Refrigeration Index

Refrigeration: the basics .......................................................................................................... 3

Objective................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3
Some fundamental terms ..................................................................................................... 4
Coefficient of Performance COP ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Heat.................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Latent heat.......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Parasitic loads .................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Power Input ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Pressure ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Pressure /Temperature relationship .................................................................................................................................... 5
Primary refrigerant .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Refrigerant enthalpy............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Refrigeration output ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Saturated Liquid.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Saturated Vapour................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Secondary Refrigerant ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Specific Heat ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Superheat ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Superheated vapour ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Temperature ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Vapour Liquid equilibria ...................................................................................................................................................... 7

The Process .............................................................................................................................. 8

Objective................................................................................................................................ 8
The refrigeration plant .......................................................................................................... 8
Why?....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Compressor. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Condenser. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Expansion valve................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Evaporator. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Different types of cooling plant components........................................................................ 13

Objective.............................................................................................................................. 13
Page 1 of 32

Evaporators .......................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Compressors....................................................................................................................... 14
Hermetic compressors ....................................................................................................... 14
Semi hermetic ..................................................................................................................... 14
Non hermetic reciprocating compressors......................................................................... 15
Twin-screw compressors .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Single Screw compressors.................................................................................................................................................. 18

Condensers ......................................................................................................................... 19
Evaporative condenser........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Air cooled condensers......................................................................................................................................................... 20

Expansion valves ................................................................................................................ 21

Refrigerants............................................................................................................................. 23
Objective.............................................................................................................................. 23
Secondary cooling systems............................................................................................... 25
Fermenter/ Vessel cooling.................................................................................................. 26
Using primary cooling ......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Using secondary cooling..................................................................................................................................................... 27

Lubricants ............................................................................................................................... 28
Objective.............................................................................................................................. 28
Refrigeration Plant Performance ........................................................................................... 29
Objective.............................................................................................................................. 29
Condenser temperature....................................................................................................................................................... 30
Evaporator temperature....................................................................................................................................................... 31

Parasitic and other loads.................................................................................................... 31

Safety....................................................................................................................................... 32

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Refrigeration: the basics

Objective
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

Identify the essential steps in the cooling process

Describe the physical principles of heat transfer, latent heat and pressure
temperature relationship.

Introduction
The benefits of processing beer at low temperatures were realised many years ago.
(Lower infection rates in particular) Initially this meant producing beer at times of the year
when natural cooling was available, either by ice or by utilising the low temperatures as
found in cellars and caves. At one time, large estates would have Ice-houses. These
were well insulated stores, usually underground, where ice collected during the winter
would keep the temperature of the store sufficiently cold to enable the long term storage of
food and drink. At one time refrigeration in breweries meant blocks of ice in the roof space
above a beer store. The supply of refrigeration was ice cut from local lakes. Fortunately,
progress has been made since those times.
Cutting ice from a frozen lake to provide
cooling

Refrigeration can be defined as a process that removes heat. Not all cooling
applications need refrigeration. Refrigeration is expensive on energy and should be
avoided wherever possible. However, in many cases, there is no alternative.
One good example is the wort cooling process.
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To save energy, the majority of the primary cooling duty can use incoming cold water
(ranging from 15 to 35 deg C) to remove heat from the wort to about 30 to 35 deg C. This
process will benefit from recovering most of the heat as hot water that can be used for hot
water application,
The secondary cooling duty is to use refrigeration that will achieve the final temperature of
the wort. This is normally between 8 to 20 deg C. The art, in this case, is to minimise
refrigeration costs and maximise heat recovery application.
Refrigeration is usually the largest single user of electricity in a brewery, typically using
between 35 and 50% of the overall electricity. Therefore, it is an important area where
energy savings can show large benefits. The actual electricity load will depend on the
product, process cycles and climatic conditions.

Some fundamental terms

Coefficient of Performance COP
This is the refrigeration output relative to the input and is a measure of the plants
efficiency. Care must be taken to identify which items are included in both the inputs and
the outputs. For example, the COP will be the highest at the refrigeration plant. Any
parasitic loads will both increase the power input and decrease the refrigeration output.
Heat
Heat is one form of energy that always flows from a higher temperature to a lower
temperature.
The unit of heat in the metric system is the calorie (which is defined as the amount of heat
required to increase 1 gram of water from 30deg C to 31deg C, In refrigeration, it is normal
to use the kilocalorie (kcal) which is equal to 1000 calories.)
Latent heat
The heat exchanged during a change of phase. To define the phase change in question,
the Latent Heat is usually qualified by either of fusion or of vaporisation. Typical units of
measurement; kJ/kg.
When substances change physical state, there is an associated change in the energy
content. For example when ice at 0C changes to water at 0C, there is an increase in the
heat content without any temperature change.
Likewise, when water changes to steam, there is another increase in the heat content
without a change in temperature, (see Figure 4). This heat is called the Latent Heat
meaning Hidden Heat due to the absence of a temperature change.
These processes are reversible. Heat energy is released as steam changes to water and
water changes to ice.
Parasitic loads
Those loads, such as refrigerant circulation pumps, whose power are dissipated into the
refrigeration system and therefore reduce the overall availability of refrigeration effect.
Typical units of measurement: kW
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Power Input
The power required to operate the refrigeration plant. Care must be taken to establish
which items of ancillary plant, such as pumps and fans, are included. Typical units of
measurement: kW
Pressure
The unit of pressure is the Pascal measured from absolute zero. This is a very small unit,
and it is usual to use the bar (105 Pascal) suffixed with either abs to denote pressure
relative to absolute vacuum or gauge to denote a pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure, as recorded by a pressure gauge.
Pressure /Temperature relationship
The temperature at which liquids change to vapour, is governed by the pressure. At sea
level, the standard pressure is 1013 mbar, (1.013 bar) and water boils at 100C. However,
at 3000m above the sea level, the pressure is 700 mbar and the boiling temperature is
only 90C. This gives rise to the fact that it is not possible to boil an egg on top of a
mountain. The water boils, (this is a physical event), but the temperature is insufficient to
achieve the cooking process, (a chemical event).
100C

At sea level, water boils at 100C

90C

At 3000 m the boiling temperature is only

90C

Likewise, if the pressure is increased to 1.0 bar above atmospheric pressure (at sea level),
the boiling temperature is raised to 120C. As a result, the chemical process of cooking
occurs much faster.
This pressure/ temperature relationship is shown by most pure substances, including
primary refrigerants. This is the principle behind the refrigeration process. Heat is
extracted at a low pressure (low temperature) to form refrigerant vapour. This is then
compressed and the heat released by condensation at a higher pressure (higher
temperature).

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Primary refrigerant
The substance such as ammonia, which changes state and actually generates the
refrigeration effect. This material is chosen for its ability to produce the refrigeration effect.
Ammonia, (R-717) and Dichlorofluoromethane, (R-22) are examples of Primary
Refrigerants
Refrigerant enthalpy
The heat content of the refrigerant above an arbitrary datum temperature. Enthalpy is
usually given the abbreviation H. Typical units of measurement; kJ/kg
Refrigeration output
The refrigeration effect produced by the refrigeration plant. Care must be taken to
establish where this is measured since some items of plant such as circulation pumps,
absorb some of the refrigeration effect, (see parasitic loads). Typical units of
measurement: kW or MJ/hour
Saturated Liquid
A liquid, which is in equilibrium with its vapour. In practical terms this means that it is at its
boiling point.
Saturated Vapour
A vapour, which is in equilibrium with its liquid. In practical terms this means that it is at the
point of condensation.
Secondary Refrigerant
The second key component of the refrigeration process is the Secondary refrigerant. This
is a liquid, which is used to transport the refrigeration effect around the process. Usually a
secondary refrigerant is a solution, such as propylene glycol in water, which has a
sufficiently low freezing point to remain liquid at the lowest temperature in the refrigeration
system.
Specific Heat
The heat required to raise unit mass of a substance through 1K.Typical units of
measurement; kJ/kg.K
Sub cooled liquid.
Liquid state of a compound in which the most stable state at standard conditions is a solid
Superheat
The pressure temperature relationship applies to material at its boiling point only. It is
possible to heat vapour to a temperature beyond its boiling point. The heat applied is
termed Superheat.

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Superheated vapour
A vapour, which is at a temperature greater than the equilibrium temperature.
Temperature
The unit of temperature measurement is the Kelvin (K), which is the temperature relative to
absolute zero. However, for the majority of applications the degree Celsius (C) that gives
the temperature relative to the freezing point of water, can be used.
Vapour Liquid equilibria
The temperature at which a liquid changes state to a vapour is governed by the pressure.
Likewise the pressure at which a substance changes state, will depend upon the
temperature.

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The Process
Objective
To identify the mechanism of refrigeration.

The refrigeration plant

So, what are the basics? They all revolve around the principle of compression and latent
heat.
Lets assume a container, containing gas,
with a piston.

Piston

If we compress the gas with the piston, it

will result in higher pressure and
temperature.

Piston

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If we lift the piston, the gas decompresses.

It has to draw on its own heat to
decompress. It gets colder as it
decompresses.

Piston

Why?
Well, when we compress any gas it gets hot. Try using a bicycle pump and feel the barrel
after youve been pumping for a while. This is a result of the energy being used to
compress the air. It has to go somewhere and it goes into heating the gas. This heats the
barrel.
When we expand a gas, it has to absorb heat
In our example above, we have a theoretical situation. The gas heats up as it is
compressed and then uses that same heat to expand. But what would happen if we
removed the heat while it was compressed. Where would it get the energy from to
decompress?
It must draw heat from the area around it.
Lets look again

Piston

Gas
@
20 Degrees

Piston
Compressed Gas
@ 80 degrees

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Now well blow some

cold air over the hot
gas. The air warms up
and the gas (still
compressed) gets
colder.
Piston
Compressed Gas
@ 80 degrees
Now we have compressed gas at 20oC. What
happens if we decompress it? It has to get the heat
for decompression somewhere.

Piston
Compressed Gas
@ 20 degrees
It draws it from the air
around it. The air gets
colder.

Piston

If this were enclosed in

a box (like a
refrigerator) then the
inside of the refrigerator
would get cold.

Gas
@
20 Degrees

So, what does this have to do with real refrigeration?

Lets assume the gas compression system and air cooler is outside a box. Lets assume
that the decompression system is inside the box. Now if we operate our system the air
outside the box gets warmer and the inside of the box gets colder. Our first design for a
fridge!
The actual mechanism is of course a bit more complicated than this. We have to use
special gases for refrigeration that perform well. The biggest difference from our model
above is that they all actually liquefy after compression and cooling. They are then
pumped inside the refrigeration unit and decompressed through an expansion valve into
coils. These coils absorb the heat from the interior of the refrigerator. The liquid turns into
a gas again and goes back to be recompressed to continue the cycle.
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A refrigeration plant is described as a closed cycle since the refrigerant circulates

continuously around the system.

In every refrigeration plant, there are 4 main components. These are explained in detail in
later sections.
Compressor.
The low pressure vapour from the evaporator enters the compressor. Here, mechanical
energy is used to increase the pressure. The vapour leaving the compressor will be well
above the condensation (liquefaction) temperature. Therefore, it is described as being
superheated.
Condenser.
From the compressor, the refrigerant gas enters the condenser. Here, heat energy is
removed and transferred to a low temperature medium which is usually either air or water.
Heat is removed in two stages. Firstly, the superheat is removed until the condensation
temperature is reached. This is followed by condensation at constant temperature to form
a high pressure liquid, i.e. change from vapour to liquid phase.
The temperature will be determined by the condensation pressure. Typically for ammonia
systems the temperature will be between 25C and 32C.
Expansion valve.
High pressure liquid refrigerant is returned to the low pressure evaporator through the
expansion valve. In domestic refrigerators, it is a length of extremely small bore copper
tube.
However, in commercial units, it is a simple throttle valve and often incorporates some
form of control function. For example, it may act as a temperature control valve. As the
pressure of the liquid refrigerant is reduced, some of it boils and evaporates, which causes
a drop in temperature. The result is a low pressure, low temperature liquid plus some
vapour. This enters the evaporator where the liquid evaporating to a gas provides the
refrigeration effect.
Evaporator.
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This is where the refrigeration effect occurs. Refrigerant liquid, at low pressure and low
temperature, absorbs heat as it evaporates (Latent heat). The heat may be absorbed from
the surrounding air or perhaps water or beer. Alternatively, heat may absorb from a liquid
such as propylene glycol solution, which is distributed around the brewery to perform
cooling duties in the brewery. These two systems are known as Direct and Indirect
refrigeration, respectively.

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Different types of cooling plant components

Objective
Identify the parts of a refrigeration system in detail

Evaporators
The simplest evaporator is the air cooler used to keep certain working areas cool. These
consist of finned tubes over which the room air is forced by fans.
Refrigerant enters the tubes through a Thermostatic expansion valve. The action of the
valve is to maintain a constant temperature of refrigerant vapour leaving the evaporator.
The valve opens if the temperature is too high and closes if too low.

A typical industrial room cooler

Another type of cooler is the direct expansion water chiller or secondary refrigerant cooler.
The operation is very similar to the air cooler. Note that the liquid stream flows in the shell
of the evaporator and its path is modified by a series of baffles to enhance the heat
transfer.

Direct expansion liquid cooler

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This form of evaporation is referred to as Direct Expansion.

Compressors
The compressor is the point at which energy is used by the refrigeration system. It sucks
vapour from the evaporator and forces it into the condenser. It is here that the gas is
compressed.
The simplest compressor is the reciprocating compressor. The gas is compressed by a
piston moving in a cylinder. Spring-loaded valves ensure that the gas moves only in one
direction so that high pressure gas does not flow back into the cylinder. Smaller
compressors will have a single cylinder, however larger compressors may be constructed
with 12 or more cylinders.

Hermetic compressors
Some smaller compressors incorporate an
electric motor within a sealed enclosure.
These are called hermetic compressors.
An example can be found in domestic
refrigerators.

Hermetic compressors have the advantage that the casing is sealed. Only the power
cables enter the casing. Consequently, the risks from leakage are small. Having refrigerant
vapour circulating and cooling the motor coils means also that the motor can be made
smaller than conventional motors.
A disadvantage is that maintenance can be difficult. In the case of the hermetic types, this
may mean that the unit has to be rebuilt or replaced.

Semi hermetic
Another design has the motor and compressor all within the same enclosure, but can be
separated for maintenance of either component. This type is termed semi-hermetic. In
both of these designs, the refrigerant circulates through the motor to aid cooling. Since
ammonia cannot be used in contact with copper, this prohibits its use in hermetic and semi
hermetic types.

Page 14 of 32

Motor
Compressor

Motor
Compressor

Pictures courtesy of Bitzer

Non hermetic reciprocating compressors

Larger compressors are assembled as separate a motor and compressor connected by a
mechanical coupling or belt drive. However there needs to be a seal where the rotating
drive shaft enters the compressor casing and this is a potential are of leakage.

Page 15 of 32

A Sabroe motor and a 8

cylinder compressor
assembly

In larger compressors, the output can be varied by unloading cylinders or banks of

cylinders. Typically, an eight cylinder compressor will operate in four stages of 25%.
Cylinder unloading is achieved by keeping the inlet valves open, thus preventing
compression in the cylinder. The slight disadvantage is that loading is in discrete steps,
(e.g. 0%, 25%, 50% & 100%), not a smooth transition. Variable speed drives are now
becoming available for refrigeration compressors.
All cylinders are unloaded during the start to minimise the load placed on the motor. The
cylinders are then loaded automatically when the compressor is running at normal speed.
Reciprocating compressors are available in a wide range of sized from 50w to 500 kW.
They are extremely efficient, reliable and require a low level of routine maintenance. The
reliability is enhanced by their low speed. Major maintenance can be carried out by skilled
brewery maintenance staff. Larger capacity machines tend to be physically large and
therefore costly to buy. However many older machines have been operating for 40 years
and will continue to operate for many more years with only routine maintenance.

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Twin-screw compressors
Twin screw compressors are two intermeshing, helical rotors mounted in a close fitting
enclosure. Chambers are created by the spaces around the rotors that are sealed by a
combination of the end plates and by the meshing of the rotors
A pair of compressor screws.

The counter rotation of the

screws against their housing
compresses the gas towards
the outlet point.

Picture courtesy ARIEL CORPORATION

Page 17 of 32

A Sabroe screw
compressor with motor
and oil separator
assembly
Picture courtesy of
Sabroe

Single Screw compressors

Single screw compressors consist of a drum into which is cut a series of spiral grooves.
Daisy wheels at either end of the drum seal these spaces formed by these grooves.
A Cut-away view of a single screw
compressor

Picture courtesy of Mitsui Seiki Compressors

The screw-like grooves gather vapours
from the intake port, trap them in the
pockets between the grooves and
compressor housing, and force them to
the discharge port along the meshing
point path. This action raises the trapped
gas pressure to the discharge pressure

Page 18 of 32

As the rotation continues the gas is sealed

within the space created by the rotor flute,
housing and star tooth. Continuous
rotation causes the volume of the rotor
flute to reduce further thus causing
compression.

Condensers
Evaporative condenser
In large brewery systems, the condenser is often an evaporative condenser. The
condenser is to remove the amount of heat from the refrigerant built up during the
evaporation process and compression process. The refrigerant is condensed in a series of
coiled tubes inside a casing.
Water is sprayed over the coils and air is blown upwards over the wetted tubes. The effect
of blowing air over the water is to evaporate some of the water. This causes a cooling
effect of the water known as evaporative cooling.
Simultaneously, this cooled water extracts heat energy from the refrigerant contained in
the tubes. The cooling effect depends on the atmospheric conditions of temperature and
humidity.
For example the performance will be better under conditions of low humidity since the air
is able to absorb more water, therefore provide more cooling before becoming saturated.

Page 19 of 32

A typical evaporative
condenser

A photograph of a typical
evaporative condenser

Air cooled condensers

Smaller refrigeration systems will often use simple air condensers. These consist of finned
tubes within a casing. A series of fans forces air over the finned tubes to extract the heat
and effect condensation of the refrigerant. The performance of this type of condenser will
depend solely on the ambient air temperature and are not affected by humidity. Some
operators prefer to use air-cooled condensers even for large duties.
Diagram of an air cooled condenser

Page 20 of 32

Fins on the air side improve heat transfer.

A photograph of a typical
air cooled condenser
with 3 fans and complete
with support legs.

Dry condensing systems are often preferred, since they are cheaper to purchase and
maintain. Furthermore, they overcome any risks of Legionnaires Disease (see Q.C.
module: bacteria for more information.) However, for larger plants where maintenance
facilities are available, wet systems are preferred since they enable lower condensing
temperatures to be achieved. This has considerable energy saving implications.

Expansion valves
Expansion valves are devices to inject refrigerant into the chiller area. They are used to
balance refrigerant flow against requirement. This avoids waste of energy and potential
freeze ups.
The simplest Direct Expansion systems use valves referred to as Thermostatic
Expansion Valves or TEV.
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A thermostatic expansion valve.

These valves are actuated by
gas pressure onto a diaphragm.
The gas pressure comes from a
small charge of a refrigerant
contained in a bulb that is
connected to the diaphragm by
a narrow bore tube. When
installed the bulb is strapped to
the refrigerant outlet pipe under
any insulation so that it
measures the prevailing
temperature. As the
temperature rises, it applies
pressure onto the diaphragm to
open the valve thus admitting
more refrigerant to the chiller.
A TEV consists of three basic
parts: The power head, the
capillary tube and bulb, and the
body. It consists of
The power head assembly,
enclosing a diaphragm;
The capillary tube and bulb
connected to the power head
containing a charge. This, as it
expands and contracts, exerts a
varying pressure on the
diaphragm; and
The valve body, with one or
more pushpins operated by the
diaphragm. The pushpins
regulate the opening of an
orifice through which the
refrigerant is metered into the
evaporator
The movement of the pushpins
depends on the pressure on the
diaphragm, which is opposed
by the force of a spring. Spring
force, which determines static
superheat, can be fixed or
adjustable.

Page 22 of 32

Refrigerants
Objective
Identify the parameters and properties of selected refrigerants.
Identify the use of primary and secondary refrigerant in cooling duties.

Primary refrigerants are selected to fulfil a number of parameters:

1) At the design temperatures, they must evaporate and condense at reasonable
pressures, so as not to present undue construction costs.
2) The refrigerants must be non-corrosive, non-toxic and non-inflammable nor
explosive.
3) Provide the refrigeration effect at a good Coefficient of Performance.
To fulfil all of these parameters is too much to expect. For many years, refrigerants such
as ammonia, sulphur dioxide and some hydrocarbons were used. These were fine for
industrial applications but somewhat restricted the development of small domestic units. In
the 1940s, DuPont developed the chlorofluorocarbons, (CFC) and later the
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, (HCFC), and gave them the trade name of Freon; R-12 is
an example of a CFC and R-22 an example of a HCFC. Other manufacturers had their
own trade names. These materials contain halogens, (fluorine, chlorine and bromine) in an
organic molecule.
These materials were the answer to all prayers. These materials were inert, non-toxic,
non-inflammable, condensed and evaporated at convenient conditions and offered good
coefficients of performances. With such materials, the domestic refrigeration market
developed and so did the other uses for these materials, for example as aerosol
propellants and as solvents. Similar materials were also developed as solvents and as fire
extinguishers
To reduce confusion, the American ASHRAE organisation gave these and subsequently
other refrigerants the R- designation for refrigerant. Dichlorodifluoromethane was given
the designation R-12. Ammonia is given a designation R-717. 700 is the designation for
inorganic compounds.
More recently, it was discovered that these materials were reacting with the ozone present
in the upper atmosphere and creating a potential environmental disaster by effectively
destroying the natural shield against ultra-violet radiation. A second adverse feature is
their global warming potential. These problems are made worse by the inertness of these
compounds, a very feature thought to be a virtue. International agreement (The Montreal
Protocol) and more importantly, European legislation was passed, subsequently, to limit
then totally ban the use of ozone depletion substances.
The refrigerants are given ratings regarding:
1) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) a figure related to R-11
Page 23 of 32

2) Global Warming Potential (GWP) a figure related to carbon dioxide.

3) Atmospheric Lifetime, the time that the material takes to degrade in the
atmosphere in years.
Some common refrigerants and their properties are shown below

Refrigerant

ODP

GWP

Lifetime

R-11

1.0

4600

45

R-12

1.0

10600

100

R-13

1.0

14000

640

R-22

0.055

1900

11.8

R-134a

1300

14.6

Hydrocarbons

Unknown

R-717

V Low

At the time of writing (January 2002) the situation is as follows:

1) All CFC refrigerants such as R-12 are totally banned. However, this does not mean
that equipment operating with R-12 needs to be scraped. It does mean that no
supplies are be available should replenishment become necessary.
2) From January 2001, R-22 is banned from all new plant. New supplies will be
available until 2010 for maintenance of existing plant. From 2010 until 2015, R-22
will be available only from recovered or recycled sources. After 2015, it will be
banned totally.
3) R-134a is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and is considered as non ozone depleting.
It is generally the material used to replace R-12 in small refrigeration plants.
However, it shows a GWP and a long atmospheric lifetime. Therefore its future is
uncertain. (Not shown in table)
Various alternative refrigerants are available for new plant. For large plant where adequate
maintenance can be provided, ammonia is regaining popularity although many breweries
have always used ammonia.
In smaller plants, hydrocarbon refrigerants are being reintroduced. Since the refrigerant
charge is often only about 100 grams, the hazard is very small.

Page 24 of 32

Secondary cooling systems

Many breweries prefer to transmit the refrigeration effect around their sites by a heat
transfer fluid referred to as the Secondary refrigerant . Typical secondary refrigerants
are solutions of: propylene glycol, industrial alcohol and calcium chloride. In some cases
water can be used. Some American sources will refer to secondary refrigerants as brines
irrespective of whether sodium chloride is used. The advantages of using a Secondary
refrigerant system are:

Piping systems and components are usually operating in low pressure thus it is
cheaper to built for a large plant.

Secondary refrigerants (e.g. brine and industrial alcohol) are cheaper than
Primary refrigerants (Freon and Ammonia)

The primary refrigerant plant can be located in one location for ease of
maintenance and safety concerns.

Secondary refrigerants are selected for their ability to remain liquid down to operating
temperatures, be non-corrosive to the materials in use and be non-toxic in case of
leakage. Note that calcium chloride is corrosive to stainless steels and is therefore not
used in such systems. Note also that ethylene glycol is extremely poisonous and therefore
should not be used in the food and drinks industries.
Generally, the secondary refrigerants will be formulated to be capable of remaining in the
liquid state at the minimum system temperature with a 5C margin
Pumping energy (a parasitic load) and heat transfer are both adversely affected by high
viscosity. Generally, the policy should be to have the minimum concentration necessary to
provide the required freeze protection. The temptation to increase the concentration for
safety should be avoided.

Page 25 of 32

Fermenter/ Vessel cooling

Using primary cooling

Low temperature liquid primary refrigerant is circulated around the vessel jackets. This
system has the advantage that an additional heat transfer stage is avoided, (no secondary
refrigerant). However, it does mean that primary refrigerant has to be supplied around the
site.
In the low temperature liquid systems, high pressure liquid refrigerant from the condenser
enters the receiver through a level control valve.
Part of the liquid evaporates to give a low temperature, low pressure liquid. This low
temperature liquid is pumped around the vessel jackets where part evaporates to provide
the cooling effect.
The mixture of liquid and vapour separates back to the receiver with the liquid being
available for further cooling.
The vapour passes back to the compressors. The pressure in the receiver determines the
refrigerant temperature. This is controlled by variable loading of the compressors. For
example, the capacity of the compressors will be increased in response to an increasing
pressure in the receiver.
An oil sump is provided to allow any oil (oil is very heavy compared with ammonia) to
separate for return to the compressors.
Low temperature liquid systems are mainly restricted to ammonia systems because of the
large inventory of refrigerant required, (newer refrigerants are very expensive). The main
disadvantage of using primary refrigerant is that all equipment must be designed to take
the pressure of ammonia when the system is non operational and has reached ambient
temperatures. This means that jackets must be designed to withstand approximately 16
bar. This increases the construction costs significantly.

Page 26 of 32

Using secondary cooling

A typical secondary refrigeration system used for fermenter cooling

Secondary refrigerant at approximately 5C is admitted to the cooling jackets through a
temperature control system.
With the use of computer control, it is likely that the actual control function would be made
by a central computer to control the fermentation temperature and as well as the post
fermentation cooling cycle.
Where secondary refrigerant temperatures is less than 5C, there is a risk of ice
formation within the vessel. To avoid this, a blending loop is required. This mixes
secondary refrigerant returning from the fermenter, with fresh refrigerant from the supply
to arrive at a temperature of, typically between 3C and 5C.
Secondary refrigerant may also be used for the final cooling stage of heat exchangers.
See Brewing Module for more details

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Lubricants
Objective
Identify the parameters and properties of selected lubricants needed for compressors.

Ammonia, hydrocarbons and the CFC and HCFC refrigerants, use conventional mineral oil
as the lubricant.
In ammonia systems, the oil is totally insoluble. It tends to transfer around the system as a
film on the internal surfaces of the pipe-work. However, the oil does not vaporise in the
evaporator. If not removed, the oil accumulates and eventually covers some of the tubes.
Ammonia systems must have oil draining facilities from the lower part of the evaporators.
In CFC, HCFC and hydrocarbon systems, oil dissolves in the refrigerant and is carried
around the system either as a solution or as a mist. Generally, the gas velocities ensure
that the oil is returned to the compressor as a mist. However, the system design may
mean that part of the refrigerant with dissolved oil must be taken from the system. It is then
heated to remove the refrigerant and the oil returned to the compressor crankcase. During
periods of non operation, the compressor crankcases need to be heated in order to expel
refrigerant from the oil. Excessive refrigerant in the oil would lead to lubrication failures.
When considering the replacement of CFC and HCFC refrigerants to the environmentally
acceptable types, it must be noted that there is likely to be incompatibility with mineral oil
lubricants. Synthetic lubricants must be used. Furthermore, the exchange means that
virtually all traces of mineral oil; must be removed from the system before recharging with
the replacement refrigerant. This can be an expensive and time consuming process.

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Refrigeration Plant Performance

Objective
Identify some basic parameters of performance
Refrigeration plant performance is affected by:
1) The condensing pressure/temperature.
2) The evaporating pressure/temperature.
3) The extent of the parasitic loads.
The performance is measured by the Coefficient of Performance or COP. This is the
refrigeration output divided by the power input. The best COP will be measured around the
compressor. As more of the refrigeration system is considered so the COP gradually
reduces as more power inputs are considered. Some of these could be parasitic.

Refrigeration cycle shown on Mollier chart

15

Saturated
liquid line

3
3a

5
5

pre
ssio
n

Liquid and vapour

Com

10

Cooling &
Condensation

Sub-cooled
liquid

Expansion

Pressure bar abs

Saturated
vapour line

Superheated
vapour

Evaporation

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Enthalpy kJ/kg
The properties of a primary refrigerant can be shown on a chart such as the Mollier Chart.
This chart plots the heat content of the ammonia (Enthalpy) against the absolute pressure
(Bar abs). Other refrigerants have Mollier charts very similar. The chart is divided into 3
main regions. To the left of the chart, the curved line represents the saturated liquid line.
Refrigerant to the left of the line is in the sub-cooled region. The curved line to the right of
the chart represents the saturated vapour line with ammonia to the right of this line being
superheated vapour. Between the two lines, the ammonia is in transition between the
liquid and vapour states. In practical terms, boiling or condensation is taking place.

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The refrigeration cycle is shown in the figure defined by the points 1 to 4.

Refrigerant enters the evaporator at point 1 as a mixture of liquid and vapour at low
pressure and therefore at low temperature. This is shown by the fact that point 1 lies inside
between the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines.
Between points 1 and 2, liquid refrigerant vaporises and absorbs heat from, for example,
the secondary refrigerant. This is the refrigeration effect, given by the difference in
enthalpy between points 1 and 2, (H2-H1). Note that this is a constant pressure process.
At point 2 the refrigerant is as a low temperature, low pressure vapour.
Between points 2 and 3, the refrigerant is compressed in the compressor and absorbs
energy. The energy absorbed is given by the difference in enthalpy between points 2 and
3 (H3-H2). In practice, compressors are about 80% efficient, which means that the actual
energy absorbed is higher than this theoretical value.
At point 3, the refrigerant is a high pressure vapour well into the superheated zone. A
typical compression temperatures for ammonia is 125C.
Between points 3 and 3a, the refrigerant undergoes gas phase cooling. Saturated vapour
occurs at point 3a. From 3a to 4, the refrigerant is condensed. Most heat is rejected during
condensation. The heat rejected by the system; usually to atmosphere, is given by the
change in enthalpy between points 3 and 4, (H3-H4). Note that condensation is a constant
pressure process.
At point 4 the refrigerant is a high pressure warm saturated liquid.
From points 4 and 1, the pressure of the refrigerant is reduced by the throttle effect of the
expansion device. Since this is a constant enthalpy process (No energy either enters or
leaves the system), it is represented by a vertical line on the chart. The refrigerant at point
1 is therefore a mixture of liquid and vapour refrigerant at low pressure and therefore at
low temperature.
The coefficient of performance can be measured by the refrigeration output divided by the
power input.
This is given by:
COP = (H2-H1)/(H3-H2)
In practice, it is difficult to measure the conditions at point 1. However, the enthalpy is the
same as at point 4. This can be measured by the condensation pressure, which in turn is
very close to the delivery pressure from the compressor. Therefore, the COP can be
established by reference to the 2 compressor pressure gauges.
Condenser temperature
Reducing the condensing temperature will have the following effects:
1) Reduce the work required of the compressor hence reduce the power required.
2) Increase the amount of refrigeration produced by the plant.
The combination of 1 and 2 is a vastly improved coefficient of performance. This points to
the general policy of operating with as low a condensing temperature as possible. In turn,
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this means keeping the condensers as effective as possible. In the case of wet systems,
this means keeping heat transfer surfaces free from scale. In the case of dry systems,
this means keeping the tubes clear of extraneous materials such as plastic bags and
leaves. In both cases, it is essential that the fans are fully operational.
Evaporator temperature
Increasing the evaporator temperature will have the following effects:
1) Increase the refrigeration output.
2) An increase in power input. However, this is small by comparison with the increase
in output.
The combination of temperature control of evaporator and condenser will vastly improve
the coefficient of performance. Generally, refrigeration plant is very sensitive to changes in
the evaporation conditions and there is a great incentive to operate with as high an
evaporating temperature as possible.

Parasitic and other loads

A refrigeration system comprises of several electrical loads in addition to the compressor.
These loads are for auxiliary equipment such as condenser fans. Some of these loads can
be termed parasitic. These loads both consume energy and feed energy into the
refrigeration system. For example, pumps in the secondary refrigeration circuit, consume
energy. This energy, ultimately as heat by friction, is fed into the refrigeration system. The
overall output of the plant is effectively reduced. Cold room fans can be considered as
parasitic for the same reasons.
When a refrigeration system is analysed, it is surprising to find the extent of these auxiliary
and especially parasitic loads. At times of production stoppage, for example at weekends,
the parasitic loads can represent the largest single load on the refrigeration system. It can
cost considerable sum of money just to provide the refrigeration service in case it is
needed.
Variable speed pumps can reduce this cost by providing an efficient method of operating
distribution pumps at times of low demand. Generally, attempts should be made to reduce
the parasitic loads wherever possible. This is best achieved by a policy of switching off
when not required.

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Safety
Apart from standard maintenance and operational safety, you should note that:
1. All refrigerants are dangerous. They must be handled with CARE
2. Hydro and Fluorocarbons are toxic and are linked to cancer.
3. Ammonia is asphyxiating (can suffocate you), corrosive and poisonous. It can be
explosive when mixed with air in a volume percentage 13-28.
4. High pressures are used in the refrigeration system, so follow maintenance instructions
5. High temperatures are generated in the process, so follow maintenance instructions
6. Any water cooled spray systems must be treated with Biocide to kill bacteria that can
cause Legionnaires Disease.

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