The Letterer As Translator in Comics Tra

The Letterer as
Translator in
Comics Translation
RICO GONALVES DE ASSIS
Lettering is a typical step of comic book production in which word balloons, captions,
onomatopoeia and some other word occurrences, all of which are filled with linguistic and semi-linguistic material spelled in a
specific language, are added to the comics page.
Lettering is a duty frequently performed by the same comic artist who draws the comic story. In established comics settings with industrial production rhythm, however,
drawing and lettering roles as well as scripting, coloring, finishing, editing are
usually broken over different professionals. In these contexts it is usual to find the
letterer, the professional responsible only for lettering.
In most cases, the letterer works from a script where the linguistic material has already
been determined. Lettering can then be done in two broad ways. The first one would
be the primarily keyboard-based: to employ graphics software to create and position
elements over a scanned or digitally-produced page, resorting to existing digital fonts
or fonts created specifically for the project. The second one is primarily hand-based:
the letterer hand-draws balloons, captions, words and other graphic signs over the
page, whether on paper or on a graphics tablet.
Even though the comic artist should design the page in a way that he/she can make
space available for the insertion of balloons, captions and onomatopoeia, it is usually
up to lettering to make this insertion in a way that these elements develop a harmony
with page composition and respond to intended storytelling functions. Word balloons
in a dialog between two or more characters, for example, should be positioned in a
way that suggests a logical sequence in speech turns for each character. Balloons,
captions and onomatopoeia fill considerable portion of the comics panel and, therefore, lettering should strive for the balance between elements to ensure storytelling.
Also considering the storytelling aspect, there are narrative conventions that have been
established for lettering, from variances on balloon, caption and onomatopoeia layout
to meaning-charged ways of drawing each letter: a heart-shaped balloon may suggest
a heartfelt admission; a bold and/or italicized word in the middle of a speech is an
emphasis; a bigger font size may suggest the character is screaming, as well as the
smaller size suggests a low intensity voice; a specific typeface may be linked to characterization of a specific character.
From an aesthetical point of view, harmony between lettering and storytelling may
occur in the joint-working of the distinctive line of the artist and the distinctive line of
the typeface considering that letters are clothed in drawing in the same way as the
iconic representations of characters, settings etc. This harmony is apparently natural
when the same comics artist pencils and (hand-)letters his pages. When the drawing
and lettering posts are stratified and charged to different professionals, however, it is
up to the letterer to choose or create typography whose graphic aspect is in harmony
with the artists style or that tries to follow tendencies suggested by the storytelling
(negative contrast with the drawing style, for example). In the case of digital lettering,
ASSIS, rico Gonalves de. The letterer as a translator in Comics Translation. In:
MLZER, Nathalie. Comics - bersetzungen und Adaptionen. Berlin: Frank & Timme,
2015, pp. 251-267.
it is normal to create typographic families to be used specifically for the comics of a

determined artist or determined comics series.
This multitude of tasks and, therefore, of skills required from the letterer are matters
that lead some authors to say that comics lettering is an art even though sometimes
it is an invisible art. Starkings and Roshell (2003: 33), for instance, claim that the
art of comic strip lettering is the Art of Invisibility. The comic book letterers work
must be at once Decorative and Discreet. Klein (Chiarello & Klein, 2004: 141)
claims that lettering is a small part of the whole comics picture, but one that has a
large effect, especially if done well. In effect, at least two annual awards in the
American comics industry, the Harvey and Eisner Awards, have best letterer categories, respectively since 1988 and 1993. There are companies that work with comic
book lettering and create special typography for comic books, like Comicraft1 and
Blambot2. Lastly, there are books that broach this topic exclusively (e.g. STARKINGS
& ROSHELL, 2003; FICARRA, 2012; DELZANT & LAIN, 2010) or partially (e.g.
CHIARELLO & KLEIN, 2004; ABEL & MADDEN, 2008).
1. Lettering in comic book translation

In the context of comics translation, lettering becomes enormously relevant. In terms
of production steps, balloons, captions and onomatopoeia are usually the only elements that are changed in the page when the comic is adapted for reading in another
1
2
http://www.comicraft.com/
http://www.blambot.com/
2015, pp. 251-267.
language. In aesthetics-storytelling terms, however, each and every change is likely to

affect the text as a whole, insofar as it modifies essential elements and the articulation
between these elements (a matter that will be discussed in the following section).
Comics translation normally creates a meaningful distinction between drawings and
linguistic material in the comic story: drawings are usually unchanged, while linguistic material is respelled in the target language. This happens for two reasons: the first
one is the appreciation of the comics page as a plastic object that, independent from its
narrative function, has characteristics (line, color, composition) which, if altered
with the exception of linguistic material would raise matters of fidelity to the source
text. In other words, redrawing certain aspects or the whole of a comics page for republication goes against foundations of authorship, meaning and aesthetics even
though there are many cases in which this redrawing procedure has been done in
translations.
Valerio Rota asserts that Italian comics fans who read translated comics not only appreciate that there is no redrawing, but also that linguistic material (textual elements, as the author says) whose expressivity is related to drawings does not go
through changes:
Sometimes, these textual elements are considered an integral part of the
graphics, and altering them is hardly tolerated by the mainstream reading
public. Therefore, some Italian publishing houses keep the titles of the stories
graphically unaltered, simply putting a translation of them at the bottom of
the page. (ROTA, 2008: 85)
The second reason that leads comics translation to concentrate more on linguistic
material than on redrawing is also highlighted by Rota (2008: 94): the economic criteASSIS, rico Gonalves de. The letterer as a translator in Comics Translation. In:
2015, pp. 251-267.
ria. While modifying linguistic material is a process leveraged by digital typographic

manipulation technologies, changing drawings would imply more work time and more
graphical skill, possibly the hiring of another professional (a new penciller, for instance) to perform these changes.
In the case of figs. 1 and 2, we note that the translated page was adapted only in its
linguistic material and that all general aspects of line, color and composition were kept
as they were in the source page.
Fig. 1: Batwoman n. 21, DC Comics, page 1

(Source:
https://www.comixology.com/Batwoman-201121/digital-comic/42850)
Fig. 2: A Sombra do Batman n. 22, Panini

Comics Brasil, no page number (Source:
http://hotsitepanini.com.br/dc/publicacao/asombra-do-batman-22/)
2015, pp. 251-267.
We note that, for instance, contrary to what Rota (id. ibid.) reports as common practice for Italian publishing houses, the letterer of this Brazilian edition (letras are
credited to Valria Calipo) retextualized the title of the story in the target page (Interldio III), keeping the graphic features of its occurrence in the source page (Interlude III) features that are integral to graphic aspects of the page as a whole.
Another important observation is that, in the five captions of the page, the letterer of
the translated comic used a typographic family somewhat different from the one used
in the source page even though these typographies have similarities. This may happen for many reasons: not having access to the digital font used in the source text,
trouble in reproducing the same outline of the type (if it was hand-lettered), deadlines
which hinder further research or font development etc.
Translated comics lettering has such a relevance that publishers highlight how to deal
with this matter when they sell publishing rights to the foreign market. Canadian publisher Drawn & Quarterly distributes a catalog to international publishers, for instance,
which identifies each of its graphic novels, right after title and author, with the information FONT AVAILABLE (a typographic digital font is available) or ARTIST WILL
RELETTER
(the comics artist is available to reletter the comic in another language).
2015, pp. 251-267.
Fig. 3, 4 and 5: Details of

pages from Canadian publisher Drawn & Quarterlys
catalog (Source:
http://transatlanticagency.co
m/catalogues/adult/#DQHotl
ist)
2015, pp. 251-267.
There are also reports of other situations in comics translation negotiations which
concern lettering: the publisher that wishes to publish a translation is required to
demonstrate technical skill for lettering (ASSIS 2012) or the publishing contract establishes that the translation publisher should provide lettering samples to authorize the
publication.
2. Comics Translation: theoretical aspects

Both comics theorists and comics translation theorists have evolved their theories to
consider that linguistic material and drawings should not be thought apart when we are
talking about comics narrative; this also applies to comics translation. The articulation
between comics pages elements is the aspect that constitutes narrative, format and
meaning for a comic story, in a way that it is this articulation that will directly influence the translation process.
To McCloud (1993: 9), comics are defined as juxtaposed pictorial and other images
in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or produce an aesthetic
response in the viewer. To Groensteen (1991: 21), the foundational principle of comics would be what he calls iconic solidarity: interdependent images that, participating in a series, present the double characteristic of being separated [] and which are
plastically and semantically over-determined by the fact of their coexistence in prae-
2015, pp. 251-267.
sentia.3 These and other authors (Cohn, 2013; Eisner, 1989; Abel & Madden, 2008)
agree that comics propose narratives that stem from sequences of drawings which are
spatially next to each other, and from building interdependence between these drawings.
These authors commonly do not mention linguistic material as a foundational element
of a comic story, making a case for mute comics comics that do not have any
linguistic material. From another point of view, however, linguistic material is not
broached by these authors because words are also drawn. This is what is suggested by
the exposition about lettering above, as well as the corroboration by Valerio Rota:
[texts in comics] are not simply a comment on the picture, but are an integral
part of it. Texts in comics are not the mere transcription of the characters
speeches: they are a graphic representation of them. Before being something
to be read (i.e. texts), they are something to be seen: pictures themselves,
which contribute to the visual equilibrium of the page. In fact, their graphic
peculiarity comes before their textual quality. Far from being a mere simulation of sounds and speech, balloons and onomatopoeic texts are graphic devices which can be (and are) employed to provoke specific effects on the
reader. That is, words in comics are first of all employed to represent and
evoke feelings through the modulation of elements like their size, shape, colour and disposition in space, all of which are graphic and extratextual elements. Even the colour and shape of balloons, which are the physical containers of words, contribute to the creation of particular effects. All these elements pave the way for the effect of the text itself; that is, words as such
play their role only subsequently, when their graphic quality has already created a certain atmosphere in the mind of the reader. (ROTA, 2008: 80)
3
Translated from: On dfinira comme solidaires les images qui, participant dune suite, prsentent la
double caractristique dtre spares (cette prcision pour carter les images uniques enfermant en leur
sein une profusion de motifs ou danecdotes) et dtre plastiquement et smantiquement surdtermines par
le fait mme de leur coexistence in praesentia.
2015, pp. 251-267.
10
Zanettin (2008a) thinks about comics translation from a semiotic or multisystemic (or
multimodal) standpoint:
All the languages used by comics can be translated within and/or between
semiotic systems. However, since translation takes place between texts rather
than languages, it does not involve comparing a language (or any other semiotic system) with another semiotic system; it involves passing from a text
a, elaborated according to a semiotic system A, into a text b, elaborated according to a semiotic system B (Eco and Nergaard 1998: 211). From
a semiotic point of view, the translation of comics is thus concerned with different layers of interpretative activities, which can be variously conceptualized as inter- or intra-semiotic or systemic, depending on ones definition of
system.[]
[I]t seems important to stress that comics are primarily visual texts which
may (or may not) include a verbal component, and that in the translation of
comics interlingual interpretation (translation proper) happens within the
context of visual interpretation. Language is only one of the systems (as far
as we are happy with defining language as a system) involved in the translation of comics. []
The translation of comics into another language is primarily their translation
into another visual culture, so that not only are different natural languages
such as English, Japanese, Italian or French involved, but also different cultural traditions and different sets of conventions for comics. In other words,
the translation of comics does not only imply the interlinguistic (or intralinguistic) replacement of verbal material. (ZANETTIN, 2008a: 12)
It is important to underline that Zanettin uses the expression verbal material to refer
to what other authors would call the text of a comic story. The word material is
productive for translation discussion insofar as it tries to specify what is written in the
2015, pp. 251-267.
11
language that is used in the comic and not how it is written. It might be said that Zanettin also understands linguistic material in a comic page as drawings.
This observation about translation and the different reading situations it creates (different cultural traditions) is part of a current discourse in Translation Studies that
aims to connect, without giving way to a breakdown, the text-image link in multimodal forms. Yuste-Fras (2010: 299) emphasizes that: The time has come to end the
old opposition between text and image in translation so that we can stop thinking
translators should only occupy themselves with text.4. Reinforcing the importance of
interpreting line, color, gestual and other visual language elements besides text
between a source culture and a target culture, the same author argues that:
The text-image couple in translation is neither a merging blend nor a hybrid ensemble where the text would be subject to the image and the image
would simply illustrate text. The new iconotextual entity created by the
couple text-image is a mixed, crossbreed entity, in which the verbal element
is present at 100% and the visual element is also at 100%.5 (YUSTE-FRAS,
2010: 300)
Rota (2008) corroborates Yuste-Fras standpoint when he refers to the imbrication

between linguistic content and drawings when it comes to translation or, as Rota
prefers, text and graphics. The author also underlines the lettering aspect:
4
Translated from: Il est temps den finir avec la vieille oposition entre le texte et limage en traduction
pour cesser de croire que le traducteur ne doit soccuper que du texte.
5
Translated from: Le couple texte-image en traduction nest ni un mlange fusionn ni un ensemble
hybride o le texte serait subordonn limage et limage simplement illustrerait le texte. La nouvelle
entit iconotextuelle forme par le couple texte-image est une entit mixte, mtisse, o llment verbal est
prsent 100% et llment visuel lest aussi 100%.
2015, pp. 251-267.
12
Given that the text of a comic has graphic qualities, it follows that the translation of a comic does not involve the linguistic but also the graphic side of it.
Texts in comics are visual elements of the page; therefore, pages and pictures
themselves actually need translation. Even wordless comics are not exempted from this rule: formats may (and sometimes must) be altered and manipulated in order to adapt the comic to other cultures and reading publics.
(ROTA, 2008: 84)
3. What is text in comics?

The way the authors above use the expression text and image merits reevaluation
based on a reflection on what constitutes text in a comic story.
Groensteen (1999) posits that a comic story constitutes a semiotic system in which the
inter-relationships between elements of the story page and of the story as a whole are,
per se, the comic. This is what he names arthrologie: the articulation between each
drawing, between each panel, between each page, between drawings and words, between drawings and words and the graphic aspect of these words and so on. There is
restrained arthrology, related to links between contiguous images, and general arthrology, related to links between translinear or distant images, scattered throughout
the comic (GROENSTEEN, 1999: 27).
Miller, building on Groensteens proposal, has the following to say about comics
making way for a definition of comics: As a visual and narrative art, [comics] produce meaning out of images which are in a sequential relationship, and which co-exist
with each other spatially (MILLER, 2007: 75). Co-existence, relationships, interde-
2015, pp. 251-267.
13
pendency, articulation (arthrologie) are the main aspects in building a comics narrative.
These inter-relationships should be considered the text of a comic. Therefore, if we
understand that translators translate texts, translating the text of a comic should never
be restricted only to its verbal material.
Given the narrative characteristic of comics and observations by McCloud (1995),
Groensteen (2009), Zanettin (2008a) and Rota (2008) irrespective to the expressions
they use I propose that this broader concept of comics text should be applied when
talking about translation. In other words, comics text does not correspond only to
linguistic material apart from drawings, but to the sequence and articulation of drawings, considering that the linguistic material is also drawn. We should not, as admonished by Zanettin, Yuste Fras and Rota, keep the drawing and linguistic material
aspects apart what these authors lack is taking this inseparability to the definition of
text.
It is admittedly difficult to choose expressions to refer to comics elements 6 when,
effectively, it is possible to decompose these elements in production steps (scripting,
drawing, lettering, coloring etc.). Yet it is not possible to decompose these steps when
In this sense, verbal content (ZANETTIN, 2008) referring to text and graphic elements (ROTA,
2008) referring to images are also problematic terms because, respectively, the whole of the comics page
(drawings + letters + colors + arthrologie) verbalizes, as well as the whole of the comics page is a graphic
element. Linguistic materials would be preferred terms to refer to what these authors call text or verbal
content and that is why they are used throughout this paper. We note, however, that drawing is not yet
the ideal expression to refer to other elements of the comics page that are not letters even so, it is adopted
in this paper in this sense. This term gap is still present until there is a better expression for this element of
the comics page.
2015, pp. 251-267.
14
we are interpreting a comics page the page expresses itself by its holistic apprehension, not by elements that are seen or thought of individually.
Therefore, if translating is an operation that happens between texts and is grounded in
interpretation, translating the text of a comic story is to translate this holistic apprehension.
4. The letterer as translator

In considering Zanettins (2008a), Yuste Fras (2010, 2011) and Rotas (2008) remarks, plus the concept of text in comics as something that comprises the whole visual
aspect of the page including linguistic material we understand that the comics
translation process should entail:
(1) interpreting linguistic material from the source text with regard to how they relate
to the drawings and the graphic form of these words;
(2) deciding which linguistic constructions in the target language match the connections between words, drawings and the graphic form of these words in the source text.
(3) deciding which graphic forms match the graphic forms used in the source comic to
letter the target comic.
2015, pp. 251-267.
15
There are rare instances in publishing in which the duty of lettering a translated comic
is attributed to the same person who is credited as a translator.7 Apart from matters of
production rhythm that privilege labor division, the letterers task demands calligraphic skills and/or expertise in handling graphics software, besides a keen eye for aesthetics training that usually is far from the usual training of a so-called translator while
intermediary of two different linguistic cultures.
However, if translating comics presupposes the three operations above and the professional typically called translator normally executes only the first and the second of
these operations, it is necessary to say that the letterer is also a comics translator. If
the comics text corresponds to apprehending all the elements in the page, including
graphic features of the linguistic material, the person responsible for these graphic
features in the translated text should also be considered part of the translation process.
Zanettin (2008b) gets very close to making this affirmation when he argues that comics translation is equivalent to a localization process. The author does not say that the
letterer is a translator, though:
In a localization approach, the focus is on the production process in which
different actors are involved in addition to the translation proper, and the
work of the translator is related to the general context and workflow, which
leads to the creation of a target product that is different from the source, not
only in terms of its verbal components. (ZANETTIN, 2008b: 217)
The merging of these functions is usually seen in the so-called scanlation processes amateur editorial
production, usually without authorization of publishers or authors of the source text, in which readers take
digital files of comics, perform the translation themselves and distribute the files for free via the internet .
2015, pp. 251-267.
16
Therefore, as far as the authors mentioned above already point in this direction, the
present paper proposes only one step further in affirming one peculiarity in comics
translation: lettering is translation or the letterer is a translator.
5. Final thoughts
In reviewing one of the Brazilian editions of the American/British graphic novel Arkham Asylym, by Grant Morrison and Dave McKean, Liber Paz (2013) opposes to the
lettering of the translated edition. The reviewer points out that the letterer of the Brazilian edition dismissed a central aspect of the comic by not performing hand-lettering,
as had been done for the source text.
hand-lettering was indispensable for this comic, so that irregularities between
letters granted expressiveness to each characters speech, particularly The
Jokers word balloons.
In this current version, lettering has been done digitally. Thus, all letters have
the same size and have a mechanical pattern. The expressiveness of manual
calligraphy has been lost, the organity of text and speech has been lost, and
everything became mechanic, standardized, expressionless. Lettering even
clashes with McKeans art.
In the special case of The Jokers speeches, it is not just that expressiveness
has been compromised, mas some excerpts are basically illegible. (PAZ,
2013, online)
2015, pp. 251-267.
17
The reviewer prepared comparisons of panel details of the graphic novel in this recent
version (left-side), in a preview Brazilian translation (center) and the source text
(right-side).
Fig. 6, 7 and 8: Comparing different translations of Arkham Asylum in Brazil and the source text. Source:
http://www.universohq.com/quadrinhos/2013/review_AsiloArkham.cfm
2015, pp. 251-267.
18
This review corroborates what is affirmed above with regards to the importance of
articulating all elements of the comics page including the articulation of graphic
features of the linguistic material with the artists line, and the graphic features of the
linguistic material with intended narrative and also corroborates Rotas (2008: 8485) remarks concerning the mainstream readers low tolerance for changes in the
drawings of a translated comic (including drawn linguistic material). At the same
time, it illustrates what is argued by this paper: lettering can be seen as translation
infidelity (as a negative aspect, in this case) when adapting a comic book. What this
reviewer is doing, therefore, is translation criticism.
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The Letterer as

it is normal to create typographic families to be used specifically for the comics of a

1. Lettering in comic book translation

language. In aesthetics-storytelling terms, however, each and every change is likely to

ria. While modifying linguistic material is a process leveraged by digital typographic

Fig. 1: Batwoman n. 21, DC Comics, page 1

Fig. 2: A Sombra do Batman n. 22, Panini

(the comics artist is available to reletter the comic in another language).

Fig. 3, 4 and 5: Details of

2. Comics Translation: theoretical aspects

Rota (2008) corroborates Yuste-Fras standpoint when he refers to the imbrication

3. What is text in comics?

4. The letterer as translator

http://joseyustefrias.com/docu/publicaciones/Tour-du-MondeAsterix/JoseYusteFrias2011_Traduire_Image_Asterix.pdf (last accessed: June 19,

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