordt, I. (2007). Burma 's Mass Lay Meditation Movement: Buddhism and the
Cultural Construction ofPower. Athens, OH: University of Ohio Press.
Jung, C. G. ( 1 967). Alchemical Studies. R. F . C . Hull (trans.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. ( 1 968). Psychology and A lchemy. R. F . C. Hull (trans.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
225
Kapleau, Philip ( 1 989) [ 1 965] . The Three Pillars of Zen. New York, NY : Anchor
B ooks.
Kapstein, Matthew T. (2004). "Rethinking Religious Experience : Seeing the Light
in the History of Religions", in Matthew T. Kapstein (ed.) . The Presence of
Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Experience, 265-299. Chicago : The
University of Chicago Press.
King, Winston L. ( 1 96 1 ). "An Experience in Meditation". The Journal ofReligion
4 1 . Reprinted in King ( 1 964a:225-3 5).
King, Winston L. ( 1 964a) . A Thousand Lives Away: Buddhism in Contemporary
Burma. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.
King, Winston L. ( 1 964b). In the Hope ofNibbana: An Essay on Theravada Eth
ics. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
King, Winston L. ( 1 97 1 ) . "The Role of the Meditation Master in Theravada Bud
dhism." Newsletter Review of R. M. Bucke Memorial Society, IV, nos. 1 and
2, Spring, 5 - 1 0 .
King, Winston L. ( 1 980). Theravada Meditation: Th e Buddhist Transformation of
Yoga. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Kloppenborg, Ria ( 1 982). "The Place of Maitreya in Early and Theravada Bud
dhism and the Conditions for Rebirth in His Time" . 3 0th International Con
gress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, 1 976. South Asia 3 (Mexi
co 1 982), 37-48.
Kohn, Livia ( 1 987). Seven Steps to the Tao : Sima Chengzhen 's Zuowang lun . St.
Augustin: Steyler Verlag.
Kohn, Livia ( 1 997). "The Date and Compilation of the Fengdao kejie : The First
Handbook of Monastic Daoism" . East Asian History 1 3 : 9 1 - 1 1 8 .
Kohn, Livia (2003a) . Monastic Life i n Medieval China: A Cross-Cultural Per
spective. Honolulu, HI : University of Hawaii Press.
Kohn, Livia (2003b). "Monastic Rules in Quanzhen Daoism: As Collected by
Heimich Hackmann" . Monumenta Serica 5 1 : 1 -3 2 .
Kohn, Livia (2004a). Th e Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao
kejie. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kohn, Livia (2004b) . Cosmos and Community: The Ethical Dimension ofDao ism .
Cambridge, MA : Three Pines Press.
Kohn, Livia (ed.) ( 1 989). Tao ist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Ann Ar
bor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.
Kohn, Livia (ed.) (2000a) . Daoism Handbook. Leiden: Brill.
Kohn, Livia (forthcoming). "The Daoist Adaptation of Buddhist Insight Medita
tion" . To appear in Eifring, forthcoming b.
Komjathy, Louis (2002). Title Index to Daoist Collections. Cambridge, MA:
Three Pines Press.
Komjathy, Louis (2003 ). "Daoist Texts in Translation". http ://www. daoistcenter.
org/advanced.html. Posted on September 1 5, 2003 . Accessed June 1 , 20 1 3 .
Komjathy, Louis (2007). Cultivating Perfection: Mysticism and Self
transformation in Early Quanzhen Daoism. Leiden: Brill.
Komj athy, Louis (2008) [2003 ] . Handbooks for Daoist Practice (Xiildao shi5uce
fm.f.fffi"). 1 0 vols. Hong Kong : Yuen Yuen Institute.
226
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Komjathy, Louis (20 1 3 a) . The Way of Complete Perfection: A Quanzhen Dao ist
Anthology. Albany, NY : State University of New York Press.
Komjathy, Louis (20 1 3 b) . The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. London:
Bloomsbury Academic.
Kornfield, J. ( 1 977). Living Buddhist Masters. Santa Cruz, CA: Unity Press.
Koyanagi Shikita 1NiJPl5l A ( 1 934). Hakuunkan shi (Baiyun guan zhi) 8 ![
;G;. Tokyo : Toho bunka gakuin Tokyo kenkyuj o .
Kuan, T. (2008). Mindfulness i n Early Buddhism : New Approaches Through Psy
chology and Textual Analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources. London:
Routledge.
Kuan, T. (20 1 2) . "Cognitive Operations in Buddhist Meditation: Interface with
Western Psychology" . Contemporary Buddhism: An Interdisciplinary Jour
nal, 1 3 : 1 , 3 5-60.
La Vallee Poussin, L . de (trans.) ( 1 9 7 1 ) [ 1 92 3 - 1 93 1 ] . L 'Abhidharmakoa de
Vasubandhu: Traduction et Annotations. 6 vols. Brussels : Institut Belge des
Hautes Etudes Chinoises.
Lakshman Jee [=Lakshman Joo] ( 1 9 9 1 ) [ 1 985] . Kashmir Sa ivism: The Secret
Supreme. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
Lakshman Joo (2007). VijnZina Bhairava: The Practice of Centring Awareness,
2nd ed. Varanasi : Indica B ooks.
Lamotte, Etienne ( 1 970). Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse de NagZirjuna
(MahZiprajnaparamitZisZistra) . Leuven: Institut Orientaliste.
Lamotte, Etienne ( 1 988). History ofIndian Buddhism . Leuven: Peeters Press.
Lannoy, R. ( 1 9 7 1 ) . The Speaking Tree: A Study of Indian Culture and Society.
London, New York, NY : Oxford University Press.
Leighton, Taigen Dan (2000). Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illum ina
tion of Zen Master Hongzhi. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle.
Leighton, Taigen Dan (2004). "Introduction: Hongzhi, Dogen, and the B ack
ground of Shikantaza." In John Daido Loori : The Art ofJust Sitting: Essential
Writings on the Zen Practice of Shikantaza. 2nd ed., viii-xxii. Somerville,
MA : Wisdom Publications.
Li, Yangzheng $'.'ll IE ( 1 993). Dangdai zh0nggu6 daojiao 1'it{ tj=t \g&)m. Bei
j ing: Zhonggu6 shehui kexue chi.ibanshe.
Li, Yangzheng $'.'llIE (2000). Dangdai daojiao 1'lt{m . Beij ing: D ongfiing
chi.ibanshe.
Li, Yangzheng $'.'ll IE (2003). Xlnbian Beijing Baiyun guan zhi !fjffmi:it:g a ID[
;G;. Beij ing: Zongj iao wenhua chi.ibanshe.
Lieberman, V. B. ( 1 984). Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest
c. 1580-1 760. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lin, Wanchmin if;tf-\t{.$ ( 1 984). XiantiZin dadao xitong yanjiii 51:;:7(:*.: m MEliffi'.E .
Tainan: Tianju shi.iju.
Liu, Xun (2004a) . "Visualizing Perfection: Daoist Paintings of Our Lady, Court
Patronage, and Elite Female Piety in the Late Q ing" . Harvard Journal ofAsi
atic Studies 64. 1 : 5 7- 1 1 5 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
227
Liu, Xun (2004b) [2006] . "Immortals and Patriarchs : The Daoist World of a Man
chu Official and His Family in 1 9th Century China". Asia Major 1 7. 2 : 1 6 1 218.
Lu, Cheng ( 1 963). "Agama", i n G . P . Malalasekera (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Bud
dhism, 1 (2), 24 1 -244. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist Affairs.
Lutyens, Mary ( 1 999). Life and Death of Krishnamurti. Indian paperback edition.
New Delhi : Srishti.
Lutz, Antoine, Heleen A. Slagter, John D. Dunne and Richard J. Davidson (2008).
"Attention Regulation and Monitoring in Meditation". Trends Cogn Sci.
1 2(4) : 1 63-169.
MAA ( 1 9 80). M:yanma abidan akyingyok [Concise Burmese dictionary] . Com
piled by : Pyidaungzu Hsoshelit Thamada Myanmanaingngandaw Pyinnya
yeiwungyihtana. Rangoon: Sabei Beikman.
Mahasi Sayadaw ( 1 979). Withokdi mek: myanma byan [Translation of Visud
dhimagga into Burmese] . Vols. I-IV. Rangoon: BTNA.
Malek, Roman (ed.) (2002). The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ, vol. 1 . Sankt Au
gustin: Monumenta Serica Institute.
Malek, Roman (ed.) (2006). Jingj iao: The Church of the East in China and Cen
tral Asia. Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Serica Institute.
Marsone, Pierre ( 1 999). "Le Baiyun guan de Pekin: Epigraphie et histoire" . Mate
riaux pour l 'etude de la religion chinoise-Sanjiao wenxian 3 : 73 - 1 3 6 .
Marsone, Pierre (200 1 ) . "Accounts o f the Foundation of the Quanzhen Movement:
A Hagiographic Treatment of History". Journal of Chinese Religions 2 9 : 951 1 0.
Masefield, Peter ( 1 986). Divine Revelation i n Pali Buddhism . Colombo : Sri Lanka
Institute of Traditional Studies.
Maspero, Henri ( 1 939). "Les instruments astronomiques des Chinois au temps des
Han". Melanges chinois et bouddhiques 6: 1 83 -370.
Mayeda [=Maeda], Egaku ( 1 985). "Japanese Studies on the Schools of the Chi
nese Agamas'', in H. Bechert (ed.). Zur Schulzugehorigkeit van Werken der
Hfnayiina-Literatur, Erster Tei!, 1, 94- 1 0 3 . Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht.
Meisig, Konrad ( 1 990). "Meditation (Dhyana) in der A ltesten Buddhistischen
Lehre'', in Hagemann et al. (eds.). !hr Alle Seid aber Bruder, Festschriftfur A.
Th. Khoury zum 60. Geburtstag, 5 4 1 -554. Wiirzburg: Echter.
Mej or, M. ( 1 989- 1 990). "The Problem of Two Vasubandhus Reconsidered" . In
dologica Taurinensia XV-XVI, 1 7 5- 1 83 .
Mendelson, E . Michael ( 1 975). Sangha and State in Burma: A Study of Monastic
Sectarianism and Leadership. John P. Ferguson (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Univer
sity Press.
Messadie, Gerald ( 1 996). A History of the Devil. New York: Kodansha America.
Meyer, J. J. ( 1 9 3 0) . Sexual Life in Ancient India, vol. 1 . London: George
Routledge and Sons.
Minh Chau, Thich ( 1 99 1 ) . The Chinese Madhyama Agama and the Pali Majjhima
Nikiiya. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass .
228
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Moore, J. H. (trans.) ( 1 965). Sayings of Buddha. The Iti- Vuttaka. A Pali Work of
the Buddhist Canon. New York, NY: AMS Press Inc.
Morris, R. (ed.) ( 1 955). The Anguttara-Nikiiya. Vol. II Pali Text Society. London:
Luzac & Co.
Morris, R. and A. K. Warder (eds.) ( 1 96 1 ) . The Anguttara-Nikaya. Vol. I:
Ekanipata, Dukanipata, and Trikanipata. Pali Text Society. London: Luzac &
Co.
Mote, F.W ( 1 999). Imperial China 900-1800. Cambridge, MA : Harvard Universi
ty Press.
Mukunda Rama S astrI (ed.) ( 1 9 1 8) . The Vifnana-Bhairava with Commentary
Partly by emaraja and Partly by Shivopadhyiiya. KSTS 8. B ombay.
Mullin, Glenn H. ( 1 986). Death and Dying: The Tibetan Tradition. New York,
NY : Arkana.
Muppathyil, Cyriac ( 1 979). Meditation as a Path to God-realization: A Study in
the Spiritual Teachings of Swami Prabhavananda and His Assessment of
Christian Spirituality. Rome: Universita Gregoriana Editrice.
Muthukumaraswamy, M. D . (forthcoming) . "Vedic Chanting as Lay Meditation
Practice in Tamil S aivism". To appear in Eifring, forthcoming b.
Myrvold, Kristina (ms.). "Nam Simran in the Sikh Religion" . To appear in Eif
ring, forthcoming a.
Nakamura, H. ( 1 980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes.
Toky o : Kufs Publications.
N al).amoli Bhikkhu (trans.) ( 1 9 5 6) . The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) by
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa. Colombo : R. Semage.
N al).amoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2005) [ 1 995] . The Middle Length Discourses of the
Buddha, A Translation of the Ma1jhima Nikaya. Bhikku Bodhi (ed.). Boston,
MA: Wisdom.
Needham, Joseph et al. ( 1 959). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3 : Mathe
matics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge : Cambridge
University Press.
Needham, Joseph et al. ( 1 960). Heavenly Clockwork: The Great Astronomical
Clocks ofMedieval China. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Needham, Joseph et al. ( 1 965). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 4: Physics
and Physical Technology, Part II: Mechanical Engineering. Cambridge: Cam
bridge University Press.
Norman, K. R. (2004) [ 1 997] . The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada) . Oxford:
Pali Text Society.
Norman, K. R. (2004). "On Translating the Suttanipata". Buddhist Studies Review,
21 ( 1 ), 69-84.
Oberlies, Thomas (2003). "Bin bibliographischer Uberblick uber die kanonischen
Texte der S ravakayana-Schulen des Buddhismus (ausgenommen der des
Mahavihara-Theravada)". Wiener Zeitschriftfur die Kunde Siidasiens, 47, 3 784.
Obeyesekere, G. ( 1 989). "Despair and Recovery in Sinhala Medicine and Reli
gion: An Anthropologist' s Meditations", in L. E. Sullivan (ed.). Healing and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
229
Restoring: Health and Medicine in the World 's Religious Traditions, 1 27- 1 4 8 .
New York, NY: Macmillan.
Oldenberg, H. (ed.) ( 1 964a). Vinaya Pitakam: One of the Principal Buddhist Holy
Scriptures in the Pali Language. Vol. I: Mahiivagga. Pali Text Society. Lon
don: Luzac & Co.
Oldenberg, H. (ed.) ( 1 964b). Vinaya Pitakam: One of the Principal Buddhist Holy
Scriptures in the Pali Language. Vol. III: The Suttavibhanga, first part.
Parajika, smrighadisesa, aniyata, nissaggiya London: Luzac & Co.
Ospina, Maria B . , Kenneth B ond, Mohammad Karkhaneh, Lisa Tj osvold, Ben
Vandermeer, Yuanyuan Liang, Liza Bialy, Nicola Hooton, Nina Buscemi,
D onna M. Dryden, and Terry P. Klassen, "Meditation Practices for Health:
State of the Research", Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 1 5 5 .
AHRQ Publication N o . 07-EO I O (June 2007). Rockville MD : Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality.
Osuna, Francisco de ( 1 9 8 1 ) . The Third Spiritual Alphabet. Mary E. Giles (trans.).
Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
Padoux, Andre ( 1 990). Vac. The Concept of the Word in Selected Hindu Tantras.
Albany, NY : State University of New York Press.
Paul, D . Y. ( 1 979). Women in Buddhism . Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanitie s Press.
Pe Maung Tin ( 1 92 1 -25). The Path of Purity: Being a Translation of Bud
dhaghosa 's Visuddhimagga. London: Pali Text Society ( 1 975 reprint).
Powers, John. ( 1 995). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism . Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion
Publications.
Pradhan, P. ( 1 967). Abhidharmakosabha:rya. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Insti
tute.
Pradhan, P. (ed.) ( 1 975). Abhidharmakosabha.yam of Vasubandhu. Tibetan San
skrit Works Series 8. Patna: Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute.
Prasada, Rama (trans.) ( 1 9 1 2), Pataiijali 's Yoga Sutras with the Commentary of
Vyasa and the Gloss of Vacaspati Misra. Allahabad: Panini Office.
PuD.yavij ayaj i, Muni Shri and Pt. Amritlal Mohanlal Bhojak (eds.) ( 1 977). Avas
saya Sutta. Bombay : Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya.
Qvarnstrom, Olle (2002). The Yogasastra of Hemacandra: A Twelfth Century
Handbook on Svetambara Jainism . Cambridge, MA : Deptartment of Sanskrit
and Indian Studies, Harvard University.
Rahula, Walpola ( 1 962). "A Comparative Study of Dhyanas according to Thera
vada, Sarvastivada and Mahayana". Maha Bodhi, 70 (6), 1 90- 1 99 .
Rahula, Walpola ( 1 974). Heritage of the Bhikkhu. New York, NY : Grove Press.
Reiter, Florian C. ( 1 998). The Aspirations and Standards of Taoist Priests in the
Early T 'ang Period. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Ren, Jiyu {:I: (ed.) (200 1 ) . Zh0nggu6 daojiao shf cj:i mSI: . 2 vols. Bei
j ing : Zh6nggu6 shehui kexue chiibiinshe .
Renou, L. and J. Filliozat ( 1 996). L 'Inde Classique: Manuel des etudes indiennes.
Reimpression No 8. Paris: Presses de l' ecole fran9aise d' extreme-orient.
Reynolds, F. E. ( 1 979). "Death and Eastern Thought," in W. T. Reich (ed.). The
Encyclopedia ofBio Ethics. New York, NY : Free Press.
230
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rhys D avids, T. W. and J. E. Carpenter (eds. ) ( 1 947). The Drgha Nik{tya. Vol. II.
P ali Text Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Rhys D avids, T. W. and W. Stede ( 1 9 2 1 -25). Pali Text Society 's Pali-English
Dictionary. London: Pali Text Society.
Rhys D avids, T. W. and W. Stede ( 1 992) [ 1 92 1 - 1 925] . The Pali Text Society 's
Pali-English Dictionary. Oxford: Pali Text Society.
Roth, Harold ( 1 99 1 ) . "Psychology and Self-Cultivation in Early Taoistic
Thought". Harvard Journal ofAsiatic Studies 5 1 .2 : 599-650.
Roth, Harold ( 1 996). "The Inner Cultivation Tradition of Early Daoism", in D on
ald S. Lopez, Jr. (ed.). Religions of China in Practice, 1 2 3 - 1 4 8 . Princeton, NJ:
Princeton U. Press.
Roth, Harold ( 1 997). "Evidence for Stages of Meditation in Early Taoism". Bulle
tin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60.2 : 295-3 1 4 .
Roth, Harold ( 1 999a) . Original Tao : Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Founda
tions of Tao ist Mysticism" . New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Roth, Harold ( 1 9 99b). "Laozi in the Context of Early D aoist Mystical Praxis", in
Mark Csikszentmihalyi and Philip J. Ivanhoe (eds.), Religious and Philosoph
ical Aspects of the Laozi, 59-96. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press.
Russell, Jeffrey Burton ( 1 997). A History of Heaven. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Ryose, W.R. ( 1 986). "The Position of the Abhidharmahrdaya in the Historical
D evelopment of Sarvastivada Thought". Abhidharma Research Institute, Kyo
to 5 , 1 - 1 6 .
Saeki Yoshiro {r{Bflr ( 1 937). The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China.
Tokyo : Toho Bunka Gakuin.
Saksena, Baburam ( 1 93 6) . "Pali bhilnaha". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
African Studies, 8, 7 1 3-7 1 4 .
Sangermano, Father ( 1 893). The Burmese Empire a Hundred Years Ago. 2nd ed.
Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co.
Sas aki, Genjun H. ( 1 963). "The Historical Evolution of the Concept of Negation:
Nekkhamma and Naikramya" . Journal of the American Oriental Society, 83
(4), 477-484.
Sasaki, Genjun H. ( 1 992) [ 1 9 86] . L inguistic Approach to Buddhist Thought. D el
hi: Motilal B anarsidass.
Schipper, Kristofer and Franciscus Verellen (eds.) (2004) . The Tao ist Canon: A
Historical Companion to the Daozang. Chicago, IL : The University of Chica
go Press.
Schliitter, Morten (ms.). "Kanhua (Keyword) Meditation in Chinese Zen". To
appear in Eifring, forthcoming a.
Schmithausen L. ( 1 976) . "Die vier Konzentrationen der Aufrnerksamkeit" .
Zeitschrift far Missionswissenschaften und Religionswissenschaft 60, 24 1 -266.
Schmithausen, L. ( 1 992). "A Note on Vasubandhu and the Lallkavatarasiitra".
Asiatische Studien XLVI- 1 , 3 92-3 97.
Schmithausen, Lambert 20 1 3 : "Ku8ala and akusala: Reconsidering the Original
Meaning of a Basic Pair of Terms of Buddhist Spirituality and Ethics and its
BIBLIOGRAPHY
23 1
Development up to Early Yogaciira", in U. T. Kragh (ed.), The Foundation for

Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogiiciirabhiimi Treatise and its Adaptation
in India, East Asia, and Tibet, 440-495, Cambridge, MA : Harvard University
Press.
Seppala, Serafim (20 1 3 ) . "Meditation in the East Syrian Tradition" . In Eifring,
20 1 3 a: 1 07- 1 2 1 .
Shankm an, Richard (200 8). The Experience of Samiidhi, An In-depth Exploration
ofBuddhist Meditation. Boston, MA : Shambhala.
Sharf, R. H. ( 1 995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experi
ence". Numen 42, no. 3 (Oct. 1 995): 228-283 .
Shattock, E. H. (Rear-Admiral) ( 1 958). An Experiment in Mindfulness. London:
Rider & Co.
Shattock, E. H. (Rear-Admiral) ( 1 988). Meditation: Seven Steps Towards Under
standing. London: Theosophical Publishing House.
Shaw, Sarah (2006). Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali
Canon. London: Routledge.
Shaw, Sarah (ms.). "Meditation Obj ects in Pali Buddhist Texts". To appear in
Eifring, forthcoming a.
Shukla, Karunesha ( 1 9 9 1 ). Sriivakabhiimi ofAciirya Asanga. Vol. 2. Patna: K. P.
Jayaswal Research Institute.
Silbum, Lilian (trans. and comm.) ( 1 983). Le Vijniina Bhairava. Paris : Ed. de
B occard.
Silbum, Lilian and Andre Padoux ( 1 998). Abhinavagupta: La lumiere sur !es
Tantras, chapitres 1 a 5 du Tantraloka. Paris: Ed. de Boccard.
Singh, Jaideva (trans.) ( 1 979). Vijniina Bhairava or Divine Consciousness. Delhi :
Motilal Banarsidass.
Sironi, Attilia (trans. and comm.) ( 1 989). Vijniinabhairava: La conoscenza de!
Tremendo . Piccola Biblioteca 237. Milan: Adelphi Edizioni.
Skilling, Peter ( 1 994). Mahiisiitras: Great Discourses of the Buddha. Vol. 1 . Ox
ford: Pali Text Society.
Soma Thera ( 1 9 8 1 ) [ 1 94 1 ] . The Way of Mindfulness: The Satipatthiina Sutta
Commentary. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Soothill, William Edward and L. Hodous (2000) [ 1 93 7 ] . A Dictionary of Chinese
Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali
Index. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Spiro, M. E. ( 1 982). Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese
Vicissitudes, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Stache-Rosen, Valentina ( 1 968). Dogmatische Begriffsr eihen im Alteren Bud
dhismus II; Das Sangftisiitra und sein Kommentar Sang'itiparyiiya. Vol. 1 .
Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
Stuart-Fox, Martin ( 1 989). "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism" . Journal of the
International Association ofBuddhist Studies, 12 (2), 79- 1 1 0.
Swearer, D .K. ( 1 973). "Control and Freedom : The Structure of Buddhist Medita
tion in the Pali Suttas" . Philosophy East and West XXIII, 4, 43 5-45 5 .
Takakusu, J . ( 1 904). "The Life of Vasubandhu b y Paramiirtha" . T'o ung Pao Serie
II, Vol. 5, 269-296.
232
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tanaka, Fumio EEl tF ::Y::tzt (20 1 2). Mijiao mingxiangfa zai Riben de zhankai @;
;l'J\)zli:{E B :z!s:i'l/;JI*] . Chen Jlngfii llffill (trans.), in Rur-bin Yang ffmj[,
Mabuchi Masaya ,)Jjf! ill and Halvor Eifring )tj, (eds.). Dongya de
j ingzuo chuantong *QB/;Jf-Wm, 293-320. Taipei: National Taiwan Uni
versity Press.
The Cloud of Unknowing: And The Book of Counselling. Phyllis Hodgson (trans.).
L ondon: Oxford University Press, 1 973 .
Trenckner, V. (ed.) ( 1 964). The Ma1j'hima-Nikaya. Vol. I. Pali Text Society. Lon
don: Luzac & Co.
Tsui, B artholomew P. M. ( 1 990). "The Transmission of the Taoist Complete Per
fection Sect in South China". Jingfeng 3 3 : 248-57.
Tsui, B artholomew P . M. ( 1 99 1 ) . Tao ist Tradition and Change: The Story of the
Complete Perfection Sect in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Christian
Study Center on Chinese Religion and Culture.
Turner, Alice ( 1 993 ) . The History ofHell. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
Vaidya, P. L . (ed.) ( 1 96 1 ) . Santideva, Sik$asamuccaya. Darbhanga: Mithila Insti
tute.
Van D en Broeck, J. (trans.) ( 1 977). La saveur de l 'immortel (A-p 'i-t 'an Kan Lu
Wei Lun) - La version chinoise de l 'Amrtarasa de Gho$aka (T. 1553) . Leuven:
Institut Orientaliste de L 'Universite Catholique de Louvain.
Van Gennep, Arnold (2004). The Rites ofPassage. London: Routledge.
Vasudeva, Somadeva (2004). The Yoga of the Malinzvijayottaratantra. Chapters
1 -4, 4- 1 7. Critical Edition, Translation & Notes. Collection Indologie 97.
Pondicherry : IFP/EFEO.
Vetter, Tilmann (2000). The 'Khandha Passages ' in the Vinayapitaka and the
Four Main Nikayas. Wien: 6 sterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
von S imson, Georg ( 1 965). Zur Diktion e iniger Lehrtexte des buddhistischen San
skritkanons. Munchen: J. Kitzinger.
Waldschmidt, Ernst ( 1 9 80). "Central Asian Siitra Fragments and Their Relation to
the Chinese Agamas", in H. Bechert (ed.). The Language of the Earliest Bud
dhist Tradition, 1 3 6 - 1 74 . Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Waldschmidt, Ernst et al. ( 1 968). Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden,
Tei! II. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.
Wang Jianchuan .=E.J l l ( 1 995). "Tangshan she zaoqI lishI ( 1 9 1 2- 1 945) chlitan"
'\'Hlfl-M.'51: ( 1 9 1 2 - 1 9 4 5) W:f?R. Minjian zi5ngjiao Fa7f;, no. 1 , 5782.
Warren, H. C. (ed.) ( 1 950). Visuddhimagga ofBuddhaghosacariya. Revised by D .
Kosambi. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.
Watanabe, B. and K. Mizuno ( 1 932). Zi5abidonshinron. Kokuyaku Issaiky6,
B idonbu, Vol. 20.
Weeratunge, S . (2004). "The Use of Word-repetition in Pali Canonical Texts - A
Brief Study of its Historical Background". Journal of the Centre for Buddhist
Studies, Sri Lanka, 2, 1 3 5 - 1 4 3 .
Welch, Holmes ( 1 967). The Practice of Chinese Buddhism, 1900-1950. Cam
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
233
Wille, Klaus ( 1 990). D i e handschriftliche Uberlieferung des Vinayavastu der

Miilasarvastivadin. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
Willemen, C. (trans .) ( 1 975). The Essence of Metaphysics: A bhidharmahrdaya.
Serie Etudes et Textes 4. Bruxelles: Publications de l ' Institut Belge des
Hautes Etudes Bouddhiques.
Willemen, C., B . Dessein & C. Cox ( 1 998). Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholasticism .
Handbuch der Orientalistik. Zweite Abteilung Indien 1 1 . Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Williams, P. ( 1 997). "Some Mahayana Buddhist Perspectives on the Body'', in S.
Coakley (ed.). Religion and the Body, 205-230. Cambridge : Cambridge Uni
versity Press.
Wilson, L. ( 1 996). Charming Cadavers. Horrific Figurations of the Feminine in
Indian Buddhist Hagiographic Literature. Chicago : The University of Chica
go Press.
Windisch, E. (ed.) ( 1 948). Iti-vuttaka. Pali Text Society. London: Oxford Univer
sity Press.
Wogihara, U. (ed.) ( 1 9 7 1 ) . Sphutarthabhidharmakosavyakhya of Yafom itra. 2
vols. Tokyo: Sankib6 Buddhist Book Store .
Wolters, Clifton (trans.) ( 1 978). The Cloud of Unknowing and Other Works. Har
mondsworth: Penguin.
Wun-ni-ta, Le-di U. ( 1 956) [ 1 927?] . Ledi Hsayadaw Mahahteimyatgyi i ma
hahteirokpatti gahta [The biography of the Le-di Hsa-ya-daw] . Rangoon:
Han-tha-wa-di.
Wynne, A. (2007). The Origin ofBuddhist Meditation. London: Routledge.
Yamada, R. ( 1 959). Daijo Bukkyo Seiritsuron Josetsu. Kyoto : Heirakuj i Shoten.
Yao, Tao-chung ( 1 980a) . "Ch' iian-chen: A New Taoist Sect in North China during the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries". PhD thesis, University of Arizona.
Yifa (2002). The Origins of the Buddhist Monastic Codes in China: An Annotated
Translation and Study of the Chanyuan qinggui. Honolulu, HI: University of
Hawaii Press.
Yoshioka Yoshitoyo ftqj _';'. ( 1 979). "Taoist Monastic Life", in Holmes Welch
and Anna Seidel (eds.). Facts of Tao ism, 220-52. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni
versity Press.
Zheng, Suchiin {f ( 1 987). Quanzhen jiao yu Da Menggi:t gu6 dishi Ji;
::kcIJW:. Taipei: Xuesheng shUju.
Zheng, SuchUn {f ( 1 995). "L' ecole taorste Quanzhen sous la dynastie Yuan".
PhD thesis, E cole des Hautes Etudes.
Index
Page numbers in italics are figures; with 't' are tables.
abbreviations, source 90
Abhidharma 42-3 , 48, 49, 1 1 9-20
and contemplation of the
repulsive 1 1 9
*Abhidharmahrdaya
(Dharmasresthin) 1 20-1
Abhidharmakosa 01 asubandhu)
120
* Abhidharmamahiivibhasiisiitra
1 1 9, 1 2 1 , 127-8, 1 3 7-8, 1 43
* Abhidharmiimtartasa (Taste of the
Nectar of Abhidharma) 1 20n9
Abhinavagupta 59, 6 1
absorption
and bhiivanii 66
D aoism 2 1 2- 1 3
first 69-90
description 70-3
and the happiness of
8 4-9, 89t
presence of directed
awareness and
contemplation 79-84
seclusion from sensuality
73-5
seclusion from unwholesome
qualities 75-9
theory 3 6-9
Acem viii, 22
affective faculties, and meditation

obj ects 1 4, 1 5, 1 7 , 1 9t, 26
agency of the meditator 1 2- 1 4
Analayo, Bhikkhu ix, 2, 5
apparitions/ghosts/specters 1 43 ,
1 64, 1 66, 1 6 8n43 , 1 69, 1 75,
1 76n56
Armelin, I. 1 42n
* A$fagrantha/Jniinaprasthiina
(Katyayaniputra) 1 20
attainments (samapiitti) 46, 50,
5 1 -2, 56, 1 4 5
attention-based techniques 6-8
auditory meditation obj ects 1 6, 1 7
Buddhism 1 8
Aung San Suu Kyi 94, 1 00, 11 3
awareness 48, 11 0, 1 44
and the Baby 1 8 1-2
and bhiivanii 5 9
and the breath 1 7, 2 1 , 4 9
conscious 8, 24
directed ix, 67, 7 0 , 73 , 79-84,
87n5 1
thought-free 62-4
see also contemplation of the
repulsive; mindfulness
Baby 1 49, 1 53-6, 1 5 8, 163, 1 6 8 ,
1 73-5, 1 7 8 , 1 8 0-2
23 6
Baier, Karl 29n
B aumer ' Sharada' , Bettina ix, 3 ,
5 , 9, 1 0 , 20
Bechert, H. 98
Bhagavadgua 4 3 , 44
bhiivana 8, 1 0 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 57-67
Bhoj a, king 5 8
birth-destruction process 1 04
blamelessness 86, 89t
bliss/happiness 5
and absorption 37, 39, 8 3-9,
89t
and bhavana 64
and dhyana 70, 74-5
bodies
of opposite sex 1 3 7
states o f corpses 1 34
see also contemplation of the
repulsive
body, as meditation obj ect 1 0,
1 1 -1 2, 1 1 t, 1 7, 1 9t, 62-3
Braarvig, Jens ix
Brahm, Ajahn 77n22
brain studies 3 0
Braun, E . 97
breath/breathing 6, 1 2
Buddhism, contemplation o f the
repulsive 1 3 0, 1 3 2, 1 3 6,
1 3 8n5 9, 1 43-4, 1 46
Daoism viii, 6, 2 1 1
Hinduism 6 , 60
as meditation obj ect 8, 1 0,
1 2-1 3 , 1 7, 1 8, 2 1
Brohm, John F. 97-8
Bronkhorst, Johannes 2, 4
Buddha 82, 1 02nl 1
on absorption 76-7, 8 1
o n the body 1 2 3 , 1 23 n25 , 1 3 6
breathing meditation 1 3 6
Buddha Nature 1 8 0
Buddhabhadra 1 22-3
Buddhagosa 4, 1 1 9, 1 1 9n7
Buddhasena 1 22
Buddhism viii
Abhidharma terms for
meditation 42-3
INDEX
breath 6, 1 8, 1 3 0, 1 3 2, 1 3 6,
1 3 8n5 9, 1 43-4, 1 46
Chan 3 , 2 1 , 1 8 8n2
meditation obj ects 9
practice 7
Clear Light 1 79, 1 8 0
concentration 20
contemplation of the repulsive
3 , 9, 1 1 8-47
cultural history of 3 4-6
Indian, first absorption dhyana
2, 69-90, 90t
loving kindness meditation 1 6
M ahayana 43-4
meditation objects 8, 9-1 0,
13, 21
mental attitude 23-4
practice 4
and Quanzhen order 1 88
rdzogs chen 3
terms for meditation 43-4,
47-56
vipassana 1 0, 1 3 , 20, 20-1
Zen 9, 1 4- 1 5 , 20 1
Burma, vipassana in 9 1-1 1 5
Byles, Marie 97
candle, burning 1 3- 1 4 , 2 1-2
Cardodo, Roberto 7nl 0
Carrithers, Michael 98
caste system 124
Cavern Chamber 1 54, 1 5 5, 1 5 6,
1 5 8, 1 73 , 1 74
chain of dependent origination
118
chakras 1 2
Chan, Buddhism 3 , 7 , 9, 2 1
Childers, R . C . 94
Chinggis Qan (Genghis Khan)
1 87-8
Christianity viii, 3
East Syrian 7
cinta 55, 5 6
Clear Light 1 79, 1 80
clepsydra-meditation 1 85-2 1 4
hall 1 8 5, 1 98-9, 199, 2 1 4
237
INDEX
method 207- 1 4
retreat 1 8 5
clepsydras 1 8 5, 1 93-8, 207-8,
214
cloth 8 8
Cloud of Unknowing, The 1 6, 23,
24, 25
coarse body 12, 1 7, 26
cognition, and absorption 3 6-7
cognitive faculties, and meditation
objects 1 4- 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 8, 1 9t, 26
Collected Essentials for the Great
Accomplishment (Zhiizhen
neidfm jiyao Jl: j}\] f!-$)
1 5 0, 1 76, 1 79
Collection ofEssential Sayings
from Various Immortals
(Qiinxiiin yaoyi:J zuanji M{ll!
$) 2 1 3
colors 1 2 5n29, 1 26n3 2, 128,
1 46n86, 1 77
communal meditation 1 85-6, 200,
214
concentration 26
and absorption 3 8, 8 1-2, 87
Buddhism 5 3
mental attitude 20-3 , 22t
in Yoga 45-7, 5 1
consideration 50-1
constructivism, and practice 6
contaminants 142-3
contemplation 7
bhiivanii 8, 1 0, 5 3 , 5 5 , 57-67
and first absorption 83
of the repulsive 3 , 9, 1 5,
1 1 7- 1 9
i n the Abhidharma literature
1 3 5--42
in the Dam6dui5lu6 ch<in
1 46-7
nature of 1 23-9
and the Noble Path 1 42-6
in Sutra literature 1 2 9-3 4
textual evidence 1 1 9-23
contentment 86
control 49, 5 3
copper 1 97
Cousins, L. S. 79n26, 1 1 2
creative imagination 5 9
cultural history o f meditation
27--40
2-3 ,
Ditching jieyao ::kP.lt!:l

(Expedient Essentials for the
Great Accomplishment) 1 50,
181
Dildiin zhizhr ::kf!-J[:f (Direct
Pointers to the Great Elixir)
213
Dam6dui5lu6 ch<in ffng .$rt.ii
Z (Sutra on Meditation)
(Dharmatrata), contemplation
of the repulsive in 1 22, 1 46-7
dantian R- 83 12, 165, 207, 212
D aoism (Taoism) viii, 5, 1 90
clepsydra-meditation
1 8 5-2 1 4
concentration 20
practice 2, 3, 5
Red Snakes/angry Queen
Mothers 149-83
and use of breath 6
darkness, contemplation of 64
see also light
Dessein, Bart ix, 9, 1 5
destruction-birth process 1 04
dhiiraa 20, 47, 50, 55, 57, 62, 63
dhiiraz 50, 5 5
Dharmasrethin 1 20-1 , 1 2 1
Dharmatrata 1 1 9, 1 20, 1 42-3
dhikr 1 7-1 8
dhyiina/jhiina ix, 20, 3 4, 39,
50-1 , 5 5 , 57, 1 22, 1 46n86, 210
and early Indian Buddhism
description 70-3
and the happiness of
absorption 84-9, 89t
presence of directed
awareness and
contemplation 79-84
23 8
seclusion from sensuality
70, 72, 73-5
seclusion from
unwholesome qualities
75-9
Jainism 3 2, 3 3
diet/food
repulsive 1 3 0-3 , 1 3 7
D aoist meditation 1 70, 1 90-1
Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir
(Dadiin zhizhf :*:ff 1rn'D 2 1 3
drugs see laboratory alchemy
duality/non-duality 56, 60, 62-6
East Syrian Christianity 7
effects 5
Eifring, Halvor ix
emotions, as obj ects of meditation
10
emptiness-based meditation 208,
213
encouragement sticks 200-2
Energy, divine 6 1-5
enlightenment 49
"entering the room" 1 62-3
Eskildsen, Stephen 2, 5
Expedient Essentials for the Great
Accomplishment (Dacheng
Jieyao :*:R'Zi!) 1 5 0, 1 8 1
experience
meditational 29, 3 0
religious 1 1 0
external meditation obj ects 9-1 2,
l l t, 1 9t
and agency 1 2-1 3
faculties, mental, and meditation
objects 1 4-1 8
faithfulness 1 5 8, 1 62, 1 65
Ferguson, J. P. 99
food/diet
repulsive 1 3 0-3 , 1 3 7
Daoist meditation 1 70, 1 90-1
Four Hindrances 1 9 1
INDEX
Genghis Khan see Chinggis Qan
Genuine Immortals 1 70
Genuine Persons 1 5 4-8, 1 6 1 , 1 63 ,
1 67, 1 7 1 n46, 1 73-5 , 1 76n5 6,
1 82
ghosts see apparitions/ghosts/
specters
Goenka 97
Gombrich, Richard 98, 1 3 5n52
Goossaert, Vincent 1 92n1 2, 1 98
Great Dao 1 5 3 , 1 57, 1 63
Great Spirit 1 69
Great Ultimate 2 1 0
Great Yang/Yin 1 67-8
guilt 1 65 , 1 66, 1 82
Gunther, Herbert 53
halls, clepsydra 1 85, 1 98-9, 199,
214
Hanshan Deqing LlJ1l.\5!1f 2 1 ,
23, 24
Hanthawadi Hsayadaw 95
happiness/bliss 5
and absorption 37, 3 9, 83-9,
89t
and dhyiina 70, 74-5
heart-mind 5, 208, 209- 1 2
hearts
in Daoism 1 54-6, 1 63 , 1 73 ,
181
and the encouragement stick
202
Heavenly Masters 1 5 7-8, 1 64-6
Hemacandra 24, 32, 3 3n8
hindrances, five 76
Hinduism viii
bhiivanii 8, 1 0, 5 3 , 55, 57-67
bodily meditation 1 0
concentration 20
terms for meditation 42
and use of breath 6
HL see Hsayalei (HL)
Hngetdwin Hsayadaw 98
Holen, Are ix
holistic objects 9
Houtman, Gustaaf ix, 97
INDEX
Hpo Hlaing 93--4, 99, 1 1 3-1 4
Hpondawgyi u Thila 99
Hsayalei (HL) 1 00-1 1 , 1 1 2
Htut-hkaung Hsayadaw 98
Huiyuan m 1 95
Himyuan shengj i 5 51; [, 1 50,
1 62, 1 65 , 1 72, 1 76
"Hymn of the Clepsydra Hall"
210
imagination, creative 5 9
Indian Buddhism see absorption,
first
inner transformation 1
insight 1 0 8-9
internal alchemy meditation
1 5 0-1 , 1 8 1 , 1 90n, 1 9 1 , 208,
213
internal meditation objects 9-1 2,
l lt, 1 9t
and agency 1 2- 1 3
Jainism 4, 3 2--4
Hemacandra 24
Jeongmyeong Seunim 1 2n
jhana see dhyana/jhana
Jordt, I. 97
Judaism 1 0
Katyayaniputra 1 20
Khubilai Khan (Qubilai Qan) 1 89
kidneys 1 5 4-5, 1 8 1
King, Winston 97-8
knowledge 64-5, 66
and the four noble truths 1 43
path of 1 06
Komj athy, Louis 2, 5
Kornfield, J. 97
Krishnamurty, J. 3
Kyaungban Hsayadaw 95
laboratory alchemy 1 5 l n8, 1 5 9,
1 6 1-2, 1 7 8
Lakshman Joo 4, 6 1 , 63--4, 6 7
language, and meditation objects
1 4-1 5
239
Lliozi ;g'.;.:Y- (Lord Lao) 1 52-3
Kushi sl chiz'!fo)... 'fl. ff!!Jffi.:Y- $
1 5 0-9
Taishang hunyuan zhenlu *
_t) iClUffe 1 59-77
Ledi Sayadaw/Hsayadaw 93,
95, 96, 97, 1 1 3
Li Zhichang '$.;:t,';% 1 8 9
light 79
see also darkness
lists, and contemplation of the
repulsive 1 29-3 0
location, meditation obj ects 9-1 2
Lord Lao see Laozi
love 1 5-1 6
loving kindness 1 5, 1 6, 1 1 2, 1 3 0
LU Daohe mfD (Tongxuan w
R) 1 85
lust see sexual desire
Lutz, Antoine 25
Ma Yu , 1 87
Madhyama-agama see Buddhism,
Indian, dhyana
MahaprafFzaparamitasastra
(Treatise on the Great Virtue of
Wisdom) (Nagarjuna) 1 20,
1 22
Mahasi 9 1 n2 , 96-7, 1 05
Mahayana Buddhism 43, 44, 5 3
Mahesh Yogi 2 2
Malinlvijayottara Tantra 5 9
mantras 1 1 , 1 2 , 50, 6 1 -2, 6 6
manuals o n meditation 3 , 4, 5 , 1 1 ,
5 7-67
material culture 1 86
Me Kin 99
meditation
defined 1 , 4 1
terms fo r 4 1-56
meditation obj ects 6-1 9, 1 9t, 25,
49-5 0
and agency of meditator
1 2-1 4
features of 1 8- 1 9 , 1 9t
240
location of 9-12, 1 lt
mental faculty 1 4- 1 8
and thought-free awareness
62-3
meditational states, terminology
5 1-3
memory 4 8 , 5 0
mental attitude 8, 1 9-25, 22t, 2 5 ,
26
mental effort 53
mental faculties, and meditation
obj ects 1 4-1 8
Methodfor Entering the Chamber
and Contemplating the Baby
(Kushi sl Chiz!fa A.]l[J,r
$) 1 52-9, 1 7 8-83
mindfulness 8, 1 0 , 1 3 , 20, 4 8-9,
5 3 , 1 4 3 n78
and the body 1 4 1-2
Mindon, King 9 8-9, 1 1 3
Mingim Hsayadaw 95, 96
Mohnyin Hsayadaw 95
monasticism
Quanzhen school 1 8 5-2 1 4
monks 1 24-5
robes 1 25n29
see also Quanzhen school
Moore, J. H. 1 3 2-3
moralities, and Indian Bhuddism
101
Myat Thein Htim 95
Nagarjuna 1 20
N ea-Confucian meditation 1 0
nidhyapti 50, 5 3 , 55
Nine Rooms 1 67-7 1
nirviir:ialnibbiina 47, 5 1 , 1 1 4, 1 1 8,
1 2 5n29
ni$pannakrama 54, 55
Noble Path 1 42-6
non-duality/duality 56, 60, 62-6
nuns 99, 1 0 1 , l l On, 1 24-5, 1 9 0
NyaunglUn. Hsayadaw 95
Nyayanusara (Samghabhadra)
1 20, 1 2 1-2
INDEX
Obeyesekere, G. 1 4 7n
objectless meditation 8
Ospina, Maria B. 2 1
Osuna, Francisco d e 20
Pa Auk Sayadaw 1 1 4
Padoux, Andre 5 8
pagodas, building o f 1 1 3
Pali Abhidhamma 1 3 4
Pali Vinaya ( Vin) 1 2 6
Paramartha 1 2 1
Patafij ali 4 3 , 5 7
path o f knowledge 1 06
patience 145
perception of diversity 77n2 3 , 78
pious meditation, Jainism 3 3
politics, Burmese 1 1 1- 1 3
posture 4 6 , 4 9 , 1 27, 209-1 0
see also quiet sitting
Power of Rudra 67
Practical Methods for the Sinking
Bowl-Clepsydra (Quanzhen
zuobo jiefa -i:J;ljf:f $)
1 8 5-6, 1 9 1 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 5 , 1 97, 202,
213
practice 2-6
and cultural history of
meditation 28-9
prar:iava mantra 6 1
pure meditation, Jainism 3 2-3
Pure Regulations of Complete
Perfection (Quanzhen qlnggul
-i:ll5J!WJJ!.) 1 8 5-6, 1 9 9-200,
207, 208-10, 2 1 2
q i 1 54-5 , 1 6 1 , 1 67, 1 68n4 3 ,

1 6 9-7 1 , 1 74-5, 1 77-8, 202,
207, 2 1 1-12
Qiii Changchun Ji-& see
Qiu ChiljI
Qiu Chiljr li f! (Changchlin -&
) 1 87-8, 1 90, 2 1 3
Quanzhen qlnggul -i:ll5nl. see
Pure Regulations of Complete
Perfection
INDEX
Qulinzhen school x, 1 5 1 , 1 79, 1 8 1
history o f 1 87-93
Quanzhen zuobO fie fa :i::t:t
$ see Practical Methods for
the Sinking Bowl-Clepsydra
from Complete Perfection
Qubilai Qan (Khubilai Khan) 1 89
Queen Mother of the West
(XIwangmu iz:s.:Efll ) 1 49,
1 5 1 , 1 7 8-9, 1 8 1-2
in Ritshi sf chizifa 1 5 6-8
in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit
1 5 9-60, 1 62, 1 63 , 1 7 1 , 1 76,
1 77
quiet rooms 1 27, 1 62-3 , 1 67,
1 70-1
quiet sitting 208, 209, 2 1 2- 1 3
Qunxiiin yaoyii zuanji {ll.J:Ef
(Collection ofEssential
Sayings from Various
Immortals) 2 1 3
Rahula, Walpola 79n27
Riijamiirtm:u;la (Bhoja) 5 8
rdzo g s chen, Buddhism 3
Red Snakes
in Ritshi sf chizfja 1 49-50,
1 5 6-7, 1 5 8
in Taishang hitnyuan zhenlit
1 5 9-63 , 1 7 1 , 1 76, 1 77-8 1
"redemptive societies" 1 5 1
rejuvenation 1 7 1
relaxation 3 8-9
repetition 66-7, 1 46-7
retreats
clepsydra-meditation 1 85 ,
1 86, 1 99-200, 207, 2 1 4
Indian rain 200
retribution, karmic 1 2 3
Rhys D avids, T . W . 94
Ritshi sf chizffa A'.: J,r5t
(The Methodfor Entering the
Chamber and Contemplating
the Baby) 1 52-9, 1 78-83
24 1
siidhana 54, 5 5-6

"saffron revolution" 1 1 2
S aiva Agamas 5 8
samiidhi 20, 45-7, 5 0- 1 , 5 3 , 56,
5 7-8, 83n43, 1 44, 1 4 6
samapiitti (attainments) 4 6 , 50,
5 1 -2, 56, 1 4 5
fomathalsamatha 2 5 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 ,
56, 97, 1 1 2- 1 4, 1 3 2
Sarp.ghabhadra 1 20, 1 2 1-2
* Samyuktiibhidharmahrdaya
(Dharmatrata) 1 1 9, 120,
1 42-3
Sanskrit, terms for meditation 42
sati 8, 48, 50, 56, 1 3 9n6 1
satipatthiina 8
schedules for meditation
Daoism 1 53-4
clepsydra-meditation 1 87,
1 92, 202-7, 204t, 205,
206t
Schmithausen, L . 1 43 n78
seclusion
from sensual pleasures, and first
absorption 73-5
from unwholesome qualities,
and dhyiina 75-9
self 44-5, 1 0 1 , 1 02nl l , 1 07, 1 80
duality of 65
non- 1 06, 1 3 1-2, 1 3 3
self-generated obj ects 1 3 , 1 8 , 1 9t
sensory faculties 1 5
and meditation obj e cts 1 4, 1 6 ,
1 9t, 2 6
sensuality, and dhyiina 70, 72,
73-5
Seven Treasures 1 96nl 7
sexual desire 1 2 4-5, 1 26, 1 3 5,
1 3 7-8, 1 4 5
Sharf, R . H. 9 2 , 1 1 0, 1 1 1
Shattock, E. H. 97
Shaw, Sarah 2 1 , 25
Shen Shandeng )j[:;g 2 1
Shwe-gyin Hsayadaw 98
Sikhism 3
Silburn, Lilian 60
242
silence, noble 8 0-1
Singh, Jaideva 5 8n3
sinking bowl-clepsydra 1 95,
1 95-6, 196
see also clepsydra meditation
sky 64
smrti 48, 50, 5 3 , 56, 1 43n78
solar cycles 206, 206
specters see apparitions/ghosts/
specters
spontaneous obj ects 1 0, 1 3
spontaneous thoughts 8 , 2 1 -3
!iruta 56
states, meditational 29-3 0, 3 1
Stede, W . 94
stillness-based meditation 208,
213
Stuart-Fox, Martin 83n43
subtle body 12, 1 7, 26
Sufism, dhikr 1 7- 1 8
Sunlun H s . 9 5
supernovae analogy 27-9, 3 1 ,
3 5-6
Sutra on Meditation (Dam6dui5lu6
chan fing) (Dharmatrata) 1 22,
1 46-7
tactile meditation objects 1 7
Buddhism 1 8
Taij i :t:t (Tai Chi) viii, 1 8
Taipfngfing chew :t:ifZJEj> 1 67,
1 70, 1 72
Taishang himyuan zhenlit j(J-.)i'f,
nJU>.Y (True Record of the
Chaotic Origin of the Most
High) 1 59-83
Tantriiloka 59
Tantric meditation 3
bhavana 8, 1 0, 5 7-67
Japanese 1 7
Taoism see Daoism
tarka 5 8-9
teachers ix, 4, 1 5, 42
Buddhist 2 1 , 3 0, 96, 1 03 , 1 07
Burmese, HL 1 00-1 1 , 1 1 2
INDEX
contemplation of the
repulsive 1 3 5-6
Daoist 209
techniques, attention-based 6-8
Ten Precepts 1 0 1
terminology 1 4-1 5
Buddhist meditation 43-4,
47-5 6
D aoism 5
Yoga 42-5, 47, 54, 5 5-6
Thailand 1 1 4
Theikchadaung Hsayadaw 95
Theravada 1 2n
Thetgyi, Hsaya 95
Thilon Hsayadaw 98
thought-free state 5, 62-4
Three Ones 1 68, 1 72-3 , 1 78
trances, immaterial 1 4 5-6
Transcendental Meditation 3 0
transparency, state o f 6 2
Treatise o n the Great Virtue of
Wisdom (Mahaprajna
paramitasastra) (Nagarjuna)
1 20, 1 22
True Record of the Chaotic Origin
of the Most High (Taishang
hitnyuan zhenlit j(J-.)i'f,jC
ib.Y) 1 5 9-83
truths, four noble 1 42-5
U Nu 96, 97
unwholesome qualities, and dhyana
75-9
Upani:;ads 4 3 , 5 8n4
utpattikrama 54, 56
Van Gennep, Arnold 9 9
Vasubandhu 1 20, 1 2 1 , 1 22
vegetarianism 1 9 1
Verellen, Franciscus 1 50n2
vicara 46, 50, 5 1 , 56, 79, 8 1 , 8 3 ,
85n46, 87n52, 1 44
see also vitarka/vitakka
Vijnana Bhairava 3 , 4, 5 , 1 1 ,
5 7-67, 60, 60-7
Vin see Pali Vinaya ( Vin)
INDEX
vipassana ix, 1 0, 1 3 , 20-1 , 24,

25, 49, 5 1 , 56
in Burma 9 1-1 1 5 , 1 1 4-1 5
Hsayalei 1 00-1 0
nature o f 1 1 0- 1 4
techniques 92-1 00
vipasyana 20n, 49, 50, 56, 82n40
Vism see Visuddhimagga
(Buddhagosa)
visual meditation object 1 3 , 1 6
Visuddhimagga ( Vism)
(Buddhagosa) 4, 1 1 9, l 1 9n7,
120, 1 25n29, 1 3 4-8, 1 46n86
vitarka/vitakka 46, 50, 5 1 , 56,
79-82, 85n46, 87n52, 1 44
void, contemplation of 5, 1 0,
6 1 -3 , 66-7
vyiiyama 56
Wal she, Maruice, ix
Wang Ch6ngyang .:r_,m see
Wang Zhe
Wang ChiiyI J:)jljj; (Yuyang 33.
) 1 8 8
Wang Zhe .:ED (Ch6ngyang ,m
) 1 87-8
warmth 1 44
water 87, 1 43
and lotuses 87-8
rain 204t, 206t
soap and 85
Spirit 2 1 0
water-clocks 1 8 5, 1 93-8, 207-8,
214
Way o f Immortality Helpfully
Transmitted by the Most High
Holy Mother (Xiantian
Xuanmiao Yimii Taishang
Shengmu zzchuan xiandao
fir) ::=rs.:tct:_t&ffeift fllJlli)
1 5 0, 1 62, 1 72, 1 76, 1 79
W eibu Hsayadaw 95
white-haired elder 1 64-5
Williams, P. 1 1 8, 1 24n27,
1 25n29, 1 3 0n3 7, 1 3 0n3 9
243
Wilson, L. 1 3 65 5
wisdom 1 3 0
Wukai t-tf Ftfl 23-4
Wuz6ng LE\;*, Emperor
1 90
Xiantian Xuanmiao Yi.mil Taishang

Shengmu zzchuan xiandao fir)
3s.:ft::;(l:: _t ;!:jj'f$ fllJlli (Way
of Immortality Helpfully
Transmitted by the Most High
Holy Mother) 1 5 0, 1 62, 1 72,
1 76, 1 79
Yamada, R. 1 42n
Yao, Tao-chung 1 92n l 2
Yin Xi :f3 1 50, 1 59, 1 60-1 ,
1 7 1 , 1 72-3 , 1 76
Yin Zhiping :t3it.'f 1 89
Yoga, terms for meditation 42-5 ,
47, 54, 5 5-6
Yogacarabhiimi (Buddhasena)
1 22
Yogasastra (Hemacandra) 24, 32,
3 3 n8
Yogasiitras (Patafij ali) 43, 44-6,
57, 5 8
Zen Buddhism 2 0 1
meditation 9
and mental faculty 1 4-1 5
Zhiizhen neidan jiyao Jl; IAJ f:HI
(Collected Essentials for the
Great Accomplishment) 1 5 0,
1 76, 1 79

Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Meditation - Cultural Histories

Cargado por

Información del documento

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Meditation - Cultural Histories

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist

Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist

Hermes Academic Publishing and Bookshop A/S

Halvor Eifring and Contributors, 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

Cover design by Torbj0rn Hobbel

The Uses of Attention: Elements of Meditative Practice

Words for "Meditation" in Classical Yoga and Early Buddhism

"Creative Contemplation" (Bhiivanii) in the Vijfiana Bhairava

The First Absorption (Dhyiina) in Early Indian Buddhism:

Vipassana in Burma: Self-government and the Ledi Anapana

Contemplation of the Repulsive : Bones and Skulls as

Red Snakes and Angry Queen Mothers : Hallucinations and

Daoist Clepsydra-Meditation: Late Medieval Quanzhen

teacher Lakshman Joo . The vipassanii practices described by

The Uses of Attention

Meditation may be defined as attention-based techniques for inner

Effect : Inner transformation

HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

advanced stages . Such tendencies may be observed both within and

THE USES OF ATTENTION

HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

7 Cf. Shaw, 2006 : 1 1 .

THE USES OF ATTENTION

but which nevertheless have functioned as practical textbooks for

HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

THE USES OF ATTENTION

It is a deliberately undertaken practice aiming to produce

The most typical cases, including most forms of meditation, dis

HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

Less obvious but at least as important is the mental attitude, or the

THE USES OF ATTENTION

it may describe a holistic obj ect, ideally encompassing everything

HALVOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

THE USES OF ATTENTION

Table 1 . Types of meditation objects according to location.

See, for instance, Muthukumaraswamy (forthcoming) on ajapa-japa in the Ta

HALVOR EIFRlNG AND ARE HOLEN

obj ect, its interiorization implies gradually letting go of the con

THE USES OF ATTENTION

Self-generated obj ects usually follow pre-set patterns, and they

HALVOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

usually generated by the meditator, and the movements of the

THE USES OF ATTENTION

semantic and non-symbolic uses o f mantra and aniconic uses of

In Pali; Sanskrit form: maitrz.

HAL VOR EIFRlNG AND ARE HOLEN

associated with God, it is sometimes linked to the idea that God is

THE USES OF ATTENTION

Tactile meditation obj ects include bodily sensations (both the

HALVOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

Features of meditation objects

THE USES OF ATTENTION

- -------- -- 1- ----- --- ------------1_

- - - --- - ------1-Nti ---------------1

... .........i.. ... . . .. ..... ................. .....

Table 2. Features of meditation objects.

HALVOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

THE USES OF ATTENTION

meditation i s usually directed towards spontaneous meditation ob

In a modem scientific context, Ospina et al. (2007) observe that the

HAL VOR EIFRING AND ARE HOLEN

Table 3. Concentrative vs. non-concentrative mental attitude.

THE USES OF ATTENTION