102

Chapter Four

electrolysis. Youssef et al. (1989) noticed that the machining current

increases linearly with the tool feed rate. Sparking takes place at a critical feed rate where the speed of tool advance toward the workpiece is
greater than the anodic dissolution rate. Under such circumstances, the
frontal gap decreases to a critical value at which sparking occurs, causing damage to both the tool and workpiece. The experimental work of
Rashed et al. (1976) recommended the use of a gap voltage between 20 to
25 V in order to save energy and reduce the production cost. They
described the diametral oversize Cd by the following empirical equation:
Cd = 0.225V 0.740.056a
1

where V is the gap voltage (V) and a is the tool feed rate (mm min ).
During ECDR a considerable part of the machining current is lost in
the side gap. For this reason the ratio of the experimental removal rate
to the theoretical one represents the current efficiency. Current efficiencies lower than 100 percent may be related to gas evolution and the
formation of passive oxide film that limits the dissolution process. On
the other hand, current efficiencies greater than 100 percent were
mainly related to the granular detachment, from the anode, due to the
electrolytic grain boundary attack. EC hole drilling is not restricted to
circular holes since a tool having any cross section can produce a corresponding shape in the workpiece.
4.3

Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining

Shaped tube electrolytic machining (STEM) is based on the dissolution

process when an electric potential difference is imposed between the anodic
workpiece and a cathodic tool. Because of the presence of this electric
field the electrolyte, often a sulfuric acid, causes the anode surface to
be removed. After the metal ions are dissolved in the solution, they are
removed by the electrolyte flow. As shown in Fig. 4.23 and according to
Electrolyte

Insulating coating

Titanium tube ()

Workpiece (+)
Figure 4.23

STEM schematic.

Electrochemical Processes

103

McGeough (1988), the tool is a conducting cylinder with an insulating

coating on the outside and is moved toward the workpiece at a certain
feed rate while a voltage is applied across the machining gap. In this way
a cylindrically shaped hole is obtained.
STEM is, therefore, a modified variation of the ECM that uses acid
electrolytes. Rumyantsev and Davydov (1984) reported that the
process is capable of producing small holes with diameters of 0.76 to
1.62 mm and a depth-to-diameter ratio of 180:1 in electrically conductive materials. It is difficult to machine such small holes using
normal ECM as the insoluble precipitates produced obstruct the flow
path of the electrolyte.
The machining system configuration is similar to that used in ECM.
However, it must be acid resistant, be of less rigidity, and have a
periodically reverse polarity power supply. The cathodic tool electrode
is made of titanium, its outer wall having an insulating coating to permit
only frontal machining of the anodic workpiece. The normal operating
voltage is 8 to 14 V dc, while the machining current reaches 600 A. The
Metals Handbook (1989) reports that when a nitric acid electrolyte solution (15% v/v, temperature of about 20C) is pumped through the gap
(at 1 L/min, 10 V, tool feed rate of 2.2 mm/min) to machine a 0.58-mmdiameter hole with 133 mm depth, the resulting diametral overcut is
0.265 mm, and the hole conicity is 0.01/133.
The process also uses a 10% concentration sulfuric acid to prevent the
sludge from clogging the tiny cathode and ensure an even flow of electrolyte
through the tube. A periodic reversal of polarity, typically at 3 to 9 s prevents the accumulation of the undissolved machining products on the
cathode drill surface. The reverse voltage can be taken as 0.1 to 1
times the forward machining voltage. In contrast to the EDM, EBM,
and LBM processes, STEM does not leave a heat-affected layer, which
is liable to develop microcracks (www.win.tue.nl/).
Process parameters

Electrolyte
Type

Sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids

Concentration

1025% weight in water

Temperature

38C (sulfuric acid)

21C (others)

Pressure

275500 kPa

Voltage
Forward

814 V

Reverse

0.11 times the forward

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Chapter Four

Time
Forward

57 s

Reverse

2577 ms

Feed rate

0.753 mm/min

Process capabilities

Hole size

0.56 mm diameter at an aspect ratio of 150

Hole tolerances

0.5-mm diameter 0.050 mm

1.5-mm diameter 0.075 mm
60-mm diameter 0.100 mm
Hole depth 0.050 mm

Because the process uses acid electrolytes, its use is limited to drilling
holes in stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant materials in jet
engines and gas turbine parts such as

Turbine blade cooling holes

Fuel nozzles

Any holes where EDM recast is not desirable

Starting holes for wire EDM

Drilling holes for corrosion-resistant metals of low conventional

machinability
Drilling oil passages in bearings where EDM causes cracks

Figure 4.24 shows the shape of turbulators that are machined by intermittent drill advance during STEM. The turbulators are normally used
for enhancing the heat transfer in turbine engine-cooling holes
(www.win.tue.nl/).
Advantages

The depth-to-diameter ratio can be as high as 300.

A large number of holes (up to 200) can be drilled in the same run.

Nonparallel holes can be machined.

Blind holes can be drilled.

No recast layer or metallurgical defects are produced.

Shaped and curved holes as well as slots can be produced.

Electrochemical Processes

105

Turbulated cooling holes produced by STEM

(www.win.tue.nl/).

Figure 4.24

Limitations

The process is used for corrosion-resistant metals.

STEM is slow if single holes are to be drilled.

A special workplace and environment are required when handling acid.

Hazardous waste is generated.

Complex machining and tooling systems are required.

4.4

Electrostream (Capillary) Drilling

Electrostream (ES) (capillary) drilling is a special ECM technique

used for producing fine holes that are too deep to produce by EDM and
too small to drill by STEM. The cathodic tool used is made from a
glass nozzle (0.0250.50 mm diameter), which is smaller than the